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Avinash Manure, Shaleen Bengani and Saravanan S

Introduction to Responsible AI
Implement Ethical AI Using Python
Avinash Manure
Bangalore, Karnataka, India

Shaleen Bengani
Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Saravanan S
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

ISBN 978-1-4842-9981-4 e-ISBN 978-1-4842-9982-1

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9982-1

© Avinash Manure, Shaleen Bengani, Saravanan S 2023

Apress Standard

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks,

service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general
use.

The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the
advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Apress imprint is published by the registered company APress

Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: 1 New York Plaza, New York, NY
10004, U.S.A.
Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the
author in this book is available to readers on GitHub
(github.com/apress). For more detailed information, please visit
https://www.apress.com/gp/services/source-code.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1:​Introduction
Brief Overview of AI and Its Potential
Foundations of AI:​From Concept to Reality
AI in Action:​A Multifaceted Landscape
The Promise of AI:​Unlocking Boundless Potential
Navigating the AI Frontier
Importance of Responsible AI
Ethics in the Age of AI:​The Call for Responsibility
Mitigating Bias and Discrimination:​Pioneering Fairness
and Equity
Privacy in the Age of Surveillance:​Balancing Innovation and
Security
Human-Centric Design:​Fostering Collaboration Between
Man and Machine
Ethics in AI Governance:​Navigating a Complex Landscape
Conclusion:​The Ongoing Dialogue of Responsibility
Core Ethical Principles
1.​Bias and Fairness:​Cornerstones of Responsible AI
2.​Transparency and Explainability
3.​Privacy and Security
4.​Robustness and Reliability
Conclusion
Chapter 2:​Bias and Fairness
Understanding Bias in Data and Models
Importance of Understanding Bias
How Bias Can Impact Decision-Making Processes
 Types of Bias
Examples of Real-world Cases Where Models Exhibited
Biased Behavior
Techniques to Detect and Mitigate Bias
Techniques to Detect Bias
Techniques to Mitigate Bias
Implementing Bias Detection and Fairness
Stage 1:​Data Bias
Dataset Details
Stage 2:​Model Bias
Conclusion
Chapter 3:​Transparency and Explainability
Transparency
Explainability
Importance of Transparency and Explainability in AI Models
Real-world Examples of the Impact of Transparent AI
Methods for Achieving Explainable AI
Explanation Methods for Interpretable Models:​Decision
Trees and Rule-Based Systems
Generating Feature Importance Scores and Local
Explanations
Tools, Frameworks, and Implementation of Transparency and
Explainability
Overview of Tools and Libraries for AI Model Transparency
Implementation of Explainable AI
Stage 1:​Model Building
Stage 2:​SHAP
 Stage 3:​LIME
Stage 4:​ELI5
Challenges and Solutions in Achieving Transparency and
Explainability
Addressing the “Black Box” Nature of AI Models
Balancing Model Performance and Explainability
Trade-offs between Model Complexity, Performance, and
Explainability
Conclusion
Chapter 4:​Privacy and Security
Privacy Concerns in AI
Potential Threats to Privacy
Privacy Attacks in AI Models
Mitigating Privacy Risks in AI
Security Concerns in AI
Potential Threats to Security
Mitigating Security Risks in AI
Conclusion
Chapter 5:​Robustness and Reliability
Concepts of Robustness and Reliability
Importance in AI Systems
Metrics for Measuring Robustness and Reliability
Challenges in Achieving Robustness
Sensitivity to Input Variations
Model Overfitting
Outliers and Noise
Transferability of Adversarial Examples
 Challenges in Ensuring Reliability
Data Quality
Model Drift
Uncertainty in AI Models
Conclusion
Chapter 6:​Conclusion
Summary of Key Findings
Role of Responsible AI in Business Adoption
Call to Action for Developers, Businesses, and Policymakers
Developers
Businesses
Policymakers
Final Thoughts
Future Outlook
Index
About the Authors
Avinash Manure
is a seasoned machine learning
professional with more than ten years of
experience in building, deploying, and
maintaining state-of-the-art machine
learning solutions across different
industries. He has more than six years of
experience in leading and mentoring
high-performance teams in developing
ML systems that cater to different
business requirements. He is proficient
in deploying complex machine learning
and statistical modeling algorithms and
techniques for identifying patterns and
extracting valuable insights for key stakeholders and organizational
leadership.
He is the author of Learn Tensorflow 2.0 and Introduction to
Prescriptive AI, both with Apress.
Avinash holds a bachelor’s degree in electronics engineering from
Mumbai University and earned his master’s in business administration
(marketing) from the University of Pune. He resides in Bangalore with
his wife and child. He enjoys traveling to new places and reading
motivational books.

Shaleen Bengani
is a machine learning engineer with more than four years of experience
in building, deploying, and managing cutting-edge machine learning
solutions across varied industries. He has developed several
frameworks and platforms that have significantly streamlined
processes and improved efficiency of machine learning teams.
Bengani has authored the book Operationalizing Machine Learning
Pipelines as well as multiple research papers in the deep learning space.
 He holds a bachelor’s degree in
computer science and engineering from
BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus, where he
was awarded the Director’s Medal for
outstanding all-around performance. In
his leisure time, he likes playing table
tennis and reading.

Saravanan S
is an AI engineer with more than six
years of experience in data science and
data engineering. He has developed
robust data pipelines for developing and
deploying advanced machine learning
models, generating insightful reports,
and ensuring cutting-edge solutions for
diverse industries.
Saravanan earned a master’s degree
in statistics from Loyola College from
Chennai. In his spare time, he likes
traveling, reading books, and playing
games.
About the Technical Reviewer
Akshay Kulkarni
is an AI and machine learning evangelist
and thought leader. He has consulted
with several Fortune 500 and global
enterprises to drive AI- and data
science–led strategic transformations.
He is a Google developer expert, author,
and regular speaker at major AI and data
science conferences (including Strata,
O’Reilly AI Conf, and GIDS). He is a
visiting faculty member for some of the
top graduate institutes in India. In 2019,
he was also featured as one of the top 40
under 40 data scientists in India. In his
spare time, he enjoys reading, writing,
coding, and building next-gen AI products.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to APress Media, LLC, part of Springer
Nature 2023
A. Manure et al., Introduction to Responsible AI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9982-1_1

1. Introduction
Avinash Manure1 , Shaleen Bengani2 and Saravanan S3
(1) Bangalore, Karnataka, India
(2) Kolkata, West Bengal, India
(3) Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

In a world permeated by digital innovation, the rise of artificial

intelligence (AI) stands as one of the most remarkable advancements of
our era. AI, the simulated intelligence of machines capable of mimicking
human cognitive processes, has ignited a transformative wave that
spans across industries, from health care and finance to education and
entertainment. As the boundaries of AI continue to expand, so too does
its potential to reshape the very fabric of our society.
In this chapter, we shall embark on a journey to explore a concise
overview of AI and the vast potential it holds. Subsequently, we will
delve into the compelling reasons behind the significance of
responsible AI. In the end, we will cast our gaze upon the foundational
ethical principles that underpin the realm of responsible AI.

Brief Overview of AI and Its Potential

Artificial intelligence, once a realm of science fiction, has evolved into a
transformative force shaping our contemporary world. This
technological marvel, rooted in the emulation of human intelligence,
has unveiled an era of unprecedented possibilities. In this section, we
will delve into a succinct exploration of AI’s foundational concepts, its
diverse manifestations, and the remarkable potential it holds across
various domains.
Foundations of AI: From Concept to Reality
At its core, AI is an interdisciplinary domain that seeks to develop
machines capable of executing tasks that typically require human
intelligence. It encompasses a spectrum of technologies and techniques,
each contributing to the advancement of AI’s capabilities.
AI’s journey traces back to the mid-twentieth century, with pioneers
like Alan Turing laying the groundwork for the field’s theoretical
underpinnings. The development of early AI systems, often based on
symbolic reasoning, marked a significant step forward. These systems
aimed to replicate human thought processes through the manipulation
of symbols and rules.
However, it was the advent of machine learning that revolutionized
AI’s trajectory. Machine learning empowers computers to acquire
knowledge from data, allowing them to adjust and enhance their
performance over time. Neural networks, inspired by how human
brains work, enabled the emergence of revolutionary deep learning
technology, responsible for groundbreaking achievements in vision
(image recognition), speech (natural language processing), and more.

AI in Action: A Multifaceted Landscape

AI’s potential is vast and extends across a spectrum of applications,
each amplifying our ability to address complex challenges. One of AI’s
prominent manifestations is in the realm of data analysis. The ability of
AI algorithms to sift through vast datasets and extract meaningful
insights has revolutionized industries like finance, health care, and
marketing. For instance, financial institutions employ AI-powered
algorithms to detect fraudulent activities and predict market trends,
enhancing decision making and risk management.
AI’s prowess shines in its capacity for automation. Robotic process
automation (RPA) streamlines routine tasks, freeing human resources
for more strategic endeavors. Manufacturing, logistics, and customer
service have all witnessed the efficiency and precision AI-driven
automation can bring.
Another notable domain is natural language processing (NLP),
which empowers machines to comprehend and generate human
language. This technology finds applications in chatbots, language
translation, and sentiment analysis, transforming the way businesses
engage with customers and analyze textual data.
Health care, a sector perpetually seeking innovation, is experiencing
a revolution through AI. Diagnostic tools fueled by AI aid in the early
detection of diseases, while predictive analytics assist in identifying
outbreaks and planning resource allocation. The amalgamation of AI
with medical imaging is enhancing diagnostic accuracy, expediting
treatment decisions, and potentially saving lives.

The Promise of AI: Unlocking Boundless Potential

The potential of AI extends beyond incremental advancements; it
possesses the capacity to reshape industries, enhance our quality of life,
and address societal challenges. One such promise lies in autonomous
vehicles. AI-powered self-driving cars have the potential to reduce
accidents, optimize traffic flow, and redefine urban mobility.
In the realm of environmental conservation, AI plays a pivotal role.
Predictive models analyze complex climate data to anticipate natural
disasters, aiding in disaster preparedness and response. Additionally,
AI-driven precision agriculture optimizes crop yields, reduces resource
wastage, and contributes to sustainable food production.
Education, too, stands to benefit immensely from AI. Personalized
learning platforms leverage AI to adapt content to individual learning
styles, ensuring effective knowledge absorption. Moreover, AI-powered
tutoring systems provide students with immediate feedback, fostering a
deeper understanding of subjects.

Navigating the AI Frontier

As we stand on the precipice of the AI revolution, the horizon brims
with potential. From streamlining industries to revolutionizing health
care and empowering education, AI’s transformative influence is
undeniable. Yet, with its soaring capabilities comes the responsibility of
harnessing its potential ethically and responsibly, ensuring that
progress is accompanied by compassion, inclusivity, and accountability.
In the chapters that follow, we will delve deeper into the ethical
considerations and guiding principles that underpin the responsible
integration of AI into our lives.
Importance of Responsible AI
In the ever-evolving landscape of technology, AI emerges as a beacon of
innovation, promising to revolutionize industries, elevate human
capabilities, and redefine problem-solving paradigms. Yet, as AI takes
center stage, the imperative of responsibility looms larger than ever
before. In this exploration, we delve into the profound importance of
responsible AI, unraveling its ethical dimensions, societal implications,
and the critical role it plays in shaping a sustainable future.

Ethics in the Age of AI: The Call for Responsibility

As AI’s capabilities flourish, its potential to influence human lives,
societies, and economies becomes increasingly apparent. However, with
this potential comes an inherent ethical dilemma—the power to create
and wield machines capable of decision making, learning, and even
autonomy. Responsible AI emerges as the lodestar guiding the
development, deployment, and governance of AI technologies.
At its core, responsible AI calls for a deliberate alignment of
technological innovation with societal values. It beckons developers,
policymakers, and stakeholders to uphold ethical principles,
accountability, and transparency throughout the AI lifecycle. Its
significance transcends mere technology; it signifies a commitment to
safeguarding human well being and ensuring equitable benefits for all.

Mitigating Bias and Discrimination: Pioneering

Fairness and Equity
A glaring concern in the AI landscape is the potential for bias and
discrimination to be embedded in algorithms. AI systems trained on
biased data can perpetuate societal prejudices and exacerbate existing
inequalities. Responsible AI takes the mantle of addressing this issue
head-on, demanding rigorous data preprocessing, algorithmic
transparency, and the pursuit of fairness.
Through principled design and ethical considerations, responsible
AI strives to create systems that reflect the diverse fabric of human
society. It urges a concerted effort to bridge digital divides, ensuring
that AI’s impact is not marred by discriminatory practices. By
championing fairness and equity, responsible AI paves the way for a
future where technology is a tool of empowerment, rather than an
agent of division.

Privacy in the Age of Surveillance: Balancing

Innovation and Security
The era of digital advancement has resulted in an unparalleled rise in
data creation, raising worries about individual privacy and the security
of data. The insatiable appetite of AI for data necessitates a careful
equilibrium between creativity and the protection of individual rights
in its learning algorithms. Responsible AI highlights the significance of
safeguarding data by promoting strong encryption, secure storage, and
rigorous access management.
By championing responsible data-handling practices, responsible AI
cultivates a sense of trust between technology and individuals. It
empowers individuals to retain agency over their personal information
while enabling organizations to harness data insights for positive
transformations. Thus, it fortifies the pillars of privacy, ensuring that
technological advancement does not come at the cost of individual
autonomy.

Human-Centric Design: Fostering Collaboration

Between Man and Machine
Amidst the AI revolution, the concern that machines will supplant
human roles resonates strongly. Responsible AI dispels this notion by
embracing a human-centric approach to technology. It envisions AI as
an enabler, amplifying human capabilities, enhancing decision making,
and fostering innovative synergies between man and machine.
The importance of maintaining human oversight in AI systems
cannot be overstated. Responsible AI encourages the development of
“explainable AI,” wherein the decision-making processes of algorithms
are comprehensible and traceable. This not only engenders trust but
also empowers individuals to make informed choices, thereby ensuring
that AI operates as a benevolent ally rather than an enigmatic force.
Ethics in AI Governance: Navigating a Complex
Landscape
Responsible AI extends its purview beyond technology development
and encapsulates the intricate realm of governance and regulation. In
an era where AI systems traverse legal, social, and cultural boundaries,
ensuring ethical oversight becomes paramount. Responsible AI calls for
the establishment of robust frameworks, codes of conduct, and
regulatory mechanisms that govern the deployment of AI technologies.
The importance of responsible AI governance lies in its ability to
avert potential harms, address accountability, and align AI’s trajectory
with societal aspirations. It prevents a chaotic proliferation of
unchecked technology and ensures that AI is wielded for the collective
good, ushering in an era of collaborative progress.

Conclusion: The Ongoing Dialogue of Responsibility

As AI embarks on its transformative journey, the importance of
responsible AI remains steadfast. It reverberates through technological
corridors and resonates in ethical debates, reminding us of the
profound influence technology exerts on our lives. The responsibility of
shaping AI’s trajectory lies in our hands—developers, policymakers,
citizens alike—and requires a collective commitment to the tenets of
ethical innovation, societal benefit, and accountable stewardship.
In the sections that follow, we navigate deeper into the
multidimensional landscape of responsible AI. We unravel its core
principles, illuminate real-world applications, and scrutinize its
implications on diverse sectors. As we embark on this exploration, we
hold the torch of responsibility high, illuminating a path that aligns AI’s
capabilities with humanity’s shared vision for a just, equitable, and
ethically enriched future.

Core Ethical Principles

Responsible AI encapsulates a set of guiding principles that govern the
ethical development, deployment, and impact of AI technologies. These
principles (see Figure 1-1) serve as a compass by which to navigate the
intricate intersection of innovation and societal well being. In this
summary, we distill the essence of these core principles.

Figure 1-1 Evolution of artificial intelligence

1. Bias and Fairness: Cornerstones of Responsible

AI
In the realm of AI, the evolution from creativity to ethical obligation has
given rise to the notion of responsible AI. Among its guiding principles,
Bias and Fairness holds a greater urgency to be tackled than do the
others. With the growing integration of AI technologies into our daily
lives, assuring the absence of bias and the adherence to fairness
principles has risen as a crucial focal point. In this summary, we delve
into the intricacies of bias and fairness as foundational elements of
responsible AI, exploring their implications and challenges, and the
imperative of addressing them in the AI landscape.

Unveiling Bias: The Hidden Challenge

Bias, a deeply ingrained human tendency, can inadvertently seep into AI
systems through the data used to train them. AI algorithms learn
patterns and associations from vast datasets, which may inadvertently
contain biases present in human decisions and societal structures. This
can result in discriminatory outcomes, perpetuating stereotypes and
exacerbating social disparities.
Responsible AI acknowledges that eliminating all biases may be
unfeasible, but mitigating their impact is crucial. The focus shifts to
addressing glaring biases that lead to unjust or harmful consequences,
while also striving to ensure that AI systems promote equitable
treatment for all individuals.

Fairness as a North Star: Ethical Imperative

Fairness in AI underscores the creation of systems that treat all
individuals equitably, regardless of their background, demographics, or
characteristics. It transcends statistical definitions, delving into ethical
considerations to guarantee just and unbiased outcomes. Responsible
AI champions fairness as a moral and societal imperative, emphasizing
the need to redress historical and systemic inequities.
A critical facet of fairness is algorithmic fairness, which strives to
ensure that AI systems’ decisions are not influenced by sensitive
attributes such as race, gender, or socioeconomic status. Various
fairness metrics, algorithms, and techniques have emerged to assess
and rectify bias, promoting equitable outcomes and bolstering societal
trust in AI technologies.

The Challenge of Quantifying Fairness

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
CHAPTER XXVII.

Confectionary.

Citron.
 TO CLARIFY SUGAR.

It is an economy to use at once the very best sugar for confectionary

in general, for when highly refined it needs little or no clarifying, even
for the most delicate purposes; and the coarser kinds lose
considerable weight in the process. Break it into large lumps, and put
it into a very clean preserving-pan; measure for each pound a pint of
spring water if it be intended for syrup, but less than half that quantity
for candying or making barley-sugar. Beat first apart (but not to a
strong froth), and afterwards with the water, about half the white of
an egg for six pounds of sugar, unless it should be very common,
when twice as much may be used. When they are well mixed pour
them over the sugar, and let it stand until it is nearly dissolved; then
stir the whole thoroughly, and place it over a gentle fire, but do not
disturb it after the scum begins to gather on the top; let it boil for five
minutes, then take the pan from the fire, and when it has stood a
couple of minutes clear off the scum entirely, with a skimmer; set the
pan again over the fire, and when the sugar begins to boil throw in a
little cold water, which has been reserved for the purpose from the
quantity first measured, and repeat the skimming until the syrup is
very clear; it may then be strained through a muslin, or a thin cloth,
and put into a clean pan for further boiling.
For syrup: sugar, 6 lbs.; water, 3 quarts; 1/2 white of 1 egg. For
candying, &c.: sugar, 6 lbs.; water, 2-1/2 pints: 5 to 10 minutes.
 TO BOIL SUGAR FROM SYRUP TO CANDY, OR TO CARAMEL.

The technicalities by which confectioners distinguish the different

degrees of sugar-boiling, seem to us calculated rather to puzzle than
to assist the reader; and we shall, therefore, confine ourselves to
such plain English terms as may suffice, we hope, to explain them.
After having boiled a certain time, the length of which will in a
measure depend upon the quality of the sugar as well as on the
quantity of water added, it becomes a thin syrup, and will scarcely
form a short thread if a drop be pressed between the thumb and
finger and they are then drawn apart; from five to ten minutes more
of rapid boiling will bring it to a thick syrup, and when this degree is
reached the thread may be drawn from one hand to the other at
some length without breaking; but its appearance in dropping from
the skimmer will perhaps best denote its being at this point, as it
hangs in a sort of string as it falls. After this the sugar will soon begin
to whiten, and to form large bubbles in the pan, when, if it be
intended for barley-sugar, or caramel, some lemon-juice or other
acid must be added to it, to prevent its graining or becoming sugar
again; but if wanted to candy, it must be stirred without ceasing until
it rises almost to the top of the pan, in one large white mass, when it
must be used immediately or laded out into paper cases or on to
dishes, with the utmost expedition, as it passes in an instant almost,
from this state to one in which it forms a sort of powder, which will
render it necessary to add water, to stir it until dissolved, and to
reboil it to the proper point. For barley-sugar likewise it must be
constantly stirred, and carefully watched after the lemon-juice is
added. A small quantity should be dropped from time to time into a
large basin of cold water by those who are inexperienced in the
process; when in falling into this it makes a bubbling noise, and if
taken out immediately after, it snaps clean between the teeth without
sticking to them, it must be poured out instantly: if wanted for sugar-
spinning, the pan must be plunged as quickly as possible into a
vessel of cold water.
 CARAMEL.

(The quickest way.)

Put into a brass skillet, or preserving-pan, some sifted sugar of the
finest quality, and stir it softly with a wooden spoon or spatula, over a
very gentle fire until it has become liquid; a pale or a deep tint may
then be given to it, according to the purpose for which it is required:
so soon as it is entirely melted, and looks clear, it is ready for use.
Pastry-cooks glaze small pastry by just dipping the surface into it;
and they use it also for nougat, and other confectionary, though it is
not in general quite so brilliant as that which is made by the
preceding receipt. When the sugar first begins to melt, it should be
stirred only just in that part, or it will not be equally coloured.
 BARLEY-SUGAR.

Add to three pounds of highly-refined sugar one pint and a quarter

of spring water, with sufficient white of egg to clarify it in the manner
directed in the last page but one; pour to it, when it begins to whiten,
and to be very thick, a dessertspoonful of the strained juice of a fresh
lemon; and boil it quickly until it is at the point which we have
indicated above. A few drops of essence of lemon may be added to
it, just as it is taken from the fire. Pour it on to a marble slab, or on to
a shallow dish which has been slightly oiled, or rubbed with a particle
of fresh butter; and when it begins to harden at the edges form it into
sticks, lozenges, balls, or any other shapes at pleasure. While it is
still liquid it may be used for various purposes, such as Chantilly
baskets, palace bonbons, croquantes,[176] cerises au caramel, &c.:
for these the vessel containing it must be set into a pan of water, and
it must again be liquefied with a very gentle degree of heat should it
cool too quickly. As it soon dissolves if exposed to damp, it should be
put into very dry canisters as soon as it is cold, and these should be
kept in a dry place.
176. These are formed of small cakes, roasted chestnuts, and various other
things, just dipped singly into the barley-sugar, and then arranged in good
form and joined in a mould, from which they are turned out for table.

Best sugar, 3 lbs.; water, 1-1/4 pint; white of egg, 1/4 of 1; lemon-
juice, 1 dessertspoonful.
 NOUGAT.

This is a preparation of barley-sugar, and almonds, filberts, or

pistachio-nuts, of which good confectioners, both foreign and
English, make a great variety of highly ornamental dishes. We must,
however, confine our directions to the most common and simple
mode of serving it. Blanch twelve ounces of fine Jordan almonds in
the usual way, wipe them very dry, split them in halves, and spread
them upon tins or dishes; dry them in a very gentle oven, without
allowing them to brown; or if the flavour be liked better so, let them
be equally coloured to a pale gold tint: they should then be often
turned while in the oven. Boil to barley sugar in a small preserving-
pan six ounces of highly-refined sugar, throw in the almonds, mix
them with it well without breaking them, turn the nougat on to a dish
slightly rubbed with oil, spread it out quickly, mark it into squares,
and cut it before it is cold; or pour it into a mould, and with an oiled
lemon spread it quickly, and very thin over it, and turn it out when
cool. It must at all times be carefully preserved from damp; and
should be put into a dry tin box as soon as it is cold.
Sugar, 6 oz.; almonds, 12 oz.
Another and more expeditious way of making it, is to boil the sugar
to caramel without any water, as directed at page 563: the proportion
of almonds can be diminished at pleasure, but the nougat should
always be well filled with them.
 GINGER CANDY.

Break a pound of highly-refined sugar into lumps, put it into a

preserving-pan, and pour over it about the third of a pint of spring
water; let it stand until the sugar is nearly dissolved, then set it over a
perfectly clear fire, and boil it until it becomes a thin syrup. Have
ready in a large cup a teaspoonful of the very best ginger in powder;
mix it smoothly and gradually with two or three spoonsful of the
syrup, and then stir it well into the whole. Watch the mixture carefully,
keep it stirred, and drop it often from a spoon to ascertain the exact
point of boiling it has reached. When it begins to fall in flakes, throw
in the freshly-grated rind of a very large lemon, or of two small ones,
and work the sugar round quickly as it is added. The candy must
now be stirred constantly until it is done: this will be when it falls in a
mass from the spoon, and does not sink when placed in a small
heap on a dish. It must be poured, or laded out, as expeditiously as
possible when ready, or it will fall quite into powder. If this should
happen, a little water must be added to it, and it must be reboiled to
the proper point. The candy, if dropped in cakes upon sheets of very
dry foolscap or other thick writing-paper laid upon cold dishes, may
be moved off without difficulty while it is still just warm, but it must not
be touched while quite hot, or it will break.
Sugar, highly refined, 1 lb.; water, 1/3 of a pint; ginger, 1
teaspoonful; rind of 1 large lemon.
 ORANGE-FLOWER CANDY.

Beat in three-quarters of a pint, or rather more, of water, about the

fourth part of the white of an egg, and pour it on two pounds of the
best sugar broken into lumps. When it has stood a little time, place it
over a very clear fire, and let it boil for a few minutes, then set it on
one side, until the scum has subsided; clear it off, and boil the sugar
until it is very thick, then strew in by degrees three ounces of the
petals of the orange-blossom, weighed after they are picked from
their stems. Continue to stir the candy until it rises in one white mass
in the pan, then lay it, as quickly as it can be done, in cakes with a
large spoon, upon thick and very dry sheets of writing paper placed
quite flat upon the backs of dishes, or upon trays.[177] Take it off
before it is entirely cold, and lay the candy reversed upon dishes, or
place the cakes on their edges round the rim of one until they are
perfectly cold; then secure them from the air without delay in close
shutting tin boxes or canisters. They will remain excellent for more
than a year. The orange-flowers will turn brown if thrown too soon
into the syrup: it should be more than three parts boiled when they
are added. They must be gathered on the day they are wanted for
use, as they will soon become discoloured from keeping.
177. As the heat of the boiling sugar would injure these, no good ones should be
used for the purpose.

Sugar, 2 lbs.; water, 3/4 pint; 1/4 white of egg; orange-blossoms, 3

oz.
Obs.—When sugar of the finest quality is used for this confection,
as it ought to be, it will not require the white of egg to clarify it.
 ORANGE-FLOWER CANDY.

(Another Receipt.)

The French, who are very fond of the delicious flavour of the
orange-blossom, leave the petals in the candy; but a more delicate
confection, to English taste, is made as follows:—Throw the orange-
flowers into the syrup when it has boiled about ten minutes, and after
they have simmered in it for five more, pour the whole out, and leave
them to infuse until the following day, or even longer, if more
convenient; then bring the syrup to the point of boiling, strain it from
the blossoms through a muslin, and finish it by the foregoing receipt.
 COCOA-NUT CANDY.

Rasp very fine a sound fresh cocoa-nut, spread it on a dish, and

let it dry naturally for two or three days, as it will not bear the heat of
an oven, and is too oily for use when freshly broken. Four ounces of
it will be sufficient for a pound of sugar for most tastes, but more can
be used at pleasure. Boil the sugar as for the orange-flower candy,
and when it begins to be very thick and white, strew in the nut, stir
and mix it well, and do not quit it for an instant until it is finished. The
pan should not be placed upon the fire but over it, as the nut is liable
to burn with too fierce a heat.
For almond-candy proceed in exactly the same way, but let the
almonds, either whole or split, be perfectly well dried in a gentle
oven, and do not throw them into the sugar until it approaches the
candying point.
 PALACE-BONBONS.

Take some fine fresh candied orange-rind, or citron, clear off the
sugar which adheres to it, cut it into inch-squares, stick these singly
on the prong of a silver fork or on osier-twigs, dip them into liquid
barley-sugar, and place them on a dish rubbed with the smallest
possible quantity of very pure salad oil. When cold, put them into tin
boxes or canisters well dried, with paper, which should also be very
dry, between each layer.
 EVERTON TOFFIE.

No. 1.—Put into a brass skillet or small preserving-pan three

ounces of very fresh butter, and as soon as it is just melted add a
pound of brown sugar of moderate quality; keep these stirred gently
over a very clear fire for about fifteen minutes, or until a little of the
mixture, dropped into a basin of cold water, breaks clean between
the teeth without sticking to them: when it is boiled to this point, it
must be poured out immediately, or it will burn. The grated rind of a
lemon, added when the toffie is half done, improves it much; or a
small teaspoonful of powdered ginger moistened with a little of the
other ingredients as soon as the sugar is dissolved and then stirred
to the whole, will vary it pleasantly to many tastes. The real Everton
toffie is made with a much larger proportion of butter, but it is the less
wholesome on that very account. If dropped upon dishes first rubbed
with a buttered paper, the toffie when cold can be raised from them
easily.
Butter, 3 oz.; sugar, 1 lb.: 15 to 18 minutes. Or, sugar, 1 lb.; butter,
5 oz.; almonds, 2 oz.: 20 to 30 minutes.
No. 2.—Boil together a pound of sugar and five ounces of butter
for twenty minutes; then stir in two ounces of almonds blanched,
divided, and thoroughly dried in a slow oven, or before the fire. Let
the toffie boil after they are added, till it crackles when dropped into
cold water, and snaps between the teeth without sticking.
Sugar, 1 lb.; butter, 5 oz.; almonds, 2 oz.: 20 to 30 minutes.
 CHOCOLATE DROPS.

Throw into a well heated metal mortar from two to four ounces of
the best quality of cake-chocolate broken small, and pound it with a
warm pestle until it resembles a smooth paste or very thick batter;
then add an equal weight of sugar in the finest powder, and beat
them until they are thoroughly blended. Roll the mixture into small
balls, lay them upon sheets of writing paper or upon clean dishes,
and take them off when they are nearly cold. The tops may be
covered with white nonpareil comfits, or the drops may be shaken in
a paper containing some of these, and entirely encrusted with them;
but it must be recollected that they will not adhere to them after they
become hard. More or less sugar can be worked into the chocolate
according to the taste; and a Wedgwood mortar may be used for it
when no other is at hand, but one of bell-metal will answer the
purpose better.
 CHOCOLATE ALMONDS.

When the chocolate has been softened, and mixed with an equal
proportion of sugar, as directed in the foregoing receipt, enclose
singly in small portions of it some almonds previously well dried, or
even slightly coloured in the oven, after having been blanched. Roll
them very smooth in the hand, and cover them with the comfits, or
form them like the almond shamrocks of page 574. Filberts and
pistachio-nuts may be substituted for the almonds with good effect;
but they also must be perfectly dry.
 SEVILLE ORANGE PASTE.

Wipe, and pare in the thinnest possible strips, some Seville

orange-rinds, and throw them into plenty of boiling water. When they
are extremely tender, lift them on to a large sieve reversed to drain;
press the water from them a little, and before they are quite cold,
pound them to the smoothest paste, and blend thoroughly with them
as much fine sifted sugar as can possibly be mixed with them. Roll
the mass out extremely thin, and with a very small tin-cutter form it
into cakes or leaves, or any other shapes, and then dry it in a VERY
gentle oven. Store it in close-shutting boxes as soon as it is cold. A
little choice prepared ginger may be added to it in the pounding
when it is liked.
Paste of lemon or citron-rind may be made in the same way.
CHAPTER XXVIII.

Dessert Dishes.
 DESSERT DISHES.

A well-selected and well-arranged rice-crust, however simple in its

character, may always be rendered agreeable to the eye and to the
taste: but in no department of the table can so much that is attractive
to both be more readily combined; and at the present day an unusual
degree of luxury is often displayed in it, the details of which,
however, would be out of place here. Forced strawberries of
magnificent size, and of the best varieties, brought by culture and
management all to perfection on the same day, and served on their
plants, in the pots in which they are grown, concealed in others of
porcelain or of chased silver, are amongst the expensive novelties
now commonly introduced at costly dinners of display, and may
serve as an illustration of it.[178]
178. To these may be added miniature fruit trees in full bearing placed down the
centre of the table, and intermingled with the choicest exotics.

For common occasions, a few dishes of really fresh fruit tastefully

disposed and embedded in large green leaves, will be all that is
required for a plain summer or autumn rice-crust; and at other parts
of the year such as are appropriate to the season; but from the
immense variety of cakes, biscuits, confections, ices, bonbons, and
other sucreries (some of them extremely brilliant in appearance), and
of fruit native and foreign, fresh, dried, and preserved in every
possible manner which are adapted to them, desserts may be
served in any kind of style.
 PEARLED FRUIT, OR FRUIT EN CHEMISE.

Select for this dish very fine bunches of red and white currants,
large ripe cherries, and gooseberries of different colours, and
strawberries or raspberries very freshly gathered. Beat up the white
of an egg with about half as much cold water, dip the fruit into this
mixture, drain it on a sieve for an instant, and then roll it in fine sifted
sugar until it is covered in every part; give it a gentle shake, and lay it
on sheets of white paper to dry. In England, thin gum-water is
sometimes used, we believe, for this dish, instead of the white of
egg; we give, however, the French method of preparing it. It will dry
gradually in a warm room, or a sunny window, in the course of three
or four hours.
Obs.—This is an inexpensive dish, which if well prepared has the
appearance of fine confectionary. The incrustation of sugar much
increases too the apparent size of the fruit. That which is used for it
should be of the best quality, and fine and dry. When it becomes
moist from the fruit being rolled in it, it will no longer adhere to it as it
ought.