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PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS Eighth Edition
 PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS Eighth Edition HARVARD
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 a ¢ 1 ¢ & CENGAGE Learning’ Principles of Economics, 8e
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 To Catherine, Nicholas, and Peter, my other contributions to
the next generation
 Jordi Cabré N. Gregory Mankiw is the Robert M. Beren
Professor of Economics at Harvard University. As a student, he
studied economics at Princeton University and MIT. As a teacher, he
has taught macroeconomics, microeconomics, statistics, and
principles of economics. He even spent one summer long ago as a
sailing instructor on Long Beach Island. Professor Mankiw is a prolific
writer and a regular participant in academic and policy debates. His
work has been published in scholarly journals, such as the American
Economic Review, Journal of Political Economy, and Quarterly
Journal of Economics, and in more popular forums, such as the New
York Times and The Wall Street Journal. He is also author of the
best-selling intermediate-level textbook Macroeconomics (Worth
Publishers). In addition to his teaching, research, and writing,
Professor Mankiw has been a research associate of the National
Bureau of Economic Research, an adviser to the Congressional
Budget Office and the Federal Reserve Banks of Boston and New
York, and a member of the ETS test development committee for the
Advanced Placement exam in economics. From 2003 to 2005, he
served as chairman of the President’s Council of Economic Advisers.
Professor Mankiw lives in Wellesley, Massachusetts, with his wife,
Deborah, three children, Catherine, Nicholas, and Peter, and their
border terrier, Tobin.
 Brief Contents PART | Introduction 1 PART VII Topics for
Further Study 423 1 Ten Principles of Economics 3 2 Thinking Like
an Economist 19 3 Interdependence and the Gains from Trade 47
PART |] How Markets Work 63 21 The Theory of Consumer Choice
425 22 Frontiers of Microeconomics 451 PART VIII The Data of
Macroeconomics 471 4 The Market Forces of Supply and Demand 65
5 Elasticity and Its Application 89 6 Supply, Demand, and
Government Policies 111 PART III Markets and Welfare 131 23
Measuring a Nation’s Income 473 24 Measuring the Cost of Living
495 PART IX The Real Economy in the Long Run 513 7 Consumers,
Producers, and the Efficiency of Markets 133 8 Application: The
Costs of Taxation 153 9 Application: International Trade 167 PART IV
The Economics of the Public Sector 187 25 Production and Growth
515 26 Saving, Investment, and the Financial System 541 27 The
Basic Tools of Finance 563 28 Unemployment 577 PART X Money
and Prices in the Long Run 601 10 Externalities 189 11 Public Goods
and Common Resources 211 12 The Design of the Tax System 227
PART V Firm Behavior and the Organization of Industry 245 29 The
Monetary System 603 30 Money Growth and Inflation 627 PART XI
The Macroeconomics of Open Economies 651 13 The Costs of
Production 247 14 Firms in Competitive Markets 267 15 Monopoly
289 16 Monopolistic Competition 319 17 Oligopoly 337 PART VI The
Economics of Labor Markets 359 31 Open-Economy
Macroeconomics: Basic Concepts 653 32 A Macroeconomic Theory of
the Open Economy 677 PART XII Short-Run Economic Fluctuations
699 18 The Markets for the Factors of Production 361 19 Earnings
and Discrimination 383 20 Income Inequality and Poverty 401 33
Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply 701 34 The Influence of
Monetary and Fiscal Policy on Aggregate Demand 737 35 The Short-
Run Trade-off between Inflation and Unemployment 763 PART XIII
Final Thoughts 787 36 Six Debates over Macroeconomic Policy 789
 Preface: To the Student *oe vi Alfred Marshall, the great
19th-century economist, in his textbook, Principles of Economics. We
have learned much about the economy since Marshall’s time, but this
definition of economics is as true today as it was in 1890, when the
first edition of his text was published. Why should you, as a student
in the 21st century, embark on the study of economics? There are
three reasons. The first reason to study economics is that it will help
you understand the world in which you live. There are many
questions about the economy that might spark your curiosity. Why
are apartments so hard to find in New York City? Why do airlines
charge less for a round-trip ticket if the traveler stays over a
Saturday night? Why is Robert Downey, Jr., paid so much to star in
movies? Why are living standards so meager in many African
countries? Why do some countries have high rates of inflation while
others have stable prices? Why are jobs easy to find in some years
and hard to find in others? These are just a few of the questions
that a course in economics will help you answer. The second reason
to study economics is that it will make you a more astute participant
in the economy. As you go about your life, you make many economic
decisions. While you are a student, you decide how many years to
stay in school. Once you take a job, you decide how much of your
income to spend, how much to save, and how to invest your
savings. Someday you may find yourself running a small business or
a large corporation, and you will decide what prices to charge for
your products. The insights developed in the coming chapters will
give youa new perspective on how best to make these decisions.
Studying economics will not by itself make you rich, but it will give
you some tools that may help in that endeavor. The third reason to
study economics is that it will give you a better understanding of
both the potential and the limits of economic policy. Economic
questions are always on the minds of policymakers in mayors’
offices, governors’ mansions, and the White House. What are the
burdens associated with alternative forms of taxation? What are the
effects of free trade with other countries? What is the best way to
protect the environment? How does a government budget deficit
affect the economy? As a voter, you help choose the policies that
guide the allocation of society’s resources. An understanding of
economics will help you carry out that responsibility. And who
knows: Perhaps someday you will end up as one of those
policymakers yourself. Thus, the principles of economics can be
applied in many of life’s situations. Whether the future finds you
following the news, running a business, or sitting in the Oval Office,
you will be glad that you studied economics. N. Gregory Mankiw
December 2016 “ F conomics is a study of mankind in the ordinary
business of life.” So wrote
 Video Application ideo application features the book’s
author introducing chapter content. Author Greg Mankiw introduces
the important themes in every chapter by delivering a highly
relevant deposition on the real-world context to the economic
principles that will be appearing in the upcoming chapter. These
videos are intended to motivate students to better understand how
economics relates to their day-to-day lives and in the world around
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These high-energy videos, embedded throughout the interactive
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University, these concept-based animations provide students with
memorable context to the key terminology required for your
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 asec is a aca a i i ec ct El I i a i a Dela eat it lh attat
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Nodes, 20, 52.
Nodules, 39, 40.
Nostoc, 184.
Notebooks, 3.
Nucleus, 144, 185.
Nuts, 164.

Oleander, 86.
Oögonia, 186.
Orchid, 35, 110.
Oscillatoria, 184.
Osmosis, 42, 48.
Ovary, 135, 144, 163, 170.
Overgrowth, 12.
Ovule, 144, 186.

Palisade cells, 86.

Palmate, 74.
Panicle, 158.
Pappus, 141.
Parasites, 107.
Parenchyma, 60, 86.
Pedicel, 162.
Peduncle, 62.
Peltate, 77.
Perennial, 17.
Pericarp, 164, 165, 169.
Petals, 134.
Petiole, 76.
Phenogam, 177, 180.
Photosynthesis, 94, 101.
Phyllotaxy, 84.
Pine cone, 27, 170.
Pinna, 181.
Pinnate, 74.
Pinnatifid, 76.
Pistil, 135.
Plantain, 157.
Plant societies, 9.
Plants, unlikeness of, 9.
Plumule, 20, 23, 25.
Plur-annual, 18.
Pod, 164.
Pollen, 135, 144, 180.
Pollination, 144, 145;
artificial, 153.
Polypetalous, 134.
Polysepalous, 134.
Polytrichum, 199.
Pome, 169.
Primrose, 140.
Propagation by buds, 121.
Prop-roots, 36.
Proterandrous, 146.
Proterogynous, 146.
Prothallus, 178, 202.
Protoplasm, 42, 94, 97, 185.
Pruning, 105.
Pseud-annual, 17.
Pteridophytes, 181, 201, 203.
Puffball, 194.
Pyxis, 166.

Quarter-sawed, 70.

Receptacle, 134, 163.

Respiration, in plants, 97, 103.
Resting spore, 184, 185, 189, 191, 192.
Rhizome, 52, 202.
Root cap, 44.
Root climber, 129.
Root hairs, 41, 42, 46.
Rootlet, 41.
Root pressure, 99, 104.
Roots, and air, 41;
forms of, 32;
function, 38;
structure, 38, 43;
systems, 32.
Rust, 192.

Samara, 164.
Sap, 67.
Saprophyte, 107, 108.
Scape, 161.
Scion, 125.
Scouring rush, 203.
Scramblers, 129.
Seed, 20, 163, 180;
coat, 21.
Selaginella, 204.
Selection, natural, 8;
artificial, 8.
Sepal, 133, 169.
Septicidal capsule, 166.
Sessile, 77.
Shelf fungus, 194.
Shrub, 19.
Sieve tubes, 66.
Silicle, 167.
Silique, 167.
Societies, 9.
Soil, 40, 47.
Soredia, 196.
Sori, 177, 192.
Spadix, 140.
Spathe, 138, 140.
Spermatophytes, 180.
Spike, 157.
Spirogyra, 184.
Sporangium, 177, 186, 188, 201, 203, 204.
Spore, 176, 178, 181, 184.
Sporophyll, 180, 201.
Sporophyte, 177.
Stamen, 135.
Starch, 95, 101.
Stem, 49;
endogenous, 59;
exogenous, 61;
kinds of, 49.
Stigma, 135, 144, 145.
Stipule, 76, 84.
Stock, 125.
Stomate, 87.
Stone fruit, 168.
Storage of food, 99.
Struggle to live, 4, 6.
Style, 135, 163.
Summer-spore, 191.
Sun energy, 95.
Survival of fittest, 7.
Swarm-spores, 186.
Symbiosis, 196.
Syngenesious, 141.

Teleutospores, 192.
Tendril, 101.
Thallophyte, 181, 184.
Thallus, 184, 197.
Thorns, 101.
Thyrse, 160.
Tillandsia, 110.
Timber, decay of, 195.
Tissue, 60, 62.
Toadstool, 194.
Torus, 134, 169.
Tracheid, 65.
Transpiration, 98, 103.
Twiners, 129, 131.

Umbel, 159.
Undergrowth, 12.

Valve, 164.
Variation, 2.
Vaucheria, 186.
Verticellate, 84.

Water-pore, 88.
Wheat rust, 192.
Whiteweed or ox-eye daisy, 155.
Whorled, 84.
Willow mildew, 190.
Wind travelers, 173.
Woody fibre, 17.
Wounds of plants, 56.

Yeast plants, 190.

Zygnema, 185.
Zygospore, 185, 189.
 GLOSSARY
accessory or reinforced fruits are those in which the ripened
pericarp is combined with other parts, as with the torus or
the calyx.
adventitious. Coming by chance or without order, as the sprouts
that arise where a limb is cut off.
aggregate fruits are those in which several distinct pistils cohere
to form one body, as in blackberry, raspberry, mulberry.
akene or achene. A one-seeded indehiscent fruit, usually small
and seed-like.
analogous. Like to, in function or use. See homologous.
anemophilous. Said of flowers that are pollinated by the wind.
annual. A plant that naturally does not live more than one year,
as garden bean, pea, Indian corn, buckwheat, cowpea.
anther. The knob or enlargement of the stamen, bearing the
pollen.
antheridium. The male or sperm-cell organ, such as occurs on
the prothallus of ferns and similar plants. See archegonium.
apetalous. Without petals.
apical. At the top.
archegonium. The female or egg-cell organ on the prothallus of
ferns and related plants. See antheridium.
assimilation. The building up of protoplasm from the materials
elaborated in the plant.
axil. The angle or place just above the petiole of a leaf (or
pedicel of a flower) where it joins the twig.
berry. In botany, a fleshy pericarp containing a number of seeds,
as current, orange, tomato, grape, cranberry, but not
strawberry, blackberry, raspberry, or mulberry.
biennial. A plant that lives two years. It usually blooms the
second year.
blade. The expanded part of a leaf.
bract. A small or much-reduced leaf, often a mere scale.
calyx. The outer row or series in the floral envelope. The outer
“leaves” of the flower, usually green.
cambium. Growth tissue, lying between the bark-part and wood-
part of the fibro-vascular bundle and giving rise to the cells
of both.
capsule. A pod consisting of two or more carpels or parts,
usually opening naturally.
carbohydrate. The compounds of the starch and sugar class.
carpel. One part or member of a compound pistil, or a simple
pistil itself.
catkin or ament. A raceme-like or spike-like flower-cluster that
falls away after flowering or fruiting, as of willows and
staminate flower-clusters of walnuts and birches.
centrifugal. From the inside out; as a flower-cluster of which the
inside, terminal, or uppermost flowers open first; a
determinate cluster.
centripetal. From the outside in; as a flower-cluster of which the
outer flowers open first; an indeterminate cluster.
chlorophyll. Leaf green. Chlorophyll is the pigment that gives the
characteristic colour to plants.
cladophylla. Stems that look like leaves, and function as leaves,
as in asparagus and the florists’ smilax.
cleistogamous. Applied to small flowers, usually hidden beneath
the earth, that are little developed as to floral envelopes,
and are self-fertilized; also to self-fertilization in flowers that
do not open.
complete flowers have all the parts,—calyx, corolla, stamens,
pistil.
corolla. The inner row or series of flower-leaves, usually
coloured, and often of irregular shape. It may be all one
piece or of many pieces.
corymb. A flattish flower-cluster in which the outermost flowers
open first.
cotyledon. A leaf of the embryo; seed-leaf. The embryo may
have one cotyledon (monocotyledon), or two cotyledons
(dicotyledon), or sometimes more than two.
cross-fertilization is fertilization by means of pollen produced in
another flower.
cryptogam. One of the group of flowerless or non-seed-bearing
plants, as a fern, fungus, moss, seaweed.
cutting. A shoot planted in soil or water for the purpose of
making a new plant.
cyme. A flattish or broad flower-cluster in which the innermost or
terminal flowers open first.
decumbent. Said of branches or stems that lop or lie over on the
ground.
decurrent. Said of a leaf that runs down on the stem, thereby not
having a distinct petiole.
dehiscence. The mode of opening, as of a seed-pod or an
anther.
deliquescent. Said of trees in which the leader or main trunk
disappears at the tree top, forking into several or many
 main branches.
determinate. See centrifugal.
dichogamy. The condition when stamens and pistils in the same
flower mature at different times; this prevents or hinders
self-pollination. See proterandrous and proterogynous.
diclinous. Said of flowers that are imperfect,—lacking either
stamens or pistils.
dicotyledon. Having two cotyledons or seed-leaves.
digestion. Change in the food materials whereby they may be
transported, or used in assimilation. Starch is changed into
sugar in the plant by a process of digestion.
dimorphous. Of two forms; as flowers that bear two kinds of
stamens.
diœcious. Said of plants that bear stamens and pistils in flowers
on different plants.
drupe. A fleshy pericarp or fruit, containing a relatively large
stone or pit, as peach, cherry, plum.
drupelet. A very small drupe, particularly one comprising part of
an aggregate fruit, as a drupelet of raspberry.
embryo. The dormant plantlet comprising part of the seed. It is
enclosed within the seed-coats. Its parts are the caulicle (or
stemlet), cotyledons or seed-leaves, and plumule. The food
may be stored in the embryo, or around the embryo
(endosperm).
endogen. A plant of the monocotyledon class, not enlarging in
diameter by means of outside rings; as palms. All grasses
and lilies and orchids and cereal grains are of this kind.
Now used, if at all, to express a general mode of growth
rather than a class of plants. See exogen.
endosperm. The food material that is packed around the embryo
(rather than inside it) in the seed.
entomophilous. Said of flowers that are pollinated by insects.
environment. The surroundings; or the conditions in which a
plant or animal lives. The environment comprises the soil,
climate, and the influence of the other plants and animals
with which or among which the plant or animal grows.
epicotyl. The internode or “joint” above the seed-leaves or
cotyledons.
epidermis. The outermost layer or part of the cortex; the skin.
epigeal. Said of seeds (as common bean) in which the
cotyledons or seed-leaves rise above ground in
germination. See hypogeal.
epiphyte. A plant that grows on another plant, or on other
objects above ground, but which does not derive much or
any of its nourishment from its host; an air-plant.
excurrent. Said of trees (as firs and spruces) in which the main
trunk or leader continues through the tree top.
exogen (see endogen). Of the dicotyledon class, the stem
enlarging by external layers or rings.
fertilization takes place in the flower when a pollen nucleus and
an egg-cell nucleus unite in a forming ovule.
fibro-vascular. Bundles or strands of tissue composed of sieve-
tubes, mechanical fibre and vessels or ducts.
filament. The stalk part of a stamen.
follicle. A single-cavity fruit or pod opening along its inner edge.
frond. A leaf of a fern and related plants.
fruit. In botany, the ripened ovary with the attached parts. All
flowering plants, therefore, produce fruits. The term is also
 used for the ripened reproductive bodies of flowerless
plants.
fruit-dot, sorus. A collection or cluster of sporangia, as in ferns.
function. What a plant or an organ does; how it works.
gamete. A cell or nucleus that takes part in fertilization.
gametophyte. The stage of the plant (as the prothallus) that
bears or produces the sex organs; sexual stage of the
plant.
gamopetalous. Said of a corolla with the petals united.
gamosepalous. Said of a calyx with the sepals united.
generation. The entire life period of a plant.
geotropism. Turning toward the earth, as the action of the roots.
glomerule. A dense globular or oblong flower-cluster in which
the upper or inner flowers open first.
graft. A cutting inserted in another plant for the purpose of
having it grow there.
gymnosperm (“naked seed”). A name applied to a group of
plants (pines, spruces, cedars, and the like) in which the
seeds are not contained in an ovary.
head. A very dense globular or oblong flower-cluster in which
the outer flowers open first; often applied to any dense
flower-cluster.
herb. A plant that never becomes woody and that dies to the
ground, or dies entirely, in winter.
hilum. The scar or spot where the seed was attached to its stalk.
hip. The fruit of the rose, which is a hollowed torus containing
the dry fruits or “seeds.”
homologous. Related to, or with, in origin or structure. Thus, a
tendril of grape is homologous with a branch; a tendril of
 grape is analogous to a tendril of pea (similar in function),
but not homologous, for one represents a branch (or flower-
cluster) and the other represents a leaf.
host. A plant or animal on which another organism grows or
feeds.
hypha (plural hyphæ). The threads of the mycelium of a fungus.
hypocotyl. The stem or internode below the seed-leaves.
hypogeal. Said of seeds (as garden pea) in which the
cotyledons remain under ground in germination. See
epigeal.
imperfect flowers lack either stamens or pistils.
incomplete flowers lack one of the parts or series, as the calyx,
corolla, stamens, or pistil.
indeterminate. See centripetal.
indusium. The scale or lid covering a sorus, in ferns and allied
plants.
inflorescence. Properly, the mode of flowering (page 160), but
sometimes used in the sense of a flower-cluster.
involucre. A set or whorl of leaves or bracts beneath a flower or
a cluster of flowers; sometimes looks like an outer or extra
calyx.
irregular flowers have some members of one or more of the
series unlike their fellows.
key fruit. See samara.
labiate. Lipped; that is, divided into parts, as the lips of a mouth.
Said usually of corollas that are lobed into two parts.
lateral. On the side; as a flower or leaf borne on the side of a
shoot rather than at its end. See terminal.
leaflet. One of the divisions or parts of a compound leaf.
legume. Like a follicle, but opening along both edges. In some
cases, as in peanut, the pod does not actually open.
leguminous plants are those that bear legumes or true pods, as
peas, beans, clovers, alfalfa, vetch, sweet pea, peanut,
locusts, red-bud.
lenticel. Very small spots or corky elevations on young twigs,
marking the place of former twig stomates.
locule. One cavity or “cell” in a pistil or anther.
loculicidal. Said of capsules when the carpels or compartments
open between the partitions.
mesophyll. The parenchyma in the leaf.
micropyle. The place on the seed at which the pollen-tube
entered when the seed was forming (when impregnation
took place).
monocotyledon. Having one cotyledon or seed-leaf.
monœcious. Said of plants that bear the stamens and pistils in
different flowers on the same plant.
mycelium. The vegetative part of a fungus, composed of threads
or hyphæ.
mycorrhiza. A root covered with or bearing a fungus that aids
the root in securing nourishment from the soil.
naked. Said of flowers that lack envelopes (calyx and corolla).
nectary. A cup, sac, or place in the flower in which nectar (or
“honey”) is borne.
osmosis. The passing or diffusion of liquids or gases through
membranes.
ovary. The lower enlarged part of the pistil, containing the ovules
or forming seeds.
ovule. The young or forming seed.
palmate. Palm-like; said of venation that arises from the base of
the leaf (top of petiole), or of leaflets similarly arranged.
panicle. A branching raceme. The lower or outer flowers open
first; but the word is often used loosely.
pappus. The hair, plumes, bristles, or scales on the top of a dry
fruit, particularly of a fruit (or “seed”) of the Compositæ or
sunflower family.
parasite. A plant or animal that lives on a living host (as on a
plant or an animal), taking its food from the host. See
saprophyte.
parenchyma. The general underlying tissue, from which other
tissue arises.
pedicel. Stem of a single flower in a cluster.
peduncle. A flower-stem, supporting a solitary flower or a cluster
of flowers.
perennial. A plant that lives more than two years, as most
grasses, docks, alfalfa, asparagus, and all trees and
shrubs.
perfect flowers bear both stamens and pistils.
pericarp. A ripened ovary, without counting attached parts.
personate. Masked; that is, so formed as to suggest a masked
face, in labiate corollas with a large lower lip.
petal. One of the parts or leaves of the corolla.
petiole. Stem or stalk of a leaf.
petiolule. Stem of a leaflet.
phenogam (phænogam, phanerogam). A seed-bearing plant;
that is, one of the seed-bearing or flowering group of plants.
phloem. Bark or soft bast tissue.
photosynthesis. The process whereby the carbon dioxide of the
air is appropriated in the formation of material for plant
growth.
phyllotaxy. Mode of arrangement of leaves or flowers on the
plant or stem.
pinnate. Feather-like; said of leaves in which the veins strike off
from a continuing midrib, or in which the leaflets are
arranged in a similar order.
pistil. The innermost member in the flower, bearing the forming
seeds.
pistillate. Of pistils only; a flower that contains pistils and no
stamens, or a plant that bears only pistils.
plur-annual. A plant of a tropical or semi-tropical climate that is
annual in a colder country only because it is killed by frost;
as tomato, castor bean.
pollen. The dust or grains contained in the anther, which, falling
on the stigma, grows and fertilizes the forming ovules.
pollination. The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma.
The transfer may be accomplished by wind, insects, birds,
water (in the case of water plants), or by the natural falling
of the pollen.
polypetalous (“many-petaled”). Said of a corolla with the petals
not united.
polysepalous (“many-sepaled”). Said of a calyx with sepals not
united.
pome. An apple-like or pear-like or quince-like fruit, with a five-
carpeled or en-carpeled “core.”
proterandrous. Said of a flower when the anthers mature in
advance of the pistils in the same flower.
proterogynous. Said of a flower when its pistils mature before its
anthers.
prothallus (“first thallus”). The minute leaf-like body or organ
produced by the germination of a spore, in ferns and allied
plants. It bears the sex organs.
protoplasm. The living matter in plants. It is the living part of the
cells, usually in a semi-fluid, translucent state.
pseud-annual. A plant that is apparently annual, but which is
carried over winter by a bulb, tuber, or similar body; as
potato, onion.
pyxis. A dry fruit or capsule in which the top comes off, like a
cover to a jar.
raceme. A simple (unbranched) cluster in which the flowers are
on short pedicels and open from the base upwards.
raphe. A ridge or elevation on some seeds caused by the seed-
stalk and seed-coats growing together.
ray. The elongated corolla-limb of some members of the
Compositæ family.
receptive. Said of a stigma when it is “ripe” or ready to receive
the pollen.
regular flowers are those in which all the members of each
series (as all the sepals, or all the petals, or all the
stamens) are like each other in shape, size, and colour.
reinforced. See accessory fruits.
respiration. Breathing; manifest by oxygen taken in and carbon
dioxide given off.
rhizome. A rootstock; an underground root-like stem. It has
joints, usually scales representing leaves, and is often thick
and fleshy.
samara. A key fruit, being an indehiscent (not opening) fruit
provided with a wing or wings.
saprophyte. A plant that lives on dead or decaying material. See
parasite.
scape. A flower-stem rising directly from the crown of the plant
at the surface of the ground or near it. A scape may have
bracts.
self-fertilization or close-fertilization is fertilization by means of
pollen produced in the same flower.
sepal. One of the parts or leaves of the calyx.
septicidal. A form of dehiscence or opening along the natural
partitions of the capsule.
sessile. Sitting; without a stem, as a leaf without petiole, or a
flower without pedicel or peduncle.
shrub. A low woody plant that does not have a distinct trunk.
When a plant normally has a trunk, it is a tree.
silicle. A short, more or less circular, capsule of the mustard
family.
silique. A long capsule of the mustard family.
society. An aggregation or company of plants, comprising a
more or less distinct group.
sorus (plural sori). See fruit-dot.
spadix. A spike of flowers (each flower usually minute), with a
more or less fleshy axis, and usually accompanied by a
spathe.
spathe. A corolla-like or involucre-like leaf or bract (or a pair of
them) surrounding or accompanying a spadix. In the calla,
the spathe is the large white flower-like part.
spermaphyte (“seed plant”). A seed-bearing plant; one of the
flowering-plant class.
spike. A dense and slender flower-cluster in which the flowers
open from below upwards.
sporangium (plural sporangia; spore-case). A body or receptacle
holding spores.
spore. A reproductive or generative cell; in flowerless plants
answering the purpose of a seed, but containing no
embryo. It may not be the direct product of fertilization.
sporophyll (“spore leaf”). A member or part that bears spores.
sporophyte. The stage of the plant arising directly from the
fertilized egg, and which ordinarily produces asexual spores
(as the “plant” or conspicuous part of the fern or of a seed
plant).
stamen. The pollen-bearing organ of the flower, of which the
essential part is the anther (usually borne on a stem or
filament).
staminate. Said of a flower that has stamens and no pistils.
stigma. The part of the pistil (usually on a stalk or style) on
which the pollen germinates; it is sticky, rough, or hairy at
maturity.
stipel. A stipule of a leaflet.
stipule. A leafy or scale-like appendage at the base of a petiole.
Stipules are usually two in each case.
stomate, stoma (plural stomates or stomata). The openings on
leaves and green parts through which gases pass;
diffusion-pores or “breathing-pores.”
stone-fruit. A drupe.
strict. Said of a stem that grows straight up, without breaking
into branches.
style. The stalk between the ovary and the stigma; sometimes
not present.