ABCS 314 PRINCIPLES OF CONSERVATION SCIENCE.

2020/2021
SECTION A
QUESTIONS
1. Briefly explain the following:
a. The specific objectives of conserving living resources. [10marks]
b. The role of ecological processes in conservation of ecosystems. [8marks]
c. The need to include human presence in conservation planning. [10marks]
d. “Species rarity does not necessarily mean that a species is in danger of extinction”
[10marks]
e. Value of biodiversity under functions, products, and attributes. [12marks]
Q1
a) Conserving living resources is a crucial aspect of environmental protection and sustainable
development. It refers to the preservation and management of various forms of life, including
plants, animals, and ecosystems. The specific objectives of conserving living resources are
multifaceted, aiming to ensure the survival of species, maintain biodiversity, protect ecosystems,
and enhance the overall well-being of both present and future generations.
One of the primary objectives of conserving living resources is to prevent the extinction of
species. Each organism within an ecosystem plays a distinct role in maintaining the delicate
balance of nature. The loss of any species can have cascading effects on the entire ecosystem,
leading to imbalances and disruptions in ecological processes.
Biodiversity conservation is another important objective. Biodiversity refers to the variety of life
forms on Earth, encompassing the genetic, species, and ecosystem levels. The preservation of
biodiversity is significant as it provides essential ecological services and contributes to the
resilience of ecosystems
Conserving living resources also aims to protect and restore ecosystems. Ecosystems are
complex networks of organisms and their physical environment, characterized by a multitude of
interactions and interdependencies. They provide vital services such as water purification,
climate regulation, soil fertility, and food production. By conserving living resources, we can
ensure the preservation and restoration of ecosystems, thereby safeguarding their services and
the well-being of communities that depend on them.
Another objective is the sustainable use of living resources. Humans rely on living resources for
numerous purposes, including food, medicine, energy, and raw materials. Conservation seeks to
promote responsible and sustainable management practices that allow us to utilize living
resources without compromising their long-term availability and the resilience of ecosystems.

b) Ecological processes refer to the interactions and functions that occur within an ecosystem,
influencing its structure, stability, and overall health.
One significant ecological process is the cycling of nutrients. Nutrients, such as nitrogen and
phosphorus, are essential for the growth and survival of organisms within an ecosystem. For
example, plants acquire nutrients from the soil, which are then passed on to herbivores when
they consume plant material. This nutrient transfer continues as other organisms consume
herbivores, creating a cycle that sustains the entire ecosystem.
Another crucial ecological process is the flow of energy. Energy flows through ecosystems in a
unidirectional manner, starting from the primary producers, such as plants, and moving through
the various trophic levels, ultimately reaching the top predators. This energy transfer occurs as
organisms consume one another in a predator-prey relationship. The efficient flow of energy
supports the maintenance of population sizes, the regulation of biological communities, and the
overall functioning of ecosystems.
Furthermore, ecological processes contribute to the regulation of ecosystem services. Ecosystem
services are the benefits that humans receive from functioning ecosystems, such as the provision
of clean water, air purification, and climate regulation. Ecological processes, such as water
filtration by wetlands or carbon sequestration by forests, help maintain the functioning of these
essential services

c) Including human presence in conservation planning is vital for the long-term success of
conservation efforts to protect and manage ecosystems.
One reason for including human presence in conservation planning is the recognition that many
ecosystems are embedded within human-dominated landscapes. Urban areas, agricultural lands,
and other human-modified environments often harbor significant biodiversity and provide
important habitats for many species. Excluding human presence from conservation planning
could lead to the neglect of these areas, resulting in the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem
services. To ensure the protection of these ecosystems, it is necessary to engage with and involve
local communities in conservation efforts, fostering a sense of stewardship and promoting
sustainable practices.
Furthermore, human activities can have both positive and negative impacts on ecosystems. While
certain activities, such as deforestation and pollution, can be detrimental to ecosystems, others,
such as habitat restoration and sustainable land management, can contribute to conservation
goals. Including human presence in conservation planning allows for the identification and
promotion of sustainable practices that minimize negative impacts and maximize positive
contributions. By involving local communities, conservation planning can harness their
knowledge, skills, and resources to implement effective conservation strategies.
Ecosystems and biodiversity hold cultural, aesthetic, and recreational value for humans.
Excluding human presence from conservation planning could result in the alienation of
communities from their natural heritage and can generate conflicts between conservation goals
and human needs. By including human presence in conservation planning, we can strive for a
balance between the protection of ecosystems and the well-being of human communities. This
approach promotes the recognition of nature as a shared resource and fosters a sense of
ownership and responsibility among local populations.
d) The concept of species rarity refers to the occurrence of a species in low numbers or limited
geographical areas. When a species is considered rare, it is often assumed that it is inherently
more vulnerable to extinction. Rarity alone is not a definitive indication of a species' risk of
extinction, as there are various factors that can influence its survival and conservation status.
One factor that affects the vulnerability of rare species is their habitat specificity. Some rare
species are highly specialized and require specific environmental conditions to survive. If their
habitat is severely degraded or lost, they may face an increased risk of extinction. On the other
hand, other rare species may be generalists and can adapt to a wide range of habitats. These
species may have a higher resiliency and be able to persist even in the face of environmental
changes. Therefore, the relationship between rarity and extinction risk depends on the
species' ecological niche and its ability to adapt to changing conditions.
Another important consideration is the size and connectivity of populations. Small populations of
rare species are generally more susceptible to random events, such as natural disasters or disease
outbreaks. In these cases, the loss of a few individuals can have a significant impact on the
overall population, potentially leading to extinction. However, if rare species are distributed in
multiple isolated populations, their overall extinction risk may be reduced. Even if some
populations decline or disappear, others may persist, maintaining the species' long-term survival.
Additionally, conservation efforts can significantly influence the status of rare species. If
appropriate conservation measures are implemented, such as habitat protection, restoration, or
captive breeding programs, the risk of extinction for rare species can be mitigated.
In conclusion, while rarity is often associated with increased vulnerability to extinction, it is not
a definitive indicator of a species' conservation status.

e) Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability of living organisms on Earth, including the
diversity within and between species, habitats, and ecosystems. It plays a crucial role in the
functioning of our planet and provides countless benefits to human societies.
One of the key functions of biodiversity is its role in supporting/maintaining ecosystem
processes. Biodiversity ensures the stability and resilience of these ecosystems, enabling them to
adapt and respond to environmental changes. For example, diverse plant communities are better
able to capture and store carbon dioxide, mitigating the effects of climate change. Additionally,
biodiversity helps in the maintenance of nutrient cycles, soil fertility, and water purification.
Without biodiversity, the delicate balance of ecosystems would be disrupted, leading to negative
consequences for both human and non-human species.
Furthermore, biodiversity provides numerous valuable products that sustain human life and
well-being. One of the most evident examples is food production. Biodiversity in crop plants and
livestock breeds ensures a diverse range of genetic resources, which provides resilience against
pests, diseases, and changing environmental conditions. Biodiversity also offers aesthetic and
recreational products, such as parks, nature reserves, and ecotourism, which contribute to human
well-being and the economy.
Beyond its functions and products, biodiversity encompasses various attributes that are
irreplaceable and have inherent value. Every species has its unique genetic code, evolved
through millions of years of natural selection. This genetic information holds immense potential
for scientific and technological advancements, including the development of new drugs,
materials, and technologies. Furthermore, biodiversity has cultural and spiritual values, deeply
rooted in the traditions and beliefs of different societies. Indigenous cultures, for instance, have
long recognized the interconnectedness between humans and nature, with their knowledge
systems often intricately linked to the local biodiversity.

SECTION B
QUESTIONS
2. What is extinction? State and explain the attributes that signal species vulnerability to
extinction. [25marks]
3. Discuss five anthropogenic factors that directly threaten biodiversity, stating the root
cause(s) of these threats and how they can be minimized. [25 marks]
4. Outline and briefly explain the steps you would take to recover a named critically
endangered species. [25 marks]
5. Briefly explain the effect of climate on biological diversity. [25 marks]
ANSWERS
Q2
Extinction refers to the irreversible disappearance of a species from the face of the Earth. This
occurs when the last individual of a particular species dies, leaving no chance for future
generations.
The attributes that signal species vulnerability to extinction can be divided into two categories:
intrinsic and extrinsic factors.
A. Intrinsic Factors
1. Reproductive Capacity: The ability of a species to reproduce plays a vital role in determining
its vulnerability to extinction. Species with low reproductive rates, such as elephants or whales,
are more susceptible as they cannot replace their numbers quickly enough to recover from
population declines.
2. Genetic Diversity: Species with low genetic diversity are less adaptable to environmental
changes and more prone to diseases and genetic disorders. For instance, the cheetah population
exhibits reduced genetic diversity, making it particularly vulnerable to extinction threats.
B. Extrinsic Factors
1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation: One of the leading causes of extinction is the destruction,
degradation, and fragmentation of natural habitats. As human activities encroach/advance upon
these areas, species are left with limited resources and reduced connectivity between
populations, leading to genetic isolation and increased vulnerability.
2. Climate Change: The rapidly changing climate poses a significant threat to many species.
Alterations in temperature, precipitation patterns, and habitat availability disrupt ecosystems,
making it challenging for species to adapt, resulting in range shifts, reduced reproductive
success, and increased susceptibility to extinction.
Specific indicators further help identify species at higher risk of extinction. These indicators
include:
1. Small Population Size: Species with small population sizes face numerous challenges,
including limited genetic variation, reduced ability to adapt to changing conditions, and
increased susceptibility to random events such as natural disasters or disease outbreaks.
2. Endemic/Restricted Range: Species with restricted geographic ranges, especially those
limited to a single area or island, are highly vulnerable to disturbances or anthropogenic
pressures. Any threat to their limited habitat can have catastrophic consequences.
3. Specialized Diet or Habitat Requirements: Species adapted to specific diets or habitats are
often less capable of tolerating changes in their environment. Any disruption or alteration to their
required conditions can be detrimental to their survival.

Q3
Biodiversity is crucial for maintaining the balance of ecosystems, providing numerous
environmental services, and securing the well-being of all living organisms on Earth. However,
human activities have posed significant threats to biodiversity. Below are some five
anthropogenic factors that directly threaten biodiversity, highlighting their root causes and
suggesting strategies to minimize their impact.
1. Deforestation:
Deforestation, primarily driven by logging, agricultural expansion, and urbanization, has resulted
in the destruction of vast forest ecosystems around the world. The root cause of deforestation lies
in the increased demand for timber, land for agriculture, and urban development. To combat this,
it is crucial to promote sustainable forest management practices, establish protected areas, and
encourage reforestation initiatives. Additionally, reducing the consumption of forest-derived
products and implementing stricter regulations can help mitigate deforestation.

2. Pollution:
Pollution, in various forms such as air, water, and soil pollution, poses a significant threat to
biodiversity. Industrial activities, improper waste disposal, and excessive use of pesticides and
fertilizers contribute to the contamination of ecosystems and endanger many species. To
minimize pollution's impact, it is essential to implement stringent environmental regulations,
promote eco-friendly production processes, invest in clean technologies, and adopt sustainable
waste management practices. Raising awareness among individuals and encouraging behavioral
changes can also contribute to reducing pollution.
3. Climate Change:
One of the most pressing threats to biodiversity is climate change, mainly caused by the emission
of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from human activities. The burning of fossil fuels, deforestation,
and industrial processes contribute to the release of GHGs, resulting in global warming and
altering ecosystems worldwide. To address climate change, we must prioritize the reduction of
GHG emissions through transitioning to renewable energy sources and promoting energy
efficiency.
4. Overexploitation of Natural Resources:
Unsustainable harvesting of natural resources, such as overfishing and illegal wildlife trade,
directly affects biodiversity. Overfishing depletes fish populations and disrupts marine
ecosystems, while illegal wildlife trade threatens numerous species, including endangered ones.
Overexploitation is caused by increased human population, industrual and technology
development, urbanization etc. To mitigate overexploitation, it is crucial to enforce strict
regulations and international agreements, promote sustainable fishing practices, and combat
illegal wildlife trafficking through increased law enforcement efforts and public awareness
campaigns.
5. Habitat Destruction:
Human activities, such as urban expansion, infrastructure development, and land conversion for
agriculture, have resulted in the destruction and fragmentation of habitats worldwide. This
habitat loss poses a severe threat to countless species, leading to population decline and even
extinction. To address habitat destruction, it is vital to prioritize land use planning that considers
the conservation and restoration of critical habitats. Implementing sustainable agricultural
practices, promoting good urban planning, and establishing protected areas and corridors are
effective strategies to mitigate habitat destruction.
Q4. Critically endangered species are species facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the
immediate future in the wild . Below are some measures to be taken to recover a named critically
endangered species
1. Conducting Extensive Research:
To begin the recovery process, extensive research is crucial. In-depth studies must be conducted
to gather data on the species, including population size, habitat range, reproductive patterns, and
potential threats. This data provides a comprehensive understanding of the species' needs and
enables the formulation of effective recovery strategies.
2. Establishing Protected Areas and Habitats:
Creating protected areas and habitats is essential for the recovery of critically endangered
species. These areas serve as havens/safety places where the species can thrive undisturbed.
Establishing protected areas should be accompanied by proper management plans, which ensure
that the habitat is suitable and equipped to support the species' survival and reproduction.
3. Implementing Habitat Restoration:
Habitat degradation is a common threat to critically endangered species. To reverse this process,
habitat restoration initiatives must be implemented. This includes removing invasive species,
replanting native vegetation, and restoring natural water sources. Restoring the
integrity/wholeness of the ecosystem can help the species regain their natural habitats and access
resources vital for their survival.
4. Enforcing Legal Protection and Conservation Policies:
To ensure the long-term survival of the critically endangered species, legal protection and
conservation policies must be enforced. Strict regulations should be put in place to prevent
illegal poaching (attainment of protected wildlife), hunting, trade, and habitat destruction.
Additionally, international conventions and agreements can provide a framework for the
protection and conservation of these species, encouraging cooperation among nations.
5. Captive Breeding and Genetic Management:
For species with extremely low population levels, captive breeding programs can be
implemented to increase the population and improve genetic diversity. These programs involve
breeding the species in controlled environments, such as zoos or specialized breeding centers.
Genetic management strategies, such as avoiding inbreeding and maintaining genetic variability,
are crucial to prevent further decline in genetic fitness.
6. Monitoring and Research:
Continued monitoring of the critically endangered species is essential to assess the effectiveness
of recovery efforts and make necessary adjustments. Long-term studies help track population
trends, reproductive success, and any emerging threats. Regular monitoring also aids in
evaluating the impact of conservation measures and identifying potential issues requiring
intervention.
7. Public Awareness and Education:
Raising public awareness about the importance of conserving critically endangered species is
vital for garnering/earning support and changing behaviors. Public awareness campaigns,
educational programs, and community involvement initiatives can highlight the ecological and
economic significance of protecting these species. Engaging communities and generating
empathy are fundamental steps in influencing positive change.

Q5.
Climate is the long-term pattern of weather in a particular area. Climate plays a crucial role in
shaping biological diversity. It determines the distribution of species, influences the timing of
biological events/evolutionary processes, and affects genetic diversity within populations.
One of the ways climate affects biological diversity is through its impact on species distribution.
Each species has specific climatic requirements, such as temperature, precipitation patterns, and
sunlight. Climate determines the geographical range within which a species can survive and
reproduce. For example, tropical rainforests, with their high temperatures and abundant rainfall,
support a wide variety of plant and animal species. On the other hand, polar regions, with their
extremely cold temperatures and limited sunlight, have a much lower diversity of species.
Climate change, caused primarily by human activities, is altering the distribution of species
around the world. Rising temperatures are pushing species towards higher latitudes and
elevations in search of suitable habitats. This climate-induced range shift poses challenges for
many species, as they may have to compete with other species for limited resources or adapt to
unfamiliar environments. Additionally, some species may not be able to migrate quickly enough
to keep pace with the changing climate, leading to population declines or even extinction.
Another way in which climate influences biological diversity is by affecting the phenology of
organisms. Phenology refers to the timing of biological events such as flowering, migration, and
breeding. Many species rely on environmental cues, such as temperature and day length, to time
these events correctly. Climate change can disrupt these cues, leading to a mismatch between
species' life cycle events and the availability of critical resources. For instance, if the timing of
spring budburst in plants shifts earlier due to warming temperatures, but the emergence of certain
insect pollinators remains unchanged, the plants may miss their opportunity for successful
pollination. This can have negative effects throughout the ecosystem, impacting other species
that depend on the plants for food or habitat. Climate-driven shifts in phenology can disrupt the
intricate web of interactions between species, potentially leading to declines in biodiversity.
Climate also influences the genetic diversity within species. Genetic diversity refers to the
variety of genes within a population and is vital for the long-term survival and adaptability of
species. Climate can drive natural selection, favoring individuals with certain genetic traits that
allow them to better survive and reproduce in a particular climate passing on their traits to the
next generations. Over time, this can lead to the development of distinct populations or even new
species. However, rapid climate change can pose challenges for the adaptability of species. If the
rate of environmental change exceeds the capacity of species to adapt, genetic diversity may be
eroded as individuals with certain traits are selected against. Reduced genetic diversity can make
species more vulnerable to disease, predation, and other environmental pressures. In extreme
cases, it can lead to the extinction of species.