SOLAR ENERGY POWER SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
A Solar Energy Power System is sometimes referred to as an Alternative Energy System. And
while that's true, wind, geothermal, gas turbine, thermal, nuclear and hydro systems are also
alternative energy sources. This work focuses primarily on solar energy and will therefore adopt
the phrase ‘Solar Energy power System’ interchangeably. Below has the basic components
required for production of electricity from the sun. The components include one or more Solar
Panels, Charge Controller, Power Inverter, Batteries and others depending on the purpose of the
solar energy power system.
On the other hand, this lecture note tries to x-ray alternative sources of energy as mentioned
above without loosening focus of the primary issue (that is the solar energy power system).

ALT ERNATIVE ENERGY SYSTEM

Alternative energy refers to energy sources that have no undesired consequences for example
fossil fuels (Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fuels formed by natural resources such as anaerobic decomposition
of buried dead organisms). Alternative energy sources are renewable and are thought to be "free"
energy sources. They all have lower carbon emissions, compared to conventional energy
sources. The sources of alternative energies include Biomass Energy, Wind Energy, Solar
Energy, Geothermal Energy, Hydroelectric Energy sources etc. The use of solar power systems
as alternative energy in homes will help to ensure man's survival into the 21st century and
beyond.

Alternative energy encompasses all those things that do not consume fossil fuel (methane and
petroleum). They are widely available and environment friendly. They cause little or almost no
pollution. There have been several alternative energy projects running in various countries to
reduce our dependence on traditional fossil fuels. There are many impressive options that can be
taken into consideration.

Hydroelectric Energy Power System

Solar energy is produced by sun and wind energy is produced by moving of the winds. The heat
caused by sun drives the wind. The movement of winds is then captured by wind turbines. Both
wind and sun cause water to evaporate. The water vapour then turns into rain or snow and flows
down to sea or oceans through rivers or streams. The energy of the moving water can then be
captured and called hydroelectric power. Hydroelectric power stations capture the kinetic energy
of moving water and give mechanical energy to turbines. The moving turbines then convert the
mechanical energy into electrical energy through generators. Dams around the world have been
built for this purpose only. Hydropower is the largest producer of alternative energy in the
world.

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Hydroelectricity comes from the damming of rivers and utilizing the potential energy stored in
the water. As the water stored behind a dam is released at high pressure, its kinetic energy is
transferred onto turbine blades and used to generate electricity. This system has enormous costs
up front, but has relatively low maintenance costs and provides power quite cheaply. In the
United States approximately 180,000 MW of hydroelectric power potential is available, and
about a third of that is currently being harnessed.

Figure 1a: Hydroelectric energy water diyenergyandsavebig.com

Figure 1b: Hydro - power systems ivworldwideenergyinc.com

There are different types of hydropower plants. The selection of hydropower plant depends on
many volumes and flow of water. Hydropower is renewable, constant, predictable and
controllable source of energy. They emit no greenhouse gases and are environment friendly. On
the negative side, they may cause adverse effect on aquatic life, reduce flow of water which may
affect agriculture, require huge costs to build and may cause havoc if they get breakdown.

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Biomass Energy Power System
The term "biomass" refers to organic matter that has stored energy through the process of
photosynthesis. It exists in one form as plants and may be transferred through the food chain to
animals' bodies and their wastes, all of which can be converted for everyday human use through
processes such as combustion, which releases the carbon dioxide stored in the plant material.
Many of the biomass fuels used today come in the form of wood products, dried vegetations,
crop residues, and aquatic plants. Biomass has become one of the most commonly used
renewable sources of energy in the last two decades, second to hydropower in the generation of
electricity. It is such a widely utilized source of energy, probably due to its low cost and
indigenous nature, that it accounts for almost 15% of the world's total energy supply and as
much as 35% in developing countries, mostly for cooking and heating. Biomass energy can be
generated 24 hours per day all year, is scalable, and offers better controls to meet fluctuations in
demand.

(a) (b)

Figure 2: Sun’s stored energy as food and energy source, plant-animal-biosphere life cycle.

(c) (d)

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This is the process by which an alternative energy is generated through conversion of biological
materials and wastes into forms that can be used as energy sources for heating, power generation
and transportation. Those carbon based substances or materials converted over a long period of
time to fossil fuels are not regarded as biomass. However, in their original state they are
regarded as biomass. This is because of the separation of the carbon they previously contained
from the carbon cycle. This makes them figure differently affecting carbon dioxide levels in air.
Wood still remains the most common source to produce biomass energy. Apart from wood, the
other products that are used to create biomass energy include crops, plants, landfills, municipal
and industrial waste, trees and agricultural waste. Biomass is renewable source of energy as we
would be able to produce it as long as crops, plants and waste exist. It does not create any
greenhouse gases and can be easily extracted through the process of combustion. Another
advantage of biomass is that it helps to reduce landfills. Biomass is comparatively ineffective as
compared to fossil fuels which release methane gases which are harmful to the environment.

Ocean Energy Power System

(a)Ocean Power Technologies wave (a) OTEC Thermal Cycle Diagram

Energy device Figure 3:

The earth promises many power sources. Just like the geothermal and solar energy, which have
long been used in heating homes and lighting as well when harnessed. Even in the last century
these forms of energy were in use. Due to massive size of oceans, this energy can be used on
much wider scale than other alternative sources of energy. The waves produced by the ocean and
tides that hit the sea shore have enormous potential in them. If they are harnessed with full
capacity they can go a long way in reducing world’s energy problems. There are 3 ways i.e. tidal
energy, Wave energy and Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) via which ocean energy can
be harnessed.

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 (a) Artist rendering of ocean current (b) Artist rendering of Ocean Power Technologies'
turbines in united state. proposed wave park off the coast of Oregon.
Figure 4:

Tidal Energy Power System

Even the power of the tides can be harnessed to produce electricity. Tidal process utilizes the
natural motion of the tides to fill reservoirs, which are then slowly discharged through
electricity-producing turbines. Former USSR produced 300 MW in its Lumkara plant using this
method.
Tidal energy can be generated in two ways, tidal stream generators or by barrage generation.
The power created though tidal generators is generally more environmentally friendly, causes
less impact on established ecosystems. Similar to a wind turbine, many tidal stream generators
rotate underwater and are driven by the swiftly moving dense water. Although not yet widely
used, tidal power has potential for future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable than
wind energy and solar power. Historically, tide mills have been used, both in Europe and on the
Atlantic coast of the USA. Tidal power is the only form of energy which derives directly from
the relative motions of the Earth–Moon system, and to a lesser extent from the Earth–Sun
system. The tidal forces produced by the Moon and Sun, in combination with Earth’s rotation,
are responsible for the generation of the tides. British company Lunar Energy announced that
they would be building the world’s first tidal energy farm off the coast of Pembrokeshire in
Wales. It will be the world’s first deep-sea tidal-energy farm and will provide electricity for
5,000 homes.

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 Figure 5: (a) Tidal wave energy (b) Renewable energy from tidal

Tidal power basically involves using kinetic energy from the incoming and outgoing tides. The
difference in high tides and low tides are also important in this respect. There is a lot of energy
that can be harnessed from waves for use. The rise and fall of ocean tides are captured by tidal
energy generators which turn turbines. The movement of turbines is responsible for producing
electricity. In short, tidal energy generator captures the kinetic motion of the tides and converts
them into electrical energy. The main advantage of tidal energy is that it is completely renewable
and is much more predictable than wave energy.

Hydrogen Energy Power System

Hydrogen is the most abundant element available on earth but it is rarely alone. Even water
contains two third of hydrogen. It is usually available with other elements and has to be
separated before we can make use of it. Hydrogen has tremendous potential and can be used to
power up homes, vehicles and even space rockets. It takes a lot of energy to separate hydrogen
from other elements and therefore it proves to be quite expensive to extract it. Take a close look
at hydrogen energy and see how it works.

Figure 6: (a) Hydrogen Energy Systems

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 Figure 6: (b) Hydrogen Energy Station at the Orange County Sanitation District.

The main benefit of hydrogen energy is that it is a clean source of fuel and does not leave any
waste elements behind except water. There are no harmful emissions and is friendly to the
environment. It is completely renewable and can be produced over and over again on demand.
Hydrogen can also be used to make bombs like the ones used by America on Hiroshima and
Nagasaki which makes it highly inflammable. Dependency on fossil fuels still remains as we
need them to extract hydrogen from other elements. Also, it is quite expensive to produce and
store.

WIND ENERGY POWER SYSTEM

This is one of the energy sources that have been in use for a very long time and for centuries. It
was used in powering sailing ships, which made it possible for explorers to sail around their
trade routes in distant lands. A single windmill can power the crop irrigation, and the family
energy needs, water pumping and electric lights. However, in the present time there are several
windmills that are used to generate required energy mostly for industrial uses. Many of the wind
turbines can capture much power all at once before feeding it to the power grid. This is
commonly known as wind farms and has been in use for many years all round the world. It is
only the United States that is going slow in terms of accepting this alternative energy source.

Figure 7: Images of a wind turbine.

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Wind energy is renewable source of energy and reduces our alliance on foreign countries for
supply of oil and gas. It does not cause any air pollution and have created several jobs in last few
decades. Advancement in technologies has brought down the cost of setting up wind power
plant. Wind energy can only be used in areas which experience high winds which mean that it
cannot be used as a source to extract energy anywhere on earth. They sometimes create noise
disturbances and cannot be used near residential areas. These disadvantages have made the use
of wind energy to particular regions only.

NUCLEAR ENERGY POWER SYSTEM

Nuclear energy involves burning of chemical to generate electricity, applicable mainly in
industries. Nuclear Power Stations use a fuel called uranium, a relatively common material.
Energy is released from uranium when an atom is split by a neutron. The uranium atom is split
into two and as this happens energy is released in the form of radiation and heat. This nuclear
reaction is called the fission process.

Figure 8: Energy release from atom.

In a nuclear power station the uranium is first formed into pellets and then into long rods. The
uranium rods are kept cool by submerging them in water. When they are removed from the
water a nuclear reaction takes place causing heat. The amount of heat required is controlled by
raising and lowering the rods. If more heat is required the rods are raised further out of the water
and if less is needed they lower further into it.

Figure 9a: Nuclear power plants

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 Figure 9b: Pressurized water reactor

1. The amount of electricity produced in a nuclear power station is equivalent to that produced
by a fossil fuelled power station.
2. Nuclear power stations do not burn fossil fuels to produce electricity and consequently they do
not produce damaging polluting gases.
3. Many supporters of nuclear power production say that this type of power is environmentally
friendly and clean. In a world that faces global warming they suggest that increasing the use of
nuclear power is the only way of protecting the environment and preventing catastrophic climate
change.
5. Countries such as France produce approximately 90 percent of their electricity from nuclear
power and lead the world in nuclear power generating technology - proving that nuclear power is
an economic alternative to fossil fuel power stations.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY POWER SYSTEM

Geo’ means Earth and ‘thermal’ means heat. Geothermal energy means energy drawn or
harnessed from beneath the earth. Geothermal energy is an alternative energy source, although it
is not resourceful enough to replace more than a minor amount of the future's energy needs.
Geothermal energy is obtained from the internal heat of the planet and can be used to generate
steam to run a steam turbine. This in turn generates electricity, which is a very useful form of
energy

The radius of the Earth is about 4000 miles, with an internal core temperature of about 4000
degrees Celsius at the centre. The mantle surrounds the outer core and is only about 45 miles

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below the surface, depending on location. The temperature at the mantle-surface crust boundary
is about 375 degrees, Celsius. (This is too deep to get to...as of today)
So, how does this help us? It turns out that if we drill down only three miles we can reach
temperatures of 100 degrees, Celsius, which is enough to boil water to run a steam-powered
electric power plant. Drilling three miles through the earth is possible, but not easy, so luckily
there are easier routes to access these power sources, known as geothermal hotspots.

Geothermal hotspots are volcanic features which are found all around the world. Basically a
hotspot is an area of reduced thickness in the mantle which transmits excess internal heat from
the interior of the earth to the outer crust. These hotspots are well known for their unique effects
on the surface, such as the volcanic islands of Hawaii, the mineral deposits and gyesers in
Yellowstone National Park, or the hot springs in Iceland. These geothermal hotspots can easily
be used to generate electricity.

Some systems pump hot-water into permeable sedimentary hotspots found underground and then
use the steam to generate electricity. Then the used steam is condensed and sent back down to
the permeable sedimentary stream. Another system utilizes volcanic magma which is still partly
molten at around 650 degrees, Celsius, to boil water which would generate electricity. Also there
is a system which uses hot dry rock, which is just hardened magma, but still is extremely hot. To
recover this heat from these rocks, a system is used which circulates water through the rock and
transfers the heat up to a steam generator. The first system listed here is not as useful as other
methods because of the acidic nature of the fluids found under the ground. These acidities
require a lot of maintenance and upkeep on the equipment, and this cost reduces the economic
effectiveness of the system. Therefore, geothermal energy systems are more inefficient than
other alternative energy sources because of the costs required in upkeep and the shortage of
potential sites.

Figure 10: Geothermal Energy Plant

Geothermal energy can be found anywhere on the earth. Most countries tap this energy to
generate electricity and power millions of homes. The areas which have high underground
temperatures are the ones which are the ones which are prone to earthquakes and volcanoes. The

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United States produces more Geothermal electricity than any other country in the world. Most
hot water geothermal reservoirs are located in the western states, Alaska, and Hawaii.
Geothermal energy is totally renewable as earth will continue to produce heat as long as we are
all are here. If these resources are tapped and are utilized effectively, they can provide solution
to the world’s power problems.
Geothermal energy produces no pollution, reduces our alliance on fossil fuels. It also results in
significant cost savings as no fuel is required to harness energy from beneath the earth. These
advantages make geothermal energy as one the best alternative energy source. But, geothermal
has its downsides too. It is suitable to particular region and cannot be harnessed everywhere. The
earth may release some harmful gases while releasing the heat which may prove adverse from
mankind. Also, the areas where this energy is harnessed are prone to earthquakes and volcanoes.
Apart from that, setting up of geothermal power stations requires huge installation cost

Figure 11: Geothermal energy

SOLAR ENERGY POWER SYSTEM

Solar is the first energy source in the world. It was in use much earlier before humans even
learnt how to light a fire. Many living things are dependent on solar energy from plants, aquatic
life and the animals. The solar is mostly used in generating light and heat. The solar energy
otherwise called ‘sun energy’ coming down to the planet is affected by the orbital path of the sun
and its variations within the galaxy. Also it is affected by activity taking place in space and on
the sun. It was this energy that is believed to have been responsible for the breaking of ice during
the ice age, which creates the separation of lands and sea.

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It is one the alternative energy sources that is used most widely across the globe. About 70% of
the sunlight gets reflected back into the space and we have only 30% of sunlight to meet up our
energy demands. While solar energy is used for producing electrical energy, it is also used for
drying clothes, used by plants during the process of photosynthesis and also used by human

Figure 12: Solar Energy USA

beings during winter seasons to make their body temperature warm. Solar energy can be
extracted either by Solar Thermal or using Photovoltaic (PV) Cells.
From an environmental perspective, solar power is the best thing going on in the environment. A
1.5 kilowatt PV system will keep more than 110,000 pounds of carbon dioxide, the chief
greenhouse gas, out of the atmosphere over the next 25 years. The same solar system will also
prevent the need to burn 60,000 pounds of coal. With solar, there's no acid rain, no urban smog,
no pollution of any kind.

Mankind has been crazy to have not bothered to harness the sun's energy until now. The sun ray
contains photons which are hauling and when they strike your PV module you can convert that
motion to electricity. In many ways PV is a much more elegant and sophisticated technology
than any alternative sources of energy. We shall discuss in details the subject matter as required
in this work.

Benefits of installing an alternative energy system:

 In many cases there is a significant reduction in the cost of bringing power to your
remote site, when compared to what the utility company will charge.
 No ongoing monthly bill from the utility company.
 Cleaner power from a solar generating system that is free of surges, spikes, brownouts
and blackouts that can damage or shorten the life of appliances..
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  The ability to run regular household appliances without having to listen to the constant
drone of a generator and tremendous savings in fuel costs from not having to run a
generator 24 hours a day.
 Not having to bring in ugly power a pole that spoils the natural environment, thus
enhancing the beauty and resale value of your property.

SOLAR PANEL SYSTEM

Solar energy is energy from the sun and without its presence all life on earth would end. Solar
energy has been looked upon as a serious source of energy for many years because of the vast
amounts of energy that are made freely available, if harnessed by modern technology.
A simple example of the power of the sun can be seen by using a magnifying glass to focus the
sun’s rays on a piece of paper. Before long the paper ignites into flames. This is one way of
using the suns energy, but flames are dangerous and difficult to control. A much safer and
practical way of harnessing the suns energy is to use the suns power to heat up water.

Figure 13: Magnifying glass focusing sun ray on a piece of paper

A magnifying glass can be used to heat up a small amount of water. A short piece of copper tube
is sealed at one end and filled with water. A magnifying glass is then used to warm up the pipe.
Using more than one magnifying glass will increase the temperature more rapidly. After a
relatively short time the temperature of the water increases. Continuing to heat the water will
cause water vapour to appear at the top of the tube. In theory, with enough patience, several
magnifying glasses and very strong sun light enough heat should be generated to boil the water,
producing steam. This is one way of harnessing solar power.

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 Figure 14: Magnifying glass used in heating up pipe

The principle of heating water to boiling point was used by the French in 1888. They developed
a solar powered printing press. It used the energy of the sun to boil water, producing steam. The
steam was used to drive a steam engine which provided the power to drive the mechanical
printing press as shown in figure 15. The machine was unreliable and very expensive to
manufacture.

Figure 15: Sun energy used for a printing press.

Figure 16 is modern solar panels are a combination of magnifying glasses and fluid filled pipes.
The solar panel seen opposite has a glass front which is specially made to focus the power of the
sun on pipes behind it. The pipes carry a special fluid that heats up rapidly. They are painted
black to absorb the heat from the sun. The silver reflective surface behind the pipes reflects sun
light back, further heating the pipes and the fluid they contain. The reflective surface also
protects anything behind the solar panel (such as a roof).
The heat produced in the pipes is then used to heat a tank of water. This saves using electricity or
gas to heat up the water tank.

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 Figure 16: Modern solar panel.

WHAT IS PHOTOVOLTAIC?
Photovoltaic cells look similar to solar panels but they work in a different way. Solar panels are
use to produce hot water or even steam. Photovoltaic panels convert the sunlight directly into
electricity. A typical example of a device powered by photovoltaic cells is a solar powered
calculator. This type of device only needs a small amount of electrical power to work and can
even be used in a room with artificial light (bulbs/fluorescent light).
Although we see photovoltaic cells powering small devices such as calculators they have a more
practical application especially in the third world. Photovoltaic cells have been developed such
that it will provide electrical power to pump drinking water from wells in remote villages.
British Telecom has developed a system that can be used to power a radio telephone system.
During the day the cells power the phone and also charge batteries. The batteries power the
phone during the night. Often photovoltaic cells are used as a backup to conventional energy. If
conventional energy fails the cells are used to produce electricity.
A TYPICAL PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

Silicon is a material known as a ‘semiconductor’ as it conducts electricity and it is the main

material for photovoltaic cells. Impurities such as boron or phosphorus are added to this base
material. These impurities create the environment for electrons to be freed when sunlight hits the
photovoltaic panel. The freeing of electrons leads to the production of electricity.

Figure 17: How Photovoltaic cell conducts electricity.

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The diagram above shows a basic photovoltaic cell. The blue represents the main material,
silicon. The black round and irregular shapes represent the impurities of boron or phosphorous.
As the sun/light strikes the cell, the impurities free up electrons represented in red which
‘bounce’ around at incredible speeds. This creates an electrical charge.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF PHOTOVOLTAICS

In the example shown below photovoltaic panels are used to produce electricity which powers a
water pump, pumping drinking water from a well. This is especially useful in agriculture and in
the third world where wells can be extremely deep. The power produced by the photovoltaic
panels is also used to power a purification system, cleaning the water, removing dangerous
impurities and harmful bacteria. When not being used to pump water, the electricity can be
stored in batteries so that the pump can be used at night.

Figure 18: Water pump driven by solar electricity

The phone box seen opposite is powered directly by photovoltaic cells during the day. The
batteries are also charged during sun light hours.
This type of communication system is ideal for remote areas where electricity from the power
grid is not available. They have been tested in third world countries and have proved successful.
However, the priority for most third world countries is to ensure that people in remote areas have
clean drinking water rather than Hi-Tech communication systems.
In industrial / developed countries photovoltaic cells are used to power automatic weather
stations. Next time you drive down a motorway / highway watch out for photovoltaic systems as
they are sometimes used to power electronic systems measuring traffic congestion and traffic
flow.

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 Figure 19: Solar powered phone

The photovoltaic panel is being placed on the roof of a single story house in a village in Africa.
The panel will provide enough electrical power for a phone. This is the only phone for a radius
of 100 miles. It is an essential tool of communication for the whole village as well as the
surrounding area.

Below is a photograph of a typical photovoltaic panel system, on the roof of a house in the UK.
This system allows the owner to sell generated electricity to the National Grid. This effectively
lowers the house owners’ electricity bills. Systems like solar panels help reduce the UKs reliance
fossil fuel burning electricity power stations.

Figure 20: Photograph showing an arrangement of photovoltaic panels

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PHOTOVOLTAIC / HOW SOLAR CELLS WORK

Figure 21: Working principle of Photovoltaic (solar cell)

Photovoltaic (or Solar Cells) are solid-state semiconductor devices convert light into direct-
current electricity. These semi-conductors are most commonly made out of silicon crystal, which
are used in many electronics and computer components. The top layer of the silicon portion of a
solar panel is made from a mixture of this silicon and a small amount of phosphorous, which
gives it a negative charge. The inner layer, which constitutes the majority of the panel, is a mix
of silicon and a little bit of boron, giving it a positive charge. The place where these two layers
meet creates an electric field called a junction. When light (or photons) hits the solar cell, before
it gets to the silicon crystal to make electricity it passes through a glass cover on the panel and an
anti-reflective coating, which stops photons from reflecting off of the panel and being lost. The
photons are absorbed into the junction, which pushes electrons in the silicon out of the way (See
illustration below Figure 22). If enough photons are absorbed, the electrons pushed, past the
junction and flow freely to an external circuit. When converted to Alternating Current electricity
using what is called an inverter, this energy can be used to power anything that uses electricity.

Figure 22: Solar cell showing movement of photon and electron

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CONSTRUCTION OF SOLAR PANEL SYSTEM
A PV module normally consists of one or more strings of series-connected photovoltaic cells
assembled in a support structure (see the diagram below).
In a conventional flat-plate module, the PV cells are protected from the top by a transparent
surface. This surface is typically made of a tempered low-iron glass.

Figure 23: A structure of a typical flat-plate solar panel.

The structural support is often provided by a frame in the back and around the outer edges,
usually aluminum. Some manufacturers, such as First Solar, use frameless laminate designs.
The cells as well as the top and rear surfaces are held together by an optically transparent
encapsulant, such as Ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA). The transparent front surface normally has an
anti-reflection coating that reduces the reflection of sunlight. The commercial modules intended
for home use usually provide a junction box in the back. It connects to two waterproof cables
equipped with lockable connectors. The cables should have marks of the positive and the
negative polarities, although usually red is plus and black in minus.

PV SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

In designing a PV system, it is important to consider the system as a whole: how the components
work together and how the PV system fits in with the building.
Pre-engineered PV Systems – It is important to properly size and match each component such
that the overall system operates optimally. To address this concern, many engineers offer pre-
engineered systems in which components are selected to work together as a unit. Pre-engineering
may not guarantee a flawless system, but the concerns over product compatibility and
specification of individual components will have been addressed up front.
PV Modules and the Building Design – The builder or PV designer must also consider the PV
system and the building as a system. The PV array should be located considering the aesthetics
of the building. As well, the modules must be located so that building features such as gables

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and overhangs do not shade the modules. This usually means locating the array on the roof as
close as possible to the ridge.
The builder should consider designing a south facing roof for the array for optimum power
production. As noted previously, the orientation of the array is very forgiving, however, and the
roof does not need to face directly south, if not possible given other design constraints.
Basic Principles to Follow When Designing a Quality PV System
1. Select a packaged system that meets the owner's needs. Customer criteria for a system may
include reduction in monthly electricity bill, environmental benefits, desire for backup power,
initial budget constraints, etc. Size and orient the PV array to provide the expected electrical
power and energy.
2. Ensure the roof area or other installation site is capable of handling the desired system size.
3. Specify sunlight and weather resistant materials for all outdoor equipment.
4. Locate the array to minimize shading from foliage, vent pipes, and adjacent structures.
5. Design the system in compliance with all applicable building and electrical codes.
6. Design the system with a minimum of electrical losses due to wiring, fuses, switches, and
inverters.
7. Properly house and manage the battery system, should batteries be required.
8. Ensure the design meets local utility interconnection requirements.

GENERAL INSTALLATION
Solar PV systems must be installed in accordance with Article 690 of the National Electric Code,
which specifically deals with PV systems, as well as several other articles of the NEC that
pertain to electrical systems in general. When there is a conflict between NEC 690 and any other
article, NEC 690 takes precedence due to the unique nature of PV systems. Articles of the NEC
applicable to PV systems are:
• NEC 690 – Solar Photovoltaic Systems
• NEC 230 – Disconnect Means
• NEC 240 – Over current Protection
• NEC 250 – Grounding
• NEC 300 to NEC 384 – Wiring Methods
A good summary of NEC 690 (2002) is given in Photovoltaics: Design and Installation Manual
(Solar Energy International 2007) in the chapter titled “System Wiring.” NEC 690 includes
requirements on sizing, selecting and installation of wiring, conduit, over current protection,
disconnects, and grounding. NEC 690 addresses many other issues as well, such as
interconnection to the utility grid, equipment listing, and inspection.
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Note that a new edition of NEC 690 was released in 2005. For a summary, refer to the article
“Photovoltaic Power Systems and 2005 NEC”. Proper roof mounting can be labour intensive,
depending largely on the type of roof and how the mounting brackets are installed and sealed. It
is best to follow the recommendations of the roofing contractor, racking system suppliers and
module manufacturers. Module manufacturers will provide details of support requirements for
their modules. A good racking supplier will provide code-compliant engineering specifications
with their product. As a general rule forbidding purposes, however, it is typical to have one
support bracket for every 100 watts of PV modules.
Particular attention must be given to securing the array directly to the structural members of the
roof and to weather sealing of roof penetrations. All details regarding attaching the mounting
brackets to the roof and sealing around them are best approved and carried out by the roofing
contractor so that the roof warranty will not be voided.
Asphalt Composition Roofs – For asphalt composition roofs, all mounts need to be secured to
the roof with stainless steel lag bolts, bolted into the rafters. Mount types include support posts
and L-brackets. Support posts are preferred because they are designed to give a good seal on
boots. Support posts are best mounted after the roof decking is applied and before the roof
material is installed. Support posts and roof jacks may be installed by either the roofing
contractor or the crew in charge of laying out the array mounting system. The roofing contractor
then flashes around the posts as they install the roof.
It is very common to install mounts after the roof is installed, drilling through the asphalt
composition roofing to install the bolts. Sealant is then applied around the bolts without flashing.
As well, the top layer of roofing should be carefully lifted back to inject sealant under the
roofing. While this is much less labour intensive than when flashed, unless performed by the
roofing contractor, this method may void the warranty on the roof.
Metal Roofs – There are several types of standing seam metal roof products, including
vertical seam, horizontal seam and delta seam products. Currently, special clamps, referred to as
S-5 clamps, are available to attach arrays without any penetrations to vertical and horizontal
seam roofs and certain other standing seam roof profiles. These clamps make installation of the
solar array a relatively easy matter compared to any other roof type. In contrast, clamps for delta
seam metal roofs are not available. For these roofs, it is necessary to cut into the roofing, install
boots around the mounting posts, and then seal the penetration. This being undesirable and
labour intensive, it is best to clearly specify in advance a vertical or horizontal seam metal roof
or other roof type compatible with S-5 clamps.
Other Roof Types – While it is possible to install a PV array on shake, tile and slate roofs, these
roof types pose certain problems. Contact the racking system supplier for information on

21
products and installation methods for these roof types. Work directly with the roofing contractor
before ordering the racking system. Also look for roof integrated modules that can be used with
tile or slate roofs.
Roof Vents and Fans – We suggest installing roof vents, plumbing vents, and fans on the
north side of the roof to avoid interference with the solar array. This will also reduce the
potential for inadvertent shading of the array.
Basic Steps to Follow When Installing a PV System
1. Ensure the roof area or other installation site is capable of handling the desired system size.
2. If roof mounted, verify that the roof is capable of handling additional weight of PV system.
Augment roof structure as necessary.
3. Properly seal any roof penetrations with roofing industry approved sealing methods.
4. Install equipment according to manufacturers’ specifications, using installation requirements
and procedures from the manufacturers' specifications.
5. Properly ground the system parts to reduce the threat of shock hazards and induced surges.
6. Check for proper PV system operation by following the checkout procedures on the PV
System Installation Checklist.
7. Ensure the design meets local utility interconnection requirements
8. Have final inspections completed by the Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ) and the utility
(if required).
Special Considerations in Wiring PV Systems
In wiring solar PV systems, there are at least two concerns that an electrical contractor or
electrician may not have previous experience with. First, the system on the array side of the
inverter must be designed for DC power, which requires larger wire sizes than for AC power at
the same voltage. Second, array wiring must be sized and selected to withstand elevated
temperatures. The ampacity, which is the current-carrying ability of a wire, must be adjusted to
account for temperature conditions that occur in PV systems. Wiring sizing is detailed in NEC
690. Worksheets on wiring sizing are included in the Photovoltaics: Design and Installation
Manual (Solar Energy International 2007).
Exterior Wiring – For PV systems in general, wiring in exterior locations must be suitable for
the outdoor, wet environment; suitable for exposure to sunlight; and able to operate in
temperatures in the range of 65-80oC (149-176° F). Wiring will be subjected to the highest
temperatures in the junction boxes of solar modules; these conductors should have insulation
rated for 90oC (194° F).
Module Pigtails – In contrast to other NEC articles, NEC 690 allows exposed, single conductor

22
cables for interconnecting PV modules. This allows PV modules to be manufactured with
permanently attached pigtail conductors with multi-contact (MC) connectors on the ends. Such
module pigtails are becoming standard and significantly reduce the labour required for installing
the array.

MAINTENANCE OF SOLAR PANEL SYSTEM

Do not cover or limit the airflow around the inverter, as this will prevent adequate cooling.
Keep a minimum of 36 inches, including top and bottom, around the inverter free.
On estimating System Output PV systems produce power in proportion to the intensity of
sunlight striking the solar array surface. The intensity of light on a surface varies throughout a
day, as well as day to day, so the actual output of a solar power system can vary substantially.
There are other factors that affect the output of a solar power system. These factors need to be
understood so that the comsumers has realistic expectations of overall system output and
economic benefits under variable weather conditions over time. Factors Affecting Output of
solar panel systems are examined as thus:
Standard Test Conditions
Solar modules produce dc electricity. The dc output of solar modules is rated by manufacturers
under Standard Test Conditions (STC). These conditions are easily recreated in a factory, and
allow for consistent comparisons of products, but need to be modified to estimate output under
common outdoor operating conditions. STC conditions are: solar cell temperature = 25 oC; solar
irradiance (intensity) = 1000 W/m2 (often referred to as peak sunlight intensity, comparable to
clear summer noon time intensity); and solar spectrum as filtered by passing through 1.5
thickness of atmosphere (ASTM Standard Spectrum). A manufacturer may rate a particular solar
module output at 100 Watts of power under STC, and call the product a “100-watt solar
module.” This module will often have a production tolerance of +/-5% of the rating, which
means that the module can produce 95 Watts and still be called a “100-watt module.” To be
conservative, it is best to use the low end of the power output spectrum as a starting point (95
Watts for a 100-watt module).
Temperature
Module output power reduces as module temperature increases. When operating on a roof, a
solar module will heat up substantially, reaching inner temperatures of 50-75 oC. For crystalline
modules, a typical temperature reduction factor recommended by the CEC is 89% or 0.89. So the
“100-watt” module will typically operate at about 85 Watts (95 Watts x 0.89 = 85 Watts) in the
middle of a spring or fall day, under full sunlight conditions.

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Dirt and dust
Dirt and dust can accumulate on the solar module surface, blocking some of the sunlight and
reducing output. Much of California has a rainy season and a dry season. Although typical dirt
and dust is cleaned off during every rainy season, it is more realistic to estimate system output
taking into account the reduction due to dust build up in the dry season. A typical annual dust
reduction factor to use is 93% or 0.93. So the “100- watt module,” operating with some
accumulated dust may operate on average at about 79 Watts (85 Watts x 0.93 = 79 Watts). Very
dusty conditions may require cleaning the inverter’s air intake filter.
Mismatch and wiring losses
The maximum power output of the total PV array is always less than the sum of the maximum
output of the individual modules. This difference is a result of slight inconsistencies in
performance from one module to the next and is called module mismatch and amounts to at least
a 2% loss in system power. Power is also lost to resistance in the system wiring. These losses
should be kept to a minimum but it is difficult to keep these losses below 3% for the system. A
reasonable reduction factor for these losses is 95% or 0.95.
DC to AC conversion losses
The dc power generated by the solar module must be converted into common household ac
power using an inverter. Some power is lost in the conversion process, and there are additional
losses in the wires from the rooftop array down to the inverter and out to the house panel.
Modern inverters commonly used in residential PV power systems have peak efficiencies of 92-
94% indicated by their manufacturers, but these again are measured under well-controlled
factory conditions. Actual field conditions usually result in overall dc-to-ac conversion
efficiencies of about 88-92%, with 90% or 0.90 a reasonable compromise.
So the “100-watt module” output, reduced by production tolerance, heat, dust, wiring, ac
conversion, and other losses will translate into about 68 Watts of AC power delivered to the
house panel during the middle of a clear day (100 Watts x 0.95 x 0.89 x 0.93 x 0.95 x 0.90 = 67
Watts).

TYPES OF SOLAR PANEL (ELECTRICITY) SYSTEM

The three most common types of solar-electric systems are
 Grid-inter-tied,
 Grid-inter-tied with battery backup, and
 Off-grid (stand-alone).
Each has distinct applications and component needs. All of them basically take the DC voltage
produced by PV (solar) panels during daylight hours and convert it to conventional household
AC voltage by using solid state DC-AC converters (inverters). However in each configuration
the inverter has a different logic of operation.
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Grid Inter-tied Solar-Electric Systems
Grid-inter-tied solar-electric systems is also known as “on-grid”, “grid-tied”, or “utility
interactive” (UI) solar electric system which generate solar electricity and route it to the electric
utility grid, offsetting a home’s or business’ electrical consumption and in some instances, even
turning the electric meter backwards. Living with a grid-connected solar-electric system is no
different than living with grid power, except that some or all of the electricity use come from the
sun. In many states, the utility credits a homeowner’s account for excess solar electricity
produced. This amount can then be applied to other months when the system produces less or in
months when electrical consumption is greater. This arrangement is called net metering or net
billing. The specific terms of net metering laws and regulations vary from state to state and
utility to utility. One can consult local electricity provider or state regulatory agency for
adequate guidelines. The following illustrations include the primary components of any grid
inter-tied solar electric system

Figure 24: The following illustration includes the primary components of any grid inter-tied
solar electric system.

Figure 25: How Grid-Tied or Grid ON Solar Power System Works.

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Grid-Inter-tied Solar-Electric Systems with Battery Backup
Without a battery bank or generator backup for your grid inter-tied system, when a blackout
occurs, your household will be in the dark, too. To keep some or all of your electric needs (or
“loads”) like lights, a refrigerator, a well pump, or computer running even when utility power
outages occur, many homeowners choose to install a grid-inter-tied system with battery backup.
Incorporating batteries into the system requires more components, is more expensive, and lowers
the system’s overall efficiency. But for many homeowners who regularly experience utility
outages or have critical electrical loads, having a backup energy source is priceless.
The following illustration includes the primary components of any grid inter-tied solar electric
system with battery backup.

Figure 26: The following illustration includes the primary components of any grid inter-tied
solar electric system with battery backup.

For safety reasons, when the grid goes down your solar PV system must automatically and
immediately turn off. It is possible to have a system that will provide emergency electricity when
the grid is interrupted. This necessitates the additional installation of a suitable inverter, a battery
bank and possibly changes to the house wiring. The benefit is it will provide the security of a
continuous electricity supply in the event of blackouts

Off-Grid Solar-Electric Systems

Although they are most common in remote locations without utility grid service, off-grid solar-
electric systems can work anywhere. These systems operate independently from the grid to
provide all of a household’s electricity. That means no electric bills and no blackouts—at least
none caused by grid failures. People choose to live off-grid for a variety of reasons, including the
prohibitive cost of bringing utility lines to remote home sites, the appeal of an independent

26
lifestyle, or the general reliability a solar-electric system provides. Those who choose to live off-
grid often need to make adjustments to when and how they use electricity, so they can live
within the limitations of the system’s design. This doesn’t necessarily imply doing without, but
rather is a shift to a more conscientious use of electricity. The following illustration includes the
primary components of any off grid solar electric system.

Figure 27: Block Diagram A: How Solar Power System Works With Grid Off Inverter.

Figure 28: The following illustration includes the primary components of any off grid solar
electric system.

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Figure 29: Block Diagram B: How Solar Power System Works With Grid off Inverter.

COMPONENTS OF SOLAR PANEL SYSTEM

Basic components required for any solar energy power system are solar panel, charge controller,
inverter, battery and the load. These are examined in details below.
Solar Panel
Solar Panels make FREE electricity from the sun, have no moving parts to fail, and last over 25
years. They can be mounted on fixed, adjustable, or tracking type mounting systems. Getting
power from the sun's energy is not only Free, but it's Fun to setup a solar energy system and be
your own utility company

Figure 30: Solar Panels: An eco-friendly electric generator.

Solar panels generate free power from the sun by converting sunlight to electricity with no
moving parts, zero emissions, and no maintenance. The solar panel, the first component of an
electric solar energy system, is a collection of individual silicon cells that generate electricity
from sunlight. The photons (light particles) produce an electrical current as they strike the
surface of the thin silicon wafers. A single solar cell produces only about 1/2 (0.5) of a volt.
However, a typical 12 volt panel about 25 inches by 54 inches will contain 36 cells wired in

28
series to produce about 17 volts peak output. (Vr.m.s = Vo / 2 ) If the solar panel can be
configured for 24 volt output, there will be 72 cells so the two 12 volt groups of 36 each can be
wired in series, usually with a jumper, allowing the solar panel to output 24 volts. When under
load (charging batteries for example), this voltage drops to 12 to 14 volts (for a 12 volt
configuration) resulting in 75 to 100 watts for a panel of this size.
Multiple solar panels can be wired in parallel to increase current capacity (more power) and
wired in series to increase voltage for 24, 48, or even higher voltage systems. The advantage of
using a higher voltage output at the solar panels is that smaller wire sizes can be used to transfer
the electric power from the solar panel array to the charge controller & batteries. Since copper
has gone up considerably in the last few years, purchasing large copper wiring and cables is
quite expensive. (that's why pennies are made of mostly zinc today).

Types of Solar Panel

There are three (3) basic types of Solar Panels namely monocrystalline, polycrystalline and
amorphous solar panels.
Monocrystalline solar panels:
The most efficient (15% to 20%) and expensive solar panels are made with Monocrystalline
cells. These solar cells use very pure silicon and involve a complicated crystal growth process.
Long silicon rods are produced which are cut into slices of .2 to .4 mm thick discs or wafers
which are then processed into individual cells that are wired together in the solar panel.

Figure 31: Mono-Crystalline Silicon PV Cell.

Polycrystalline solar panels:

Often called Multi-crystalline, solar panels made with Polycrystalline cells are a little less
expensive & slightly less efficient than Monocrystalline cells because the cells are not grown in

29
single crystals but in a large block of many crystals. This is what gives them that striking
shattered glass appearance. Like Monocrystalline cells, they are also then sliced into wafers to
produce the individual cells that make up the solar panel.

Figure 32: Poly-Crystalline Silicon PV Cell.

Amorphous solar panels:

These are not really crystals, but a thin layer of silicon deposited on a base material such as
metal or glass to create the solar panel. These Amorphous solar panels are much cheaper, but
their energy efficiency is also much less so more square footage is required to produce the same
amount of power as the Monocrystalline or Polycrystalline type of solar panel. Amorphous solar
panels can even be made into long sheets of roofing material to cover large areas of a south
facing roof surface.

Figure 33: Flexible amorphous.

Factors to be considered when mounting solar panels

Shading & Shadows on solar panels

When deciding on a location for your solar panels, make sure no shadows will fall on the solar
panel array during peak sunlight hours (say, 9am to 4pm). Not only will shading of the solar
panels significantly reduce their output, but also could cause damage. Some solar panel
manufacturers advertise panels that can withstand shading but they use internal diodes which in
themselves reduce the power somewhat. It is recommended simply choose a good location to
start with, even if it means cutting down a few trees or otherwise removing obstacles.

30
Temperature & Wind loading considerations
As previously discussed, it is important to mount solar panel in a sunny and non-shaded location
in order to get maximum sun. But, heat build-up is also a problem. Because the efficiency of
solar panels decreases as temperature increases, the solar panel mounting system should allow
for spacing around the individual solar panels for air circulation. The idea is to allow air cooling
in the hot sun to reduce the temperature of the solar panels. Another consideration is wind
loading. By allowing air to flow around the solar panels, not only will they remain cooler, but
also the wind resistance of the entire array is less.
Types of Solar Panel Array Mountings: (Fixed, Adjustable, & Tracking)
Fixed Solar Panel Mounts: If you use the most simple and least expensive type of solar panel
mounting system, it will be completely stationary. The solar panels should always face the
equator. (Due south in the northern hemisphere). Don't forget that true south varies from
magnetic south. This can make a huge difference. For example, true south in eastern Washington
State is 161 on a compass instead of 180. The angle of inclination (tilt) in degrees should be set
to about your latitude. Slightly more than your latitude will favour the winter sun and slightly
less will favour the summer sun.
Adjustable Solar Panel mounts: The angle of inclination (tilt) of an adjustable solar panel
mount can be changed two or more times during the year to account for the lower angle of the
sun in winter as the earth orbits the sun causing seasonal change. A good rule of thumb is
latitude + 15 degrees in the winter and latitude -15 degrees in the summer. This will increase
overall solar panel output by approximately 25%. Solar panel array can be adjusted 4 times per
year. An easy approach that works pretty well is to set the tilt for the winter position in about
mid October and back to summer position in mid March.
Tracking Solar Panel mounts: Tracking solar panel mounts follow the path of the sun during
the day to maximize the solar radiation that the solar panels receive. A single axis tracker tracks
the sun east to west and a two-axis tracker tracks the daily east to west movement of the sun and
the seasonal declination movement of the sun.
It is admitted that a tracking type of solar panel mount is the most efficient type. However,
when investigated the cost for these mounting systems, was found that for the 20 to 30 percent
gain in output they provided which could buy 25% more panels cheaper and have the same
increase in power with no mechanical failures to worry about. Also, you'll get far less extra gain
in winter assuming it doesn't freeze up! Therefore, It is recommended that instead of six panels
on a tracking mount that costs $2000-$3000, just spend $700-$800 on two more solar panels and
gain a year round increase of 25 to 30%.

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Cost and expected Life Span of solar panels
At today's prices a single solar panel, rated at 75-85 watts sells for about N56, 000 - N63, 000
depending on brand. It has been found that the brand does not seem to be a huge factor. If the
system uses several of these panels, this would seem to be quite expensive. The good news is
that today's solar panels have a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years or more. And just think, they'll
be making FREE electricity that whole time!
At today's prices, a typical 100 watt solar panel will cost about N60, 000 to N75, 000 or about
N600 to N750 per watt. With a total of only six 80 Watt solar panels this Solar Home runs a
refrigerator, computer, 27 inch colour television, microwave, various lights, misc devices, and
even an Air Conditioner in the summer.

CONNECTION OF SOLAR PANEL IN SOLAR PANEL SYSTEM

Figure 34: Parallel and Series connection of PV modules.

Types of Solar Panel Mounting System (Basic Mounting Strategies)

The solar panel system designer must consider many factors when selecting an appropriate site
for mounting modules. The location must be oriented toward the sun and be free of shading
obstacle throughout the sun’s daily and seasonal paths. The site must be in proximity to the
power-conditioning centre to minimize the losses. The operator of the system should be pleased
with the aesthetics of the array and where it is located.
Depending on the location, the site may also need to provide protection from theft and
vandalism. Finally the operator should have access to performer routine maintenance.
Once the site has been chosen, the type of mounting system suitable for the site and the system
application is determined. There are various systems available for mounting a solar panel from
simple bracket system to complex dual axis trackers. The type of mounting system to choose

32
depend on the following factors: Orientation of the house, shading at the site, weather
considerations, soil and / or roof loading bearing capacity, roofing materials and system
application. Below are various types of mounting system.

(a) Building integrated PV (b) Roof mount

Figure 35: Basic Mounting Strategies

(c) Ground Mount (d) Pole mount / tracker

Combiner Box

Wires from individual PV modules or strings are run to the combiner box, typically located on
the roof. These wires may be single conductor pigtails with connectors that are pre-wired onto
the PV modules. The output of the combiner box is one larger two wire conductor in conduit. A
combiner box typically includes a safety fuse or breaker for each string and may include a surge
protector.
Surge protectors help to protect your system from power surges that may occur if the PV system
or nearby power lines are struck by lightning. A power surge is an increase in voltage
significantly above the design voltage.

33
Charge Controller
A charge controller, sometimes referred to as a photovoltaic controller or battery charger, is
only necessary in systems with battery back-up. The primary function of a charge controller is to
prevent overcharging of the batteries. Most also include a low voltage disconnect that prevents
over-discharging batteries. In addition, charge controllers prevent charge from draining back to
solar modules at night. Some modern charge controllers incorporate maximum power point
tracking, which optimizes the PV array’s output, increasing the energy it produces.
A Charge Controller is necessary to protect the batteries from over charging and supply them
with the proper amount of energy to promote long battery life. The popular 3 stage charging
cycle of PWM (pulse width modulation) charge controllers is fully explained and shown visually
on a multi-colour chart. Also covered are the newer MPPT (maximum power point tracking)
controllers.
Since the brighter the sunlight, the more voltage the solar cells produce, the excessive voltage
could damage the batteries. A charge controller is used to maintain the proper charging voltage
on the batteries. As the input voltage from the solar array rises, the charge controller regulates
the charge to the batteries preventing any overcharging.

Figure 36: Modern multi-stage charge controllers.

Most quality charge controller units have what is known as a 3 stage charge cycle that goes like
this:
During the Bulk phase of the charge cycle, the voltage gradually rises to the Bulk level (usually
14.4volts to 14.6 volts) while the batteries draw maximum current. When Bulk level voltage is
reached the absorption stage begins.
During this phase the voltage is maintained at Bulk voltage level for specified times (usually an
hour) while the current gradually tapers off as the batteries charge up.

34
After the absorption time passes the voltage is lowered to float level (usually 13.4 to 13.7 volts)
and the batteries draw a small maintenance current until the next cycle.
The relationship between the current and the voltage during the 3 phases of the charge cycle can
be shown visually by the graph below.

Figure 37: Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT).

Most multi-stage charge controllers are Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) types. I would
recommend using one of at least these designs. The newer Maximum Power Point Tracking
(MPPT) controllers are even better. They match the output of the solar panels to the battery
voltage to insure maximum charge (amps). For example: even though your solar panel is rated at
100 watts, you won't get the full 100 watts unless the battery is at optimum voltage. The
Power/Watts is always equal to Volts times Amps or P=E*I (see Ohm's law for more info). With
a regular charge controller, if your batteries are low at say 12.4 volts, then your 100 watt solar
panel rated at 6 amps at 16.5 volts (6 amps times 16.5 volts = 100 watts) will only charge at 6
amps times 12.4 volts or just 75 watts. You just lost 25% of your capacity! The MPPT controller
compensates for the lower battery voltage by delivering closer to 8 amps into the 12.4 volt
battery maintaining the full power of the 100 watt solar panel! 100 watts = 12.4 volts times 8
amps = 100 (P=E*I).
The Charge Controller is installed between the Solar Panel array and the Batteries where it
automatically maintains the charge on the batteries using the 3 stage charge cycle just described.
The Power Inverter can also charge the batteries if it is connected to the AC utility grid or in the
case of a stand alone (off-grid) system.

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Types of Charge Controllers
There are essentially two types of controllers: shunt and series charge controllers.
Shunt controller bypasses current around fully charged batteries and through a power transistor
or resistance heater where excess power is converted into heat. Shunt controllers are simple and
inexpensive, but are only designed for very small systems.
Series controllers stop the flow of current by opening the circuit between the battery and the PV
array. Series controllers may be single-stage or pulse type. Single-stage controllers are small
and inexpensive and have a greater load-handling capacity than shunt-type controllers. Pulse
controllers are a type of shunt controller referred to as a multi-stage controller (e.g., three-stage
controller) has routines that optimize battery charging rates to extend battery life.
Most charge controllers are now three-stage controllers. These chargers have dramatically
improved battery life.
Selection – Charge controllers are selected based on:
• PV array voltage – The controller’s DC voltage input must match the nominal voltage of the
solar array.
• PV array current – The controller must be sized to handle the maximum current produced by
the PV array.
In conclusion, using four 75 to 80 Watt solar panels, the charge controller should be rated up to
40 amps. Even though the solar panels don't normally produce that much current, there is an
'edge of cloud effect'. Due to this phenomenon, four 6 amp panels (4*6=24) pump out over 32
amps. This is well over their rated 24 amps maximum. A good 3 stage 40 amps Charge
Controller will run about N22, 400 to N36, 000 depending on features like LCD displays. For
eight 75 to 80 watt solar panels you would need two 40 amp Charge Controllers to handle the
power or increase the system voltage to 24 volts and still use just one 40 amp Charge
Controller.

The Power Inverter

Power inverter is a device that converts electrical power from DC form to AC form using
electronic circuits. Its typical application is to convert battery voltage into conventional
household AC voltage allowing the user to use electronic devices when an AC power is not
available.
Power Inverters are available in 3 basic designs. The pros & cons of the three types are
explained in order to enhance good judgement of deciding which inverter to be used for a
particular time. The power inverter converts storage battery power into the 120 volts AC that

36
runs electrical appliances. It is the heart of your solar energy system. Unless the consumer only
runs 12 volt DC appliances you will need a power inverter to supply your AC.

Figure 38: Circuit diagram of a power inverter.

By using a Grid Tie power inverter, one can even sell extra electricity back to the power
company unless he/she plans on using battery power for everything; otherwise a Power Inverter
is required. Since the majority of modern conveniences all run on 120 volts AC. It does not only
converts the low voltage DC to the 120 volts AC that runs most appliances, but also can charge
the batteries if connected to the utility grid or AC Generator as in the case of a totally
independent stand-alone solar power system.

Figure 39: Block diagram of PVM

inverter

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 Figure 40: Circuit diagram of power inverter.

To design an Inverter, many power circuit topologies and voltage control methods are used. The
most important aspect of the Inverter technology is the output waveform. To filter the waveform
(Square wave, quasi sine wave or Sine wave) capacitors and inductors are used. Low pass
filters, are used to reduce the harmonic components. Resonant filter can be used if the Inverter
has a fixed output frequency. If the inverter has adjustable output frequency, the filter must be
tuned to a level above the maximum fundamental frequency. Feedback rectifiers are used to
bleed the peak inductive load current when the switch turns off.

As per the Fourier analysis, a square wave contains odd harmonics like third, fifth, seventh etc
only if it is anti-symmetrical> about 180 degree point. If the waveform has steps of certain width
and heights, the additional harmonics will be cancelled. If a Zero voltage step is introduced
between the positive and negative parts of the square wave, the harmonics that are divisible by
three can be eliminated. The width of the pulse should be 1/3 of the period for each positive and
negative steps and 1/6 of the period for each of the Zero voltage steps. The Pulse Width
Modulation technology is meant for changing the characteristics of the square wave. The
switching pulses are Modulating, and regulating before supplied to the load. When the Inverter
requires no voltage control, fixed pulse width can be used.

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TYPES OF POWER INVERTER

Figure 41: Combined waveform Inverters Outputs.

There are basically three kinds of Inverter out of which, the first set of inverters made, which are
now obsolete, produced a Square Wave signal at the output.
The Modified Square Wave also known as the Modified Sine Wave Inverter produces square
waves with some dead spots between positive and negative half-cycles at the output. The
cleanest Utility supply like Power source is provided by Pure Sine Wave inverters. The present
Inverter market is going through a shift from traditional Modified Sine Wave Inverter to Pure
Sine Wave inverters because of the benefits that these inverters offer.

Square Wave power inverters:

This is the least expensive and least desirable type. The square wave it produces is inefficient
and is hard on many types of equipment. These inverters are usually fairly inexpensive, 500
watts or less, and use an automotive cigarette lighter plug-in. don’t even consider one of these
types of power inverters for a home system.

Figure 42: Diagram of square waveform power Inverter.

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This is the simplest form of output wave available in the cheapest form of inverters. They can
run simple appliances without problems but not much else. Square wave voltage can be easily
generated using a simple oscillator. With the help of a transformer, the generated square wave
voltage can be transformed into a value of 230 volt AC or higher.

Modified Sine Wave power inverters:

This is probably the most popular and economical type of power inverter. It produces an AC
waveform somewhere between a square wave and a pure sine wave. Modified Sine Wave
inverters, sometimes called Quasi-Sine Wave inverters are not real expensive and work well in
all but the most demanding applications and even most computers work well with a Modified
Sine Wave inverter. However, there are exceptions. Some appliances that use motor speed
controls or that use timers may not work quite right with a Modified Sine Wave inverter. And
since more and more consumer products are using speed controls & timers, I would only
recommend this type of inverter for smaller installations such as a camping cabin.

Figure 43: Diagram of modified sine waveform power.

Inverter

Modified sine wave is designed to simulate a sine wave since the generation of sine wave is
expensive. This waveform consists of a Flat Plateau of positive voltage, dropping abruptly to
zero for a short period, then dropping again to a flat plateau of negative voltage. It then go back
to zero again and returning to positive. This short pause at zero volts gives more power to 50 Hz
fundamental frequency of AC than the simple square wave.

Inverters providing modified sine wave can adequately power most house hold appliances. It is
more economical but may present certain problems with appliances like microwave ovens, laser
printers, digital clocks and some music systems. 99% of appliances run happily in modified sine
wave. Instruments using SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) in the power supply section behave
badly with modified sine wave. The SCR will consider the sharp corners of the sine wave as
trashes and shut off the instrument. Many of the Laser printers behave like this and fail to work

40
in inverters and UPS providing modified sine wave power. Most variable speed fans buzz when
used in modified sine wave inverters.

True Sine Wave power inverters:

(b) True sine waveform power inverter

(a) Pure sine wave power inverter output
Figure 44:
A True Sine Wave power inverter produces the closest to a pure sine wave of all power inverters
and in many cases produces cleaner power than the utility company itself. It will run practically
any type of AC equipment and is also the most expensive. Many True Sine Wave power
inverters are computer controlled and will automatically turn on and off as AC loads ask for
service. I believe they are well worth the extra cost. I use a True Sine Wave power inverter
myself and find that its automatic capabilities make it seem more like Utility Company power.
The Xantrex 2500 watt power inverter I use has a search feature and checks every couple of
seconds for anything that wants AC, then it powers up automatically. You just flick on a light
switch (or whatever) and it works. When you turn off the light or the refrigerator kicks off for
example, the power inverter shuts down to save battery power.
While the Modified Sine Wave inverter (sometimes called a Quasi Sine Wave inverter) is nearly
half the price of a True Sine Wave inverter, I would still recommend using a True Sine Wave
inverter if you want to supply automatic power to a normal home using a wide variety of
electrical devices. Also, most appliances run more efficiently and use less power with a True
Sine Wave inverter as opposed to a Modified Sine Wave power inverter.

Grid Tie Power Inverters

If you are connected to normal Utility company power and just want to add some Free Sun
Power electricity to reduce your electric bill and you do not need a totally independent system,
it is possible that a Grid Tie power inverter will suit your needs. With a Grid Tie power inverter,
whatever electricity that your solar panels produce will reduce the amount supplied by the utility
company, in effect lowering your bill. And, if you are producing more power than you are using,
you can actually sell the extra power back to the utility company! For this type of setup a much

41
smaller battery bank can be installed just to cover short term outages from a few minutes to an
hour or two. In fact, if you don't have frequent long term power outages and don't need back-up

Figure 44: PV Grid-tied Inverter System.

Figure 45: Electrical block diagram Grid tie Power Inverter.

power, then you will not need any batteries at all. (But, really, what utility company never
fails?). Input voltages. Should I use a 12, 24, or 48 volt inverter?
The main consideration when deciding on the input voltage (from your battery bank) of your
inverter is the distance between your solar panel array and your battery bank. The higher the
voltage, the lower the current and the smaller the (expensive) cables need to be. Of course, when

42
you decide on a system voltage, the Solar Panels, Inverter, and Battery Bank all need to use the
same voltage. Voltage (E): is the electromotive force (pressure) applied to an electrical circuit
measured in volts. Current (I): is the flow of electrons in an electrical circuit measured in
amperes. Resistance (R): is the opposition to the flow of electrons in an electrical circuit
measured in ohms. Power (P): is the product of the voltage times the current in an electrical
circuit measured in watts.
In its simplest form, Ohm's law states that the current in an electrical circuit is directly
proportional to the applied voltage and the resistance of the circuit. The 3 most common
mathematical expressions are:
E=I*R ---------------------- (1)
I=E/R ---------------------- (2)
R=E/I ---------------------- (3)
Also, power can be expressed as P=E*I ------------------ ( 4 )
And P=E² / R------------------------------------------ (5)
So what does all this mean? Well, for one thing it becomes clear that an appliance (load) that
draws 1 amp (ampere) of current at 120 volts will draw 10 times as much current at 12 volts
(1/10 the voltage) or 10 amps. Since P=E*I then 120 volts times 1 amp = 120 watts. Also, 12
volts times 10 amps = 120 watts. So you can see that the power remains the same. As the
Voltage goes down, the Amperage increases to maintain the power which will be determined by
the 3rd factor, resistance.
Taken a nice 1200 watt hairdryer. Well, that would work out to 10 amps at 120 volts. But, when
your power inverter uses the 12 volts supplied from your batteries, the amperage goes up to 100
amps to produce the same 1200 watts! (P=E*I). This means that even the very large cables
connecting your batteries to the inverter will get warm. This is why it becomes impractical or
impossible to run say, 4000 watt electric clothes dryer. Even if you had large enough wires to
handle the required 333 or so amps, your batteries would not last long.
It is true that the cables will not get as warm if the current can be reduced by increasing the
voltage by using a 24 volt battery system or even a 48 volt battery system. This still will not
change the amount of power that your batteries must supply.
To help decide on which voltage to use, check out our Wire Size Calculator which can tell you
what size wire is needed to connect the solar panels to your equipment area. You can try all 3
different voltages to see the change that it can make in wire size.

43
Power Inverter considerations
The Power Inverter is connected directly to the batteries and the main AC breaker panel to
supply power from the batteries to the loads (appliances). Check out figure 50 for more info on
the necessary wire size for installing cables. The Power Inverter converts the low voltage DC to
120 volts AC. Power Inverters is available for use on 12, 24, or 48 volt battery bank
configurations. Most Power Inverters can also charge the batteries if connected to the AC line.
Alternatively, the AC line input could be your own AC Generator in the case of a stand-alone
solar power system. When using a AC Generator to charge the batteries, the Power Inverter
transfers the AC Generator power to the loads via a relay. This way the AC Generator not only
charges the batteries but also supplies your AC power while it is running. If your Generator is at
least 5000 watts, you can charge your batteries and have extra AC power at the same time.
How can I determine how many solar panels and batteries I'll need? This will depend on how
much electricity you are going to need and how many days you plan to be able to run on just
battery power alone (no sun at all). To assist you in determining the size system you will need,
our System Sizing Estimator will help you calculate the number of solar panels you'll need and
what size battery bank is required. We also provide a Battery Bank Designer tool to show you
how to wire your battery bank for a 12, 24, or 48 volt system.
Storage Batteries:
Batteries are regarded as the fuel tank of our solar power system. Without Storage Batteries to
store energy power would only be gotten when the sun is shining or the generator is running.
Here we discuss 4 major categories of batteries for solar power systems. The batteries in your
system are very important. The care & feeding section of batteries is to ensure long battery life
and good performance.

Figure 46: Batteries bank.

Without batteries to store energy you would only have power when the sun was shining or the
generator was running. This tutorial describes the 4 basic types of batteries & provides some
good tips on the care & feeding of your batteries to maximize their performance and life.

44
TYPE OF BATTERIES
1) RV or Marine type deep cycle batteries are basically for boats & campers and are suitable
for only very small systems. They can be used but do not really have the capacity for continuous
service with many charge/discharge cycles for many years. Regular or Car type batteries should
not be used at all because they cannot be discharged very much without internal damage. A very
popular battery for small systems is the Golf Cart battery. They are somewhat more expensive
than deep cycle recreational batteries but are probably the least expensive choice for a small
system on a budget.
Industrial strength: Flooded, Gel, and AGM sealed batteries
The next 3 types are the heavier industrial type batteries. They are all also considered Deep
Cycle and are usually Lead Acid types with much thicker internal plates that can withstand many
deep discharge cycles. These next 3 are all designed for alternative energy systems.
2) Flooded Batteries: These are Lead acid batteries that have caps to add water. Many
manufacturers make these types for Solar Energy use. Trojan, Surrette, and Deka are probably
the most well known. They are reasonably priced and work well for many years. All flooded
batteries release gas when charged and should not be used indoors. If installed in an enclosure, a
venting system should be used to vent out the gases which can be explosive.
3) GEL Batteries: Not to be confused with maintenance free batteries, sealed gel batteries
have no vents and will not release gas during the charging process like flooded batteries do.
Venting is therefore not required and they can be used indoors. This is a big advantage because it
allows the batteries to maintain a more constant temperature and perform better.
4) Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM): These batteries are regarded as the best available for Solar
Power use. A woven glass mat is used between the plates to hold the electrolyte. They are
leak/spill proof, do not out gas when charging, and have superior performance.
They have all the advantages of the sealed gel types and are higher quality, maintain voltage
better, self discharge slower, and last longer. The Sun Xtender series by Concorde Battery is an
excellent example of AGM batteries. They are more expensive, but you usually get what you
pay for. You will find this type of battery used in airplanes, hospitals, and remote telephone/cell
tower installations. N

Figure 47: Deka AGM battery.

45
CARE AND FEEDING OF BATTERIES.
As technicians say, ‘if you are not comfortable, then neither is your equipment’. I am mostly
referring to temperature and humidity. In fact battery capacity ratings are usually specified at 77
degrees F. As batteries get colder their voltage drops and performance suffers. This is one major
reason why AGM is preferred batteries because they can be stored indoors where the
temperatures vary less.
Another important thing to consider is how deeply you discharge your batteries. This is known
as the DOD (depth of discharge). In other words, how low you let the voltage drop before the
next charge cycle. Most battery ratings talk about 50% or so, but they will last longer if you keep
them as charged as possible. I like the 70% range. Lead acid batteries like to be fully charged.
They will last much longer if you do not discharge them too deeply. This is known as shallow
cycling and greatly extends their life. However, they can withstand discharges down to 20% or
so, but I wouldn't do it too often.

AC Generators for back-up power and running large loads.

Even the largest Solar Energy System would not have enough power for many consecutive days
of no sun. The AC Generator tutorial will tell you what size generator you'll need and the best
techniques to use when charging your batteries and/or supplying power to extra large appliances

Figure 48: AC Generator

Generators are best used for backup power during long periods of little or no sun. Under these
circumstances you would run the generator just long enough to provide the batteries with their
Bulk stage charge and for a portion of the Absorption charging stage. The 3 stage charge cycle is
explained under Charge Controllers
The reason you would not attempt to charge the batteries fully with the generator is that towards
the end of the Absorption stage, the batteries are drawing much less current and most of the
generators' power is not being used. This would be a good time to run your large loads (like
washing machine, vacuum, etc) that would normally put a real drain on your batteries. If you
46
charge the batteries up to about 85% to 90% capacity this way, not only will that prevent them
from being too deeply discharged, but also a small amount of winter sun could charge them the
remaining 10% to 15%.

Most good Power Inverters have a battery charger built in. When you run the generator and
apply the AC to the inverter, it will charge the batteries and transfer the AC to your loads
(appliances). This is the most efficient technique. It would be much more expensive to run a
generator full time to supply power. Also, it would wear out much faster and let's not forget the
noise. This Solar Home runs a freezer, computer, 27 inch colour television, microwave, and
assorted other lights and devices. In the winter I run my generator for 45 to 60 minutes per day
to charge the batteries up to about 90%. Since some winter days are sunny, the generator is not
used every day.

Importance of Wire sizes

To prevent dangerous overheating or inefficient transfer of power, the wires and cables in a solar
power system must be correctly sized. This tutorial provides a convenient chart to determine
wire size based on solar panel power output and the distance between the solar panels and the
batteries. For safety and good performance of your solar power system you will have to use the
appropriate size wires when connecting the components of your system.

Figure 49: Correct wire sizes.

To connect the components of a Solar Energy System, you will need to use correct wire sizes to
ensure low loss of energy and to prevent overheating and possible damage or even fire. Below is
a chart showing the required wire size for wire lengths to connect the solar panels to the Charge
Controller. Use these numbers for a 12 volt system to achieve a 3% or less voltage drop.
The top row represents the Wire gauge size, the left column the number of amps the solar panels
are rated at, and the grid cells show the distances in feet between the Solar Panels and the
Charge Controller.

47
For example: If you have 3 solar panels rated at 6 amps each, mounted 30 feet from the Charge
Controller, then you would move down the chart to 18 amps (3 panels * 6 amps), and across to
32.5 (closest to 30), and then up the chart to #4. You would need at least #4 gauge wire (awg) to
move 18 amps 30 feet with a minimum voltage drop of 3% or less, an acceptable loss.
If you can't find the exact numbers, choose either a larger gauge wire (smaller number) or select
a distance longer than your actual distance.
Wire chart for connecting 12 Volt solar panels to the Charge Controller as shown in table 1.0.
This chart shows wire distances for a 3% voltage drop or less. These distances are calculated for
a 12 volt system. Multiply distances by 2 for a 24 volt system. Multiply distances by 4 for a 48
volt system.
Table 1.0: Wiring chart for connecting 12 Volt solar panels to the Charge Controller

#12 #10 #8 #6 #4 #3 #2 #1 #1/0 #2/0

4 22.7 36.3 57.8 91.6 146 184 232 292 369 465
6 15.2 24.2 38.6 61.1 97.4 122 155 195 246 310
8 11.4 18.2 28.9 45.8 73.1 91.8 116 146 184 233
10 9.1 14.5 23.1 36.7 58.4 73.5 92.8 117 148 186
12 7.6 12.1 19.3 30.6 48.7 61.2 77.3 97.4 123 155
14 6.5 10.4 16.5 26.2 41.7 52.5 66.3 83.5 105 133
16 5.7 9.1 14.5 22.9 36.5 45.9 58.0 73.0 92.0 116
18 5.1 8.1 12.9 20.4 32.5 40.8 51.6 64.9 81.9 103
20 4.6 7.3 11.6 18.3 29.2 36.7 46.4 58.4 73.8 93.1
25 3.6 5.8 9.3 14.7 23.4 29.4 37.1 46.8 59.1 74.5
30 3.1 4.8 7.7 12.2 19.5 24.5 30.9 38.9 49.2 62.1
35 2.6 4.2 6.6 10.5 16.7 20.9 26.5 33.4 42.2 53.2
40 2.3 3.6 5.8 9.2 14.6 18.4 23.2 29.2 36.9 46.5

NOTE: This chart is an approximate distance reference and is a little conservative. For a much
more accurate wire sizing, use our new Wire Size Calculator tool. It can calculate wire size using
3%, 4%, or 5% losses plus you can select 12, 24, or 48 volt systems.

Connecting the Charge Controller

After you connect the Solar Panels to the input terminals of the Charge Controller using the
above chart, you can use the same size wire to connect the Charge Controller output to the
batteries since these wires will carry no more current than the solar panel wires and will
probably be located pretty close to the batteries anyway.
Connecting the Power Inverter
48
The Power Inverter is next. Both the Power Inverter and the Batteries require the largest wires in
the system. During operation, the AC produced by the Power Inverter draws considerable amps
from the batteries. Not only are very large wires required, but they should not exceed 6 feet in
length to reach the batteries. These wires are like the large battery cables in cars. Use the largest
size possible. An AC appliance drawing 10 amps (like a microwave or vacuum cleaner) will
require 100 amps at 12 volts DC. Even large cables will get warm. Don't skimp here.
Connecting the Batteries
The batteries are last. They will also require very large cables like the large battery cables in
cars. The full current to the loads and also the full charging current flow thru the entire battery
bank. Connect all the batteries with large high quality cables. Check out the Battery Wiring
Diagrams tutorial for examples of Series and Parallel wiring techniques that allow the use of
battery voltages of 2, 4, 6, or 12 volts. Our new Battery Bank Designer tool will show you how
to connect the batteries for these various voltage systems.

Figure 50: Battery connection.

Monitoring battery voltage and system performance

This explains the importance of monitoring your solar energy system. With the included voltage
chart, you can easily determine the basic level of charge on your batteries using just a simple
voltmeter. Taking proper care of your batteries will ensure good system performance.

Figure 51: Battery voltage monitoring.

It is important to know the state of your system. Specifically, you need to keep close watch on
the SOC (state of charge) of your batteries. By not allowing your batteries to discharge below a
49
certain point, with you can greatly improve their performance and extend their life. Monitoring
the Voltage and Current readings in your system will tell you how full your batteries are and
how fast they are charging or discharging. All this can be monitored with one or more meters. I
like to have one meter continuously display the Solar Panels charging current and a multi-
function display for Voltage, Amp Hours, and other functions.

Interpretation of voltage readings.

So, you can measure your battery Voltage to determine how charged they are. And you can
measure the Current the see the rate of charge or discharge (how fast the batteries are gaining or
losing power). Use the chart below to interpret your battery voltage readings.

This chart below will allow you to get a pretty good idea of how charged the batteries are. They
must not be charging or discharging for these voltages to be correct. Also, it should be at least 1
or 2 hours since they were. A good time to check is early in the morning before charging starts
or any appliances are turned on. This will tell you the SOC (state of charge) or simply put, how
full they are.

Table 2.0: Battery Voltage Chart.

BATTERY VOLTAGE CHART

% of full Charge Voltage
100 % Charge 12.7 volts
90 % Charge 12.6 volts
80 % charge 12.5 volts
70 % Charge 12.3 volts
60 % Charge 12.2 volts
50 % Charge 12.1 volts
40 % Charge 12.0 volts
30 % Charge 11.59 volts
20 % Charge 11.8 volts
10% Charge 11.7 volts
Completely discharged 11.6 or less

Remember, this measurement is most accurate after the batteries have been at rest at least 1 hour,
and neither charging nor discharging.
Trace (now Xantrex) makes several nice monitors and so do a number of others. Tri-Metric
model 2020 is the one I chose but they all have similar functions. You can measure battery
voltage, charge/discharge current, percentage of full charge, and days since last full charge and
many other useful functions.
Solar Energy Systems-wiring diagram examples

50
Below are examples of typical wiring layouts and various components of solar energy systems in
their common sizes: 2 KiloWatts, 4 KiloWatts, and 8 KiloWatts. These system sizes are based
on 100 watt solar panels and 5 hours of average daily sunshine. Of course, under actual
operating conditions a solar power system does not produce full output every day.

Complete circuit diagrams of Solar Energy Systems -Examples

These Example System Diagrams will show how to connect the components of a solar energy
system. A 2 KW, 4 KW, and 8 KW system are shown and include the solar panels, combiner
boxes, charge controller(s), power inverter(s), battery bank, shunt & meter circuits, AC breaker
panel, and AC generator wiring.
These diagram examples could represent 12, 24, or 48 volts systems. The basic wiring
configuration would be the same for any voltage system. These diagrams are meant to give a
general idea of typical system wiring. Certain grounding and fusing circuits have been omitted
from the wiring diagrams for clarity in figure 53, 54 and 55.

Figure 52: An Example of a Typical Two (2) Kilowatt System

Figure 53: An Example of a Typical Four (4) Kilowatt System.

51
 Figure 54: An Example of a Typical Eight (8) Kilowatt System.

Advantages of solar power system

Solar electric systems offer many advantages which are outlined below:
• They are safe, clean, and quiet to operate;
• Are highly reliable;
• They require virtually no maintenance;
• Cost-effective in remote areas and for some residential and commercial applications;
• They are flexible and can be expanded to meet increasing electrical needs;
• Can provide independence from the grid or backup during outages; and
• The fuel is renewable and free
Further below are other advantages of the solar panel system
1.Solar energy is free although there is a cost in the building of ‘collectors’ and other equipment
required to convert solar energy into electricity or hot water.
2. Solar energy does not cause pollution. However, solar collectors and other associated
equipment / machines are manufactured in factories that in turn cause some pollution.
3. Solar energy can be used in remote areas where it is too expensive to extend the electricity
power grid.
4. Many everyday items such as calculators and other low power consuming devices can be
powered by solar energy effectively.
5. It is estimated that the world’s oil reserves will last for 30 to 40 years. On the other hand, solar
energy is infinite (forever).

Disadvantages of solar power system

52
1. Solar energy can only be harnessed when it is daytime and sunny.
2. Solar collectors, panels and cells are relatively expensive to manufacture although prices are
falling rapidly.
3. Solar power stations can be built but they do not match the power output of similar sized
conventional power stations. They are also very expensive.
4. In countries such as the UK, the unreliable climate means that solar energy is also unreliable
as a source of energy. Cloudy skies reduce its effectiveness.
5. Large areas of land are required to capture the suns energy. Collectors are usually arranged
together especially when electricity is to be produced and used in the same location.
6. Solar power is used to charge batteries so that solar powered devices can be used at night.
However, the batteries are large and heavy and need storage space. They also need replacement
from time to time.

BASIC COMPONETS OF SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEM

Solar Energy System is sometimes referred to as an Alternative Energy System. And while that's
true, wind, geothermal, and hydro systems are also alternative energy sources. We focus
primarily on Solar and will therefore simply use the phrase Solar Energy System or Solar Power
System. To the left are the basic components required to produce electricity from the sun. You
will need one or more Solar Panels, a Charger Controller, a Power Inverter, and of course,
Batteries. A brief explanation on each follows. After you get an idea of the components you'll
need for your solar energy system, be sure to check out our new interactive Design Tools to
calculate how many solar panels and storage batteries you will need, determine battery bank
wiring, and calculate proper wire sizes.

Figure 55: Interconnection of components of solar energy system.

53
The first component needed is one or more Solar Panels. They supply the electricity and charge
the batteries. A very small system could get away with a couple 80 watt panels but figure at least
4 to 8 for a small to medium system. I am currently using only 6 panels to completely power this
Solar Home.
A Charge Controller is needed to prevent overcharging of the batteries. Proper charging will
prevent damage and increase the life and performance of the batteries

The Power Inverter is the heart of the system. It makes 120 volts AC from the 12 volts DC
stored in the batteries. It can also charge the batteries if connected to a generator or the AC line.

Lastly are the storage Batteries. They store the electrical power in the form of a chemical
reaction. Without storage you would only have power when the sun was shining or the generator
was running.
To summarize, there are four basic components: the Solar Panels, a Charge Controller, a Power
Inverter, and the Storage Batteries. You will of course need the proper wires & cables to connect
everything and a meter to keep an eye on things would be nice. Depending on system size, costs
vary widely.

Battery wiring diagrams

The following diagrams illustrate how to get increased current (more power) by using parallel
wiring and how to increase voltage levels by using series wiring. You can do both using series
and parallel wiring in combinations.
Use parallel wiring to increase current (power).
This diagram shows a simple parallel circuit to increase current or power. Assume that we are
using 12 volt batteries. The powers of all 3 batteries add to give us the effect of a battery 3 times
as powerful but the voltage stays the same at 12 volts. Parallel wiring increases current but the
voltage does not change. This is the wiring used when jump starting a car for example.

Figure 56: Parallel connection of batteries.

54
Use series wiring to increase voltage
This diagram shows a simple series circuit to increase the battery voltage level. Assume that we
are using really big 4 volt industrial batteries. The voltage of all 3 batteries adds to give us the
effect of a battery 3 times the voltage or in this case a very large 12 volt battery. In this circuit
the current is the same as the current in just 1 of the batteries. But since the 4 volt industrial
batteries are very large, we have in effect created a huge 12 volt battery.

Figure 57: Series wiring.

Use series & parallel wiring in combination

This diagram shows a combination series and parallel circuit to increase both the battery current
and voltage level at the same time. Assume this time we are using 12 volt batteries. The left to
right series connection add the two 12 volt batteries to make 24 volts. And, since we did this 3
times and then connected each group of 2 (now 24 volts) in parallel we end up with one very
large 24 volt battery. It has twice the voltage of a single 12 volt battery and 3 times the current or
power because all 3 groups are wired in parallel.

Figure 58: Series-Parallel Combination.

So, using series wiring, you can build up the voltage to the level you need and using parallel
wiring you can increase the current or power. For example, you could setup a 24 volt battery
bank by connecting two 12 batteries together in series or create a 48 volt battery bank by
connecting four 12 volt batteries in series. Then just repeat this until you gets the power you
want and put all those now 24 or 48 volt groups in parallel. Batteries for solar power systems are
available in 2, 4, 6, and 12 volts, so any combination of voltage and power is possible.
55
Meters and Instrumentation

Figure 59:
In most cases the electricity meter records the energy sent to the grid as well as the energy
consumed from the grid.
However, in some cases it may instead record all the energy produced from the solar modules as
well as all the energy consumed by the house. Your electricity distributor reads the meter and
determines your balance. Your electricity retailer then bills for the energy consumed OR make
payment for the excess production.
Note: You need to check with your electricity retailer for their ’feed-in‘rate, supply charges and
billing periods. Arrangements differ with each retailer and differ between states.
Essentially two types of meters are used in PV systems:
• Utility Kilowatt-hour Meter
• System Meter
Utility Kilowatt-Hour Meter – The utility kilowatt-hour meter measures energy delivered
to or from the grid. On homes with solar electric systems, utilities typically install
bi-directional meters with a digital display that keeps separate track of energy in both directions.
Some utilities will allow you to use a conventional meter that can spin in reverse. In this case,
the utility meter spins forward when you are drawing electricity from the grid and backwards
when your system is feeding or “pushing” electricity onto the grid.
System Meter – The system meter measures and displays system performance and status.
Monitored points may include power production by modules, electricity used, and battery
charge. It is possible to operate a system without a system meter, though meters are strongly
recommended. Modern charge controllers incorporate system monitoring functions and so a
separate system meter may not be necessary.

56
Working Principles of Solar Panel
Solar panels harness the energy of the sunlight and convert it into electricity. In this paper a
detailed look at the theory behind the basic principle used in solar panels will be discussed.
Photons are the basic fundamental unit of any form of light energy. The photons that are emitted
by the sun (visible light) are captured by the solar panels. The generation of electricity in the
solar panels is possible because of a principle called PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT.
Photovoltaic effect is the creation of an electrical voltage or rather the electrical current flowing
in a closed loop, here referred to in a solar panel.
Theory of solar cells
The theory of solar cells explains the physical processes by which photons are converted into
electrical current when striking a suitable semiconductor device. The theoretical studies are of
practical use because they predict the fundamental limits of solar cell, and give guidance on the
phenomena that contribute to losses and solar cell efficiency.

Figure 60: Solar Cell

Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as
silicon. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, allowing them to
flow through the material to produce electricity.
Due to the special composition of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single
direction. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current
(DC) electricity.
Photogeneration of charge carriers
When a photon hits a piece of silicon, one of three things can happen: the photon can pass
straight through the silicon — this (generally) happens for lower energy photons, the photon can
reflect off the surface, the photon can be absorbed by the silicon, if the photon energy is higher
than the silicon band gap value. This generates an electron-hole pair and sometimes heat,
depending on the band structure.
When a photon is absorbed, its energy is given to an electron in the crystal lattice. Usually this
electron is in the valence band, and is tightly bound in covalent bonds between neighbouring
atoms, and hence unable to move far. The energy given to it by the photon "excites" it into the

57
conduction band, where it is free to move around within the semiconductor. The covalent bond
that the electron was previously a part of now has one fewer electron — this is known as a hole.
The presence of a missing covalent bond allows the bonded electrons of neighbouring atoms to
move into the "hole," leaving another hole behind, and in this way a hole can move through the
lattice. Thus, it can be said that photons absorbed in the semiconductor create mobile electron-
hole pairs.
A photon need only have greater energy than that of the band gap in order to excite an electron
from the valence band into the conduction band. However, the solar frequency spectrum
approximates a black body spectrum at about 5,800 K,[1] and as such, much of the solar radiation
reaching the Earth is composed of photons with energies greater than the band gap of silicon.
These higher energy photons will be absorbed by the solar cell, but the difference in energy
between these photons and the silicon band gap is converted into heat (via lattice vibrations —
called phonons) rather than into usable electrical energy. The photovoltaic effect can also occur
when two photons are absorbed simultaneously in a process called two-photon photovoltaic
effect. However, high optical intensities are required for this nonlinear process.

Charge carrier separation

There are two main modes for charge carrier separation in a solar cell:
Drift of carriers, driven by an electric field established across the device.
Diffusion of carriers due to their random thermal motion, until they are captured by the electrical
fields existing at the edges of the active region.

Figure 61: Separation of two charge carrier.

In thick solar cells there is no electric field in the active region, so the dominant mode of charge
carrier separation is diffusion. In these cells the diffusion length of minority carriers (the length
that photo-generated carriers can travel before they recombine) must be large compared to the
cell thickness. In thin film cells (such as amorphous silicon), the diffusion length of minority
carriers is usually very short due to the existence of defects, and the dominant charge separation

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is therefore drift, driven by the electrostatic field of the junction, which extends to the whole
thickness of the cell. Once the minority carrier enters the drift region, it is 'swept' across the
junction and does not return. This sweeping is an irreversible process since the carrier typically
relaxes to a lower energy state before it has a chance to be elastically scattered back to its
starting point.
The p-n junction
The most commonly known solar cell is configured as a large-area p-n junction made from
silicon. As a simplification, one can imagine bringing a layer of n-type silicon into direct contact
with a layer of p-type silicon. In practice, p-n junctions of silicon solar cells are not made in this
way, but rather by diffusing an n-type dopant into one side of a p-type wafer (or vice versa).
If a piece of p-type silicon is placed in close contact with a piece of n-type silicon, then a
diffusion of electrons occurs from the region of high electron concentration (the n-type side of
the junction) into the region of low electron concentration (p-type side of the junction). When
the electrons diffuse across the p-n junction, they recombine with holes on the p-type side. The
diffusion of carriers does not happen indefinitely, however, because charges build up on either
side of the junction and create an electric field. The electric field creates a diode that promotes
charge flow, known as drift current that opposes and eventually balances out the diffusion of
electrons and holes. This region where electrons and holes have diffused across the junction is
called the depletion region because it no longer contains any mobile charge carriers. It is also
known as the space charge region.

Connection to an external load

Ohmic metal-semiconductor contacts are made to both the n-type and p-type sides of the solar
cell, and the electrodes connected to an external load. Electrons that are created on the n-type
side, or have been "collected" by the junction and swept onto the n-type side, may travel through
the wire, power the load, and continue through the wire until they reach the p-type
semiconductor-metal contact. Here, they recombine with a hole that was either created as an
electron-hole pair on the p-type side of the solar cell, or a hole that was swept across the junction
from the n-type side after being created there.
The voltage measured is equal to the difference in the quasi Fermi levels of the minority carriers,
i.e. electrons in the p-type portion and holes in the n-type portion.
Equivalent circuit of a solar cell is shown below.

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 Figure 62: (a) The equivalent circuit of a solar cell. (b) The schematic symbol of a solar
cell.
To understand the electronic behaviour of a solar cell, it is useful to create a model which is
electrically equivalent, and is based on discrete electrical components whose behaviour is well
known. An ideal solar cell may be modelled by a current source in parallel with a diode; in
practice no solar cell is ideal, so a shunt resistance and a series resistance component are added
to the model.[3] The resulting equivalent circuit of a solar cell is shown on the left. Also shown,
on the right, is the schematic representation of a solar cell for use in circuit diagrams.

Power Consumption (Load)

In a well-designed PV system, there should be a relative balance of power. In other words, there
should be enough power input to equal or slightly exceed the amount of power going out to
instrumentation and other loads. In some instances, this will need to be calculated on an annual,
rather than a daily or weekly, basis.
A PV array or battery bank will ultimately lead to failure if it is too small, whereas the penalty
for too large a system is excessive cost, weight, and difficulty of deployment. Essentially, an
electrician should always plan on over sizing the system to ensure reliability. How much the
system is oversized and where the emphasis will lie (PV vs. battery) are determined by the
relative “safety margin” required and the amount of information available on solar isolation for
the site. A 25% margin is usually considered normal, although a site with well-documented solar
insulation and familiar system components might require only a 15% margin. For a relatively
undocumented location and/or equipment, one might choose to run a 35% margin. For the
purposes of this paper, the average values of 25% will be used. A couple of simple formulas help
to define the relationship between the variables in the power balance:

Power consumption = (instrument loads x time) + (system losses x time)

Power available = (power input x time) – (system losses x time)

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Power consumption can best be expressed in watt hours per day. A watt is the product of amps
time’s volts: A x V= W. (Amps or current can also be expressed as I.) Watt hours is the product
of watts multiplied by hours: W x time = watt hours.
The best way to determine the average watt hours per day that your system requires is to first
determine the cumulative amount of power used in a week, then divide by seven. As expressed
above, the sum of all instrumentation and other loads should be padded by 25% to compensate
for system losses.

Load analysis (Load Calculation)

The first step in the design process is to establish your electrical loads over an average day using
a load analysis. The system designer uses the load analysis to:
Calculate the daily energy demand.
Recommend where energy savings can be made.
Determine the peak power demand.
Select the system voltage.
Determine the configuration and number of solar PV modules.
Select an appropriate inverter—power output and surge.
Calculate the battery size.
Determine size and type of genset.
Estimate genset use— maximum and minimum.

Table 3.0: An example of a load assessment form

The load calculation is usually done in two iterations. The first iteration will be a rough load
estimate to determine the minimum PV amperage needed to complete the project, so that
donations of PV panels could be sought.

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Second iteration is a more detailed calculation done after the panels had been acquired and
tested. Given the assumptions of a DC, low-cost system, the initial goal was to determine the
loads on the system. The first load element was the refrigeration, and the second element was the
building lighting.
For the refrigeration component, a product survey suggested that a 50W DC component
could be purchased. Based on-site experience and site measurements, we assumed lighting by
fluorescent bulbs and a minimum of eight bulbs necessary for sufficient lighting of the school
and health centre.
For the second iteration, we chose and purchased the refrigeration component and
constructed a more diverse lighting load profile. The optimal refrigeration component was found
to be a commercially-available Peltier cool box. We purchased a "Thermoelectric travel
cooler/warmer" from Vector Manufacturing. The coolbox used a 12V DC input and drew
continuous 36 Watts. Several types of lighting were used. We decided on a combination of
incandescent and fluorescent, with the option for later use of LED components. Incandescent
bulbs were chosen as the dominant form of lighting for their availability in the region and low-
cost.

CAPACITIES VARIFICATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Capacities verification of the solar system can be achieved by increasing the number of batteries
connected in either series or parallel depending on voltage, current or both required for a given
purpose. The output of a solar panel is usually stated in watts, which is determined by
multiplying the rated voltage by the rated amperage. The formula for wattage is VOLTS times
AMPS equals WATTS. For example, a 12 volt 60 watt solar panel measuring about 20 X 44
inches has a rated voltage of 17.1 and rated 3.5 amperage.

VxA=W
17.1 volts times 3.5 amps equals 60 watts

Since sunlight intensity varies throughout the day, we use the term "peak sun hours" as to
smooth out these variations into a daily average. Early morning and late-in-the-day sunlight
produces less power than does the mid-day sun. Naturally, cloud cover also affects power
production. Each geographical region has an Average Peak Sun Hours per Day rating which
compensates for regional weather conditions and latitude.

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If an average of 6 hours of peak sun per day is available in an area, then a 60 watt panel
produces an average 360 watt hours of power per day:
60w times 6 hrs. = 360 watt-hours.
Solar panels are wired in series or parallel to increase voltage or amperage respectively. They
can be wired in both series and parallel to increase both volts and amps. Also increase in number
of solar panels connected in either series or parallel is another way of varying the capacities of
solar panel.

Series wiring refers to connecting the positive terminal of one panel to the negative terminal of
another. The resulting voltage across the across the terminals of the combined panels is the sum
of the voltage of the two individual panels, but the current remains constant for both panels. For
example, two 12volt/3.5 amp panels wired in series produce 24 volts at 3.5 amps. Four series
wired panels produce 48 volts at 3.5 amps.
Parallel wiring refers to connecting positive terminals to positive terminals and negative to
negative. The resulting voltage stays the same, but amperage becomes the sum of the number of
panels. Two 12 volt/3.5 amp panels wired in parallel produce 12 volts at 7 amps. Four panels
would produce 12 volts at 14 amps.
Series/parallel wiring refers to combining both of the above - increasing volts and amps to
achieve the desired system voltage as in 24 or 48 volt systems and desired amperage. The
following diagram reflects this. In addition, the four panels below can then be wired in parallel
to another four and so on to make a larger array. Most grid tie panels are series wired to increase
voltage which makes wire size smaller and decreases the amount of wire in such systems.

Earlier are connections for batteries (figures 56, 57 & 58 in pages 54 & 55) and below are solar
panels (figures 63, 64, 65 & 66) in order get the required current, voltage or power.

The figure 63 below is a parallel connection of solar panels which increases the voltage output.
In other word parallel connection of solar panels is employed in varying the voltage capacity in
the solar panel system.
For the use of batteries, in order to vary the voltage output, the batteries are to be connected in
series as shown in figure 56 page 54 in addition to figure 63 which is self explanatory.

63
Figure 63: 12 3Volt System with four 12 VDC PV Modules in parallel wiring.

The figure 64 below illustrates the series connection of solar panels in order to increase the
current output. In other word, series connection of solar panels is used to vary the current
capacity of the solar panel system.
In using batteries to vary the current output as in figure 57, page 48, the batteries is to be
connected in parallel

Figure 64: 24 Volt Systems with four 12VDC PV Modules in Series wiring.

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Figure 65: 48 Volt System with 8VDC PV Modules in Series and Parallel Wiring.

If there is need to increase voltage and current simultaneously, the recommended measure is to
adopt combine series and parallel wiring of the either solar panels or batteries.
The figure 66 illustrates the connection of solar panels system to external loads. Note that the
loads required is determine by the capacity and number of solar panels, batteries involve and the
type of inverter chosen in any given time (installation).

65
 Figure 66:

Another means of varying capacity of solar panel system is by Inverter Stacking using multiple
inverters. Stacking inverters allows them to act as a single system. They will work together to
charge batteries and provide power to loads. Two inverters can be installed in a configuration
known as stacking that can provide more power or higher voltage. If two compatible inverters
are stacked in series you can double the output voltage. This would be the technique to use to
provide 120/240 volts AC.

Figure 67: Stackable Power Inverter (Series Power Inverter)

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On the other hand, if you configure them in parallel, you can double your power. Two 4000 watt
inverters in parallel would give you 8000 watts (8KW) of electricity

Figure 68: Stackable Power Inverter (Parallel Power Inverter)

BENEFITS OF SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEM

No green house gases
The major benefit of solar is avoiding green house gases that fossil fuels produce

Figure 69: An oil well in the Gulf of Mexico

The first and foremost advantage of solar energy is that, beyond panel production, it does not
emit any green house gases. Solar energy is produced by conducting the sun’s radiation – a
process void of any smoke, gas, or other chemical by-product.
This is the main driving force behind all green energy technology, as nations attempt to meet
climate change obligations in curbing emissions.
Italy’s Montalto di Castro solar park is a good example of solar’s contribution to curbing
emissions. It avoids 20,000 tonnes per year of carbon emissions compared to fossil fuel energy
production.

Ongoing Free Energy

Another advantage of using solar energy is that beyond initial installation and maintenance, solar
energy is free. Solar doesn’t require expensive and ongoing raw materials like oil or coal, and

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requires significantly lower operational labour than conventional power production. Raw
materials don’t have to be constantly extracted, refined, and transported to the power plant.
Life expectancy ranges between manufacturers, but many panels produced today carry a 25-30
year warranty – with a life expectancy of up to 40 years.

Decentralization of power
Solar energy offers decentralization in most (sunny) locations, meaning self-reliant societies.
Oil, coal, and gas used to produce conventional electricity is often transported cross-country or
internationally. This transportation has a myriad of additional costs, including monetary costs,
pollution costs of transport, and road wear and tear costs, all of which is avoided with solar. Of
course, decentralization has its limits as some locations get more sunlight than others.

Going off the grid with solar

Solar energy can be produced on or off the grid. On grid means a house remains connected to the
state electricity grid. Off grid has no connection to the electricity grid, so the house, business or
whatever being powered is relying solely on solar or solar-hybrid.
The ability to produce electricity off the grid is a major advantage of solar energy for people
who live in isolated and rural areas. Power prices and the cost of installing power lines are often
exorbitantly high in these places and many have frequent power-cuts. Many city-dwellers are
also choosing to go off the grid with their alternate energy as part of a self-reliant lifestyle.

Solar jobs opportunities

A particularly relevant and advantageous feature of solar energy production is that it creates
jobs. The EIAA states that Europe’s solar industry has created 100,000 jobs so far. Solar jobs
come in many forms, from manufacturing, installing, monitoring and maintaining solar panels,
to research and design, development, cultural integration, and policy jobs.
With solar energy currently contributing only an estimated 4% of the world’s electricity, and an
economic-model where raw materials don’t have to be indefinitely purchased and transported,
it’s reasonable to assume solar jobs are sustainable if the solar industry can survive the recession.

Solar, avoidance of politics and price volatility

One of the biggest advantages of solar energy is the ability to avoid the politics and price
volatility that is increasingly characterizing fossil fuel markets.

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The sun is an unlimited commodity that can be sourced from many locations, meaning solar is
less vulnerable to the price manipulations and politics that have more than doubled the price of
many fossil fuels in the past decade.
While the price of fossil fuels have increased, the per watt price of solar energy production has
more than halved in the past decade – and is set to become even cheaper in the near future as
better technology and economies of scale take effect.
Furthermore, the ever-abundant nature of the sun’s energy would hint at a democratic and
competitive energy market – where wars aren’t fought over oil fields and high-demand raw
materials aren’t controlled by monopolies. Of course, a new form of politics has emerged with
regard to government incentives and the adoption of solar, however these politics are arguably
minor compared to the fossil fuel status quo.

Saving eco-systems and livelihoods

Because solar doesn’t rely on constantly mining raw materials, it doesn’t result in the destruction
of forests and eco-systems that occurs with many fossil fuel operations.
The Niger Delta is an example where excessive and irresponsible oil extraction practices have
poisoned fishing deltas previously used by villagers as the main source of food and employment,
creating extremely desperate poverty and essentially decimating villages.
A more widely known, but arguably lower human-cost incident is the 2010 BP oil spill in the
Gulf of Mexico. It killed 11 people and spilled 780 thousand cubic meters of crude oil into the
sea. An interesting glance at the situation caused by destructive fossil fuel company practices in
the Niger Delta. Sweet Crude is a good documentary if you want to learn more.

Sustainable

Figure 70: Sustainable environment

The energy that your solar panel system collects is clean, efficient and most importantly free.
The system collects the sun during daylight hours all year round and converts this free energy
into AC current that powers your business and home. Obviously the production of the solar
panels and solar inverter does expend energy and materials, but with solar panels lasting 30+

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years and inverters 10+ years and producing your business and residential energy requirements
in between, investing in solar is one of, if not the best thing you can do to reduce your carbon
footprint.

Environmentally-Friendly

Figure 71: Friendly environment

There are many things you can do to make your business, home and life eco friendly, from
energy efficient light bulbs to 5 star rating appliances, but there really is no better bang for your
buck than a Government funded investment in solar. The current energy you use is powered by
fossil fuels which are a mixture of dead plant matter and toxins from millions of years ago dug
up using huge amounts of energy and carted all round Australia and then released into the air.
The use of fossil fuels contributes to global warming, smog, and acid rain. Limiting the amount
of fossil fuel that is taken from the earth will help alleviate not only global warming, but also the
degradation of land resulting from gaining access to said fuels. Furthermore, many fossil fuels
create the need to store dangerous, polluting and sometimes radioactive waste.
Silent

Figure 72: Noiseless environment

Solar panels have no moving parts and hence make no noise while operating, whereas other
large scale renewable conversions like hydro and wind make a large amount of noise during
construction and operation which can be a problem for your peace of mind, as well as your close
neighbours. Solar panels are also becoming more and more contemporary in design.

Low Maintenance
Solar panels have no moving parts, so other than an annual hosing down (for dust or any other
natural build up) they can sit on your roof working efficiently with no extra support from you,
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for many years and decades. Think about other investments you make and all the time and effort
you put into them, and then consider the minimal effort you have to put in to what many
consider a similar return in converting to solar.
If you thought solar technology could cost you a fortune in maintenance costs over the 25-year
plus life expectancy, you couldn’t be further from the truth. Solar panels, like many renewable,
are seen as a ‘fit and forget’ technology. Once installed you shouldn’t expect any faults and your
only job will be to ensure optimal efficiency by preventing trees from casting the system into
shadow.

Financial savings
Our research of our customers confirmed what we already assumed to be the case, the vast
majority of businesses that invest in solar do so for the financial benefits, all the other benefits of
solar are a bonus, but are not the main impetus for considering the switch.
We have several customers that have or are tracking to a complete return on investment within
4-5 years and they are now enjoying no electricity bill. They have also added value to their
business or home and have protected themselves against the power price hikes that are expected
from not only the impact of the carbon tax, but the billions they are expecting to spend in the
next 2 years on electrical infrastructure investments.

Government incentives
The Federal Government has an ambitious target of reducing the countries greenhouse
emissions by 20% by 2020. This is a huge undertaking and a huge promise and the Government
are enacting a number of industry enabling funding sources throughout the renewable industry
including ours, solar.
Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) are credits that are provided to you either as an upfront
discount on the purchase of your solar system or as something you can claim back yourself post
your solar investment. This rebate can be up to several thousands of dollars, which covers a fair
percentage of your solar investment.

Autonomous
We deal in mainly grid connected systems, but occasionally we have requests for fully self
sufficient solar power systems which are not connected to the electricity grid. This isn’t really an
option for people in metropolitan areas, but for businesses and homes in regional areas of
Australia it’s an increasingly viable alternative for solar and a realistic benefit of switching to
solar. With off grid solar power systems you have no connection or interaction with power
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companies meaning you have no annual connection fees or power bills, this also means you are
saved from the power outages that seem to be happening with more and more regularity.
Obviously the solar investment is larger because the install is considerably more detailed and
you have to invest in a solar storage facility, which are still fairly unrealistically priced, but as
the technology improves and the price decreases these will become a more viable option and
allow every Australian to turn their home into a micro power station.

Easy to Install

Figure 73: Installation of solar panel

A final benefit of converting to solar is the ease of install. Sun Connect’s Clean Energy Council
(CEC) accredited solar installers can have the system up and installed within days depending on
the system size. Thinking about the time involved in wind energy or any other large scale
renewable conversions makes this installation another major reason and factor to choosing solar
panels in reducing your impact on the environment and getting the best return on your
investment.

Earn a guaranteed income

Solar PV panels are a renewable technology and as such, the UK Government is keen to support
installations around the country. To do this, they have made the feed-in tariff scheme available,
paying out for every unit of renewable electricity generated. And the most efficient homes will
earn even more, up to £600 annually.

Reduce your electricity bills

The wholesale price of gas and electricity continues to rise and bills have doubled since 2004.
What better way is there to protect yourself from the hikes than by generating your own
electricity? Solar panels will work efficiently for 25 years and more, cutting bills by over £100 a
year (subject to increase each time electricity National Grid prices are raised).

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Sell excess energy
Of course, solar panels will operate most efficiently during the daytime, when you’ll most likely
be at work. But this isn’t a problem and you won’t have to worry about the energy you generate
going to waste. Electricity not used in your home will instead be sold to the National Grid,
providing an extra income on top of the feed-in tariff.

LIMITATIONS OF SOLAR PANEL SYSTEM

There are also several practical limitations to PV systems:

• PV systems are not well suited for energy-intensive uses such as heating;
• Grid-connected systems are rarely economical, primarily because the current cost of the PV
technology is much higher than the cost of conventional electricity in the United States.

EARTHING (GROUNDING) OF SOLAR PANEL SYSTEM

Grounding is a deceptively complicated issue. Although the NEC requires equipment grounding
on all PV systems regardless of operating voltage, obtaining a true earth ground in polar
environments can often be difficult or impossible to obtain. In areas of permafrost, rocky soil, or
muskeg, grounding plates or grounding rings made of 4/0bare copper will typically provide a
satisfactory earth ground. This earth ground must be bonded to every metal electrical box or
component enclosure, receptacle, and bare metal frame. The PV panels should be interconnected
at the point specified on the frame and referenced back to the earth ground. The grounding wire
is never fused or switched, and the entire system must be grounded at only one point.
In an ice cap environment, achieving an earth ground is typically not possible. As such,
grounding is dealt with in the same way as within the automotive industry. In this method, the
frame or chassis becomes the grounding point to which all of the negative conductors are
referenced. Although not as good a system as a true earth ground, it does ensure that over current
devices will operate as designed.

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 Figure 74

ECONOMICS OF SOLAR POWER SYSTEM

Solar systems convert sunlight directly into electricity and it varies greatly in size and cost.
Calculating the economics of a solar system is a key to understanding whether an investment in
solar system is right for utilization in homes, business or farm.
The price of solar panel has declined in recent year hence improving the economics of solar
installations. This based on 2000 and 2010 when the Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory
reported a reduction of solar installed cost of $9.70 per Watt and $6.20 per Watt respectively.
This also declined to $5 and $4 in 2012. Excess electricity also may be sold back to the grid.
Understanding the economics of solar panel systems will be one of the most important
considerations when deciding for solar energy.
This economics consideration focuses on the grid-tied solar panel system but economic
calculations will be similar for off-grid and battery backup systems. The grid-tied system are
connected to electric grid so that the electricity can flow out to the grid when the system is
producing more than the load. To find total installed cost of the solar system is by considering
the cost of the solar panel, mounting system, components part and installation, all depend on the
goals and configuration of the system. Also the payback period will be considered.
The grid-tied systems are the most common when load is connected to both PV system and
utility electric grid. Off grid systems are not connected to the utility electric grid and will need

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batteries to provide d on demand power. Batteries can be added in grid-connected system, which
will be additional cost, to give backup power during an outage.
ASSUMPTION:
An average irrigation pump uses 75kWh per hour. If we assume a solar system has an overall
system efficiency of 70% of DC rating six hours a day, operating a pivot would require
approximately 80kW of solar panels to run an irrigation system averaging six hours per day.
Considering the required power given as 80kW = 80,000watts (200 watt panels) (2.8ft x 4.3ft
each) covering about 5000sq.ft
Noting that cost of a watt panel = $4
Then for 80,000watts will be $4 x 80,000watts = $320,000
Incentive: grant
$320,000 x 25% = $80,000
Therefore remaining money = $320,000 - $80,000 = $240,000
Federal tax credit of 30%
$240,0 00 x 30% = $72,000 ; balance = $168,000
By using online solar estimate tool ( htpp://www.wunderground.com/calculators/solar.html), 80,000kW
system could produce about165, 000 kWh /year.
~ 45,000kWh during growing season
~ 123,000kWh during the rest of the year
If the electricity is immediately used, it offsets grid electricity at (~$0.08) per kWh, and if it is
put back on the grid, the rate paid would be negotiated and would likely be between $0.015 and
$0.05 per kWh. Using the cost of electricity above: 45,000kWh x 0.08 = $ 3,600
123,000kWh x 0.03 = 3,690
Total = $7,290 per year
Simple Payment period:
$320,000 / $7290 = 43years
Pay back including Incentives: Simple payback of $168,000 / $7,290 = 23years.
Note: payback period is the length of time required to cover the cost of an investment.
Payback period = Total installation of project – (tax credits, grants and subsidies)
(Estimate of annual produced kWh) x grid price per kWh

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GENERAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Your Sun Power system is fully automatic and comes with built-in safety features. Do not
attempt to work on, alter, or repair the system; doing so could expose you to dangerous electrical
currents and void manufacturer warranties.
Do not attempt to service any portion of the system. Only a trained and certified professional
should service the system.
It’s not necessary to go onto your roof for panel cleaning or inspection and we strongly
recommend you not do so. If you choose to go on your roof, please take all safety precautions
and do not touch or disturb the panels or wiring. It is important to remember that only a Sun
Power Authorized Partner should repair or touch system components.
Please remind anyone going on your roof that they should not disturb the panels.
Do not step on the panels or allow objects to fall on the panels.
Do not disassemble or remove any part of the system. This will void manufacturer warranties.
Small children and pets should be kept away from the inverter.
Do not use abrasive cleaners or anything that could scratch the surface of the panels.
· It’s not necessary to go onto your roof for panel cleaning or inspection and if you choose to go
on your roof, please take all safety precautions and do not touch or disturbs the panels or wiring.
· Do not use mirrors or any other objects to concentrate sunlight on panels. Doing so will void
your warranty.

EMERGENCIES
Should there be a fire, explosion, gas leak, system damage, or fuel spill around the system

components, dial 911 first, then shut down the system immediately by turning your inverter off.

Please check your inverter manual to learn how to turn off your specific model inverter. Use
your best judgment when shutting off the inverter during an emergency.
If the emergency requires you seek safety immediately, do so first and then alert emergency
personnel to the inverter’s location in your home. For assistance in restarting your system after
an emergency, please contact your SunPower Partner.
Installing solar panels (photovoltaic systems) is a high risk activity. Installers must manage the
hazards to maintain a safe place of work. The installation of solar panels must be undertaken by
either a licensed builder or a licensed electrical contractor (or the holder of an electrical qualified
supervisor certificate who is an employee of this contractor).
Clause 289 of the Work Health and Safety Regulation 2011 (WHS Regulation) defines the
meaning of construction work as the installation, testing or maintenance of an essential service

76
in relation to a structure. The installation, testing or maintenance of solar panels is considered to
be the installation of an essential service (ie electricity) and is therefore regarded as construction
work. This means that a safe work method statement must be prepared for the work. All other
risks associated with the work – work at heights, falling objects, manual handling and electrical
risks – need to be undertaken in accordance with the regulations.
If you use a builder to do the installation part of this work, they will need to subcontract to an
electrical contractor to undertake the wiring part. The wiring of the solar panel installation must
be undertaken by someone holding an electrical contractor licence or an electrical qualified
supervisor certificate.
When installing solar panels, there is a requirement to control all the health and safety risks
associated with the following key hazards:
Working at heights:
access,
falls from heights and
falling objects
Manual handling
Electrical
discharge from uninstalled panels
electrical wiring, electrical fittings and electrical equipment
Roof surfaces:
Slippery glazed tiles or tiles with algae or moss, deposits roof pitch/slope, and damaged
roofing/fragile roofs/brittle roofing.
Weather conditions: time of installation wet, cold, icy, windy or hot days

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DEFINITION OF OPERATIONAL TERMS
Alternating Current - Electric current in which the current changes direction (polarity) 120
times per second (in the U.S.) and is commonly referred to as 60 Hertz (cycles per second) AC.
European countries use 50 Hertz as a standard.
Alternative Energy - A popular term for "non-conventional" energy systems usually on a
smaller scale and includes solar electric systems, wind generator systems, and small hydro-
electric systems.
Angle of Incidence - For solar energy systems, the angle at which direct sunlight strikes the
surface of the solar panel relative to perpendicular. Sunlight with an incident angle of 90 degrees
is the most efficient.
Angle of Inclination - For solar energy systems, the angle that a solar array is positioned above
horizontal. (90 degrees would be vertical). A general rule of thumb is to set the angle of a solar
array to the latitude +/- 15 degrees.
Anode - The positive electrode or connection of an electrolytic cell or semiconductor device
Array (Solar) - Any number of solar photovoltaic modules or panels connected together to
provide a single electrical output.
Backup Energy System - A back-up electric power system using batteries and an inverter, an
AC generator, or both.
Battery - A device containing electrolytic cells to store electrical energy in chemical form.
Cell (battery) - The basic unit of an electrochemical battery. A lead acid cell produces about
2.12 volts and a 12 volt battery uses 6 of these cells and fully charged measures about 12.72
volts
Cathode - The negative electrode or connection of an electrolytic cell or semiconductor device
Cell (solar) - The basic unit of a photovoltaic solar panel. A 12 volt solar panel typically has 36
individual cells; a 24 volt solar panel uses 72 cells.
Charge Controller - An electronic device that regulates the voltage from the solar panel array
to ensure maximum transfer of energy and prevent overcharging the battery bank.
Combiner Box - A solar array junction box where multiple solar modules are electrically
connected together and fusing devices may be located.
Electron - An elementary particle of an atom with a negative electrical charge and a mass of
1/1837 of a proton. Electrons surround the positively charged protons in the nucleus of an atom
and the number of electrons determines the atomic element. Elements that loose electrons easily
make good conductors and elements whose electrons are tightly bound together make good
insulators. It
Fossil Fuels - Fuels such as oil, natural gas, and coal are fossil fuels believed to have been
formed in the ground from the decayed remains of plants and animals over millions of years.
Grid - A common term referring to an electricity transmission and distribution system run by
large utility companies.
Inverter (AC) - An electronic device that converts 12, 24, 48, or higher volts DC power from
batteries or solar panels to 120/240 volts AC to operate normal appliances.
Lead Acid Battery - An electrochemical battery that uses lead and lead oxide for electrodes and
sulfuric acid for the electrolyte. When the sulfuric acid is mixed with water, it is known as a
flooded battery. Batteries whose electrolyte is a gel or absorbed glass mat type are called sealed
batteries. Not to be confused with sealed batteries, a maintenance-free battery simply has no way
to add water and when low is just discarded.
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Maximum Power Point (MPP) - The point on the current-voltage (I-V) curve of a solar panel,
where the product of current time’s voltage equals maximum wattage.
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) - A charge controller technique that attempts to
supply maximum power to the batteries by tracking the maximum power point (MPP) at all
times achieving a 15% to 35% increase over other types of charging techniques.
Module (solar) - A number of individual solar cells connected together in an environmentally
protected housing producing a standard output voltage and power. Multiple modules/panels can
be assembled into an array for increased power and/or voltage.
Photon is an elementary particle, the quantum of light and all other forms of electromagnetic
radiation, and the force carrier for the electromagnetic force, even when static via virtual
photons. A particle of light that acts as an individual unit of energy.
Photovoltaic Array - A group of solar photovoltaic modules connected together to increase
voltage and/or power to the level required for a given system.
Photovoltaic Cell - Specially processed semiconductor materials such as silicon, cadmium
sulfide, cadmium telluride, and gallium arsenide that convert sunlight directly into electricity.
Three common types are mono-crystalline, multi-crystalline, and amorphous/thin film.
Power - Useful energy that performs work measured in horsepower, Watts, or Btu's. Electrical
power is rated in Watts and is equal to the Voltage (E) times the Current (I). As in P=E*I.
Renewable Energy - Energy from sources that are not easily depleted such as moving water
(hydro, tidal and wave power), biomass, geothermal energy, solar energy, wind energy, and
energy from solid waste treatment plants.
Semiconductor - Any material that has a limited capacity for conducting an electric current. It is
neither a good conductor nor a good insulator. This characteristic allows it to perform controlled
operations as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuit packages. Semiconductor material can be
densely packed and layered thru photographic processes and has given rise to the modern world
of electronics. Certain semiconductors, including silicon, gallium arsenide, copper indium
diselenide, and cadmium telluride, are uniquely suited to the photovoltaic conversion process
Silicon - A chemical element, of atomic number 14, that is semi-metallic and an excellent
semiconductor material because the atoms in the outer shell are neither tightly bound nor loosely
bound to the nucleus.
Sine Wave - The wave generated by alternating current generators and sine wave
Solar Cell - The basic unit of a photovoltaic solar panel. A 12 volt solar panel typically has 36
individual cells; a 24 volt solar panel uses 72 cells.
Solar Energy - Electromagnetic energy transmitted from the sun (solar radiation). The amount
that reaches the earth is equal to one billionth of total solar energy generated, or the equivalent of
about 420 trillion kilowatt-hours.
Solar Module (Panel) - A number of individual solar cells connected together in an
environmentally protected housing producing a standard output voltage and power. Multiple
modules/panels can be assembled into an array for increased power and/or voltage.
Wafer - A thin section of semiconductor material made by slicing it from a single crystal or rod.

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1a: Hydroelectric energy water diyenergyandsavebig.com
Figure 1b: Hydro - power systems ivworldwideenergyinc.com
Figure 2: Sun’s stored energy as food and energy source, plant-animal-biosphere life cycle.
Figure 3: (a) Ocean Power Technologies wave energy device (b) OTEC Thermal Cycle
Figure 4: (a) Artist rendering of ocean current turbines in united state
(b) Artist rendering of Ocean Power Technologies' proposed wave park off the coast of Oregon.

Figure 5: (a) Tidal wave energy (b) Renewable energy from tidal
Figure 6: (a) Hydrogen Energy Systems
Figure 6: (b) Hydrogen Energy Station at the Orange County Sanitation District
Figure 7: Images of a wind turbine
Figure 8: Energy release from atom.
Figure 9a: Nuclear power plants (b) Pressurized water reactor
Figure 10: Geothermal Energy Plant
Figure 11: Geothermal energy
Figure 12: Solar Energy USA
Figure 13: Magnifying glass focusing sun ray on a piece of paper
Figure 14: Magnifying glass used in heating up pipe
Figure 15: Sun energy used for a printing press.
Figure 16: Modern solar panel.
Figure 17: How Photovoltaic cell conducts electricity.
Figure 18: Water pump driven by solar electricity
Figure 19: Solar powered phone
Figure 20: Photograph showing an arrangement of photovoltaic panels
Figure 21: Working principle of Photovoltaic (solar cell)
Figure 22: Solar cell showing movement of photon and electron
Figure 23:
Figure 24: The following illustration includes the primary components of any grid inter-tied
solar electric system.
Figure 25: How Grid-Tied or Grid ON Solar Power System Works.
Figure 26: The following illustration includes the primary components of any grid inter-tied
solar electric system with battery backup.
Figure 27: Block Diagram A: How Solar Power System Works With Grid Off Inverter
Figure 28: The following illustration includes the primary components of any off grid solar
electric system.
Figure 29: Block Diagram B: How Solar Power System Works With Grid off Inverter.
Figure 30: Solar Panels: An eco-friendly electric generator.
Figure 31: Mono-Crystalline Silicon PV Cell.
Figure 32: Poly-Crystalline Silicon PV Cell
Figure 33: Flexible amorphous.
Figure 34: Parallel and Series connection of PV modules.
Figure 35: Basic Mounting Strategies (a) Building integrated PV (b) Roof mount
(c) Ground Mount (d) Pole mount / tracker
Figure 36: Modern multi-stage charge controllers
Figure 37: Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT).
Figure 38: Circuit diagram of a power inverter
Figure 39: Block diagram of PVM
Figure 40: Circuit diagram of power inverter
Figure 41: Combined waveform Inverters Outputs.
Figure 42: Diagram of square waveform power Inverter.

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Figure 43: Diagram of modified sine waveform power
Figure 44: (a) Pure sine wave power inverter (b) True sine waveform power inverter
Figure 45: PV Grid-tied Inverter System.
Figure 46: Electrical block diagram Grid tie Power Inverter.

Figure 47: Batteries bank.

Figure 48: Deka AGM battery.
Figure 49: AC Generator
Figure 50: Correct wire sizes.
Figure 51: Battery connection.
Figure 52: Battery voltage monitoring.
Figure 53: An Example of a Typical Two (2) Kilowatt System
Figure 54: An Example of a Typical Four (4) Kilowatt System.
Figure 55: An Example of a Typical Eight (8) Kilowatt System.
Figure 56: Interconnection of components of solar energy system.
Figure 57: Parallel connection of batteries
Figure 58 :
Figure 59: Series wiring.
Figure 60: Series-Parallel Combination
Figure 61: Solar Cell
Figure 62: Separation of two charge carrier
Figure 63: (a) The equivalent circuit of a solar cell. (b) The schematic symbol of a solar cell.
Figure 64: 12 Volt System with four 12 VDC PV Modules in parallel wiring.
Figure 65: 24 Volt Systems with four 12VDC PV Modules in Series wiring.
Figure 66: 48 Volt System with 8VDC PV Modules in Series and Parallel Wiring.
Figure 67: AC and DC load schematic
Figure 68: Stackable Power Inverter (Series Power Inverter)
Figure 69: Stackable Power Inverter (Parallel Power Inverter)
Figure 70: An oil well in the Gulf of Mexico
Figure 71: Sustainable environment
Figure 72: Friendly environment
Figure 73: Noiseless environment
Figure 74: Installation of solar panel
Figure 75 : Earthing of Solar Panel system

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Wiles, J. (2001). Photovoltaic Power Systems and the National Electric Code: Suggested
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Awaya, H., et al. (1999). Autonomous Systems in Extreme Environments (white paper
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James & James, (1999). International Energy Agency (IEA) Stand Alone Photovoltaic
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Photovoltaic Power Systems (2007), Technology White paper. 28th July, 2014:
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David, T & Ang, K. S.(2001). Handbook for Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Systems.
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Photovoltaic student guide, www.NEED,org

Russell, Scott, “Solar-Electric Systems Simplified,” Home Power Magazine, No. 104,
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Photovoltaic Systems Engineering, Roger A. Messenger and Jerry Ventre, Second

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Ken, F. (2013), satellite solar system guide. sunpower cooperation in usa

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Solar Electric System Design, Operation and Installation (2009) Washington State University
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