Unit One: Introduction to sociology

Unit 1

Introduction to sociology

What is sociology? Or Meaning of Sociology

Sociology is the scientific, systematic and reliable study of society and relationship between
individual and society. Being a science of society, it deals with the social structure, social
relations, social behaviours, interaction, social groups, social institutions, social stratifications,
social processes, social problems etc.

Etymologically, the term Sociology is derived from Latin word ‘Socius’ means society and
Greek word ‘Logos’ means Study or science. Thus etymological meaning of sociology is the
Science of Society.

In conclusion, Sociology is the systematic study of human society, dedicated to the

understanding of social interaction as people form groups, communities and society.

Definitions of Sociology

“Sociology is the science of social phenomena”.---------------- Auguste Comte

“Sociology is the scientific description and explanation of society as a whole”-------------

Emile Durkheim

Sociology is the study of human interaction and interrelations, their attitudes and
consequences”.---------------- Morris Ginsberg

“Sociology is the systematic study of social behaviour and human groups. It focuses on
social relationship; how those relationships influence people behaviour and how
societies, the sum total relationships, develop and change”------------- Richard T
Schaefer

“Sociology is the study of individuals in a social setting that includes groups,

organizations, cultures and societies. Sociologists study the interrelationships between
individuals, organizations, cultures and societies”…………….. George Ritzer

“Sociology is the study of human social life, groups and societies”……Anthony Giddens

From the analysis of above definitions we conclude that

• Sociology is the study of human social behaviour especially it includes the study of the
origin and development of society.

• It is the scientific study of social institutions such as marriage, family, economy,

education, sports, music, religion etc as social components.

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 Unit One: Introduction to sociology

• It is the study of social processes such as enculturation, modernization, conflict,

cooperation, socialization etc.

Emergence of Sociology

Human beings have always been interested in knowing and thinking about their society from the
dawn of human civilization. Some sociologists trace the origin of sociology from the economics
of Kautilya and politics of Aristotle. For example the statement of Aristotle “Man is a political
(i.e. social) animal sowed the seeds of sociology. Sociology as a general social science emerged
in the 19th century. It means Sociology does not have long history but it has long past.

Actually, as a subject, Sociology was emerged after the French Revolution of 1789 A.D. The
long series of political revolutions carried out by the French revolution was the most immediate
factor for the emergence of sociology. The impact of these revolutions on many societies has
both negative and positive change. But scholars were disturbed by negative change which was
chaos and disorder of society. Many social thinkers were united to restore the order of society.
They searched the new basis of social order. This interest of social order was the major factor for
the emergence of sociology.

There are different scholar who contributed to the emergence and development of sociology who
are:

Auguste Comte: -

Auguste Comte (1798 – 1857), a French philosopher who coined the term sociology as a hybrid
term in 1838 AD. He is of view that scientific knowledge can be used to improve people’s lives.
Cours de philosophie positive (positive philosophy), is the major work of Auguste Comte. He
developed the Law of three stages of human society which are Theological, Metaphysical and
positive stage.

1. Theological Stage: It is the first stage of development of society. In this stage every social
phenomena and social problems are explained in terms of religious belief in society.
2. Metaphysical stage: according to Auguste Comte it is the second stage of evolution of
human society. In this stage every social problems and phenomenon are explained in
terms of philosophy.
3. Positive stage: it is the third and last stage of evolution of human society. In this stage
every social problems and phenomenon are explained in terms scientific methods. It is
the scientific stage of human society.
Emile Durkheim

Emile Durkheim(1858-1917) Emile Durkheim is also French sociologist. Durkheim legitimized

sociology in France and his work ultimately became a dominant force in the development of
sociology. The division of Labour in society (1893), The Rules of Sociological Method (1895),

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 Unit One: Introduction to sociology

Suicide (1897) Elementary Form of Religious Life (1912 )etc. are the major contributions of
Durkheim.

- Used scientific principles and methods to study social facts

- Mechanical and organic solidarity on the basis of division of labour.

- Mechanical solidarity comes from the less division of labour. Organic solidarity comes
from the Interdependence of society’s different parts and shared values

Karl Marx

Karl Marx (1818-83) is another social thinker who contributed a lot in the development of
sociology. The communist Manifesto (1848), Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy
(1859) Capital (1867 Volume I) etc are the major works of Marx. In his materialist conception of
history, the driving force for social change and the source of conflict in society are economic.
Conflict brought on by the exploitation of the poor by the rich under capitalism will bring social
change.

Max Weber

Max Weber (1864-1920) is the German sociologist. The Methodology of Social Sciences (1949),
The Religions of China (1951), The Religion of India (1958), etc are the Major contribution of
Weber. He is of view that Values and ideas drive social change in society.

 Protestant beliefs led to capitalism

• Bureaucracy—a type of organization marked by a clear hierarchy of authority and the
existence of written rules of procedure and staffed by full-time, salaried officials.

Context for the rise and development of sociology

The origin and development is not a overnight process. It is developed in a evolutionary process
and a number of social, political, economic and historical contexts are responsible for the
emergence and development of sociology. Some contexts are as follows:

I. Contribution of ancient Philosophers:

Some sociologists trace the origin of sociology from the economics of Kautilya and politics of
Aristotle. For example the statement of Aristotle “Man is a political ( i.e. social) animal sowed
the seeds of sociology. Similarly Kautilya talks about the structure and order of society which
gave the foundation of sociology.

II. Political revolution:

The long series of Political revolution announced in by the French revolution in 1789
and carrying over through the nineteenth century was the most immediate factor in the rise of

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sociology. Actually, as a subject Sociology was emerged after the French Revolution of 1789
A.D. The impact of French revolution on many societies has both negative and positive change.
But scholars were disturbed by negative change which was chaos and disorder of society.
Scholar sought the new basis of social order and they realize that a new social science is
necessary to study society so that it can establish the order in society. In this context Auguste
Comte coined the term sociology to establish the new social order.

III. The Industrial Revolution and rise of capitalism:

Industrial revolution took place in Europe and particularly in Britain. It is the rapid
development industries in society. The industrial revolution was not a single event but many
interrelated developments that culminated (to bring to a head or to the highest point) in the
transformation of the western society from agricultural to industrial system. Large numbers of
people left the farms and agricultural field for the industrial occupation. These types of change
transform society into capitalist economic system.

In capitalist economy, the idea was a free marketplace where the many products of an
industrial system could be exchanged. Industrial revolution and development of capitalism gave
transformed society into new type and sociology was developed to study the complex and
industrial society. Particularly Karl Marx, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim and Gerog Simmel
made a significant contribution to the development of sociology.

IV. The Enlightenment revolution

It was the period of remarkable intellectual development and change in philosophical

thought. It was the period of reason. Many long-standing ideas and beliefs were overthrown and
replaced by the enlightenment revolution. It is also a intellectual context for the development of
sociology.

V. Urbanization:

As a result of industrial revolution, large number of people migrated from rural areas to
urban areas. Migration was caused by the job created by industrial system in urban areas. But it
presented many difficulties for those people who had to adjust to urban life and problems such as
overcrowding, pollution, noise, traffic, high pressure on physical infrastructures and so on. This
attracted early sociologists and they developed sociological theory.

VI. Religious change

Political, industrial and enlightenment revolution had a profound effect on religion. Many
early sociologists came from the religious backgrounds and were actively involved in religion.
They brought to sociology the same objectives as they had in their early religious life. They
wished to improve people lives. They started to study religion with the academic purpose.

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Nature of sociology

Nature of sociology indicates to the Qualities or characteristics of it. Sociology is a science of

society. As a science of society it has a social nature. There is still controversy among scholar
regarding to the nature of sociology. Some sociologists claim sociology as a science and critics
are of view that sociology cannot be regarded as a science. The followings are the main
characteristics of sociology show its pure nature.

1. Sociology is an independent science: - It is an independent science. It is not studied as a

branch of other subjects. As an independent science, it has own separate field of study,
history, research methodology and scope.

2. Sociology is a social science not a natural science:- Sociology is a social science. Being
a social science it studies human behavior in group, relations, social activities, social
problems and social life. Similarly, as a social science it is related with other social
sciences such as history, economics, political science etc.

3. Sociology is a categorical science not a normative science: - Sociology is a positive or

categorical or descriptive science. It is related to the statement about what is, not what
should be or ought to be. It cannot say anything about the question of value. It is ethically
neutral and it cannot deals with the issues of good or bad, right or wrong and moral or
immoral. In other words, sociologists do not ask whether particular social actions are
good or bad, they seek merely to explain them.

4. Sociology is a theoretical (pure) science not applied science: - Pure science is related to
the acquisition of knowledge where as applied science is related to the application of
acquired knowledge. But each pure science may have its own applied field. In this
context, sociology can be taken as theoretical or pure science because sociology is related
with acquisition of knowledge about human society and it has own applied field such as
social work, administration and diplomacy.

5. Sociology is a generalizing science not a particularizing science: - Bierstedt is ofview

that sociology is a generalizing science. Sociology tries to find out the general laws about
society and social life from the particular cases. It tries to make generalizations on the
basis of conclusion drawn from the particular events.

6. Sociology is both a rational and empirical science: - Sociological knowledge is based on

rationalism and empiricism. Rationalism is an approach to knowledge which is based on
the logic. Similarly, empiricism is an approach to knowledge which is based on
experience. The empiricists collect facts from experience and rationalists coordinate and
arrange them. Sociology is also depends on empiricism and rationalism. Thus, it is both
rational and empirical science.

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7. Sociology is an abstract science not a concrete science: - Sociology is a science of

society. Society is itself mental product. It is not interested in concrete manifestation of
human events. It only concerns only with the forms and patterns of society. Thus it is an
abstract science not a concrete science.

8. Sociology is a general science not a particular science: - Sociology is a general social

science. It studies society in general. The area of it is not particularized. Other social
sciences such as economics, political science, history, culture etc. are concentrated their
attention on particular aspect of human society. But sociology studies human society in a
general way.

Core of Sociology

Sociology has its own subject matters to study, history, research methodology and
sociological perspectives. Areas of sociological investigation or Field of sociological inquiry,
Level of society to the investigation and unit of analysis are commonly known as the core of
sociology. Generally these all cores are the central to the sociology. Core of sociology can be
presented as given below:

1. Subject matters
Central to the sociological investigations are the subject matters of sociology. Subject
matters which are not covered as subject matters of other social science sociologically are known
as core subject matters of it which are as follows:

a. Social organization: It refers to the associational groups such as social groups,

communities and collectivities. In a specific sense, it represents bureaucracy like that of a
bank.
b. Social institutions: Institutions refer to the established code of conduct for carrying out
group activities. It is the set of rules and procedures, which provides guideline for human
activities. It is the way of doing things thorough which the main concerns and activities
are organized and social needs are met. In other words social institutions are organized
patterns of beliefs and behaviour centered on the basis needs. It helps to the
understanding of social structure in society.
c. Social interaction: - Social interaction refers to the way in which individual respond to
each other. In others words, the action done in response to others is called interaction. As

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the core of sociology, it should study the social interaction. For examples cooperation,
conflict, competitions, adaptation etc.
d. Social relation: - Social relation refers to a social bond which brought individual
together such as caste, class, ethnicity, marriage, blood, nationality, humanity etc.
e. Social problems: Street child. Poverty, unemployment, drug addiction, alcoholism,
prostitution, human trafficking, divorce, etc.
f. Social structure: - Social structure refers to the ordered arrangement of interrelated
parts: groups, institutions, associations, etc. It is overall composition of society which
directs and restricts human behaviour.
g. Social diversity and differentiation: - It is another subject matter of sociology and it is
also taken as the core of sociology. Diversity refers to the variation in terms of caste,
culture, religion, occupation etc. Similarly differentiation refers to the separation of social
parts or institutions from the social body in course changing from simple to complex.
h. Hierarchy: - Society is marked by the hierarchy. Individuals of society are ranked into
the different layers in terms of achieved and ascribed status and it is known as the social
hierarchy. Individuals of each layers may have the different power, prestige, wealth and
privileges. It is also main concentration area of current sociology.
i. Social Change:- Society is in the flux. It changes every minute. Change the law of
nature. Everything changes. Social change refers to the alteration, difference or
modification that takes place in social situation, institution, interrelation, interaction,
structure etc. It includes functioning of society, relations and structure. It is also the core
of sociological studies.
2. Levels of Society

Sociology studies several social subject matters. However in course of studying society,
sociologists frequently use two types of level which are:

• Macro level

• Micro level.

a. Macro level: - It refers to the larger level of society. Sociologists who belong to this level
focus on the larger social institutions and processes of society. It includes law,

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bureaucracy, technology, language, architectures and society. Similarly it includes the

culture, norms and values.
b. Micro level: - Micro level of society includes small scale social institutions and
behaviour. Generally it includes patterns of behaviours, social actions of the members of
society, social interaction at individual level, social perceptions, beliefs, and several facts
of social construction of reality.
3. Agency and Structure

The concept of agency and structure is another core of sociological studies. These
two concepts are the unit of social analysis. Some sociologists focus on the agency as the
unit of sociological analysis and other sociologists focuses on the structure as the unit
sociological investigation. Similarly some sociologists focus on linkage or relation
between these two concepts.

a. Agency: - The concept of agency includes people’s intentions, their knowledge of how
society works and how to participate in it as the member of it. It is used to understand
everyday life of peoples of society. It is the power of actors (Individuals) to operate
independently of the deterring constraints of social structure.
b. Structure: - Structure is the institutionalized social arrangements. It consists of rules and
resources that human beings employ as they engage in the routine activities. Here rule
can be categorized into constitutive and regulative. Constitutive rules establish, define or
create the nature of social realty being produced. Regulative rules govern the social
system. Resources are of two types one is allocative and other is authoritative resources.
Allocative recourses are the material assets used in the production or consumptions of
goods. Similarly authoritative resources consist of the ability or the right to influence the
behaviour of others.
Sociological perspective
Sociological perspectives are broad assumptions about society and social behavior that
provide a viewpoint for the study of society and its aspects, processes and others. It is the
systematic way of looking, studying and analyzing the society. In other words, sociological
perspectives are the tools from which we can analyze and understand social institutions,
associations, behaviors, problems, social change and social process.

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Similarly Sociological perspectives are also known as the social angles from which we
see society. For example functionalist perspective helps us to see and understand society from
the angle of order and stability in society where as interactionist perspective helps us to see and
understand society from the micro level which focuses on small scale human behavior,
interactions and symbols.

When a numbers of similar sociological theories are drawn together into a single
approach, then it is called a sociological perspective. For example, Structural consensus
perspective is made up from various structural functional theories. Durkheim’s societal
functionalism, Talcott Parsons functionalism, Merton’s functionalism, Brown’s Functionalism
etc. consist structural functional perspective.

Some theoretical perspectives of sociology are given as follows:

1. Functionalism
The answer of how society works? Or how society remains in a stable/ consensus/ or in
equilibrium state, gives the meaning of functionalism. Functionalism is a sociological theory
which sees society as a self-regulating and self maintaining system or a balance system and it
remains in a stable, consensus or in equilibrium states through the functions of different
interrelated parts the system. It assumes that Society is made from different elements and which
are contributing functionally to the consensus/ equilibrium of society.

Functionalism holds that society is a complex system whose various parts work together
to produce stability and solidarity. Society is like living organism in which each part of organism
contributes to its survival. It focuses on the way in which the parts of society are structured to
maintain its stability.

Chief exponents of this perspective are Talcott parsons, Emile Durkheim, Herbert
Spencer, R.K. Merton, A.R. Brown etc. Emile Durkheim opines that structure is prime and each
parts of society is contributing to the stability of the society. Similarly Parsons saw any society
as a vast network of connected parts, each of which helps to maintain the system as a whole.
Likewise Parsons functional approach holds that if an aspect of social life does not contribute to
a society’s stability or survival- if it does not serve some identifiably useful function or promote
value consensus among members of society- it will not be passed on from one generation to next.

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Every element of social system has a function which contributes positively to the continued
operation of that system, or negatively, towards its disintegration and change.

Thus functionalism is simply a view of society as a self regulating system of interrelated

elements with structured social relationships and observed regularities.

Key assumptions of Functionalism

Parts, whole and structure: - Every social system is a well integrated configuration of elements
or parts that constitute an organic whole. When a number of parts are orderly arranged then it
becomes social structure. Or in other words, functionally interrelated parts makes social structure
and it remains in a system

II. Primacy of the system over parts: - Functional analysis of society involves the prior
conceptualization of a system and a definite emphasis on the primacy of the system over
elements. According to this theory, a system is more than the sum of its parts. It is also
relationships among its parts. Primary interest of parts is to contribute to the equilibrium or order
of larger system.

III. The elements of social system are functionally inter-related: - Society, like an organism, is a
system of functionally interrelated elements. Each and every part, like an organ, performs a
function essential for the survival of the system. According to this perspective, the normal
operation of one parts or elements of the system requires the normal operation of other elements.

 IV. Manifest, Latent Function and dysfunction: - Every element of system has a
function which contributes the positively to the continuity of the system are of two types
Manifest and Latent and negatives towards the disorganization and change is dysfunction.
RK Merton is of view that these three types of function are as follows:

Manifest Function: - Manifest function is open, stated and conscious activities of

institutions or parts of society. It involves the intended, recognized consequences of an aspect
of society, such as the University’s role in socialization, certifying academic competence and
excellence. This function of University is known as manifest functions which contribute to
the stability of society.

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Latent Function: - Latent functions are unconscious activities that may reflect hidden
purposes of an institution. For example, A University may serve as meeting ground for people
who are seeking marital partners.

Dysfunctions: - This perspective believes that not all parts of a society contribute to its
stability at all the time. Dysfunction refers to function of social parts that may disrupt the social
system and reduce its stability such as gang fight.

V. Society is self regulated Mechanism: - Every society is a relatively persistent structure of

elements which built-in mechanism for self regulation. Parsons views society as self-regulating
system, attempting by more or less automatic adjustment to the balance of it equilibrium when it
is upset by internal or external forces.

VI. High Emphasis on Consensus: - The functioning of social system depends upon consensus
of its members on common goals and values related to the basic needs of the society. According
to Parsons the entire social system as resting heavily upon shared values. According to this view
order and stability are made possible because individuals internalize the norms of society and
conform to this.

VII. Functional imperatives: - There are certain functional requisites that must be met if a
society is to survive. The functional pre-requisites that must be met to ensure the survival of
society are as follows

 Provision for an adequate relationship to the environment and sexual recruitment.

 Role differentiation and role assignment.

 Communication

 A shared set of goals

 Socialization

 The effective control of disruptive forms of behaviour

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According to parsons, the functional requirements of a social system are adaptation to external
situation (A), goal attainment (G), integration among units of the social system (I) and Latency
or pattern maintenance and tension management (L)- AGIL.

VIII. Functional Unity : - This perspective views society as a well integrated and consistent
whole the elements of which contribute to the maintenance of the total system. All parts are
showing functional unity to maintain the order and stability of society

2. Conflict Perspective
It is developed on the criticism of functionalism because functionalism always neglected
the change of society. It focuses on How society changes? It sees the world in continual struggle.
It assumes that social behaviour or society (in the context of management organizational
behaviour) is best understood in terms of conflict or tension between the individuals or groups.

Conflict perspective sees society as a system made of individuals and groups who are
conflicting relation for the scarce resources. Conflict need not be violent; it can take the form of
labour negotiation, party policies, competition between individuals to get opportunities. This
perspective sees individuals shaped by power, Coercion and authority.

Like functionalists, sociologists employing conflict theories emphasize the importance of

structures within society. Conflict theorist also advance a comprehensive 'model' to explain how
society works. Conflict perspective rejects functionalism's emphasis on consensus. Instead, it
highlights the importance of divisions in society. In doing so, conflict theorists concentrate on
issues of power, inequality and struggle. They tend to see society as composed of distinct groups
pursuing their own interests.

The existence of separate interests means that the potential for conflict is always present and
that certain groups will benefit more than others. Conflict theorists examine the tensions between
dominant and disadvantaged groups within society and seek to understand how relationships of
control are established and perpetuated.

Karl Marx is the chief architect of conflict theory. He sees struggle between social classes.
Other sociologists expanded the Marx’s view and say that conflict not only a class phenomenon
but a part of everyday life in all societies and organization. In studying any social groups or

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organization or social behaviour, we must know who benefits, who suffers and who dominates.
This perspective assumes that we should study how social institutions such as family,
government, religion, education, and media may help to maintain the privileges of some groups
and keep others in a subservient position.

Key Assumptions of Conflict Theory

 Society is not a system in equilibrium but a nebulous structure of imperfectly coordinated

elements which held together by the coercion of some elements and subjection of others.

 Society and its elements are in the process of continuous change although at varying
degree; change and conflict are the continuous and regular feature of human society.

 Society is stage populated with living, struggling and competing actors; the social
universe is the setting within which the conflict of life are acted out.

 Social conflict are inherent in the very nature of social structure, the distinction between
exogenous and endogenous conflict is valid only in the analytical sense.

 The inherent predictions to change in society vary in scope, nature, intensity and degree
of velocity; they may be latent or manifested, gradual or destructive.

 Endogenous conflict arises out of mal-integration or differential articulation of structural

concomitants, incompatibility of the interest of groups and individuals, differential
distribution rewards and lack of value consensus.

 Every society is subjected to every moment to change; social change is ubiquitous (being
present everywhere at once).

 Every society experience at every moment social conflict; social conflict is ubiquitous.

 Every element in society contributes to its change.

 Every society rests on constraint of some of its members by others.

3. Post Modernism

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Postmodernism is a way of thinking that is distinct from the modernism. It is a theoretical

perspective which sees society and culture as relatively. It is a philosophical position that is
developed after II world war. This theory assumes that existing theories have been unsuccessful
in explaining social life in contemporary societies.

Postmodernism focuses on the liberation of differences, of local elements, of what could

generally be called dialect. With the demise of ideas of central rationality of history, the world of
generalized communication explodes like a multiplicity of local rationalities- ethnic, sexual,
religious, cultural minorities- that finally speak for themselves. Postmodernists argues for
respecting the existence of plurality of perspectives, as against the notion that there is one single
truth from a privileged perspective, local, contextual studies in place of grand narratives, an
emphasis on disorder, flux and openness, as opposed to order, continuity and restrain. It focuses
on recognition of differences.

Key Assumptions of Post modern Theory

• There is no underlying objective reality i.e. no prime objective reality- either physical or
spiritual.

• Everything is subjective and relative to individual views, perceptions, and values.

• There is no absolute preference point to judge between true and false, right and wrong,
real and unreal, good and bad

• Universe is an open system; hence natural laws are not fixed in other word reality, and
time are not fixed realities.

• There is no knowledge apart from language i.e. human being construct meaning through
language.

• Post modernism is open, unbounded and concerned with process and becoming.

• It is not a theory after modernism but It is the critique of the arguments of existence of
universally applicable theories and methods of social analysis.

• Postmodernism believes in multicultural theories of social analysis.

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Thus postmodernism is an orientation reflecting the view that various characteristics of

the contemporary world represent a definite break with many of the defining features of
modernity, particularly in terms of skepticism towards all forms of knowledge and authority,
widespread erosion and fragmentation of the institutional structures, and increased
individualism and cultural diversity.

4. Sociological Imagination
Individuals rely on an unusual type of creative thinking to understand social behavior.
This type of creative thinking is known as sociological imagination. It is such type of thinking
which sees the relationship between an individual and the wider society. Learning to think
sociologically – looking at the broader view is known as sociological thinking. It is an awareness
of the relationship between an individual and wider society. Learning to think sociologically -
looking, in other words at the broader view – means cultivating sociological imagination.

A sociologist is someone who is able to break free from the immediacy of personal
circumstances and put things into a wider context. Doing sociological work depends on what the
American author C. Wright Mills, in a famous phrase, called the sociological imagination (Mills
1970). The sociological imagination requires us, above all, to 'think ourselves away' from the
familiar routines of our daily lives in order to look at them anew.

Consider the simple act of drinking a cup of coffee. What could we find to say, from a
sociological point of view, about such an apparently people drink coffee for the 'extra lift' it
provides. Long days at the office or late nights studying are made more tolerable by regular
coffee breaks. Coffee is a habit-forming substance, but coffee addicts are not normally regarded
by most people in Western cultures as 'drug-users'.

What does it in our Daily Life?

• Sociological imagination allows all of us to comprehend the links between our

immediate, personal social setting and the remote, impersonal social world that surrounds
and helps to shape us.

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• A key element in the sociological thinking is the ability to view one’s own society as an
outsider would, rather than only from the perspective of personal experiences and cultural
biases

• The sociological thinking allows us to go beyond personal experiences and observations

to understand broader public issues. Divorce, for example, is unquestionably a personal
hardship for a husband and wife who split apart. However, C. Wright Mills advocated
using the sociological imagination to view divorce not as simply an individual’s personal
problem but rather as a societal concern

• Using this perspective, we can see that an increase in the divorce rate actually redefines a
major social institution—the family. Today’s households frequently include stepparents
and half-siblings whose parents have divorced and remarried.

• The sociological imagination enables its possessor to understand the larger historical
scene in terms of its meaning for the inner life and the external career of a variety of
individuals.

• It enables him to take into account how individuals, in the welter of their daily
experience, often become falsely conscious of their social positions.

• The sociological imagination enables us to grasp history and biography and the relations
between the two within society. That is its task and its promise.

• The sociological imagination is an empowering tool. It allows us to look beyond a limited

understanding of human behavior to see the world and its people in a new way and
through a broader lens than we might otherwise use.

Development of sociology as an academic discipline

Origin of sociology is associated with the French philosopher Auguste Comte who first of all
coined the term sociology in 1838 AD. Sociology was developed as separate academic discipline
after the French revolution. Sociology as an academic discipline has its own history, theoretical
perspectives and its subject matters. The teaching learning activities of the sociology started in
USA in 1892 at University of Chicago. Similarly department of sociology in Canada was
established in 1922 at McGill University. Likewise Harvard University established the
department of sociology in 1930. Study of sociology in United Kingdom was started in 1960

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under London Scholl of Economics. The development of sociology can be depicted in different
countries.

Development of sociology in France:

Auguste Comte not only coined the term sociology but also developed the theory and
research methodology to develop it as an academic discipline. He focuses on scientific method of
sociological studies as it is used in the physics. Especially he focuses on the observation,
experimentation and comparison as scientific method of sociological explanation. Similarly he
developed the evolutionary theory development of sociology. He is of view that every society
develop through the successive stage of theological, metaphysical and positive stage.

The credit for developing sociology as an independent discipline goes to the founding father
Emile Durkheim. He wrote the sociologically important book such as The Division of Labour in
Society, The rules of sociological method, Suicide, The Elementary Form of Religious life etc.
The concept of social Facts developed by him contributed sociology to be developed as an
academic discipline. Social facts are rules of marriage, laws, rituals, social statistics etc. He is of
view that preceding social facts helps to the explanation of other social facts. Similarly he also
explained the solidarity of society as organic and mechanical on the basis of division of labour.
He also developed the functionalism called societal functionalism.

Development Sociology in Britain

Herbert Spencer Contributed a lot to the development of sociology in Britain. The idea of
social evolution was flourished in sociology with idea of Herbert Spencer. He wrote the book
Principle of Sociology in which he explained the universality of principle of social evolution. He
opines that societies evolve in the same manner as the organism.

Development of German Sociology

In the development of classical sociology in Germany, Karl Marx and Max Weber played the
pivotal role. Marx argues that every society beginning with the slavery was divided into two
classes haves and haves not. Conflict between these two classes always result the change of
society into more qualitatively advance stage. Marx emphasizes the role of historical in the
conditioning of behaviour of human species. Max Weber contributed to sociology by writing the
books called Basic concepts in sociology, General Economic history, The Protestant Ethics and
Spirit of Capitalism and The theory of Social and Economic Organization. Weber is of view that
sociologist studies social action which is an act an individual performs to which he assigns
meaning. The function of the sociologist is to understand the subjective meaning of social action.

Development of Sociology in America

In America Harriet Martineau, Talcott Parsons, Robert K Merton and others contributed to
the development of sociology. Martineau offered the insightful observation of the customs and

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practices of the United States. The book written by her Society in America examined the
religion, politics and child rearing etc. She emphasized the impact that the economy, law, trade,
health and population on social problems. Similarly Talcott Parsons contributed the
development of functional perspective in sociology.

The Institutional History of Sociology in Nepal

The emergence and development of sociology in Nepal started in the latter period. However
from the perspective of development of sociological thought, it has the long past in the eastern
region of world. Social thought can be found in the eastern philosophy and literature from the
ancient period. Particularly social thought regarding the society and social life is vested in the
Veda, Puran, Upanishad, Gita, Manusmriti, Kautilya's Economics, Buddhist moral philosophy
etc. however the institutional development of sociology in Nepal is the recent phenomena.

The Institutional development of sociology in Nepal started with political change of 2007
BS. Especially the rise of sociology in Nepal was in the governmental agency in 1950s. First of
all the curriculum of sociology was formulated in academic sector. The curriculum of rural
sociology was formulated in training center under the Tribhuvan Gram Bikas Karyakram
(Tribhuva n Village Development Program) in 1953. The main objective of this curriculum was
to provide training o the social organizers, rural development workers and Block Development
officers to make familiar with rural society of Nepal. The Tribhuvan Gram Bikash Karyakram
had been changed into Panchayat Bikas Karyakram in 1968 and the curriculum of rural
sociology was also changed. Revised curriculum of sociology gave emphasis on rural society,
mobilization of group, communication, local leadership development, Panchayat development,
social survey, social planning etc.

The Tribhuvan University had been realized the separate department of sociology in Nepal.
Prof. Ernest Gellner came to Nepal in September 1970 to study probability of the establishment
of separate department of sociology in TU.

Sociology and Management studies

Sociology and management studies are both social sciences. Being the sciences of society
these are related. Sociology has been theoretical science and managers can use the sociological
knowledge to solve various problems of effective management of organization or a business
company. Sociology is acknowledged in school of business. However the importance and
application of sociology is not equal in all countries of the world. America acknowledged
sociology higher than the British universities. Sociology has been used to study the industrial
problems.

Sociological knowledge makes easier to the management of any business company,

industry, business activities. Being a part of society business management is heavily influenced
by the social structure, social institutions and social processes. Managers and entrepreneurs of

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any business company get the knowledge of social structure, institutions and processes studying
sociology. The relevancy of sociology in management studies is as follows:

a. Development of analytical capabilities: - Several theoretical perspectives and

sociological imagination helps to understand the social circumstances. The improved
understanding of social circumstances often gives us a better chance of controlling and
handling management and business activities. Individuals related to business
management can links the business problems with the wider society and it would
beneficial to the mangers,
b. It provides the knowledge about the social policy regarding the workers: - Workers
are the active force in any business organizations. They may come from the diverse
area of society. Especial social policy should be made for the worker. Formation of
social policy also helps to the progress of the company. Business managers can
investigate the consequences of the adoption of particular policy in management and
business activities with the help of sociological knowledge.
c. It helps managers to understand their role: - Sociology helps managers and business
mans to understand their role as social agents whose job requires interaction with and
understanding different people of different socio-cultural groups. In this context it also
provides the knowledge about the social diversity.
d. It helps to solve the several business related problems: - Any business related
problems may have the number of social causes. In this context, Sociology helps
managers and business administrator to understand the socio- cultural factors which are
the barriers and supportive to management, administration and positive outcomes.
e. It is complimentary to management: - Sociology with it focus on groups,
organization, social interaction and culture, is complimentary in management and
business activities.
f. Provides knowledge about social change: - Business activities should be changed
with the change of society to be successful. Business managers should formulate the
particular business policy as per the change of society. In this context, Sociology helps
management students for understanding socio- cultural change.
g. Helps to understand the customer's needs: - Mangers should have the better
knowledge for the effective management of the business organizations. Managers and
entrepreneurs who have the good knowledge of sociology are able in anticipating
customers’ needs and are able to respond to the various problems.
h. It helps to maintain the public relation: - Business managers and administrators
having good knowledge of sociology understand different phenomenon. It helps
manager and administrator to establish and maintain the better public relations.
i. It helps to reduce misunderstanding: - Sociology helps managers and business
administrator in dealing with their employees and customers in their workplace.
Managers and administrators having good sociological knowledge can solve the
problems of misunderstanding because sociological knowledge makes them aware of
the socio- cultural aspects.
Business application of Anthropology

Anthropology is the science which studies human beings, their culture and behaviour. The term
Anthropology is derived from Greek word “Anthropos” means Man and “Logos” means science.

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Thus etymological meaning of Anthropology is the scientific study of man. It studies human
beings in group.

Hoebel, “Anthropology is the study of man, his works, race and custom of mankind”.

S.N. Madan, “It is the study of man. It consists of cultural anthropology, linguistics,
Physical anthropology, and archaeology”.

Thus it is the study of man. It is a broad scientific discipline which is dedicated to the
comparative study of mankind from its first appearances to its present stage of development.

Anthropology and business: reflections on the business applications of cultural anthropology by

DR Pant and F. Alberti

Anthropology deals with three integrated spheres of human reality which are as follows:

a. Human beings: - It includes man, man’s relation with biotic and abiotic universe and
social institutions.

b. Human becoming:- It includes dynamism of change within and around man, evolution of
society

c. Human knowing: - It is related to the cognitive aspects. It explores methods, institutional

setting etc.

Anthropologists opine that anthropological knowledge, skills and perspectives have value for the
comprehension, interpretation and guidance in the affairs of business and governance. According
to Dipak R. Panta and Dr. Fernando Alberti, there are two way of application of anthropological
knowledge:

a. Through the use of anthropological information of public domain

b. Through specific advisory and support service of anthropologists hired for period.

Current development in the business (globalization, interdependence, technical

innovation and competition) is forcing to business person to rethink constantly their business
strategy and thinking. Current business involves material, skills and resources more than one
country and social systems. In this context, business man can use the anthropological insights to
understand the various cultures.

Anthropology provides the means of increasing our cultural sensitivities, allowing

policies to be based on an awareness of divergent cultural values. Anthropological study I s
relevant in dealing with cross cultural counter in business sectors. Anthropology focuses on
cultural relativism which helps to harmony among different cultural groups. Culture which is the
focal point of anthropology determines how people respond misfortune.

Collected by Mr. Bigyan Sharma MMC, Dharan