peibshotls Eoihone- “8. \waveor ® FD THE TAMIL NADU Es Dr. AMBEDKAR LAW UNIVERSITY (State University Established by Act No. 43 of 1997) M.G.R. Main Road, Perungudi, Chennai - 600 096. POLITICAL SCIENCE -I FIRST YEAR - SECOND SEMESTER STUDY MATERIAL By Mr. P. Kannan Assistant Professor Dept. of Inter-Disciplinary Studies, School of Excellence in Law The Tamil Nadu Dr. Ambedkar Law University ChennaiPREFACE This course material meant for the students of first year B A ,L LB, studying in School of Excellence in Law (SOEL), The Tamil Nadu Dr. Ambedkar Law University it covers the syllabus prescribed for polttical science one The political science has a very close link with legal studies An attempt has been made to give some basic concepts connected with political science The first unit covers introduction about the subject and various approaches to the study of political science Further it explains about the state and it functions. Unit II and Unit II covers the basic concepts like soverergnty, liberty, equality, citizenship rights and duties, Unit IV deals about classical political theory and contemporary political thought further it focuses Marsan thought, Liberalism, femimism, Regionalization and sts challenges. Finally, Umit V focuses on the various forms of government Here tt provides details about various forms of government and various types of legislature and the role of political parties This made easy book of Political Science covers complete syllabus recommended by our university Every case has been taken to avoid the difficult terms and expression It has, therefore, been written in lucid, clear and thoughtful manner for the comprehension of all students Its hoped that the book will meet the needs of the students of the subject and the aim with which 1t has been presented. 1 wish you all the best for your successful career Mr. P. Kannan Assistant Professor Dept. of Inter-Disciplinary Studies, School of Excellence in Law The Tamil Nadu Dr. Ambedkar Law University ChennaiPOLITICAL SCIENCE - I SUBJECT CODE : HVH UNIT-V S.No. CONTENTS PAGE No. Yv UNIT-1 1 x UNIT -1I 14 x UNIT- I 24 4 UNIT-IV 36 46Zong snk ver we oh me rer 8 ‘ere TOM, 3 Mer rn) mH FAO OH ra TO oat gan) APOE PO C0 exeey sony ah z fp, 9 on a) OH oF robe I 00 ey 33 5 “Soamepy fr ent ” tol © Soe, a eaneniaat FORTIES! aenamgatg 80H fy OPO rarVorpy vr i ae a3 whe! 5 rola SN ap cpr y pi ee ® sais ve ait Ag mn om cr poy POY Wop searGies vw pobre pro pou YM red a e re pM ro wernt se vanpedrebunt wre aay hgh ryreoy wee SN eri em eS ¥ 3 i Seilaiec bocca a parnouceeh Yow ¢0 wore! 9 yyenls pe _ . wpreloe pox prohlo- arpeye Gp) Sy: 3 aa Loe oe ey me 7 frprts bday, poney rary by wry 77 8) - a4 oe con, eiyehd “wo raonor npn IPTIPPHON 4g Pydrvopaed prignl oe unger ©UNIT - I INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL SCIENCE AND APPROACHES TO POLITICAL ANALYSIS INTRODUCTION The lesson would enable the student to know the Defimtions and Meaning of Political science. The Definitions would reflect the changing understanding of Politics It1s difficult to give a single precise defimon of Political Scrence. It vartes from person to person depending upon the importance he gives to various aspects of political life The study of Pohtacal Science began with the Greeks. DEFINITIONS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE ‘Various definituons of Political Science given by the ancient, medieval and modern polincal scientists of dhs subject areas follows origin «The term ‘polities’ is derived from the Greck word Pals which means ye cat .ccording to Greek Philosophers, Politics was a subject which dealt the activins and affairs of the city state) Their City States were known as ‘Polis’ City state was an all mclusive term, as the ancient Greeks made rio distinction between the state and the government on one hand, and State and Society on the other |They never differentiated between personal life and socual life. Hence according to them Politics was a total study of man, society, state, morality and so on Pohttics as the study of the state:~Traditionally pohtical science 1s a science of state. Political thinkers hike R G Gettel, J.W. Garner, Bluntschh and many others were of the view that political science was the study oftthe state RG Getlel defined “Political Science as a study of state n the past, present and future and of political institutions and polmcal theories J.W Garner States, “Political Science begins and ends with the state” Politics as the Study of the Government:- Some Pohtical Scientists hke Paul Janet, George Catlin, Hans Eulan have accepted the view which states that pohcs deals with the state and government(Paul Jgnet writes “Political Sciences concerned with the foundations of the state and principles of government.) George Cathn states “Politics means either the acuvities of political hfe or the study of these acavities. And these activities are generally treated as activites of the various organs of government ” Prof Hans Bulan considers in his defimtion of politucs that the study of formal government 1s a fundamental concern of politic ‘The Oxford Enghish Dict ence as “the study of the state and systems of government.” Politics as the Study of Natonal Institution’ Bndal expressed the view that “Pohtcal Science 1s, above all, descriptive study which brings together the description of national political institutions, their history, their ideological principles, their working, the forces that direct them, the influence they undergo, the results they obtain and their effect on the life of the country and 1ts relations with neighboring states * ow +h:- The concept of Political Science as a study of State, Government and National fasutution 1s not considered adequate today This aspect of above definitions emphasizes the legal structure only They do not pay attention to whats happening within the state Political Science must mclude the study of informal structures, facts and reality of polines Hence, moder political thinkers defined Pohtical Science differently and taken modern approack ~ €eF . ausseouey EEE coe hs Daanan ite Oe a Gp Paar S Pordatat “Paskition t . BoP Q RWE ® dinLn of aut Pounce! Adonis!Political Science as a Study of Power- Modern Political thinkers hke Lasswell, Robert Dahi have defined poltucs in terms of power, influence, and authonty According to these thinkers power has acquired prominent position mn political thought, Harold Lasswell considers, japing and sharu litical powers’ Robert A Dahl defined that, “A Political system 1s any persistent pattern of human relationship that snvolves, toa significant extent power, rule or authority ” According to the view of chese thinkers enture pohtical activity directed towards capturing and maintaining, power(Power 1s the central idea 1n Polities— who get, What, When and How") Political Science as a Study of Conflict Resolution:- This view was suggested by Muller in his ‘Nature of Pohtues) The purpose of a political activity 1s erther to bring about a change or resist a change People compete with each other to satisfy their needs When resources are limited and the people wha want to utilize them are many conflicts anse Politics 1s a means to resolve this conflict ‘According to Peter B Hans “The Modern emphasis n the study of Politics 1s laid on disagreements and reconcihation or resolution of these disagreement, Political Science as a Study of Co -relation of many Forces Encyclopedia of Social Sciences States, “Present day political science revolves around the problem of the attainment, consolidation and distnbution of political power whether in an actually existing state ora hypothetical state”. Pohitical Institution and politics cannot function in vacuum Social and economic forces affect the political process Hence they also must be taken into account Analysis and Conclusion .~The several defimitrons of the term Pohtical Science reflect the changing derstanding of the discipline From above definitions we may say that there are mamly two approaches of looking at Poluscal Science 1) Traditional approach 2) Modern approach The Traditional Approach suggests that Pohtical Science 1s the study of State, Government and National Institutions Ik studies the formal, legal structures and theorencal part ‘The Modern Approach emphasizes “What 1s actually happening in the state” It stressed on reality and actual facts of politics: Thus itstudies various forces, processes and informal structures making it dynamic. However, 1t can be said that political science 1s a systemauc study of the State, Government, Political Institutions, Power, influence and authority, Pohtical processes and Political forces. ) ATURE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE( S°UM SAE Pobtical Saenceisa social science Its nature 1s different than physical sciences hke physics and chemistry ‘Whenever we study the ongin, evolution and development of Political Science, we find various aspects afthe nature of Political Science The definitions and meaning of Political Science shows that it 15 a systemanic study of Palincal theory, Poliacal Institutions, Political forces and processes| When we call Politicsas ‘Political ” Science’ we have to see how far this subject stands to the tests of science n the stnct sense of theterm 1] Is a Science ? Very often a question: raised whether the discipline of ponies can be regarded as a science? There 1s no unanimity among polstical thinkers whether the subject isa science Gogtol suenu Nokusar Zioncs (Systematic Sens 2‘What is a Science? “Science isa systematic body of knowledge, the facts of which have been accurately and impartially collected, arranged and classified through the use of various scientific methods of observation, comparison and expenmentauion” ‘Vanous arguments are forwarded for and against the disciple bemg.a science ARGUMENTS THAT IT IS NOT A SCIENCE : (0? && we) Political Scientists hike Maitland, Burke, Gettel do not think that Pohiics 1s really aScience ‘Their arguments are as follows 1] Disagreement 1n Definition, Terminology and Methods - There 1s no general agreement among pohtical thinkers regarding definition, scope, terminology etc ‘There 1s no exactness ot precision in the pohtical science, as a result, they cannot be accepted and applied unversally \T'his does not happen in case of natural sciences hike physics and chemstry 2] Lack of Precision .-Principles of Political Science are got 1ey lead to man} controvers es | Where asa formula in physics or chemstry1s lear and umiversally accepted eg. The laws of gravity or the prnaples of anthmetic 1 ¢ Two plus two equals four everywhere However Political Science hike pure and natural sciences such as physies and Mathematics does not possess any such universally relevant principles 3) Human Bemgs :- Pobtucs deals with human bemgs whose mnds are unpredictable Political scientists have to deal with man (human bemngs) who are not under thew control Human behavior is unpredictable and not always logical Whereas physics and chemustry deal with matter or mamimate obyects (non ving objects) Natural scientist work tn laboratortes and the objects are perfectly under their control Hence ther rules and laws are absolute, and universal. 4] Limited Experimentation Expernmentanon in laboratory or im an isolated environment 1s not possible sn Politics like natural sciences tntenlennbiov> 5] Lack of Objectrvity-- Political Science lacks obyectivitylbut subjective elements very strong. Pohnical science 1s subjective and relative because political scientist has to deal with human beings in relation to society, state, government etc 6] Difficult to Predict Future~- Pohtical phenomena do not follow proper sequence lke exact science Actimes, the effects are contrary and therefore the results cannot be predicted Inspite of the above arguments, the subject is regarded as a science because Arguments that it 1s a Science * }LZoluusal Scencesnota pure sence buta socal scence politics isa systematrzed body of knowledge Its facts are collected and orgamzed through proper observation, comparison and experimentation, etc eg Stuches on election Science 1s a systematic and formulaced knowledge of a specified subject In that sense politicat scence 1s certainly a science 2] Pohtical Experiments are not completely ruled out The government uself1s a continuous experiment ‘Theapplicaton of Manast pnneiples nthe LSSRwas one such expenment on A 3) Broad conclusions can be drawn in pobucal science eg Independent impartial judiciary, free press 1s essentual for democracy Gus)4] Empirical studies are based on careful observation and classification Politzcal science puts hypothesis to empmncal verificarion Theonees are not built on speculation Political Scientists today employ survey methods, graphs, charts etc , to arnye at their research conclusions Thus poltical science 1s not a pure science, but a social science 2] Is Politics an Art? The term Art refers to the practical application of knowledge Polmcal Science apphes the knowledge about political events for creating a good social and pohtucal order Hence its an art. Robert Dhal States that Pohtical Science is both ~Scrence and Art Whenever students of political science test their theones against the data of experience by observation, the political analysis can be regarded as scientific When this pobtical analysis is apphed for the working of politcal stration ats an art” 3] Politics or Political Science? ‘What should the subject be called Pobtics or Political Science? Ansstotle called his studies in Political Phenomena as ‘Politics Prof Laskas work was named as a “Grammer of Politics” However, most of the modern wnters prefer the subject to be called as pohtical science, and not as polities Because political science 1sa systemauc study of political theory, political institutions, political forces and processes The term polities mdicates the current pohtucal problems or issues Many times common people use the term of pohtics as a dubious, messy, rotten affairs Pohucs is a wide spread and universal activity and that 1s analysis im political science Study of pohtics 1s a part of the study of pohtical science Politics 1s an actvity and that what it analyses asa political science 1s only a part of it [The term pohties 1s not precise to give us whole range of knowledge pertaming to state and other political institutions Theres distincuon between a politician and political scientist A polticran 1s a person who actively partiapates in the political affairs Whereas a political scientist 1s an expert in the subject He studies the subject systematically. Hence it is preferable the subject be called a ‘Political Science and not Pohiucs THE SCOPE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE ‘The scope of political science means the subject matter or content af pohtical science )Vanous pohtical thinkers are not in agreement about the exact scope of politics [The lack of precise definition and terminology have created confusion regarding the subject matter of pohtical science Despite the ambiguaty and controversy in the field various aspects included 1n the study of political science are as follows (A conference of political thinkers held in Sept 1948 at the UNESCO House decided the scope of political ‘science 1 Political Science 1s the study of(Political theones:-) Over the centuries, political scientists have concerned themselves with formulating political theories and politicalideas @ g . Plataexplamed theory of Ideal Stace, Theory of justice, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau explained theory of origin ofstate These theories enable us to organize their observations and offer a foundation on which future observations and analysis can be based | 4 Poltical Institutions.~ Study of poltical science includes the study of vanous constitutions, various systems of government then ments, dements etc eg Whether its parliamentary, presidental, dictatorial, democranc, gealitign form of government [Such a study helps us to reform out political institutions n order to realize our goals 5) Poltucal Parties anckPressure Groups “-It studies the various systems of poliucal partes, their role and importance Pressure groups and mterest groups are becoming more unportant. Political science studies 4therr role, methods etc 2a given political system This makes the study of pobitical science more realistic Opposition political paruies, pressure groups Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) do not directly form the government They indirectly influence governmental policies and decisions Hence the study of governance (act of governing) 1s incomplete if 1s limited to the study of government International Relations - It includes the study of internanonal organization, and pohcies [States do not hye misolanon Domesne Policy and Foreign Policy are mterrelated {Hence the study of international relations becomes sigmificant more in the times of globalization Polical Science s the study ofthe relationship between governmentand civil socety The states comprised oftwo entities government and cvvil society Both entities influence governance in different ways Civil society includes c1tzzens, Non-Governmental Orgamzation (NGOs), pressure groups, opposition political pares Civil society fluence governance indirectly, by influencing the government and convineang it to. adopt certam policies Whereas the government possesses the power and authonty to influence governance directly Hence the relationship between government and civil society 16 an important determinant of governancein the state Polmcal science studies this relationship in order to better understand the nature of the state and the efficacy of governance sItas the study of Power, Authonty, Influences, Political activities, Pohtical Processes - Political Science is normative as well as empirical.|Normative approach of political science studies norms, ideals, morals, prmerples, philosophy of poliucal science eg What should be the nature of the state etc Empincal approach of politcal science observes and analyses pohiacal activities and mstitutions as they are m a scientific way ‘Morgenthau said scope of Political-Science includes three branches> 2) Political Sociology b) Pohtical Theory c) Political Insttutions Modern political Scientists feel that ‘man’s social hfe 1s an integrated whole Any change m man’s social environment have repercussions on man’s political life The modern state cannot escape from that mpact of the social, psychological, economic and cultural forces According to Leacock Pohiical Science must not content rtself with a mere analysis of poliical institutions as existing at any given ame, st must take account of the process of change and evolution, and the alteration of social and intellectual environment Master Science - Anstotle called pohtucal science the “Master Science” because polities determines the environment within which every person will organize his life No one can clam that he has nothing to do with poliucs. Noone can escape from the parameters set by politics [The ancient Greeks never made any distinction between man’s personal hfe and pobitical life According to them pohtics isthe total study of Man, Society, State, Morahty etc “A Study of Pohtucal System and its Environments: -Varied political systems exist and function in different environment Pohucal science studies them with reference to the response given and feedback secured The policies of one system have an impact on the other systems Also political decisions are not made in vacuums ‘These are influenced by economic structure, social institunions and the whole environment an. which the state funcnong) APPROACHES TO POLITICAL THEORY Inthe study of socal sciences the approaches are extremely important because they help us in identifying the problems for our study and deciding on the appropriate data to be used A care must however, be taken to differentiate between an approach and method, another term which is frequently used by the social scientists Ttmust be made clear that the two terms are not synonyms Method can be defined asa particular manner or techmique to carry out something it suggests a systemane course of action that helps procure trustworthy body of knowledge about a particular issue or phenomenon and draw conclusions thereon 5There are quite a few methods that are applied in the study of social sciences such as Deductive Method, Inducnve Method, Comparative Method, Scientific Method and soon An approach, in contrast, isa broader term that takes hold of the method 1 e how to study or inquire along with bringing into focus the relevant dataie what to study forthe purpose of understanding the particular phenomenon In the words of Vernon Van Dyke “An approach consists of entena of selection criteria employed in sclecung the problems or questions to consider and in selecting the data to bring to bear, 1t consists of standards governmgthe mclusion and exclusion of questionsand data” Furthermore, distinguishing between a method and an approach Dyke indicates “In brief, approaches consist of eritersa for selecting problems and relevant data, whereas methods are procedures for getting and utalizing data ” It must also be added that an approach brings along its method too This cannoc be always true about a method because a method snot usually commutted to a particular approach In othes words an approach suggests ts own method while the vice versa 18 not true For mstance, behavioural approach 1s linked to scientific method and normative approach has association with philosophical method NORMATIVE APPROACH Normative approach poses questions based on ‘norms’ or ‘standards’ in the study of socral sciences with an anm to appraise values Unlike the empirical approach that 1s concerned about ‘what happened and why" the normative approach emphasises ‘what should have happened’ It must, nonetheless, be underluned that these assumptions are not always valid because at times the two approaches might overlap Occasionally, the normative approach may be based on empincal postulations to ehcit how ox what a parucular situation should be or what the state of affairs m a country should have been In addition ro empinical assumptions, the normative approach also comprises the social value system or moral standards widely endorsed in a particular soctety on which 1 sets up its edifice of questions For instance, ifthe issue of war 1s the mayor theme of mquiry, the normative approach may seek help from the empsncal assumptions to explain the causes of war or the prospects of peace along with che basic normative question whether war asa means of resolving international disputes s justified ox not “The normative approach highlights 1ts mchnarion towards a specific arrangement of thmgs or an order that emanates from a commitment to a moral duty or universal necessity The undercurrent of the normative approach includes questions about the nature of man Isthe nature ofman good, bad ora combinarion of both? ‘Whether man sa tational bemg or urationality overndes his actions? Is gender equabty an absolute value or there exist basic gender differences that need consideration? These are some of the fundamental posers that influence the normative approach Moreover, normative approach takes into account the views of history m. the process of mquiry or drawing of conclusions.n relation with 2 social phenomenon Forinstance, astudy based on the linear view of history usually assumes thar the worlds marching towards a better and posituve future An entropic view of history, on the other hand, presupposes that the worlds constantly un the process ofregression A cyche view of history assumes that nothing of substantive significance ever changes except persons at the top and the ways through which these persons getto the top ‘There are certain areas of social sciences that presuppose the normative approach in their analyses For anstance political philosophies or theories of political ideahsm cannot be comprehended wathout getting, to know the norms or ethical standards of the philosophers concerned or the ideologues ofthe theories Tt as pertinent to explain that normanve statements are usually beyond empirical testing They cannot be sdentsfied, explained or venfied by our intellect faculty alone Atthe most one can appreciate or dende the “underlying norm or point of view of the philosopher or the ideologue Take for mstance the concept of justice There are vanous theories, from Plato to Amartya Sen that make attempts to explain what justice 1s For some justice 1s treating equals equally and ‘unequals’ unequally or ‘justice 1s giving equal freedom and equal opportumty to all provided any departure from equal distribution wall prove beneficial to the 6least advantaged’ These assumpuons indicate different sets of value judgments of the philosophers concemed based on their moral princaples but they fail the empirical tests of observation or verification Quite often normative statements on a specific phenomenon not only differ from each other but chey sometimes contradict each other Its not, however, possible to use valueterms such as right or wrong in the evaluation ofnormanve assumptions because they stand beyond the purview of empincal or scientific methodologies ‘They are true or false only in relation to the value systems they are embedded.n The recent advances in socral scrences and even i exact sciences indicate that there cannot be an absolute truth im the field of social sciences or scientific principles as well Quite a few scientific theories are true so long as they are repudiated by new theories The most acceptable academic stance 1s that no theory or principle can be treated as the repository of absolute truth because the so-called scientific assumpuons are also likely to be proved wrong There are certam other assumpuions, which are essentially normative but can also be proved valid empincally Consider statement like, ‘corruption ought to end in order to make the functioning of the government transparent and pro-people " This kind of statement, despite being a normative assumpuon, satisfies the empinical testing as well because on the basis of vensfiable data about the working of governments across the world it can be proved that a political system having minimum corruption has a government that is adequately transparent and commntted to the welfare of the people The empirical data shows that the opposite i true 1n case of widespread corruption ina political system A normative approach underscores the probable course of action that may uphold an mnate value, the primacy of which isan end mn itself For nstance, fa normative statement establishes the preeminence of values such as truth, good or beautiful or any one of them, 1t has served its purpose The most common criticism against the normative approach 1s that 1t1s subjective whereas the empirical approach isobyective In view of a scholar, the studies based on normative approach, ike polsucal philosophy, reveal the fondness of the philosopher concerned about a value or afew values A scholar may accept or eject the fondness of the philosopher for that set of values There cannot, however, be a rational argument inthe matter This 1s, however, an extreme view There are other experts who believe that a reasonably rewarding dralogue 1s possible between the adherents of normative and empirical schools They pomnt out that concepts such as freedom, equabty and justice necessitate a dialogue between normanve and empincal approaches Another characteristic of the normative approach 1s that 1s prescriptive whereas an empincal approach 1s descnptive To put 1t plainly, the normative approach essentially concentrates on the conditions and standards that are created by human beings and thet are ikely to change depending on social requirements An adherent of the normauve approach can determine their moral vahdity and then suggest the nght course of action For instance, theones pertaining to the forms of government are likely to undergo changes with the changes in social condinons Additionally, the moral value ke legitsmacy that justifies a particular form of government may possibly remain a constant but the forces lending legitimacy to the form of government might change, In the ancient and medieval umes it was divinity, power or heredity that provides legitimacy to the form of government, currently, people's support is the most acceptable criterion for the legitimacy of a government Jeas true that at times normative approach vindicates the socio-polatical or religious bias of its adherent For instance the promiment political philosophers such as Plato and Anstotle justified the institution of slavery on account of dispantes between the intrinsic capabiktues and natures of a slave and a freeman Sumular preyudices also prevailed in the matter of suppression of the position of woman Their assumptions were obviously not based on empinical studies but emanated from the value system of those umes The advancements m the fields of social and biological sciences have now established that the assumptions of 7Platoand Anstotle were unfounded Another criticism chat 1s usually directed towards normative approach 1s that it fails to provide a reasonable critenon to determine whats wrong or what is nght Its a valid cnticism and supporters of normative approach admit this shortcoming, ‘They, however, pomnt out that the empirical approach 1s a lopsided one because it disregards values and 1ts adherents are not capable to distinguish between higher and lower values The normative approach is, therefore, a very valuable approach particularly m social sciences An argument in favour of normative approach does not necessarily mean refutation of the empirical approach. In fact, theres a need to recognise the validity and significance of various approaches in the study of social sciences INSTITUTIONAL APPROACH ‘Asthe name suggests, a thorough investigation of poltucal institutions in order tostudy the disciphine of political science 1s called the institutional approach The approach 1s almost as old as the discipline of politics and most polical scientists since the times of Aristotle have defined and restricted the scope of the discipline only to the study of state and government In this respect a particular feature of the approach as that t does not usually make use of other social sctences such as philosophy, history, or law to analyse pohtcal phenomena It, cherefore, assigns an independent individualty to the orgamzed inquiry of pohtical science Institutional approach allocates the fundamental status to the institution ofstate in the study of pohtucs and ats agency, the government along with its various organs such as legislature, executive, judiciary and uteaucracy are also identified for close scrunny as mportant political mstitunions. There are also many other institutions such as pohtical parties, trade umons, nongovernmental organisations, educational institutions, religious and cultural organisations ete which may interest a scholar who 1s employing institutional approach if they directly or indirectly have some bearing on polincal processes In this context 11s necessary to know whet an institution really 1s An institution, by and large, can be defined as an established or organised society, an organisation, 12 corporation or an establishment especially of a public nature or whose working affects a commumity An mstatution may be a foundation, a chanstable institution, asports club ora literary body In the words of Vernon Van Dyke “An stitution 1s any persistent system of activities and expectations, or any stable pattern of group behaviour * Atypical fearure of an institution 1s 1ts offices, agencies and che personnel associated with it are arranged in hierarchy that means each office, agency or personal attached to at assigned specific powers and functions Italsoimphes that the people or the communuty that are likely to be affected by the working of an instutution expect that it offices, agencies or personnel should function mn accordance with the respective ‘powers and functions assigned to them If we particularly look for the defimtion ofa pohtical unstituton then we get to know that a political insutution 1s an orgamisatuion that creates, enforces and makes governmental policies pertaining to economy and social system It also provides for people's representation ‘The examples of such political institution include government and 1ts various organs, political parties, trade umonsand the courts The term political stitution may also denote che recognised structure of rules and principles within which it operates ‘Thus, institutional approach mn the study of politcal science mphesa detaled study of the government, ts structures, and the body of rales within which 1 required to operate and also a thorough examination of its various organs Besides, the study of poliacal partes, thetr structures, ideologies and functioning that have linkages with political processes forms a significant segment of institutional approach Sumilarstudes of other political insututions such as trade umons and civil society institutions are also part of the instirutional approach Aristotle who 1salso considered the father of cradstional school of politics was the first who classified the governments as per the numentcal strength of the rulers and the qualitative worth of their governance. Accordingly, he identified forms of governments as monarchy, aristocracy and pobty 8applying the numerical as well as better governance criterta, also as tyranny, oligarchy and democracy using numerical as well as erosion of legitimacy of governance criteria Though Anstotle’s classification 1sno more valid, its study 1s imperative to comprehend the historical background of political theory The modern classification of governments such as democracy or dictatorship. parhamentary or presidential and unitary or federal 15 not the sudden growth of our umes These forms of government owe a lot to archetypal kunds of government that had emerged m ancient Greece, Rome and some other ancient societies ‘The mstitutional approach includes the study of all forms of governments Additionally the institutional approach also emphasises on the inquiry of levels of government which means whether the levels of governance pertain to federal, state or local institutions ‘The approach also prescnibes the analysis of the powers and functioning of the organs of government such as legislature, executive and judiciary The institutional approach 1s more or Jess value-free 1n the sense that it 1g mamly concerned wath the consideration of facts in relation to political institutions ‘This 1s a feature that 1s usually ascribed to a modern approach In this respect, despite being a traditional approach, the insntutional approach not only radically differs from the normative and historical approaches but appears more like a modern approach Nevertheless, polcal scientists refrain from including it n the category of modern approaches because 1t 1s exceedingly concerned about description rather than analysis of political phenomena The experts have also enlisted some other shortcomings of this approach They are as under 2) Its exclusively focused on political institutions Asa result, the mdsvidual, the primary actor in pobucal process has been totally discounted im the msticational approach Icled toa situation that the study of votng behaviour and pohucal preferences of an individual was ignored by those pohtical scientists who advocated snsntutional approach in the study of politics xn) in thearea of mternanonal politics the adherents of nstituaonal approach restrict thetr studies only to the vestigation of mternational pohitical institutions such as the United Nations and its allied agencies and completely ignore the subject-matter of international politics such as foreign policy, daplomacy, international law and so on im) since sts concerned with the study of only established pohtical stitutions. totally ignores the consideration of other phenomena hke violence, political movements and agatations, wars, revolution and the scourge of our times, terronsm, which certainly mfluence politics, 1) _ finally, also overlooks the position and snfluence of informal groups that have an effect on the poles of almost all states Nevertheless, t must be underlined that instrutional approach 1s very significant because political anstatutions constitute the core segment of the scope of pohitical science [tis unimaginable to ignore the study of Political institutions m any meaningfel inqunry of pohtucal phenomena Itshould also be made clear that no single approach 1s adequate in atself for the study of any social science It is true about institutional approach as well It 1s only the combination of a few significant approaches that helps in a dispassionate study of polstical science and institutional 1s certainly one of the significant approaches BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH ( Hodwin Agprccl) menage ain US Behaviouralism 1s one of the most significant modern approaches to the study of political science A modern approach differs from a tradiuonal one in precisely two ways Furst, a modern approach 1s concerned inainly abgut establishing a separate identity of political science By emphasizing on the factual character ohpobus ‘wo, a modern approach makes an atcempt to study politics in enurety, which means it pays ttle attention to the formal aspects of the discrpline and brings into focus such other aspects that influence and also ger influenced in the pohitical processes {Behaviouralism 1s an approach 1n political science which 9seeks to provide an objective, quantified approach to explaining and predicting political behaviour Its emergence m pohtics coincides with the nise of the behavioural social sciences that were given shape after the natural sciences (Behaviouralism 1s mainly concerned to examine the behaviour, actions, and acts of indsviduals rather than the charactenstics of mstitutions such as legislatures, executives, and yudiciaries Behaviourahsm underscores the systematic inquiry ofall exclusive expression of political behaviour, Some scholars insist that behaviouralism amples the application of menculous scientific and statistical methods in order to standardise means of investigation Tt1s also an exercise in ensuring a value-free study of the discipline of pohtics {It 1s usually argued that by the adherents of behavioural approach that political science should be studied in manner similar to the study of natural sciences in this context, the supporters of behavioural approach msist that the main role of a political scientist 1s to collect and analyse factual data man objective manner The major pomt of criticism against the traditional approaches has been thac they have been deficient in applying scientific methods to the study of politics that has rendered sts very claim to be a science at all Therefore. the behaviouralists recommended the application of exacting methodology and empincal studies to make the discipline of political science a true social science \The ‘behavioural approach has without doubt given 15 a totally ground-breakang purpose to the study of politics by taking it towards an inquiry based on research-supported verifiable data ‘The behaviourahists have challenged the realist and liberal approaches by labeling them tradinonal as they fail to substantiate their conclusion with verifiable facts In order to understand political behaviour of individual the supporters of behavioural approach prescribe the methods hike sampling, interviewing, scoring, scaling and statistical analysis The behavioural approach came to be exceedingly favoured 1n the study of polincal science after the World War I] Nonetheless, 1t onginated with the pubhcation 1n 1908 of the works of two polucal scientists, Graham Wallas (Human Nature in Politics) and Arthur Bentley ( The Process of Government) Both these political scientists preferred to underscored the formal political processes and cimimshed the signuficance ofthe study of political institutions n isolation Wallas, moved by the new findings of modern psychology, strived to introduce simular realism in the study of political science The major breakthrough provided by ‘modern psychology was that an individual, after all, was not that much a rational being as the traditional political scientists and classical economists had tried to make him out{Consequently, he emphasised that, ‘more often than not, an individual's political action were not giver direction by rationality and self- interest Wallas pointed out that human nature was a complex phenomenon and for an objective understanding of human nature suggested gatherng and analysis of factual data of human behaviour The other political scientist, Bentley was credited for inventing ‘group approach’ in the study of politics’ He also prescribed that there shauld be a shift from description of pohncal activity to the application of new tools of investiganion Bentley had sought greater inspiration from modern sociology that made him ‘emphasise the role of the informal groups such as pressure groups, elections and political opmmon in political processes Another significant poliical scientist who made valuable contribution to behavioural approach was Charles E Mernam, known as the founder of Chicago Schoo} His objection to the traditional approaches to politics ‘was the usual one1e they suffer from the absence of thorough scientific mqury He was also critical of the works of those historians who did not take into account the role of psychological, soctologjcal and economic aspects of human existence He vociferously advocated an inter hsciplinary approach to the study of poliucal science, which would endow the discipline with a true scientific character He favoured the use of quanutative techniques in the study of politics and encouraged political scientists to treat political behaviour as the cardinal issue in the studies Since he was a resolute admurer of democracy, he strived to employ science to disseminate the message of democracy He did not see any inconsistency to advance the cause of a specific form of government through an approach to politics It was Wilham B Munro, another supporter ofmodern approach who made 1t plain thet it was improper for political science to encourage the spread of any 10specific form of government, democracy or otherwise One more proponent of behavioural approach, G E G Cathn spoke of makang politics a value-free social science in his notable work, Science and Method of Policies, published in 1927 For Catlin. the essence of politics s to be located in ‘power’ and in this respect he cautioned that in the analysis of power, no parncular vatue-system should be ken into account Catlin’s dea that polities was essentially the study of power was later turned intoa comprehensive study by Harold D Lasswell in the renowned work Politics Who Gets What, When, How that came out in 1936. Its considered as one of the most meticulous studies of power. These were the most important attempts to transform politics into a scientific discipline prior to World War Il, In the post-war period quite a few Amencan political scientists such as David B Truman, Robert Dahl, Evron M Kirkpatnch, Hemz Eulau et al made outstanding contributions to behaviouralism that elaborated and expanded the extent of behavioural approach beyond the analysis of political behaviour ‘Therefore, 1t1s pertinent to quote here the contemporary definition of behavioural approach as provided by Geoffrey K Roberts in A Dicuonary of Political Analysts, published in 1971 “Political behaviour, as an area of study within pohtical science, 1s concerned with those aspects of human behaviour that take place within a state or other political commumty, for political purposes or with political monvation Its focus 1s the individual person as voter, leader, revolutionary, party member, opinion leader etc. rather than the group or the pohiucal system, butt necessanly takes account of the mfluences of the group on the individual's behaviour, the constraints of the system on the mdividual’s opportunities for action, and the effects of the political culture on his attitude and political habits ” In view of this definition the political scientists who subscribe to behavioural approach investigate the Psychological and sociological bearmgs on the behaviour of the individual in a political situation, Such an approach makes 1t imperative to make investigation of certain processes and political aspects such as political socialisation, politcal ideologies, political culture, pohitical participation, political commumication, leadership, decision making and also political violence It goes without saying that the study of most of these processes demands an inter- CLASSIFICATION OF SOVEREIGNTY The term sovereignty has been used us different senses This leads to various lands of sovereignty We may brefly discuss them as under (1) Titular and real sovereign : Trrular means nomunal or ceremonial, such as the British Monarch or, President or India) Whale the real sovereign 1s the one who exercises real power such as the absolute monarchs in the former days Under Parhamentary system the king or the Queen, or even elected President 1s nominal sovereign in whom the executive powers of the state are vested, while the Parliament is a real sovereign A lang would also be a real sovereign if he directly exercises all powers (2) Legal and Political sovereignty Distinction 1s also made between legal and political sovereignty A legal sovereign 1s one which has supreme power to enact law In a modern state the Parhament or the Central legislative body like the “American Congress are the legal sovereigns within their states A legal sovereign can theoretically overnde even the divine law or long-standing social customs ‘Main features of a legal sovereign are (a) Itas definite. determmnate, organised and known to laws (b) Italone has power to enact highest laws (c) Disobedience to legal sovereign will lead to punishment 20(@) All nights emanate from the legal sovereign (e) Authority of the legal sovereign ts unhmited We have already said that the Briush Parhament and the Amencan Congress exercise such legal sovereignty (3) Political Sovereign Stands behind the legal sovereign In democracy pohtical sovereignty belongs to the voters There are differences of opinion about the location of political sovereignty Some political scientists feel that not only the voters, but other forces which are behind the legal sovereign, make up for political sovereignty However, the fact remains that political sovereignty 1s difficult to locate There is, however, no doubt that pubhc opinion, the wishes of the voters etc influence the dectsion of the legal sovereign In a direct democracy, the people could be considered as political sovereign (4) Popular Sovereignty The concept of popular sovereignty 1s very old For example, Roman scholar, Cicero said “the authonty of the Common Wealth 1s derived from the corporate power of the people “In the medieval period, political thinkers spoke of the voice of the people. Machravelht said “voice, of the people 1s voice of God.” The Social Contractualsts also argue that authontty of state 1s based on the consent of the people In this sense people are the popular sovereign James Bryce said “the sovereignty of the people is the basis of democracy ” WB De Jure and De Facto Sovereign A distinction isalso made between deure (legal) and defacto (actual) sovereign De jure sovereign 1s one who 1s legally recognised, and is competent to issue command of state Thus the authonty of the de jure sovereign rests on law Somettine due to historical circumstances the de ure sovereign isunable to exercise hus power This may happen asa result of revolutions, or conquest by foreign power For example. after the Battle of Plassey (1757) the Nawab of Bengal remained de jure sovereign while the East India Company became de facto sovereign, as 1t exercised complete control over the three provinces of Bengal, Bhar and Onssa Some scholars are of the opinion that since sovereignty 1s a legal concept, only de jure sovereign 15 the real sovereign De yure sovereignty 1s also necessary for pobtucal stability. QNCLUSION (1) Sovereignty 1s the heart and soul ofa state/Internally 1t stands forthe supreme authority of the state within its terntory and externally free from any foreign or external pressure or interference. (2) Austin advocate monistic or absolutist concept of Sovereignty Scholars such as Gierke, Maitland, Durkheim, Barker ete questioned the absolutist concept of sovereignty. This school of thought came to be known as Phuralism (3) However, in the ultmare analysis, scholars agree that for a state to be able to perform its functions effectively tt must have unrestcted sovereign power, in the absence of which we wall revertto the Hobbsean State of Nature Indeed modern period has witnessed two parallel trends -expansion of individual freedom and greater state action m defence ofthat freedom and welfare obhigationsof the state ) AUSTIN’S THEORY OF SOVEREIGNTY OR MONISTIC THEORY OF SOVEREIGNTY John Austin, the famous English Junst, who gave one of the most authentic definition of sovereignty, in his, book Lectures on Junsprudence published in 1832 Hlis theory of Sovereignty has left an yndehible imprint on the subject of sovereignty and even today the concept of sovereignty cannot be studied without reference to Austin Austin provided the most elaborate analysis of the legal theory of sovereignty His theory is also 21known as Monistic Theory In spite of several criticisms che basic principles of hus theory stil serve as the basis for modern yunsprudence ‘Austin’s theory 18 as follows Austin’s theory of sovereignty 1s purely legal or juristic In simple language tt ‘means that (1) Inevery independent poliucal communnty there exists sovereign power In other words sovereignty 1san essential attribute of an independent political society (2) The sovereign 1s determinate person or body of persons It cannot be an indefimte body or a vague concept (3) The power of the-sovereign-is legally unlimited, there 1s no legal mit to his power or authority (4) ‘The obedience rendered to the sovereign is habitual and not casual Austin’s thesis 1s that obedience to the sovereign must continuous, regular, undisputed and uninterrupted Buc this obedience need not be from every member of the society It1s enough if obedience comes from the bulk or majority ofthe population (5) The power of the sovereign 1s mdivisible There must be as many states as there are sovereigns. The power of the sovereign cannot be divided or shared Division of the sovereignty 1s unthinkable (©) The command of the sovereigns the law Whatever 1s not commanded by the sovereign, cannot be considered, as law Obedience to be command of the sovereign 1s obligatory Disobedience will anvite penalty Criticism of Austin’s Theory of Sovereignty ‘Ausun’s theory was erticised by many scholars such Sir Henry Mame, Clark, Sidgwick, Laskiete Criueism of Austin’s theory 182s under (1) Sovereignty does not reside m a determmnate human supenor Sir Henry’Maine pointed out that sovereignty does not reside ma determinate superior He pointed out that sovereignty and the power of sovereign can never be absolute e g Maharaja Ranpt Singh, he said that he could have commanded anything yet never n his hfe he 1ssued a command which could be properly called as law The rules which regulated the hfe of his people were derived from customs, usages and conventions He himself ‘was subject to customary laws of the community Not only in the Asian society but even in the Western society no sovereign could disregard the socral customs and tradinons In the medieval period the Church exercised complete control over the authority of the sovereign Accordingly, Sir Maine concludes that sovereignty has never been or can never be absolute (2) Mame also pointed out that Austin's theory 1s inconsistent with the concept of popular sovereignty Itasmot true in a democratic society In democracy sovereignty resides in the people In this sense, sovereignty cannot be determinate Austin also does not take into account, what 1s today called as political sovereignty (8) According to Laska, law is not simply a command of a sovereign It must be based on the moral sense of the society There cannot be a law opposed to social, moral values and customs Sovereign power can never be absolute and unlimied Even the most powerful dictators and autocratic rulers could not ignore the public opinion, or prevailing customs and tradition, Theoretically, we may say that the power of the sovereign is absolute but in reality, m every soctety there are forces which can challenge the authority ofthe state 22(S}” Austin lays too much emphasis on force He believes that obedience can be exacted by the threat of force But force and coercion are unproductive in the long run In fact repeated use of force can Decome counter-productive Force 1s something which destroys its own roots [tis not force but the willing consent which should be the basis of authority (6 Inamodern democratiestate the location of the sovereign 1s practically impossible Ina Parbamentary system sovereignty 1s located in Parhament But behind the Parliament isthe political sovereign ue the common voters And behind this political sovereign 1s the mass of people, who make-up for the popular sovereign Thusin a democratic society 115 practically impossible to discover the sovereign. in the Austimean sense. (Austin also fasled to distinguish between legal. political and popular sovereignty In a Parhamentary system while Parhament 1s the legal sovereign, the electors are the political sovereign, and the masses, popular sovereign (8) Austin also fatled to recogmize the role of other associations within the modern state Laski has pointed out that ina modern state, there can be powerful associations and groups, which exert great pressure on its members (Inthe mternational system no state 1s externally free from foreign dommations or influences Even powerful states cannot disregard” the feelings of the smaller states, on the other hand the smaller states are constantly under economic or poliucal pressure of the larger states 10) “The greatest defect of Austin’s theory 18 that ¢ 8 undemocratic According to him the sovereign is the determinate superior while the people are subordinate dependent on kim Such a theory will logically lead to despousm CONCLUSION Austin’s theory 1s further criticised on the ground that 1¢ assigns absolute and unlimited power to the. sovereign. The pluralist do not agree with this argument, they mamtain that the state 1s an association ike many other associations 1n a society ‘Therefore, the pluralists accused Austin’s doctrine of a single and unifyingsovereignty They argue that sovereignty in modern state is dsfused and shared by many associations and mstitutons Externally also sovereign states cannot ignore the lumatations put by the internatronal Law, Austin’s theory 1s therefore regarded as legal fiction flasks 1s of che opinion that the idea of an independent sovereign state 1s fatal to the well being of humamty Today, fhe States of the World constitute an international society There are several common international problems which cannot be solved without mternational co-operarion For example, international cerrorism cannot be tackled without the co-operanion of different states Similarly, agencies of the United Nations work in close cooperation Besides, there are Mult-National Corporations (MN C ) and trans-national organisations, having their activities across. national and continental boundanes Today, in addition to regional co-operation, there 1s a process of globalisation of the world economy The world economy 1s now closely integrated Therefore, mn such a situation Austin’s theory does not hold ground 23UNIT - Ill MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE OF CITIZENSHIP AND LIBERTY, EQUALITY AND JUSTICE ‘METHODS OF ACQUIRING CITIZENSHIP Bw Citizenship may be acquired according totwo methods () by birth, or (a) by naturalization. Birth: ‘There are two practices which are observed regarding the acquisition of c1tizenshup by birth Jus Sanguinis and Jus Soli. Jus Sanguinis (hiv According to Jus Sanguims, a child acquires the citizenshup of parents urrespective of the place of birth, eg, child born of Indian parents 1s an Indian citizen whether it 1s born on Indian soil or abroad The practice of Jus Sanguimis was very popular in ancient times Even now, 1t is observed by most ofthe states in the world This practice 1g natural as well as logical It 1s exclusively observed in Germany, Italy, Sweden, Norway ete Isat rnd goes ‘According to this practice, citizenship 1s determined by the place of birth and not by parentage This practice 1s now not popular. It was, of course, popular mn the middle ages when citizenship was associated wath land At present, however, this practice is exclusively observed in Argentina In England, US A and France, both the above practices are employed simultaneously Observance of both the practices sometimes gives rise to duplication of citszenshup A chuld born of Enghsh parents in America, for example, becomes the citizen of America according to the practice of us Soh The same child becomes a catizen of England also according to the practice of Jus Sanguims, The problems solved by grving an option to the child to accept the citizenship of either state 1t hkes when it comes of age Naturalization: Cinzenshup can also be acquired through naturalization Accordingto this method, an alien can become citizen after fulfilling certam conditions Though these conditions vary from state to state, yet some of the general principles which are observed may be summed up as follows 1 Residence. A certain penod of residence in the state 1s essential before an alien cep be granted citizenship This period varies from state to state In England and U.S A this period is 5 years In France, 1t1s 10 years 2 Oath of Allegiance. Analien must take an oath of allegiance before he can become a citizen of another state 243. Purchase of Real Estate Analen, who buys real estate m a foreign land, can get the rights of citzzenshup 2f he so desires 4. Service (Civil or Military). Analien my be given nghts of citizenship if he renders mentonous service in another state 5. Marriage: Women acquire the citizenshup of their aen husbands e g,, an English lady wall acquire the citizenship of India if she marnesan Indian The condinon of marriage in Japan, however, 1s quite different Japanese women do not lose their cinzenshup even if they marry ahen husbands The alien husband, on the other hand, acquires the cityzenshup of Japan if he marnes a Japanese lady ) Loss of Citizenship: Citzzenship may be lost under the following conditions, 1. Renunciation: ‘One may renounce the citizenship of one’s onginal state and may become the citizen ofa foreign state by naturalization 2, Marriage: ‘Women lose the citizenship of their onginal state if they marry ahens In England, there 1s a move to retain English citrzenshrp for women marrying foreigners 3. Acceptance of Service, Decoration or Titlefrom a Foreign State. Some states deprive their citxzens of citzenship, if they accept service, honor or utle in a foreign state 4, Long Absence: In some state, like France and Germany, citizens who absent themselves from their states for more than ten years may lose their citzzenship 5, Treason or Felony: Apperson, who gharged with treasonable actiues, may be deprived of his itizenshnp faut spoon tancins Off A: IBERTY 4 2 conapt Het tap Timpoud by Has ttoek Yatroduction The concept of hberty emerged 1n the 19th century and become important in democracy It is a very widely used term but 1s difficult to precisely define it Meaning ‘The word “hberty” 1s denved from the Latin word “Liber” meaning “free” Liberty is necessary for quality human hfe It isa necessary condition of rationality, of acuon, ofachievement_To be free is to be able to translate one*s ideals mto realty, co actuahze one’s potentialities as a person\ Lucas regards freedom as being cefly freethom, from ill health, from fear, from want, from arbitrary arfest. from public opmion‘beereepects-of-tiberty In negative sense 1t means merely the absence of restraint or absence of interference of impediment Itis@ situation sn which Aas free from B to do the desired things of his/her own choice Positively it refers to the positive opportunity for self-development According to(isaiah Berlin negative iberty 1s absence of interference by others and posrtive hberty means persons capacity to implement his will Characteristic Features of Liberty 1) Liberty and freedom are synonymous 2) Liberty does not mean absence of restraints, It means acceptance of reasonable restrictions} 3) Unrestramed liberty means law of jungle, 4) Liberty1s opposed to polnical subjection It advocates independence for every nationality 5) __Itmeans freedom to do something posiuvely 6) Activities of the state and individual hberty are not opposed to each other In fact they are complementary 7) The law of the state protects freedom of the weak 8) Liberty incorporates the idea of indswidual and soctal welfare ‘There must be a balance between the two 9) Itasan essential condition for all-round developments of human personality 10) Liberty 1s associated with responsibihty 11) Itisa dynamic concept [tis meaning changes with changing times, places and conditions 12) _Irasthe responsibility of the state to create required conditions for enjoyment of hberty Types of Library: Notion of hberty can be classified in many types Natural Liberty (Lack o nutrdats nobaae fe") Iemeans total and complete freedom, It means lack of any restramt This notion of hberty refers to the fact, that man is by nature free Narural Liberty 1s strongly advocated by Rousgeau who said that, “Man 1s born free but everywhere he isin chains ” However, this concept of liberty iowinegey Bers a myth Personal Laberty:(yex fo septs’ fas pyutie! ‘This nonon suggests that every human being desires to exercise his faculties and to determine the general conditions of his hfe |This provides justification of personal hberty which 1s champroned by Mull who sard that the individual should-be free to expersment wath hus lfe,as long as his achons da notaffect athe. National Liberty: ( saktinal ouch) Te oceans national independence National liberty: is for achievement of comple ean subsequent sovereignty of the nation from the dominance of foreign nation Freedom from the bondage of other states s essentual for the realization of liberty in its fullest sense It means 1t1s the foundation of all other hibertes. 26vy a anes beget pin Civil Liberty ( cuaiet by He stale > ppnt~ This liberty exists in a civil soctety >t Trmeans hberty an social hfe In the words of Gettel, “it includes hberty to free action and immunity from interferencefit ts and pm t the state creates and enforces " It includes freedom of the person, physical freedom from injury or threat to the hfe, health, and movement of the body, intellectual freedom for the expression of thought and behef, equality before the law, security of private property, freedom of opinion and expression, and freedom of conscience As per Laska civil bberty is the sum total of the nghts, recognised im various degrees in different states It isa safeguard against physical and moral. iom, reli the nght to repucauon, the nght to work, education, family nghts, the ughtof sociation, the right to the general advant life, Political Liberty Itrefers to the individuals role, participation and share in the administration of the state Ic connotes the opportunity of taking part in the process of government, and of havinga say in the future development of the community. As Barker says, political hberty 1s{'a liberty not of curbing; constituting it by a general act of choice or election, in which we all freely share on the basis of universal suffrage, controlling rt by general and continuous process of discussion,jin which we all freely share according to our capacities "4 Political liberty rennforces the duty of political obedience Poliucal liberty 16 often equated with the night tovote, the hberues of holding views about political matters and of ventilating those views in public, the right of addressing those with whom the decision rests and the hberty of seeking and holding office Political berry 1s based on the ideal of participation @oliucal berty 1s a guarantee to the whole communuty that st will not be governed by any outside power or by any individual or section of ts own members Further ts a guarantee to a sufficiently large group or interest that 1ts claim wall be heard and its wishes would make themselves felt According to Laskt political hberty can be realized if citwzen 1s educated enough to express what he wants and f he 1s well tnformed by honest and straightforward supply of news According to Sarton, Pobtucal freedom is protection agaunst arbitrary and absolute power It desires “a situation which permits the governed effectively to oppose abuse of power by the governors” Economic Liberty Temeans reasonable opportumty for everyone to earn his datly bread Itumphies economic freedom wherein alabourer is assured of just reward This freedom creates harmonious industnal systema in which every man will produce only that which he 1s capable of producing and the community will have need for what he produces Economic liberty also implies the absence of economic mequalittes which can become economic constraints Tras understood as a secunty that the economically weak will not be at the mercy of economically strong Ittends to resist the concentration of economic control According to Laski, economic liberty means, “secuntty and the opportanuty to find reasonable sigmificance im the earning of one s daily bread” It mphes that the ciuzen must be free from the constant fear of ‘unemployment and insufficiency which, perhaps more than any other inadequacy kes away the whole strength of personahty The citizen, “must be safeguarded against the wants of tomorrow ” The citizen must be able to make his personality flow through his effort as a producer of services, and “find in that. effort the capacity of enrichment " He further says that ecoriomic lrberty imphes democracy m industry 27Restrictions and Safeguards of Liberty ‘Absolute liberty 1s dangerous It supports the dictum that, “mghtis night” Such unrestricted freedom 1s ultumately denial of equality along with freedom of others Certain safeguards are devised to check hberty. Some of them are, prevention of others, general public uuhty, equicy, national unity, secunity and sovereignty of the country, peace and order n the society, etc Liberty also involves certain safeguards Just lawisthe vital condition of berty Law can destroy, law can uphold conditions of liberty Democratic polity 1s prerequisite of liberty In democracy widespread enjoyment of liberty 1s dependent on the respect for mnonty nghtsand on the widespread habit of tolerance imacommuntty An independent judiciary anda healthy development of local self-governing institutions, further help liberty Consntutional government, a charter of fundamental nghts, a tradition of constructive public opinion and eternal vigilance are other sure safeguards of liberty Importance of Liberty: tas a very important political value 1) Teasone of the pillars of democracy’ A democratic government 1s meaningful only 1f people enjoy liberty Love for hberty teaches individuals to oppose injustice. fe putsa check on the activities of the government 2) Laberty isthe most precious aspect of human life |Only liberty can bring about all-round development, ofhuman personality” (Crauaury Introducuon Equality (fhe Amencan Declaration of Independence, 1776 proclayns that, “all menare created equal, that they are endowed by therr Creator with certain unahenable egies Je French Declaration of 1789 also proclamed,” men are born and live free and equal m their nghts ” Both the documents underlines the fact that Equality 1s a protest ideal, a symbol of man’s revolt against chance, fortucous disparity, unjust power, crystallized privilege Fquahty 1s difficult and controversial notion in pobtics Its afact that humans are not equal They have differences in their mental, moral qualines or ther attitudes and abilities The demand for equality dose not neglect the differences among humans Ic 1s a protest against unjust, undeserved, and unjustified anequahiues, for herarchies of worth and ability never satisfactorily corresponds to effective hierarchies of power [Demand for equality provides necessary motion to break the inertia of humnan society, which constantly tends to perpetuate the existing vertical structures Such structures perpetuate themselves with nurturing the belief that each man should live according to his station? And by means of routine, custom, and traditional, social mechanisms The ideal of equality works against such force of gravity inherent in politico-socio organisms (Meaning of Equality Thus the very differences in the nature of men require mechanisms for the expression of their wills that give to each its due hearing In bnef, equality refers to the equal enjoyment of rights by all citizens and absence of any discrimination based on status, race or sex ‘The principle that all men are equal only means that they ought to be treated in the same manner im certain vital respects It means mparnality of treatment According to Harold J Laski equality means the absence of special privilege availability of adequate opportunities open toall Its fundamentally a levehng process Marx argued for equality agan end to class domination and economic explo:tation of man by man These definitions shows two aspects of equality 281) Negative aspect ~ It means absence of special privileges 2) Posiewe aspect Ie means that adequate opportunities should be made available wall”) Sw Dimensions of Equality A. Legal Dimension of Equality Legal drmenston of Equality 1s essential ingredient of liberal democracy Tegal equality implies that every individuals equal before the law and ts enutled to and can claim equal protection of the laws In modern democratic states, law neither allows special privileges to any particular class nor confers unequal nghts on, or claum unequal obligations from, different categories of citizens Equality before the law dose not guarantees equal treatment by the law but equal access to the law, and consideration only of those factors laid down by law as relevant Legal equality dose not mean that any two persons must always be treated enactly alike Itclaums that the grounds for deciding between two persons should be only those laid down by law, and not any legally extraneous ones, whether unreasonable grounds of moral sentuments or Natural law, or unreasonable ones of private caprice Application of legal dimension 1s contextual Division of labour and distributive justice provides ground for legimate unequal treatment to certain classes or categories of dividuals or groups Equality before the law basically denotes equal enjoyment of certain fundamental nghtsand duties Political Dimension of Equality Political equality smplies equal access to political power This form of equality 1s closely associated with iberal democratic form of government The concrete expression of polincal equality 1s the conferment, on all adult citizens, of the nght to vote and its corollaries, the right to contest for public office and equal eligibility for administrative and judicial posts provided the necessary technical quabifications are fulfilled In short, political equality denotes che equality of political nghts of citizens ‘This notion of equality 1s heavily discarded by many According to elitist theory, ordinary citizens, even when they have votes, have no real access to political power In democratic political system power 1s contested by pohtucal parties which are themselves controlled by a chque ot self appointed leaders’ According to Laska, “polattcal equahty, is never real unless 1t1s accompanied by virtual economic equality, political power, otherwise 1s bound to be the handmaid of economic power,” Marx ridiculed the notion of ‘equality in a society based on capitalism Socio-Economical Dimensions of Equality Itis generally agreed chat legal and political dimensions alone are not adequate to interpret equality because it agnores the basic fundamental aspect of equality, 1€ , ts socio-economic dimensions If the legal and pobtcal equalities are of the formal type, economic and social equalities are substantive and of the matertal type First 1s apparent and second is real equality Literally xt rmphes the attempt to expunge all differences in wealth, allotting to every man and woman an equal share in worldly goods But practically 11s difficult to follow this meaning Properly interpreted, economic equality means the provision of adequate opportummties forall in the matenl sense of equalising the staring-pomts, that 1s, creating by means of a relauvely equal distribution of wealth the material conditions for equal access to opportunities In Maraan sense it demands State ownership of all wealth ‘The princxple of social equality remams a characteristically democratic preoccupation 29Characteristic Features of Equality 1) Absolute equality 1e , completes identity of treatment and reward 1s not desirable 2) Menare by nature unequel.n their capacity 3) Ieas basically @ levehng process 4) — Itas essential for social pustice 5) Temeans equal opportumtes to all 6) Temeans absence of special privileges toany one 7) Essential thmgs must be provided to all Types of Equality: Equality can be classified into four types Ontological Equality: ‘This form of equality has tts base in religious and moral tradition Its expressed in the religious belief that all persons are equal before God Natural theonsts stressed an essential equality of human bemgs qua human bemgs In moder scientific world this notion 1s quiet ineffective to argue in favour of equality But “Marxism takes similar position when 1¢ asserted that all human beings are knowledgeable. conscious and practical agents All human beings have to labour productively to produce thesr means of existence and reproduce their own species. Equality of Opportunity: Temeans that access to important social insutubioas should be open to all on umversalistic grounds Especially by achievement and talent The debate about equality of opportumty was especially amportant m the development of modern educational institutions where promotion and attainment were n theory based ‘upon mntelligence, skall and talent regardless of parental and class background, mn terms of umrversal criteria of achievement, not on ascribed standards of age, sex or wealth. Equality of Gondition- Equahty of opportunity 1s closely hnked to equality of condition Equahty opportunity rewards those who have ability and who are prepared to exercise their skills in the interest of personal achievement 1n a competitive situation. In order for equality of opportunity to have any significant content, its essential to guarantee equality of condmon, that 1s, all competitors should start at the same time Equality of Outcome It stressed on equality of result regardless of starting pomt and natural ability It seeks to transform mequalities at the beginmng into social equalities as 2 conclusion Socral programmes of positive discrimination 1n favour of disadvantaged or dispnivileged groups are meant to compensate for significant iequahities of condition in oder to bring about a meaningful equality of opportumty to secure an equality of result 30Evaluation of the notion of Equality, ‘Importance of Equality - 1) A peaceful society can be developed only on the sohd foundation of equality The history 1s full of wars, clashes and revolutions because there was absence of equality 2) Equality 1s a necessary precondition for enjoyment of hberty Without equality hberty becomes a privilege of some people 3) Equality promotes justice ) Equahty 1s highly contested concept. It 1s one of the leading ideals of the body pohtuc, 1t 1s the most controversial of the great social ideals It isthe essence of social justice Along with other ideals 1t1s the basic core of today’s egalitananism Despite various differences it serves to remind us of our common humanity In social scrences we use the concept of equality in number of ways. e g Equality before the law, equahty of opportunity, equahty of outcome, gender equality, racial equality, social equality etc Theres no single acceptable, common notion of the term equality Apart from common meaning of the term the value of equality itself s attacked by many thinkers and school of thoughts In ancient Greece Anstotle justified mequality when he ustified slavery He contented that slavery was natural an reasonable instmution because there wasa fundamental difference and inequahties among men In his words, some are marked out for subjection, others for rule Cicero contradicts these arguments of Aristotle, According to him, men differ indeed mm learning, but they are equal in the faculty of learning, nature has given toall men reasons OMan obstacles in the implementation of equality 1) Social-Age old customs, traditions and superstitions create mequality of socal status 2) Political ~ Political power 1s enjoyed by peopie belonging to certain castes and certain famihes, This means absence of equal opportuniues 3) Economre~"There 1s concentration of economic wealth in the hands of few) Following are some common arguments against equality The different components of equality ate often, mutually mcompauble For example, equality of opportunity and condition tend to produce inequality of results The notion of equality of opportunuty is characteristic of liberalism and some versions of liberalism ate content to accept a situation where inequality of outcome ispredominant A political programme to secure equahty generally would be feasible, since to secure radical equabty of condition or equality of outcome would require massive soctal and pobtical regulation by the state resulting ma totahtanan and authoritarian regime ‘The pce of significant equality 1s political despotism which ‘would subordinate individual talent and achievement ‘The achievement of equality may be incompatible with other values which are also destrable than personal liberty, or at least that hberty and equality are somewhat mutually exclusive “JOSTICE ~ ‘Meanang ~The word justice has been denved from the Latin term yusta, which means the idea of oming or fitung, the :dea of bond or tie [The yonmng of fitung amplied in the idea of justice 1s that between man and man mn an organized system of human relations 31According to Barker justice 16 not only about binding man and man but also 1s the reconeiler and the synthesis of political values Ics their union in an adjusted and integrated whole Rawls, “Justice 1s a set of principles for defining the approprute distribution of benefits and burdens of social Co-operation after identifying the relevant considerations which determune this balance ” Nature of Justice tts one of the most provocative concept that contain the essence of values like hberty, equality, nights, fratermty, digmty etc In common parlance it 1s employed as just behavior or treatment, the quality of ‘being fair and reasonable The essence of justice 1s m achieving proper balance In legal sense 1t means fair tmal, ayust sentence In political theory, justice has concerned both the terms of membership of a social group and the distribution of burdens and benefits within that group In first sense st 1s called as social justice while in second sense tis known as distributive yustice Plato attempts to assimilate virtue of justice with the pursint of the common good According to him every member of society should perform thesr social functions without interrupung work of others He designed an ideal state with fixed statuses and locations of 1ts members and thus balances in therr personal rolesand social functions Anstotle was of the opinion that justice denotes an equality of proportion between person and chings assigned to them.1e , those differences n treatment should be proportional to the degrees to which individuals differ in relevant respects ‘The hberal view of justice emphasized on legal and pohtucal dimensions The rule of law ie equality: before law and equal protection of laws with provision for exvil and political nghts to participate in the political process are the determining characteristics of modern liberal democratic school of thought Barker has shown that justice represents synthesis of the principles of hberty, equality and fraternity Human relations are guided by faculty of reason present in humans itis this virtue of reason that convinces humans that all human are equal n dignity and potenuually capable of acquinng excellence according to their capacities and making suitable contributions to the social good They all need and deserve equal freedom for personal development in their own right 50 as to prove their worth to society Unrestricted freedom to somes denial of liberty to others Value of liberty demands proper balance by equality Atthe same time forced or imposed equality s detrimental to the development of creative and produchve tendencies of individuals Undue emphasis on equality 1s agamst che liberty of the people Fraternity among humans provides common bond that keeps human relations harmoniousand helps to solve and content antagomstic tendencies between liberty and equality Thus finally justice imphes that berry should be qualified by the pnanciple of equality and equality 1s further qualified by the prinesple of fraternity Its dynamic idea because our realization of tis continnons process Our progress towards its realization depends upon the development of our social consciousness, so that what was zegarded as just some centuries ago 1s not so today Bases of Justice- ‘According to barker there are four premises on which people generally consider a legal system just or ‘unyust They are namely religion, nature, economucs and in Barker s own opimon ethics St Thomas Aquinas supported religion, Blackstone supported natural law, Dugunt, Produhon, Marx regarded economies and Plat Anstole, Hegel, Kant, Green and Barker hold that the true source of justice 1s to be found 1n ethics 93 4 Dimensions of Justice 32Legal Dimensions of Justice: Law refers to the general body of rules recognized and enforced by the state and upheld by the courts The essence of justice in any given society implies legal codes enacted by the state and supplemented by customary rules which are observed by the people Taw defines the nights and duties of individuals and associations in a community The legal dimension of justice denotes adherence to declared rules Political Dimension of Justice. Polical justice refers to the transformation of political mstirutions, political process and politcal nghts according to current conceptions of justice It means the establishment of democratic institutions i the political life of the commumuty so chat these institutions represent and take care of the interests of the people, not of any pnvileged class Tt also mplies 2 full guarantee of the liberty of though and expression, especially the right to criticize the government and its policies, night to form associations and interest, groups It postulates # universal availabilty of the mechamsm forresolving the conflicting claim of different interests in society Social Dimension of Justice Socral justice mmphes elimination of all kinds of discrumnation and privileges on the grounds of birth, race, caste, creed or sex Socral roles should be determined on the basis of capacity and not status There should be soctal mobihty between the various types of occupations and trades Economic Dimension of Justice Socialists, anarchists and the Manusts advocated that justice must be sought in the economic structure ofa given society Proudhon advocated an economic system based on the principle of mutual cooperation, Dugmt stressed on social solidarity, Marxists sought to end proletariat suffering which are due to their exploration by bourgeois, by overthrowing the exasting state apparatus through a socialist revolution and establishing classless society FEMINISM ‘The ongins of the term femmnusm are not clear There are several opmons, bill the generally accepted version is that t was first used by the Utopian Socialist Charles Founrer in the 19% century, to refer tothe question of equal nghts for women In the West, women emerged in the early 19th century as a distinct interest group. partly because by that time it was clear that the ,promuse of equality made by the bourgeois democratic revolutions of the 17" and 18 centunes excluded women, and partly because the Industrial Revolution had led to the increasingly visible presence of women in public employment The Women question emerged at about this time, arnculatng the questions arising from the exclusion of women from the fruits of Enlightenment thought Inother parts of the world, the emergence of this question mn the public arena was in the context of ann ~ impenalist [l1ovel nents and struggles against feudal oppression ‘Thus, femunst interventions in post colonial societies had to engage with both the old oppression of tradition as well as the new oppression of colonmalism Femumst theory and politics 1s marked by mtense internal debates, and 1t 1s generally recognized by now that xt would be more accurate to talk about “ferninisms” 1n the plural, rather than one single feminism Nevertheless, what all femimst positions share 1s recognition that women are placed m an inferior position in society and that this hierarchy 1s based on gender Further, although this hierarchy is justified on grounds of natural differences between men and women, fermmsts told that st1s in fact based on socio-cultural and economic power structures which have hittle to do with the biological difference between the sexes cheep nary “Te fe Bette! 33 nbd onTYPES OF FEMINISM Overa century of feminist thought and polines in different parts of the world has produced a rich body of work The conventional analysis of femimst thought has tended to group 1t into three streams - liberal, socialist and radical femimsm Liberal femumsm 1s understood to work within the frame work of the liberal state, theorizing equality, freedom and justice mn the context of hberal philosophy, pomting out that these concepts are inadequate until the gender dimension 1s taken intoaccount: Socialist fermmmism hnk’s women's oppression to class society, and their critique draws from the marxist categones of analysis, while simultaneously being critical of gender-blindness in Marxist theory Radical feminism theortes patriarchy as a system of male dominance independent of and pror to all other systems of domination - chat1s, m the radical feminist understanding, all other forms of explotation and oppression are sn a sense shaped by oppression based on sex, since thac is historically the oldest fort! of oppression However, this outline does not capture the complexities of the debates within femimsm, although its a useful entry point into feminist theory, as long as these distinctions are not understood to be waternght compartments Cm RALISM, sberahsm 1s too dynamic and flexible a concept to be contained in a precise definition Right from its inception, 1 has been conunuously changing, adding something and discarding the other As Alblaster wntes, ‘liberalism should be seen not asa fixed at absolute term, asa collection of unchanging moral and pohtical values belt as a specific histoncal movement of ideas in the modem era that began with Renarssance and Reformation It has undergone many changes and requires a historical rather than a static type of analysis Similarly, Laska writes, 1t (Liberalism) 1s not easy co describe, much less to define, for ishardly Jessa habit of mind than a body of doctrine [To quote Haker, Liberalism has become so common a termin the vocabulary of politics that xt 1s a brave who will try to give rta precise definition Itis a view of the individual, of the state, and of the relations between them Almost the same view 1s expressed by Grimes, Tiberalism is nota stance creed or dogma, for dogmatism provides its own restramts Itis rather a tentative atntude cowards socal problems which stresses the role of reason and human ingenutty liberalism looks ahead witha flexible approach, seeking to make future better for more people, as conservatism looks back, ming mamly to preserve the attamment of the past Although the liberal ideas are about 300 years old, the word liberalism did not corne into use nll the beginmng of the mneteenth century According to Richard Wellheim, liberalism is che behef in the value of liberty of the individual According to Sartor, very simply, liberalism 1s the theory and practice of individual hberty, juridical, defense and the constitutional state Bullock and Shock emphasize the behefin freedom and conscience as the twin foundations of hberalism Grime writes, 1t represents a system of ideas that aim at the realization of the pluralist society, favournng diversity of politics, economecs, rehgion and other cultural fe Ir seeks 1n its simplest sense to advance the freedom of man _ st seeks to increase individuality of man by increasing his area of chonce and decision Similarly. Laska wntes, liberalism implies a passion for hberty. and that the passion may be compelling it requires a power to be tolerant, even scepucal about opimion and tendencies you hold to be dangerous which sone of the rarest human quahties Hallowell defines liberalism as the embodiment of demand for freedom in every sphere of hfe intellectual, social, religious, political and economic Schapiro talks of Iberalism as an attitude of hfe -sceptical, expenmental, rational and free According to Koerner(laberalism begins and ends with the sdeals of individual freedom, individual human nghts and individual human happiness These remain central to the creed whatever may be the economic and political arrangements of hiberal democracy society 3aAndrew Hacker 1n his book Political Theory has distinguished four types of hberalism namely, utopian berahsm, free market hberalism, democratic hberalism, and reformust bberalism On the whole, according, to him, liberalism stands for 1) free hife as the prime pursuit of pohtics, n) states task 1s to eschew coercion and to encourage the conditions for this free fe Similarly, Barbara Goodwin in her book Using Political Ideas, hsts the following ingredients of hberasm 1) manas free, rational, self- improving and autonomous, 1) government is based on consent and contract, 3m) constitutionalism and the rule of law, 1¥) freedoms choce which cludes the night to choose government from among different representatives, v) equality of opportunity, vi) social justice based upon ment, and vu) tolerance Inshort, liberalism has a narrow and a broad perspective Ata narrow level, 11s seen from political and economic points of view, whereas atthe broader level, tas like a mental attitude that attempts in the light of us presuppositions to analyse and mtegrate the vaned intellectual, moral, religious, social, economic and political relationshaps of human beings. At the social level, t stands for seculansm, freedom in relation toreligion and morality Te lays stress on the value of free individual conscious of his capacity for self - expression and unfettered development of his personality At the economic level, :t implies the ideal of free trade coupled with internal freedom of production At the political level, st stands for pohtical iberty and the nght to property, constitutional hmited government, protection of the nghts of the individual and anti-authontarianism lak Roane = reg ware fan oy 4 saps AF wey te acorn porn cundase & ORPMEES gp aarey Latta! conepk Hort fe th oleate imvored brs ees» pole te pues aor ince; * bo Daqual Medmend before : saath Poets . ye lestly anc oriole @ feoromnie fewer eS pout nelly 35UNIT - IV CLASSICAL POLITICAL THEORY AND CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL THOUGHT POLITICAL THEORY GROWTH AND EVOLUTION Political theory has. in che West, passed through different stages There was a ume when, during the ancient Greek and the medieval period, political theory would concern uself with idenufying the ethical goals of the state, 1 e the objectives winch the state would chenssh to achieve Both Plato and Arsstotle swould insist on the functions of the state to establish yustice or give the indzvidual, a good hfe The medieval political theory associated ast was with religion, demanded of the stave to prepare and tram the individual toseek aplace with god The early modern age pohtical theory sought to discuss theones of the origin of the state, followed by philosophers with whom the organisation and functions of the state were major concernsofthe state ‘The mid-twentieth century pobtical theory dealt largely with the institutions of the state, making the concept of power to be the basic theme of the state The growth and evolution of pobtcal theory can be elaborated im three mayor streams These are () classical political theory, (u) modern politcal theory. and (iu) contemporary pohtical theory ‘The classification of political theory nto classical, modern and contemporary 1s, indeed. thematic What divides the classical or the traditional from the modern is the element of scrence in the latter and its absence in the former Philosophy dominates the classical tradition of poliucal theory whereas science and its methodology domunate the modernist As an exception, there may be an Anistotle and a Thomas1n the ancient and the medieval periods of the West who might have emphasised the science element while discovering the laws of pubhe life, and there may be a Strauss m our times who might see the uulity of phuosophy in the study of poliues Likewise, modern poliucal theory and contemporary political theory are somewhat different, at least n therr essence Modern pohtucal theory 1s emprncal and scientific, whereas contemporary political theory 1s philosophical and histoncal Contemporary political theory attemprs to synthesise the essence of both the classical and modern pohtical theory Classical Political Theory Classical poluscal theory emerged 11 the ancient Greek culture, in the writings of Socrates, Plato and “Anstotle, and continued until the beginning of the nineteenth century ‘The classical paradigm, according 10 Sheldon Wolin, relating to polincal theory, consisted ofthe following () Classical politcal theory armed at acquunng reliable knowledge about matters concernang the people, a philosophical pursutt to establish a rational basis for behef, a politically inspired pursuut to establish a rational basis for action (x) Itsonght to identafy the political with the publ, the commen the Greek polis, the Roman res ‘publica, and the medieval age usage of commonwea!~ all denoted a shaning of what was common among the people as partners 36