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Gardner’s
Art 16th Edition
through
the Ages
Fred S. Kleiner
696593_cvr_se_ptg01.indd 2 08/08/18 11:38 am

G a r d n e r’ s
Art
Thro u g h th e
Ages
A Gl oba l H is tory
VOLUME I
sixteenth edition
fred s. kleiner
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
96593_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 1 13/08/18 12:44 pm

Gardner’s Art through the Ages: © 2020, 2016, 2013 Cengage Learning, Inc.
A Global H
istory, Sixteenth Edition, Volume I
Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage
Fred S. Kleiner
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2018
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about the cover art
Blanche of Castile, Louis IX, a monk, and a lay scribe, dedication page (folio 8 recto) of a moralized Bible,
from Paris, France, 1226–1234. Ink, tempera, and gold leaf on vellum, 1′ 3″ × 10 12 ″. Pierpont Morgan
Library, New York.
The Florentine poet Dante Alighieri (1265–1321) referred to Paris in his Divine Comedy (ca. 1310–1320) as
the city famed for the art of illumination. During the 13th century, book production shifted from monasteries to
urban workshops of professional artists—and Paris boasted the most and best. These new for-profit secular
businesses sold their products to the royal family, scholars, and prosperous merchants. The Parisian shops
were the forerunners of modern publishing houses.
Not surprisingly, some of the finest extant Gothic books belonged to the French monarchy. One of the
many books the royal family commissioned is a moralized Bible now in the Pierpont Morgan Library. Moralized
Bibles are heavily illustrated, each page pairing paintings of Old and New Testament episodes with explana-
tions of their moral significance. Louis’s mother, Blanche of Castile, ordered the Morgan Bible during her
regency (1226–1234) for her teenage son. The dedication page has a costly gold background and depicts
Blanche and Louis enthroned beneath triple-lobed arches and miniature cityscapes. With vivid gestures,
Blanche instructs the young Louis, underscoring her superior position. Below Blanche and Louis are a monk
and a professional lay scribe. The older clergyman instructs the scribe, who already has divided his page into
two columns of four roundels each, a format often used for the paired illustrations of moralized Bibles.
The identity of the painter of this royal moralized Bible is unknown, but that is the norm in the history
of Western art before the Renaissance of the 14th century, when the modern notion of individual artistic genius
took root. Art through the Ages surveys the art of all periods from prehistory to the present, and worldwide,
and examines how artworks of all kinds have always reflected the historical contexts in which they were
created.
Contents iii
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Brief Contents
Preface xi Chapter 11
Early Medieval Europe 319
Introduction
What Is Art History? 1 Chapter 12
Romanesque Europe 347
Chapter 1
Art in the Stone Age 15 Chapter 13
Gothic Europe North of the Alps 381
Chapter 2
Ancient Mesopotamia and Persia 31 Chapter 14
Late Medieval Italy 419
Chapter 3
Egypt from Narmer to Cleopatra 57 Chapter 15
South and Southeast Asia before 1200 443
Chapter 4
Chapter 16
The Prehistoric Aegean 85
China and Korea to 1279 471
Chapter 5
Chapter 17
Ancient Greece 105
Japan before 1333 501
Chapter 6
Chapter 18
The Etruscans 165
Native American Cultures before 1300 519
Chapter 7
Chapter 19
The Roman Empire 181
Africa before 1800 551
Chapter 8
Late Antiquity 237 Notes 566
Chapter 9 Glossary 567
Byzantium 263 Bibliography 582
Chapter 10 Credits 595
The Islamic World 293 Index 599
iv
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Contents
Preface xi Mesopotamia 32
Persia 50
Introduction ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Gods and Goddesses
of Mesopotamia 34
What Is Art History? 1
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Sumerian Votive Statuary 35
Art History in the 21st Century 2
■ materials and techniques: Mesopotamian Seals 37
Different Ways of Seeing 13 ■ a second opinion: The Standard of Ur 38
■ art and society: Enheduanna, Priestess and Poet 42
1 Art in the Stone Age 15 ■ the patron’s voice: Gudea of Lagash 43
■ art and society: Hammurabi’s Laws 45

FRAMING THE ERA The Dawn of Art 15
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: How Many Legs Does
Timeline 16
a Lamassu Have? 47
Paleolithic Art 16 ■ written sources: Babylon, City of Wonders 50
Neolithic Art 23 Map 2-1 Ancient Mesopotamia and Persia 32
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: How to Represent an

THE BIG PICTURE 5 5
Animal 17
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Painting in the Dark 20
■ a second opinion: The Meaning of Paleolithic Art 21

3 Egypt from Narmer
■ art and society: The Neolithic Temple at Göbekli Tepe 24
to Cleopatra 57
Map 1-1 Stone Age sites in Europe 16 FRAMING THE ERA Life after Death in
Map 1-2 Neolithic sites in Anatolia and Mesopotamia 24 Ancient Egypt 57
Timeline 58
THE BIG PICTURE 2 9
Egypt and Egyptology 58
Predynastic and Early Dynastic Periods 58
2 Ancient Mesopotamia
Old Kingdom 62
and Persia 31
Middle Kingdom 69
FRAMING THE ERA Pictorial Narration
in Ancient Sumer 31 New Kingdom 71
Timeline 32 First Millennium bce 81
v
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■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Gods and Goddesses ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Gods and Goddesses
of Egypt 60 of Mount Olympus 107
■ art and society: Mummification and Immortality 61 ■ materials and techniques: Greek Vase Painting 110
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Building the Pyramids ■ Architectural basics: Greek Temple Plans 115
of Gizeh 64
■ Architectural basics: Doric and Ionic Orders 116
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: How to Portray a God-King 66
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: The Invention of Red-Figure
■ art and society: Hatshepsut, the Woman Who Would Painting 121
Be King 72
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Herakles, the Greatest Greek
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Illuminating Buildings Hero 126
before Lightbulbs 75
■ materials and techniques: Hollow-Casting Life-Size
■ a second opinion: Akhenaton 77 Bronze Statues 129
Map 3-1 Ancient Egypt 58 ■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Polykleitos’s Prescription
for the Perfect Statue 131
THE BIG PICTURE 8 3
■ art and society: The Hegeso Stele 141
■ materials and techniques: White-Ground Painting 142
4 The Prehistoric Aegean 85 ■ a second opinion: The Alexander Mosaic 150
■ Architectural basics: The Corinthian Capital 152

FRAMING THE ERA Greece in the Age of Heroes 85
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Hippodamos’s Plan for the
Timeline 86
Ideal City 154
Greece before Homer 86 Map 5-1 The Greek world 106
Cycladic Art 87 THE BIG PICTURE 1 6 3

Minoan Art 88
Mycenaean Art 97 6 The Etruscans 165
■ a second opinion: Cycladic Statuettes 87
FRAMING THE ERA The Portal to the Etruscan
■ art and society: The Theran Eruption and the Chronology Afterlife 165
of Aegean Art 92
Timeline 166
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Fortified Palaces for a Hostile
World 96 Etruria and the Etruscans 166
■ Architectural basics: Corbeled Arches, Vaults, and Early Etruscan Art 166
Domes 97
Map 4-1 The prehistoric Aegean 86 Later Etruscan Art 173

■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Etruscan Counterparts
THE BIG PICTURE 1 0 3 of Greco-Roman Gods and Heroes 167
■ written sources: Etruscan Artists in Rome 168
■ art and society: The “Audacity” of Etruscan Women 169

5 Ancient Greece 105
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Houses of the Dead in a City
FRAMING THE ERA The Perfect Temple 105 of the Dead 170
Timeline 106 ■ a second opinion: The Capitoline Wolf 174
Map 6-1 Italy in Etruscan times 166

The Greeks and Their Gods 106
Geometric and Orientalizing Periods 108 THE BIG PICTURE 1 7 9
Archaic Period 111
7 The Roman Empire 181
Early and High Classical Periods 125
Late Classical Period 144 FRAMING THE ERA The Roman Emperor as World
Conqueror 181
Hellenistic Period 153
Timeline 182
vi Contents
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Rome, Caput Mundi 182 ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Life of Jesus in
Art 244
Republic 183
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Early Christian Saints and
Pompeii and the Cities of Vesuvius 189 Their Attributes 246
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: What Should a Church

Early Empire 201 Look Like? 249
High Empire 211 ■ materials and techniques: Manuscript
Illumination 252
Late Empire 223
■ materials and techniques: Ivory Carving 253
■ art and society: Who’s Who in the Roman World 183
■ materials and techniques: Mosaics 256
■ Architectural basics: Roman Concrete Construction 186
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Picturing the Spiritual
■ art and society: Roman Ancestor Portraits 187 World 260
■ art and society: Art for Freed Slaves 190 Map 8-1 The Mediterranean world in Late Antiquity 238
■ written sources: An Eyewitness Account of the Eruption of
Mount Vesuvius 191 THE BIG PICTURE 2 6 1
■ art and society: The Roman House 193
■ art and society: Role Playing in Roman Portraiture 200

9 Byzantium 263
■ the patron’s voice: The Res Gestae of Augustus 202
FRAMING THE ERA Church and State United 263
■ written sources: Vitruvius’s Ten Books on
Architecture 204 Timeline 264
■ written sources: The Golden House of Nero 206 The Christian Roman Empire 264
■ art and society: Spectacles in the Colosseum 207
Early Byzantine Art 265
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: The Ancient World’s Largest
Dome 216 Middle Byzantine Art 279
■ written sources: Hadrian and Apollodorus of Late Byzantine Art 287
Damascus 217
■ written sources: The Emperors of New Rome 267
■ materials and techniques: Iaia of Cyzicus and the Art
of Encaustic Painting 223 ■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Placing a Dome over a
Square 270
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Tetrarchic Portraiture 229
■ a second opinion: The Vienna Genesis 276
■ a second opinion: The Arch of Constantine 233
■ art and society: Icons and Iconoclasm 278
Map 7-1 The Roman Empire at the death of Trajan in
117 ce 182 ■ art and society: Born to the Purple: Empress Zoe 282
Map 9-1 The Byzantine Empire at the death of Justinian

THE BIG PICTURE 2 3 5 in 565 264
THE BIG PICTURE 2 9 1

8 Late Antiquity 237
FRAMING THE ERA Polytheism and Monotheism 10 The Islamic World 293
at Dura-Europos 237
FRAMING THE ERA The Rise and Spread
Timeline 238
of Islam 293
The Late Antique World 238 Timeline 294
From the Soldier Emperors to the Sack Early Islamic Art 294
of Rome 238
Later Islamic Art 306
From the Sack of Rome to Justinian 254
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Muhammad and Islam 295
■ a second opinion: The Via Latina Catacomb 240
■ a second opinion: The Rock of the Dome of the Rock 296
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Old Testament Subjects in
Christian Art 242 ■ art and society: Major Muslim Dynasties 297
Contents vii
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■ Architectural basics: The Mosque 299 Timeline 348
■ written sources: A Venetian Visitor to the Alhambra 307 European Culture in the New Millennium 348
■ written sources: Sinan the Great and the Mosque
of Selim II 310
France and Northern Spain 348
■ materials and techniques: Islamic Tilework 311 Holy Roman Empire 364
■ art and society: Christian Patronage of Islamic Art 316 Italy 370
Map 10-1 The Islamic world around 1500 294 Normandy and England 372
THE BIG PICTURE 3 1 7 ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Veneration of Relics 349
■ art and society: Pilgrimage Roads in France and Spain 350
■ written sources: The Burning of Canterbury Cathedral 353

11 Early Medieval Europe 319
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Stone Vaulting in Romanesque
FRAMING THE ERA Missionaries and the Beauty Churches 354
of God’s Words 319 ■ a second opinion: The Rebirth of Large-Scale Sculpture
in Romanesque Europe 355
Timeline 320
■ written sources: Bernard of Clairvaux on Cloister
Europe After the Fall of Rome 320 Sculpture 356
Merovingians and Anglo-Saxons 320 ■ Architectural basics: The Romanesque Church Portal 358
Vikings 323 ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Crusades 360
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: How to Illuminate a Nave 365

Hiberno-Saxon Monasteries 324
■ art and society: Romanesque Countesses, Queens, and
Visigothic and Mozarabic Art 327 Nuns 367
Carolingian Empire 328 ■ materials and techniques: Embroidery and Tapestry 377
Map 12-1 Western Europe around 1100 350

Ottonian Empire 337
■ materials and techniques: Cloisonné 321 THE BIG PICTURE 3 7 9
■ art and society: Early Medieval Ship Burials 322
■ art and society: Medieval Books 324
■ a second opinion: The Lindisfarne Saint Matthew 326

13 Gothic Europe North
■ art and society: Charlemagne’s Renovatio Imperii
of the Alps 381
Romani 329
FRAMING THE ERA The Birth of Gothic 381
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Four Evangelists 331
Timeline 382
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: How to Illustrate a Psalm 332
“Gothic” 382
■ written sources: Charlemagne’s Palatine Chapel at
Aachen 334 France 382
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Medieval Monasteries and
Opus Francigenum outside France 407
Benedictine Rule 336
■ the patron’s voice: Abbot Suger and the Rebuilding
■ art and society: Theophanu, a Byzantine Princess at the
of Saint-Denis 383
Ottonian Court 342
■ Architectural basics: The Gothic Rib Vault 387
Map 11-1 The Carolingian Empire at the death of Charlemagne
in 814 328 ■ art and society: Paris, the New Center of Medieval
Learning 388
■ Architectural basics: High Gothic Cathedrals 389
■ materials and techniques: Stained-Glass Windows 392

12 Romanesque Europe 347 ■ art and society: Louis IX, the Saintly King 398
■ a second opinion: Gothic Cathedrals and Gothic Cities 400

FRAMING THE ERA The Blessed and the Damned
on Judgment Day 347 ■ art and society: Gothic Book Production 402
viii Contents
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■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: The Scissors Arches of Wells ■ Architectural basics: Hindu Temples 460
Cathedral 409
Map 15-1 South and Southeast Asian sites before 1200 444
Map 13-1 Europe around 1200 382
16 China and Korea to 1279 471

14 Late Medieval Italy 419
FRAMING THE ERA China’s First Emperor 471
FRAMING THE ERA Duccio di Buoninsegna 419 Timeline 472
Timeline 420
China 472
Duecento (13th Century) 420
Korea 496
Trecento (14th Century) 424 ■ materials and techniques: Chinese Earthenwares
■ art and society: Italian Artists’ Names 421 and Stonewares 473
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Great Schism, Mendicant ■ materials and techniques: Shang Bronze-Casting 474
Orders, and Confraternities 423 ■ a second opinion: Sanxingdui 475
■ a second opinion: Pietro Cavallini 425 ■ materials and techniques: Chinese Jade 476
■ materials and techniques: Fresco Painting 428 ■ materials and techniques: Silk and the Silk Road 477
■ the patron’s voice: Artists’ Guilds, Artistic Commissions, ■ Architectural basics: Chinese Wood Construction 480
and Artists’ Contracts 430
■ artists on aRT: Xie He’s Six Canons 482
■ art and society: Artistic Training in Renaissance
Italy 434 ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Daoism and Confucianism 486
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Cityscapes and Landscapes as ■ materials and techniques: Chinese Painting Materials
Allegories 436 and Formats 489
Map 14-1 Italy around 1400 420 ■ the patron’s voice: Emperor Huizong’s Auspicious
Cranes 491
THE BIG PICTURE 4 4 1 ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Chan Buddhism 495
Map 16-1 China during the Tang dynasty 472
15 South and Southeast THE BIG PICTURE 4 9 9

Asia before 1200 443
FRAMING THE ERA The Great Stupa at Sanchi 443 17 Japan before 1333 501
Timeline 444
FRAMING THE ERA Horyuji, Japan’s Oldest Buddhist
South Asia 444 Temple 501
Timeline 502
Southeast Asia 462
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Buddha, Buddhism, Japan Before Buddhism 502
and Buddhist Iconography 447
Buddhist Japan 506
■ the patron’s voice: Ashoka’s Sponsorship
of Buddhism 448 ■ a second opinion: Kofun Haniwa 504
■ Architectural basics: The Stupa 450 ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Shinto 505
■ materials and techniques: The Painted Caves ■ written sources: Woman Writers and Calligraphers at the
of Ajanta 455 Heian Imperial Court 511
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Hinduism and Hindu ■ art and society: Heian and Kamakura Artistic Workshops 514
Iconography 456 Map 17-1 Japan before 1333 502
■ a second opinion: The Ganges River or the Penance
of Arjuna? 459 THE BIG PICTURE 5 1 7
Contents ix
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18 Native American 19 Africa before 1800 551
Cultures before 1300 519 FRAMING THE ERA The Art of the Benin
FRAMING THE ERA Ancient Cities in a Kingdom 551
New World 519 Timeline 552
Timeline 520 African Peoples and Art Forms 552

The Ancient Americas 520 Prehistory and Early Cultures 553
Mesoamerica 520 11th to 18th Centuries 556
Central America and Northern Andes 536 ■ art and society: Dating African Art and Identifying African
Artists 554
South America 536
■ art and society: Art and Leadership in Africa 557
North America 544 ■ art and society: Ife Ruler Portraiture 558
■ materials and techniques: Mural Painting at
■ a second opinion: The Seated Man from Tada 559
Teotihuacán 526
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: King Lalibela’s New Jerusalem
■ art and society: The Mesoamerican Ball Game 528
in Ethiopia 561
■ art and society: Human Sacrifice at Bonampak 531
Map 19-1 Precolonial African peoples and sites 552
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: The Underworld, the Sun,
and Mesoamerican Pyramid Design 533 THE BIG PICTURE 5 6 5
■ materials and techniques: Andean Weaving 539
■ art and society: Nasca Lines 540 Notes 566

■ a second opinion: Serpent Mound 546
Glossary 567
Map 18-1 Early sites in Mesoamerica 521
Bibliography 582
Map 18-2 Early sites in Andean South America 537
Map 18-3 Early Native American sites in North America 544 Credits 595
THE BIG PICTURE 5 4 9 Index 599
x Contents
96593_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 10 13/08/18 12:44 pm

Preface
I take great pleasure in introducing the extensively revised and (following similar forays into France, Tuscany, Rome, and Germany
expanded 16th edition of Gardner’s Art through the Ages: A Global for the 14th and 15th editions). MindTap also includes custom vid-
History, which, like the 15th edition, is a hybrid art history eos made on these occasions at each site by Sharon Adams Poore.
textbook—the first, and still the only, introductory survey of the This extraordinary proprietary Cengage archive of visual material
history of art of its kind. This innovative new kind of “Gardner” ranges from ancient temples and aqueducts in Rome and France; to
retains all of the best features of traditional books on paper while medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque churches in England, France,
harnessing 21st-century technology to increase by 25% the number Germany, and Italy and 18th-century landscape architecture in
of works examined—without increasing the size or weight of the England; to such postmodern masterpieces as the Pompidou Center
book itself and at only nominal additional cost to students. and the Louvre Pyramide in Paris, the Neue Staatsgalerie in Stutt-
When Helen Gardner published the first edition of Art through gart, and the Gherkin in London. The 16th edition also features the
the Ages in 1926, she could not have imagined that nearly a century highly acclaimed architectural drawings of John Burge prepared
later, instructors all over the world would still be using her textbook exclusively for Cengage, as well as Google Earth coordinates for all
(available even in a new Chinese edition, the third time this clas- buildings and sites and all known provenances of portal objects.
sic textbook has been translated into Chinese) in their classrooms. Together, these exclusive photographs, videos, and drawings pro-
Indeed, if she were alive today, she would not recognize the book vide readers with a visual feast unavailable anywhere else.
that, even in its traditional form, long ago became—and remains— Once again, scales accompany the photograph of every paint-
the world’s most widely read introduction to the history of art and ing, statue, or other artwork discussed—another innovative feature
architecture. I hope that instructors and students alike will agree of the Gardner text. The scales provide students with a quick and
that this new edition lives up to the venerable Gardner tradition and effective way to visualize how big or small a given artwork is and its
even exceeds their high expectations. relative size compared with other objects in the same chapter and
The 16th edition follows the 15th in incorporating an innova- throughout the book—especially important given that the illus-
tive new online component called MindTaptm, which includes, in trated works vary in size from tiny to colossal.
addition to a host of other features (enumerated below), MindTap Also retained in this edition are the Quick-Review Captions
Bonus Images (with zoom capability) and descriptions of more than (brief synopses of the most significant aspects of each artwork or
300 additional important works of all eras, from prehistory to the building illustrated) that students have found invaluable when pre-
present and worldwide. The printed and online components of the paring for examinations. These extended captions accompany not
hybrid 16th edition are very closely integrated. For example, each only every image in the printed book but also all the digital images
MindTap Bonus Image appears as a thumbnail in the traditional in MindTap, where they are also included in a set of interactive
textbook, with abbreviated caption, to direct readers to MindTap electronic flashcards. Each chapter also again ends with the highly
for additional content, including an in-depth discussion of each popular full-page feature called The Big Picture, which sets forth
image. The integration extends also to the maps, index, glossary, in bullet-point format the most important characteristics of each
and chapter summaries, which seamlessly merge the printed and period or artistic movement discussed in the chapter. Also retained
online information. from the 15th edition are the timelines summarizing the major
artistic and architectural developments during the era treated (again
in bullet-point format for easy review) and a chapter-opening essay
Key Features of called Framing the Era, which discusses a characteristic painting,
sculpture, or building and is illustrated by four photographs.
the 16th Edition Another pedagogical tool not found in any other introductory
In this new edition, in addition to revising the text of every chapter art history textbook is the Before 1300 section that appears at the
to incorporate the latest research and methodological developments beginning of the second volume of the paperbound version of the
and dividing the former chapter on European and American art book. Because many students taking the second half of a survey
from 1900 to 1945 into two chapters, I have added several important course will not have access to Volume I, I have provided a special
features while retaining the basic format and scope of the previous (expanded) set of concise primers on architectural terminology
edition. Once again, the hybrid Gardner boasts roughly 1,700 pho- and construction methods in the ancient and medieval worlds,
tographs, plans, and drawings, nearly all in color and reproduced and on mythology and religion—information that is essential for
according to the highest standards of clarity and color fidelity, understanding the history of art after 1300 in both the West and
including hundreds of new images, among them a new series of the East. The subjects of these special essays are Greco-Roman
superb photos taken by Jonathan Poore exclusively for Art through Temple Design and the Classical Orders; Arches and Vaults; Basili-
the Ages during a photographic campaign in England in 2016 can Churches; Central-Plan Churches; the Gods and Goddesses
xi
96593_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 11 13/08/18 12:44 pm

of Mount Olympus; the Life of Jesus in Art; Early Christian Saints ensure that the text lives up to the Gardner reputation for accuracy
and Their Attributes; Buddhism and Buddhist Iconography; and as well as readability. I take great pleasure in acknowledging here
Hinduism and Hindu Iconography. Before 1300 also is included in the important contributions to the 16th edition made by the follow-
MindTap for all courses. ing: Bradley Bailey, Saint Louis University; Amy Bloch, University
Feature boxes once again appear throughout the book as well. at Albany; Anne-Marie Bouché, Florida Gulf Coast University;
These features fall under nine broad categories, one of which is new Betty Brownlee, Macomb Community College; Caroline Bruzelius,
to the 16th edition: Duke University; Petra Chu, Seton Hall University; Kathy Curnow,
Architectural Basics boxes provide students with a sound foun- Cleveland State University; Paola Demattè, Rhode Island School of
dation for the understanding of architecture. These discussions are Design; Sarah Dillon, Kingsborough City College, City University of
concise explanations, with drawings and diagrams, of the major New York; Eduardo de Jesús Douglas, University of North Carolina-
aspects of design and construction. The information included is essen- Chapel Hill; Sonja Drimmer, University of Massachusetts Amherst;
tial to an understanding of architectural technology and terminology. Ingrid Furniss, Lafayette College; Karen Hope Goodchild, Wofford
Materials and Techniques essays explain the various media that College; Christopher Gregg, George Mason University; Melinda
artists have employed from prehistoric to modern times. Because Hartwig, Emory University; Joe Hawkins, Hagley Park; Peter Hol-
materials and techniques often influence the character of artworks, liday, California State University, Long Beach; Craig Houser, City
these discussions contain essential information on why many mon- College of New York/City University of New York; Margaret Jack-
uments appear as they do. son, University of New Mexico; Mark J. Johnson, Brigham Young
Religion and Mythology boxes introduce students to the princi- University; Lynn Jones, Florida State University; Tanja L. Jones,
pal elements of the world’s great religions, past and present, and to University of Alabama Tuscaloosa; Nancy Klein, Texas A&M;
the representation of religious and mythological themes in painting Peri Klemm, California State University, Northridge; Yu Bong Ko,
and sculpture of all periods and places. These discussions of belief Dominican College; Paul Lavy, University of Hawai’i at Manoa; John
systems and iconography give readers a richer understanding of Listopad, California State University, Sacramento; Gary Liu Jr., Uni-
some of the greatest artworks ever created. versity of Hawaii at Manoa; Nancy Bea Miller, Montgomery County
Art and Society essays treat the historical, social, political, cul- Community College; Michelle Moseley-Christian, Virginia Tech
tural, and religious context of art and architecture. In some instances, University; Evan Neely, Pratt Institute; Huiping Pang, University of
specific monuments are the basis for a discussion of broader themes. Iowa; Benjamin Paul, Rutgers University; Julie-Anne Plax, Univer-
Written Sources boxes present and discuss key historical docu- sity of Arizona; Stephanie Porras, Tulane University; Sharon Pruitts,
ments illuminating important monuments of art and architecture East Carolina University; Kurt Rahmlow, University of North Texas;
throughout the world. The passages quoted permit voices from the Julie Risser, Minneapolis College of Art and Design; Robyn Roslak,
past to speak directly to the reader, providing vivid and unique University of Minnesota-Duluth; Susan Elizabeth Ryan, Louisiana
insights into the creation of artworks in all media. State University; Nicholas Sawicki, Lehigh University; Nancy Ser-
In the Artists on Art boxes, artists and architects throughout wint, Arizona State University; Kerri Cox Sullivan, University of
history discuss both their theories and individual works. Texas, Austin; James R. Swensen, Brigham Young University; David
The Patron’s Voice essays underscore the important roles played S. Whitley, University of California, Los Angeles/ASM Affiliates;
by the individuals and groups who paid for the artworks and build- Margaret L. Woodhull, University of Colorado Denver.
ings in determining the character of those monuments. I am especially indebted to the following for creating the
Problems and Solutions essays are designed to make students instructor and student materials for the 16th edition: Anne
think critically about the decisions that went into the making of McClanan, Portland State University; Kerri Cox Sullivan, Univer-
every painting, sculpture, and building from the Old Stone Age to sity of Texas, Austin.
the present. These discussions address questions of how and why I am also happy to have this opportunity to express my grat-
various forms developed; the problems that painters, sculptors, and itude to the extraordinary group of people at Cengage involved
architects confronted; and the solutions they devised to resolve them. with the editing, production, and distribution of Art through the
New to the 16th edition are boxes titled A Second Opinion, in Ages. Some of them I have now worked with on various projects
which an individual work of art that is the subject of current debate for two decades and feel privileged to count among my friends.
or has recently been reinterpreted is discussed. These essays under- The success of the Gardner series in all of its various permutations
score for students that the history of art and architecture is not a static depends in no small part on the expertise and unflagging commit-
discipline and that scholars are constantly questioning and rethinking ment of these dedicated professionals, especially Vanessa Manter,
traditional interpretations of paintings, sculptures, and buildings. senior product manager; Laura Hildebrand, senior content man-
Other noteworthy features retained from the 15th edition are ager; Lianne Ames, senior content manager; Paula Dohnal,
the extensive (updated) bibliography of books in English; a glos- learning designer; Ann Hoffman, intellectual property analyst;
sary containing definitions of all italicized terms introduced in both Betsy Hathaway, senior intellectual property project manager;
the printed and online texts; and a complete museum index listing Laura Kuhlman, marketing manager; Sarah Cole, senior designer;
all illustrated artworks by their present location. The host of state- as well as Sharon Adams Poore, former product manager for art;
of-the-art resources in the 16th edition version of MindTap for Art Cate Barr, former senior art director; Jillian Borden, former senior
through the Ages are enumerated on page xxix). marketing manager; and Sayaka Kawano, former product assis-
tant. I also express my deep gratitude to the incomparable group
of learning consultants who have passed on to me the welcome
Acknowledgments advice offered by the hundreds of instructors they speak to daily.
A work as extensive as a global history of art could not be undertaken It is a special pleasure also to acknowledge my debt to the fol-
or completed without the counsel of experts in all areas of world lowing out-of-house contributors to the 16th edition: the peerless
art. As with previous editions, Cengage has enlisted dozens of art quarterback of the entire production process, Joan Keyes, Dovetail
historians to review every chapter of Art through the Ages in order to Publishing Services; Michele Jones, copy editor extraordinaire; Susan
xii Preface
96593_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 12 13/08/18 12:44 pm

Gall, eagle-eyed proofreader; Alisha Webber, text and cover designer; thenaic procession frieze of the Parthenon; the Temple of Athena
Lumina Datamatics, photo researchers; Jay and John Crowley, Jay’s Nike and the caryatids of the Erechtheion on the Athenian Acrop-
Publisher Services; Cenveo Publisher Services; and Jonathan Poore olis; the Tomb of the Diver, Paestum; the Farnese Hercules; and the
and John Burge, for their superb photos and architectural drawings. Stoa of Attalos in the Athenian agora.
I conclude this long (but no doubt incomplete) list of acknowl- 6: The Etruscans. New Framing the Era essay “The Portal to the Etrus-
edgments with an expression of gratitude to my colleagues at Boston can Afterlife.” New A Second Opinion essay “The Capitoline Wolf.”
University and to the thousands of students and hundreds of teach- New photographs of the Tomb of the Augurs and the Capitoline Wolf.
ing fellows in my art history courses since I began teaching in 1975.
From them I have learned much that has helped determine the form 7: The Roman Empire. Added the portraits of a Republican priest
and content of Art through the Ages and made it a much better book in the Vatican Museums and of Pompey the Great in Venice.
than it otherwise might have been. New Framing the Era essay “The Roman Emperor as World Con-
Fred S. Kleiner queror.” New A Second Opinion essay “The Arch of Constantine.”
New photographs of the Temple of Portunus, Rome; the Temple of
Vesta, Tivoli; the funerary relief of the Gessii in Boston; the funer-
ary procession relief from Amiternum; the gardenscape from the
Chapter-by-Chapter Changes Villa of Livia at Primaporta; the Ara Pacis Augustae, Rome (gen-
in the 16th Edition eral view and Tellus panel); the Pont-du-Gard, Nîmes; the Porta
Maggiore, Rome; the facade of the Colosseum, Rome; the portrait
The 16th edition is extensively revised and expanded, as detailed of a Flavian woman in the Museo Capitolino; the spoils relief of
below. Instructors will find a very helpful figure number transition the Arch of Titus, Rome; four details of the spiral frieze of the
guide on the online instructor companion site. Column of Trajan, Rome; the portrait of Hadrian in the Palazzo
Introduction: What Is Art History? Added the head of the portrait Massimo; the exterior of the Pantheon, Rome; the apotheosis and
of Augustus as pontifex maximus from the Via Labicana, Rome. decursio reliefs of the Column of Antoninus Pius, Rome; the por-
1: Art in the Stone Age. Revised and expanded discussion of trait of Caracalla in Berlin; the portrait of Trajan Decius in the
chronology and current theories about Paleolithic art, includ- Museo Capitolino; the portrait of Philip the Arabian in the Vatican
ing a new A Second Opinion essay “The Meaning of Paleolithic Museums; the Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus; the Temple of Venus,
Art.” New Art and Society essay “The Neolithic Temple at Göbekli Baalbek; and the Arch of Constantine, Rome.
Tepe.” New photographs of the passage grave at Newgrange and 8: Late Antiquity. Added the baptistery of the Christian commu-
the circles of trilithons at Stonehenge. nity house at Dura-Europos, the Anastasis Rotunda of the Church
2: Ancient Mesopotamia and Persia. Added the Babylonian of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, and the mosaics of the chan-
Queen of the Night, the Kalhu panel of Assyrians besieging a cita- cel arch of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. New Framing the Era
del, and a bull protome capital from Achaemenid Susa. Revised essay “Polytheism and Monotheism at Dura-Europos.” New A Sec-
chronology of Sumerian art and expanded discussion of the Royal ond Opinion essay “The Via Latina Catacomb.” New photographs
Cemetery at Ur with a new A Second Opinion essay “The Stan- of the Dura-Europos baptistery, the Santa Maria Antiqua sarcoph-
dard of Ur.” Revised discussion and dating of the Sasanian palace agus, two details of the Catacomb of Commodilla in Rome, and
at Ctesiphon. New photographs of the cylinder seal of Puabi, the the ivory diptych of the Symmachi.
portrait head of an Akkadian ruler, the lamassu from the palace of 9: Byzantium. Added the pedestal of the Theodosian obelisk in
Sargon II, and the Nineveh panel of Ashurbanipal hunting lions. the Constantinople hippodrome. New A Second Opinion essay
3: Egypt from Narmer to Cleopatra. Added the colossal head “The Vienna Genesis.” New photographs of the apse of San Vitale
of Senusret III in Kansas City. New A Second Opinion essay at Ravenna, the interior of the Cappella Palatina at Palermo, and
“Akhenaton.” New photographs of the columnar entrance corri- the exterior of the church of Saint Catherine at Thessaloniki.
dor of the funerary precinct of Djoser at Saqqara, the exterior and 10: The Islamic World. New A Second Opinion essay “The Rock
interior of the Temple of Ramses II at Abu Simbel, the Temple of of the Dome of the Rock.” New photographs of the exterior and
Amen-Re and the hypostyle hall at Karnak, Thutmose’s portrait of interior of the Dome of the Rock, the Umayyad palace at Mshatta,
Nefertiti, the sunken relief in Berlin of the family of Akhenaton, and the pyxis of al-Mughira.
and the sphinx of Taharqo in the British Museum. 11: Early Medieval Europe. New Framing the Era essay “Mis-
4: The Prehistoric Aegean. New A Second Opinion essay “Cycladic sionaries and the Beauty of God’s Words.” New A Second Opinion
Statuettes.” New photographs of the Hagia Triada sarcophagus, the essay “The Lindisfarne Saint Matthew.” New Problems and Solu-
Akrotiri Spring Fresco, the corbel-vaulted gallery in the fortifica- tions essay “How to Illustrate a Psalm.” New photographs of the
tion walls of Tiryns, the Lion Gate and the interior of the Treasury Oseberg ship, San Juan Bautista at Baños de Cerrato, and the
of Atreus at Mycenae, and the Mycenaean painted female head in bronze doors of St. Michael’s at Hildesheim.
the Athens National Archaeological Museum. 12: Romanesque Europe. New Framing the Era essay “The Blessed
5: Ancient Greece. Added a second centauromachy metope, the and the Damned on Judgment Day.” New Written Sources essay
horse of Selene from the east pediment, the river god Ilissos and “The Burning of Canterbury Cathedral.” Two new Problems and
Iris from the west pediment, and the peplos ceremony of the east Solutions essays “Stone Vaulting in Romanesque Churches” and
frieze of the Parthenon; and the lion hunt pebble mosaic from “How to Illuminate a Nave.” New A Second Opinion essay “The
Pella. New A Second Opinion essay “The Alexander Mosaic.” Rebirth of Large-Scale Sculpture in Romanesque Europe.” New
New photographs of the west pediment of the Temple of Arte- photographs of the west tympanum Last Judgment at Autun (three
mis, Corfu; the Charioteer of Delphi; the herm of Pericles in the new details), the Tower of Babel on the nave vault of Saint-Savin-sur-
Vatican; metope 28, Helios and Dionysos and the three goddesses Gartempe, the interior and atrium of Sant’Ambrogio at Milan, and
of the east pediment, and the horsemen and maidens of the Pana- the nave of Durham Cathedral.
Preface xiii
96593_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 13 13/08/18 12:44 pm

13: Gothic Europe North of the Alps. Added the head of Moses 16: China and Korea to 1279. Extensive text revisions. Added
from the west facade of Saint-Denis; Wells and Exeter Cathedrals; the Nanchan Temple on Mount Wutai. New A Second Opinion
and a discussion of the Decorated style of English Gothic architec- essay “Sanxingdui.” New photographs of the terracotta army of
ture. New Framing the Era essay “The Birth of Gothic.” New Art and Shi Huangdi (general view and three details), the Vairocana Bud-
Society essay “Louis IX, the Saintly King.” New A Second Opinion dha of the Fengxian Temple at Luoyang, the Fogong Si Pagoda at
essay “Gothic Cathedrals and Gothic Cities.” New photographs of Yingxian, and the United Silla cave temple at Seokguram.
Chartres Cathedral (aerial view and nave), Reims Cathedral (west 17: Japan before 1333. Revised Framing the Era essay “Horyuji,
facade), Sainte-Chapelle in Paris (interior), Salisbury Cathedral Japan’s Oldest Buddhist Temple.” New A Second Opinion essay
(west facade, statue of Bishop Poore, and nave), Gloucester Cathe- “Kofun Haniwa.” New photographs of a haniwa warrior from
dral (choir and tomb of Edward II), the exterior of the Chapel of Gunma Prefecture, the honden of the Ise Jingu, the kondo and
Henry VII in Westminster Abbey, Nicholas of Verdun’s Shrine of Amida triad mural at Horyuji, the Daibutsuden and Unkei’s Agyo
the Three Kings, and the choir of Cologne Cathedral. at Todaiji, and the Phoenix Hall of the Byodoin at Uji.
14: Late Medieval Italy. New Framing the Era essay “Duccio di 18: Native American Cultures before 1300. Added a Moche
Buoninsegna.” New A Second Opinion essay “Pietro Cavallini.” portrait-head vessel in Houston and Lintel 25 of Structure 23,
New Problems and Solutions essay “Cityscapes and Landscapes as Yaxchilán. New Framing the Era essay “Ancient Cities in a New
Allegories.” Two new photographs of Pietro Cavallini’s Last Judg- World.” New Art and Society essay “Human Sacrifice at Bonam-
ment in Santa Cecilia in Trastevere. pak.” New photographs of the Temple of the Sun and the Temple of
15: South and Southeast Asia before 1200. Extensively revised text the Feathered Serpent at Teotihuacán, the ball court at Copán, and
with expansion of the section on Southeast Asia, especially Borobu- the Castillo, Caracol, and ball court at Chichén Itzá.
dur. New A Second Opinion essay “The Ganges River or the Penance 19: Africa before 1800. Added a Nok culture fragmentary figure
of Arjuna?” New photographs of the Great Stupa at Sanchi (general of a woman in Houston. Revised Framing the Era essay “The Art
view and yakshi of the east torana), the Bodhisattva Padmapani of the Benin Kingdom.” New A Second Opinion essay “The Seated
mural painting in cave 1 at Ajanta, Borobudur (aerial view, relief of Man from Tada.” New photographs of the copper statuette from
Sudhana visiting Manjushri, and seated Buddha and hollow stupas of Tada, Beta Giorghis at Lalibela, and the circuit walls and bird-and-
the highest circular terrace), and Angkor Wat (aerial view). crocodile monolith of Great Zimbabwe.
about the author
Fred S. Kleiner
Fred S. Kleiner (Ph.D., Columbia University) has been the author or coauthor of Gardner’s Art through the
Ages beginning with the 10th edition in 1995. He has also published more than a hundred books, articles,
and reviews on Greek and Roman art and architecture, including A History of Roman Art, also published by
Cengage Learning. Both Art through the Ages and the book on Roman art have been awarded Texty prizes as the
outstanding college textbook of the year in the humanities and social sciences, in 2001 and 2007, respectively. Pro-
fessor Kleiner has taught the art history survey course since 1975, first at the University of Virginia and, since 1978,
at Boston University, where he is currently professor of the history of art and architecture and classical archaeology
and has served as department chair for five terms, most recently from 2005 to 2014. From 1985 to 1998, he was
editor-in-chief of the American Journal of Archaeology.
Long acclaimed for his inspiring lectures and devotion to students, Professor Kleiner won Boston University’s
Metcalf Award for Excellence in Teaching as well as the College Prize for Undergraduate Advising in the Humanities
in 2002, and he is a two-time winner of the Distinguished Teaching Prize in the College of Arts & Sciences Honors
Program. In 2007, he was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London, and, in 2009, in recognition of
lifetime achievement in publication and teaching, a Fellow of the Text and Academic Authors Association.
Also by Fred Kleiner: A History of Roman Art, Second Edition (Cengage Learning 2018; ISBN
9781337279505), winner of the 2007 Texty Prize for a new college textbook in the humanities and social sciences.
In this authoritative and lavishly illustrated volume, Professor Kleiner traces the development of Roman art and
architecture from Romulus’s foundation of Rome in the eighth century bce to the death of Constantine in the fourth
century ce, with special chapters devoted to Pompeii and Herculaneum, Ostia, funerary and provincial art and
architecture, and the earliest Christian art, with an introductory chapter on the art and architecture of the Etruscans
and of the Greeks of South Italy and Sicily.
xiv Preface
96593_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 14 13/08/18 12:44 pm

RESOURCES FOR STUDENTS
AND INSTRUCTORS
MindTap for MindTap Mobile

Art through the Ages Gardner’s Art through the Ages: A Global History, 16th edition, is
now more accessible than ever with the MindTap Mobile App,
MindTap for Gardner’s Art through the Ages: A Global History, 16th
empowering students to learn on their terms—anytime, anywhere,
edition, helps students engage with course content and achieve
online or off.
greater comprehension. Highly personalized, fully online, and com-
pletely mobile-optimized, the MindTap learning platform presents •• The MindTap eReader provides convenience as students can
authoritative Cengage content, assignments, and services. read or listen to their eBook on their smartphone, take notes,
and highlight important passages.
Students
•• Flashcards and quizzing cultivate confidence. Students have in-
MindTap guides you through your course via a learning path where stant access to readymade flashcards, study games, and quizzes
you can annotate readings and take quizzes. Concepts are brought to engage key concepts and confidently prepare for exams.
to life with zoomable versions of close to 1,700 images; videos to •• Notifications keep students connected. Due dates are never for-
reinforce concepts and expand knowledge of particular works or art gotten with MindTap Mobile course notifications, which push
trends; numerous study tools, including mobile-optimized image assignment reminders, score updates, and instructor messages
flashcards; a glossary complete with an audio pronunciation guide; directly to students’ smartphones.
and more!
Instructors Lecture Notes & Study Guides

You can easily tailor the presentation of each MindTap course The Lecture Notes & Study Guide for each chapter is a lecture
and integrate activities into a learning management system. The companion that allows students to take notes alongside the images
Resources for Teaching folder in MindTap and the Instructor Com- shown in class. This resource includes reproductions of the images
panion Site hold resources such as instructions on how to use the from the reading, with full captions and space for note-taking either
online test bank; Microsoft PowerPoint slides with high-resolution on a computer or on a printout. It also includes a chapter summary,
images, which can be used as is or customized by importing per- key terms list, and learning objectives checklist.
sonal lecture slides or other material; YouTube playlists organized
by chapter; course learning objectives; and more. Google Earth
Take a virtual tour of art through the ages! Resources for the 16th
edition include Google Earth coordinates for all works, monu-
ments, and sites discussed in the reading, encouraging students to
make geographical connections between places and sites. Instruc-
tors can use these coordinates to start lectures with a virtual journey
to locations all over the globe or take aerial screenshots of important
sites to incorporate into lecture materials.
xv
96593_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 15 13/08/18 12:44 pm

 I-1a Art historians seek to understand not only why artworks
appear as they do but also why those works exist at all. Who paid
this African artist to make this altar? Can the figures represented
provide the answer?
1 in.
I-1 Altar to the Hand (ikegobo), from Benin, Nigeria,

ca. 1735–1750. Bronze, 19 5 21 0 high. British Museum,
London (gift of Sir William Ingram).
 I-1b What tools and techniques did this sculptor employ to transform molten
bronze into this altar representing a Benin king and his attendants projecting in
high relief from the background plane?
 I-1c At the bottom of the altar is a band

with hands and other symbols, but no art-
ist’s signature or date. How can art historians
determine when an unlabeled work such as
this one was made and by and for whom?
30702_intro_rev03_xxxii-013.indd 32 12/06/18 12:38 pm

introduction
WHAT IS ART HISTORY?

What is art history? Except when referring to the modern academic discipline, people do not often
juxtapose the words art and history. They tend to think of history as the record and interpretation of
past human events, particularly social and political events. By contrast, most think of art, quite cor-
rectly, as part of the present—as something people can see and touch. Of course, people cannot see or
touch history’s vanished human events, but a visible, tangible artwork is a kind of persisting event. One
or more artists made it at a certain time and in a specific place, even if no one now knows who, when,
where, or why. Although created in the past, an artwork continues to exist in the present, long surviv-
ing its times. The earliest known paintings and sculptures were created almost 40,000 years ago, but
they can be viewed today, often in glass cases in museums built only during the past few years.
Modern museum visitors can admire these objects from the remote past and countless others pro-
duced over the millennia—whether a large painting on canvas by a 17th-century French artist (fig. I-12),
a wood portrait from an ancient Egyptian tomb (fig. I-15), an illustrated book by a medieval German
monk (fig. I-8), or an 18th-century bronze altar glorifying an African king (fig. I-1)—without any
knowledge of the circumstances leading to the creation of those works. The beauty or sheer size of an
object can impress people, the artist’s virtuosity in the handling of ordinary or costly materials can
dazzle them, or the subject depicted can move them emotionally. Viewers can react to what they see,
interpret the work in the light of their own experience, and judge it a success or a failure. These are all
valid aesthetic responses. (Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy that addresses the nature of beauty,
especially in art.) But the enjoyment and appreciation of artworks in museum settings are relatively
recent phenomena, as is the creation of artworks solely for museum-going audiences to view.
Today, it is common for artists to work in private studios and to create paintings, sculptures, and
other objects to be offered for sale by commercial art galleries. This is what American artist Clyfford
Still (1904–1980) did when he created his series of paintings (fig. I-2) of pure color titled simply with
the year of their creation. Usually, someone whom the artist has never met will purchase the artwork
and display it in a setting that the artist has never seen. This practice is not a new phenomenon in
the history of art—an ancient potter decorating a vase for sale at a village market stall probably did
not know who would buy the pot or where it would be housed—but it is not at all typical. In fact, it is
exceptional. Throughout history, most artists created paintings, sculptures, and other objects for specific
patrons and settings and to fulfill a specific purpose, even if today no one knows the original contexts
of those artworks. A museum visitor can appreciate the visual and tactile qualities of these objects, but
without knowing the circumstances of their creation, that modern viewer cannot understand why they
were made or why they appear as they do. Art appreciation and aesthetic judgments in general do not
require knowledge of the historical context of an artwork (or a building). Art history does.
1

ART HISTORY IN THE 21ST CENTURY
Art historians study the visual and tangible objects that humans
make and the structures they build. Scholars traditionally have
classified these works as architecture, sculpture, the pictorial arts
(painting, drawing, printmaking, and photography), and the craft
arts, or arts of design. The craft arts comprise utilitarian objects,
such as ceramics, metalwork, textiles, jewelry, and similar acces-
sories of ordinary living—but the fact that these objects were used
does not mean that they are not works of art. In fact, in some times
and places, these so-called minor arts were the most prestigious
artworks of all. Artists of every age have blurred the boundaries
among these categories, but this is especially true today, when mul-
timedia works abound.
Beginning with the earliest Greco-Roman art critics, scholars
have studied objects that their makers consciously manufactured as
“art” and to which the artists assigned formal titles. But today’s art
historians also study a multitude of objects that their creators and
owners almost certainly did not consider to be “works of art”—for
example, the African altar illustrated on the opening page of this
introductory chapter (fig. I-1). Likewise, few ancient Romans
1 ft.
would have regarded a coin bearing their emperor’s portrait as any-
thing but money. Today, an art museum may exhibit that coin in
a locked case in a climate-controlled room, and scholars may sub-
ject it to the same kind of art historical analysis as a portrait by an
acclaimed Renaissance or modern sculptor or painter.
The range of objects that art historians study is constantly
I-2 Clyfford Still, 1948-C, 1948. Oil on canvas, 6′ 8 78 ″ × 5′ 8 34 ″. expanding and now includes, for example, computer-generated
Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, images, whereas in the past almost anything produced using a
Washington, D.C. (purchased with funds of Joseph H. Hirshhorn, machine would not have been regarded as art. Most people still
1992). consider the performing arts—music, drama, and dance—as out-
Clyfford Still painted this abstract composition without knowing who would
side art history’s realm because these arts are fleeting, imperma-
purchase it or where it would be displayed, but throughout history, most art- nent media. But during the past few decades, even this distinction
ists created works for specific patrons and settings. between “fine art” and “performance art” has become blurred. Art
historians, however, generally ask the same kinds of questions
about what they study, whether they employ a restrictive or expan-
sive definition of art.
Thus a central aim of art history is to determine the original
context of artworks. Art historians seek to achieve a full under-
standing not only of why these “persisting events” of human history
The Questions Art Historians Ask
look the way they do but also of why the artistic events happened How Old Is It? Before art historians can write a history of art,
at all. What unique set of circumstances gave rise to the construc- they must be sure that they know the date of each work they study.
tion of a particular building or led an individual patron to com- Thus an indispensable subject of art historical inquiry is chronology,
mission a certain artist to fashion a singular artwork for a specific the dating of art objects and buildings. If researchers cannot deter-
place? The study of history is therefore vital to art history. And art mine a monument’s age, they cannot place the work in its historical
history is often indispensable for a thorough understanding of his- context. Art historians have developed many ways to establish, or at
tory. In ways that other historical documents may not, art objects least approximate, the date of an artwork.
and buildings can shed light on the peoples who made them and Physical evidence often reliably indicates an object’s age. The
on the times of their creation. Furthermore, artists and architects material used for a statue or painting—bronze, plastic, or oil-based
can affect history by reinforcing or challenging cultural values and pigment, to name only a few—may not have been invented before a
practices through the objects they create and the structures they certain time, indicating the earliest possible date (the terminus post
build. Although the two disciplines are not the same, the analysis of quem: Latin, “point after which”) that someone could have fash-
art and architecture is inseparable from the study of history. ioned the work. Or artists may have ceased using certain materi-
The following pages introduce some of the distinctive subjects als—such as specific kinds of inks and papers for drawings—at a
that art historians address and the kinds of questions they ask, and known time, providing the latest possible date (the terminus ante
explain some of the basic terminology they use when answering quem: Latin, “point before which”) for objects made of those mate-
these questions. Readers armed with this arsenal of questions and rials. Sometimes the material (or the manufacturing technique) of
terms will be ready to explore the multifaceted world of art through an object or a building can establish a very precise date of produc-
the ages—and to form their own opinions and write knowledgably tion or construction. The study of tree rings, for instance, usually
about artworks and buildings in all places and at all times. This is can determine within a narrow range the date of a wood statue or a
the central aim of this book. timber roof beam.
2 introduction What Is Art History?


Another random document with
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put s’empêcher de monter dans la royale voiture ; en même temps,
elle avait le cœur bien gros en songeant à l’ange gardien qui se
mourait dans la chaumière, qui était peut-être mort, maintenant.
Elle fut reine, elle eut des palais merveilleux, et la joie des fêtes,
et la gloire d’être la plus illustre avec l’orgueil d’être la plus belle.
Mais ce qui la ravissait surtout, ce n’étaient pas les louanges des
chambellans et des ambassadeurs, ce n’était pas de marcher sur
des tapis de soie et d’or, de porter des robes fleuries de toutes les
roses et constellées de tous les diamants, non, c’était l’amour
toujours vivant, toujours grandissant, qui brûlait pour le roi, dans son
cœur, qui brûlait, dans le cœur du roi, pour elle. Ils éprouvaient l’un
pour l’autre une tendresse non pareille. Dans tout le vaste monde, ils
ne voyaient qu’eux seuls. Les affaires de l’État étaient le moindre de
leurs soucis ; qu’on leur permît de s’adorer en paix, ils n’avaient pas
d’autre désir ; et, sous leur règne, on ne fit point la guerre, tant ils
s’occupaient à faire l’amour. Au milieu d’une telle joie, Martine
songeait-elle au céleste messager qui avait pris sa place, par charité
pure ? Rarement. Son bonheur ne lui laissait pas le temps de ce
chagrin. Que si, — parfois, — un remords lui venait de n’avoir pas
accompli sa promesse, elle s’en délivrait en se disant que Martine,
dans la chaumière, n’était peut-être pas aussi malade qu’il
paraissait, et que l’ange avait dû guérir. D’ailleurs, elle ne s’inquiétait
guère de ce passé si obscur, si lointain, et elle ne pouvait pas avoir
de tristesse puisqu’elle s’endormait tous les soirs, la tête sur l’épaule
de son royal époux. Mais il advint une chose terrible : le roi disparut
un jour, pour ne plus reparaître, et personne ne put savoir ce qu’il
était devenu.
VI
Dès qu’elle fut seule, dès qu’elle fut malheureuse, Martine se

souvint de l’ange qui l’avait attendue en vain. Quand on est à
plaindre, on est enclin à avoir pitié. Elle se reprocha amèrement
d’avoir condamné au trépas le miséricordieux immortel, — car,
depuis longtemps, sans doute, il avait cessé d’exister, — et, un jour,
s’étant revêtue d’un habit de pauvresse, d’un habit pareil à ceux
qu’elle portait jadis, elle s’achemina vers la chaumière au milieu du
champ. Espérait-elle qu’il serait temps encore de reprendre sa place
dans le lit fatal ? Oh ! non, elle savait bien qu’elle avait commis une
faute irréparable ; mais elle voulait revoir, pèlerine repentante, le lieu
où avait souffert celui qui s’exposa pour elle. La chaumière n’était
plus que décombres dans la plaine en jachère. En s’informant chez
les voisins qui se gardèrent bien de la reconnaître, Martine apprit
que les habitants de la demeure aujourd’hui ruinée avaient quitté le
pays, autrefois, après la mort d’une fille chérie ; et l’on ne savait pas
quel chemin ils avaient suivi. Quant à l’enfant, elle était enterrée
dans le petit cimetière, au flanc de la colline. Ainsi, c’était certain, le
céleste remplaçant était mort à l’heure où elle aurait dû mourir elle-
même, et on l’eût ensevelie si on ne l’avait pas enseveli. Du moins
elle irait prier sur la tombe de l’ange. Elle entra dans le cimetière,
s’agenouilla devant une croix basse où on lisait le nom de Martine
parmi les hautes herbes fleuries. Comme son cœur se déchirait !
Comme elle se jugeait coupable ! Avec quels sanglots elle implorait
la divine clémence ! Mais une voix lui dit, une voix si douce que,
malgré sa douleur, elle en eut l’ouïe enchantée :
— Ne vous désolez pas, Martine ; les choses n’ont pas aussi mal
tourné que vous pouvez le croire.
En même temps, elle voyait, derrière la croix, se lever une forme
blanche, un peu vague, avec des ailes.
La voix reprit :
— Je suis votre ange gardien, et tout est bien puisque vous voilà.
Hâtez-vous de vous coucher sous cette pierre, et j’emporterai votre
âme au paradis, afin de l’y épouser.
— Hélas ! mon bon ange, combien vous avez dû souffrir, par ma
faute, en mourant, et combien vous avez dû vous ennuyer, seul si
longtemps, dans cette tombe !
— Bon ! dit-il, je m’étais bien douté que vous ne reviendriez pas
de sitôt, et j’avais pris mes précautions en conséquence. Une vaine
forme abusa vos parents, sous le drap, sur l’oreiller ; je vous ai suivie
à travers les branches ; et, pendant le temps où j’aurais dû dormir à
votre place dans la fosse, sous les hautes herbes fleuries…
— Oh ! pendant ce temps, en quel lieu étiez-vous, mon ange ?
— J’étais dans notre royal palais, ma reine, où vous m’aimiez
presque autant que vous m’aimerez tout à l’heure au Paradis !
LA DERNIÈRE FÉE
Un jour, dans une calèche faite d’une coquille d’aveline et attelée

de quatre coccinelles, la fée Oriane, — qui n’était pas plus grande
que l’ongle du petit doigt, — s’en retournait vers la forêt de
Brocéliande où elle avait coutume de vivre avec ses pareilles. Elle
revenait d’un baptême de trois rouges-gorges, qu’on célébrait dans
le creux d’un mur tout fleuri de glycines ; la fête avait été fort
agréable dans le nid sous les feuilles ; les jolis cris des oiseaux
nouveau-nés remuant leurs ailerons roses à peine duvetés, avaient
permis d’espérer que les filleuls de la fée seraient un jour des
chanteurs excellents. Oriane était donc de très belle humeur, et,
comme la joie fait qu’on est bon, elle rendait service en chemin à
toutes les personnes et à toutes les choses qu’elle rencontrait ;
fourrant des bouquets de mûres dans le panier des gamines qui s’en
vont à l’école, soufflant, pour les aider à éclore, sur les boutons
d’églantines, mettant des brins d’avène par-dessus les gouttes de
rosée, de peur que les cirons courussent le risque de se noyer en
les traversant. Deux amoureux, paysan et paysanne, s’embrassaient
dans un champ où le blé vert leur venait à peine aux chevilles ; elle
fit mûrir et grandir les blés afin que, de la route, on ne vît point les
baisers. Et comme, à faire le bien que vous conseilla la joie, on
devient plus joyeux encore, la fée Oriane était à ce point pleine
d’aise que, si elle n’avait pas craint de renverser la voiture, elle se
serait mise à danser dans la coquille de noisette. Mais, bientôt, ce
ne fut plus le temps d’être contente. Hélas ! qu’était-il arrivé ? Elle
était bien sûre d’avoir suivi la bonne route, et là où naguère la forêt
de Brocéliande remuait dans la brise les mystères enchantés de ses
profondes verdures, il n’y avait plus qu’une vaste plaine, avec des
bâtisses éparses, sous un ciel sali de noires fumées. Qu’étiez-vous
devenues, clairières vertes et dorées où l’on dansait au clair des
étoiles, fourrés de roses, buissons d’épines épanouies, grottes où le
sommeil souriait sur les mousses d’or, dans les parfums et les
musiques, et vous, palais souterrains aux murailles de cristal,
qu’illuminaient, les jours de fêtes, mille lustres de vivantes
pierreries ? Qu’étiez-vous devenues, Urgande, Urgèle, Alcine,
Viviane, et Holda la païenne, et Mélusine la charmeuse, et vous,
Mélandre, et vous, Arie, et vous aussi Mab et Titania ? « C’est en
vain que tu les appellerais, pauvre Oriane, dit un lézard qui s’arrêta
de fuir entre les pierres. Des hommes se sont précipités en grand
nombre à travers vos chères solitudes ; pour qu’on pût bâtir des
maisons, pour ouvrir un passage à d’affreuses machines soufflant
des vapeurs et des flammes, ils ont abattu les arbres, incendié les
fourrés de roses et les buissons d’épines, comblé des pierres de vos
grottes vos mystérieux palais de cristal, et toutes les fées ont
succombé dans les désastres, sous les écroulements. J’ai vu
Habonde, qui allait s’échapper, mourir avec un petit cri sous le pied
d’un passant, comme une cigale qu’on écrase. » Entendant cela,
Oriane se mit à pleurer amèrement sur la destinée de ses
compagnes chéries, sur son propre destin aussi ; car, vraiment,
c’était une chose bien mélancolique que d’être la seule fée qui
demeurât au monde.
Que ferait-elle ? Où se cacherait-elle ? Qui la défendrait contre la
fureur des hommes méchants ? La première idée qui lui vint, ce fut
de s’enfuir, de n’être plus dans ce triste lieu où ses sœurs avaient
péri. Mais elle ne put pas voyager en carrosse, comme c’était sa
coutume ; les quatre coccinelles, — pour qui elle s’était toujours
montrée si bonne, — avaient entendu le discours du lézard et
venaient de prendre leur vol, avec l’ingratitude de toutes les ailes.
Ce fut un coup très dur pour la malheureuse Oriane ; d’autant plus
qu’elle ne détestait rien davantage que de marcher à pied. Elle s’y
résigna cependant, et se mit en route, à pas menus, parmi les
herbes plus hautes qu’elle. Elle avait résolu de se rendre chez les
rouges-gorges du mur fleuri de glycines ; le père et la mère de ses
filleuls ne manqueraient pas de la bien accueillir ; leur nid lui serait
un asile, du moins jusqu’à l’automne. On ne va pas si vite, avec de
toutes petites jambes, que dans une coquille d’avelines, emportée
par des bêtes-à-bon-Dieu qui voltigent. Trois longs jours se
passèrent avant qu’elle aperçût la muraille en fleur ; vous pensez
qu’elle était bien lasse. Mais elle allait pouvoir se reposer enfin.
« C’est moi, dit-elle en s’approchant, c’est moi, la fée marraine ;
venez me prendre, bons oiseaux, sur vos ailes, et portez-moi dans
votre logis de mousse. » Point de réponse ; pas même une petite
tête de rouge-gorge, sortant d’entre les feuilles pour regarder qui est
là ; et, en écarquillant les yeux, Oriane vit qu’on avait accroché au
mur, à la place où fut le nid, un morceau de faïence blanche, qui
traversait le fil d’une ligne de télégraphe.
Comme elle s’en allait, ne sachant ce qu’il adviendrait d’elle, elle
remarqua une femme qui portait dans les bras une corbeille pleine
de blé et poussait, pour entrer, la porte d’une grange. « Ah !
madame, dit-elle, si vous me gardez avec vous et si vous me
protégez, vous n’aurez point sujet de vous en repentir ; les fées,
comme les lutins, s’entendent mieux que personne à démêler les
bons grains d’avec la fâcheuse ivraie, et à vanner, même sans van.
Vraiment, vous aurez en moi une servante qui vous sera très utile et
vous épargnera beaucoup de peine. » La femme n’entendit point ou
feignit de ne pas entendre ; elle poussa tout à fait la porte et jeta le
contenu de sa corbeille sous les cylindres d’une machine qui nettoie
le blé sans qu’on ait besoin des lutins ni des fées. Oriane, un peu
plus loin, rencontra sur le bord d’une rivière des hommes qui se
tenaient immobiles autour de ballots énormes, et il y avait, près du
bord, un navire ; elle pensa que ces gens ne savaient comment s’y
prendre pour embarquer leurs marchandises. « Ah ! messieurs, dit-
elle, si vous me gardez avec vous et si vous me protégez, vous
n’aurez point sujet de vous en repentir. J’appellerai à votre aide des
gnomes très robustes, qui peuvent sauter même avec des fardeaux
sur les épaules ; ils auront bientôt fait de transporter toutes ces
lourdes choses. Vraiment, vous aurez en moi une bonne servante
qui vous sera très utile et vous épargnera beaucoup de peine. » Ils
n’entendirent point, ou feignirent de ne pas entendre ; un grand
crochet de fer, qu’aucune main ne tenait, s’abaissa, s’enfonça dans
l’un des ballots, et celui-ci, après un demi-tour dans l’air, s’abattit
lentement sur le pont du navire, sans qu’aucun gnome s’en fût mêlé.
Le jour montant, la petite fée vit par la porte ouverte d’un cabaret
deux hommes qui jouaient aux cartes, penchés vers une table ; à
cause de l’obscurité grandissante, il devait leur être fort difficile de
distinguer les figures et les couleurs. « Ah ! messieurs, dit-elle, si
vous me gardez avec vous et si vous me protégez, vous n’aurez
point sujet de vous en repentir. Je ferai venir dans cette salle tous
les vers-luisants qui s’allument aux lisières des bois ; vous ne
tarderez pas à y voir assez clair pour continuer votre jeu avec tout le
plaisir possible. Vraiment, vous aurez en moi une servante qui vous
sera très utile et vous épargnera beaucoup de peine. » Les joueurs
n’entendirent point, ou feignirent de ne pas entendre : l’un d’eux fit
un signe, et trois grands jets de lumière, hors de trois pointes de fer,
jaillirent vers le plafond, illuminant tout le cabaret, beaucoup mieux
que ne l’auraient pu faire trois mille vers luisants. Alors Oriane ne put
s’empêcher de pleurer, comprenant que les hommes et les femmes
étaient devenus trop savants pour avoir besoin d’une petite fée.
Mais le lendemain, elle se reprit à espérer. Ce fut à cause d’une
jeune fille qui rêvait, accoudée à sa fenêtre, en regardant voler les
hirondelles. « Il est certain, pensait Oriane, que les gens de ce
monde ont inventé beaucoup de choses extraordinaires, mais, dans
le triomphe de leur science et de leur puissance, ils n’ont dû
renoncer à l’éternel et doux plaisir de l’amour. Je suis bien folle de
n’avoir pas songé plus tôt à cela. » Et, parlant à la jeune fille de la
fenêtre :
« Mademoiselle, dit la dernière fée, je sais, dans un pays lointain,

un jeune homme plus beau que le jour, et qui, sans vous avoir
jamais vue, vous aime tendrement. Ce n’est pas le fils d’un roi, ni le
fils d’un homme riche, mais des cheveux blonds lui font une
couronne d’or, et il vous garde dans son cœur des trésors infinis de
tendresse. Si vous y consentez, je le ferai venir auprès de vous,
avant qu’il soit longtemps, et vous serez, grâce à lui, la plus
heureuse personne qui ait jamais existé.
— C’est une belle promesse que vous me faites là, dit la jeune
fille étonnée.
— Je la tiendrai, je vous assure.
— Mais que me demanderez-vous en échange d’un tel service ?
— Oh ! presque rien ! dit la fée ; vous me laisserez me blottir, —
je me ferai plus petite encore que je ne suis, pour ne pas vous
gêner, — dans l’une des fossettes que le sourire met aux coins de
votre bouche.
— Comme il vous plaira ! c’est marché conclu. »
La jeune fille avait à peine achevé qu’Oriane, pas plus grosse
qu’une perle presque invisible, était déjà nichée dans le joli nid rose.
Ah ! comme elle s’y trouvait bien ! Comme elle y serait bien,
toujours ! Maintenant, elle ne regrettait plus que les hommes eussent
saccagé la forêt de Brocéliande, et tout de suite, — car elle était trop
contente pour négliger de tenir sa parole, — elle fit venir du pays
lointain le jeune homme plus beau que le jour. Il parut dans la
chambre, couronné de boucles d’or, et s’agenouilla devant sa bien-
aimée, ayant dans le cœur d’infinis trésors de tendresse. Mais, à ce
moment, survint un fort laid personnage, vieillissant, l’œil chassieux,
la lèvre fanée ; il portait, dans un coffret ouvert, tout un million de
pierreries. La jeune fille courut à lui, l’embrassa, et le baisa sur la
bouche d’un si passionné baiser que la pauvre petite Oriane mourut
étouffée dans la fossette du sourire.
TABLE DES MATIÈRES
Pages
Le Soir d’une fleur 1
La Belle du monde 13
La Bonne Trouvaille 31
La Belle au bois rêvant 41
Le Vœu maladroit 53
Isoline-Isolin 65
Le Miroir 79
La Princesse Oiselle 97
Le Chemin du Paradis 113
Les Baisers d’or 123
Les Accordailles 137
Le Mauvais Convive 151
La Tire-lire 161
La Bonne Récompense 173
Les Mots perdus 185
La Mémoire du cœur 197
Les Trois Bonnes Fées 209
Le Ramasseur de bonnets 219
Les Trois Semeurs 231
La Belle au cœur de neige 243
Les Deux Marguerites 257
L’Ange boiteux 271
Les Traîtrises de Puck 283
Les Larmes sur l’épée 299
La Petite Flamme bleue 311
Martine et son Ange 325
La Dernière Fée 343
Paris. — Typ. Ch. Unsinger, 83, rue du Bac.

VICTOR-HAVARD, ÉDITEUR
Collection in-18 jésus à 3 fr. 50 le volume
Jules La Vie à Paris, années 1880, 1881, 1882,

Claretie. 1883, 1884, 1885 6 vol.
(Chaque volume se vend séparément).
Gyp. Le Druide, 20e édition 1 vol.
— Dans l’ train, 16e édition 1 vol.
René L’Adorée, 25e édition
Maizeroy. 1 vol.
— Les deux Femmes de Mlle, 14e édit. 1 vol.
— Le Boulet, 12e édition 1 vol.
— Souvenirs d’un Saint-Cyrien, 6e édit. 1 vol.
— Au Régiment, 6e édition 1 vol.
— Les Malchanceux, 4e édition 1 vol.
— La Dernière Croisade, 4e édition 1 vol.
— La Fin de Paris, 6e édition 1 vol.
— Masques, 5e édition 1 vol.
Guy de Mont-Oriol, 40e édition
Maupassant. 1 vol.
— Bel-Ami, 54e édition 1 vol.
— Une Vie, 30e édition 1 vol.
— La Maison Tellier, 17e édition 1 vol.
— Mademoiselle Fifi, 12e édition 1 vol.
— Au Soleil, 10e édition 1 vol.
— Miss Harriet, 13e édition 1 vol.
— Yvette, 15e édition 1 vol.
— La Petite Roque, 17e édition 1 vol.
— Contes de la Bécasse, 12e édition 1 vol.
Catulle Jeunes Filles, 6e édition 1 vol.
Mendès.
— Jupe Courte, 8e édition 1 vol.
— L’Homme tout nu, 12e édition 1 vol.
Jules de Le Père, 12e édition
Glouvet. 1 vol.
— La Fille adoptive, 5e édition 1 vol.
— L’Idéal, 3e édition 1 vol.
— Croquis de Femmes, 3e édition 1 vol.
— L’Étude Chandoux, 3e édition 1 vol.
Gustave Madame Lambelle, 10e édition
Toudouze. 1 vol.
— La Séductrice, 6e édition 1 vol.
— Le Vice, 4e édition 1 vol.
— La Baronne, 8e édition 1 vol.
— Le Père Froisset, 4e édition 1 vol.
— Madame, 6e édition 1 vol.
— Toinon, 5e édition 1 vol.
— Le Ménage Bolsec, 5e édition 1 vol.
— Fleur d’Oranger, 6e édition 1 vol.
— Le Pompon Vert, 4e édition 1 vol.
— La Tête-Noire, 4e édition 1 vol.
— Le Train Jaune, 8e édition 1 vol.
Paris. — Typ. Ch. Unsinger, 83, rue du Bac.

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Art Through the Ages - A Concise Global History 4th

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Gardner’s Art through the Ages: A Global History 16th

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Gardner’s Art through the Ages: The Western

Gardner’s Art through the Ages: The Western

Art 16th Edition

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96593_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 4 13/08/18 12:44 pm

■ art and society: Enheduanna, Priestess and Poet 42

1 Art in the Stone Age 15 ■ the patron’s voice: Gudea of Lagash 43

■ art and society: Hammurabi’s Laws 45

Neolithic Art 23 Map 2-1 Ancient Mesopotamia and Persia 32

■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: How to Represent an

■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Painting in the Dark 20

■ a second opinion: The Meaning of Paleolithic Art 21

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■ materials and techniques: White-Ground Painting 142

4 The Prehistoric Aegean 85 ■ a second opinion: The Alexander Mosaic 150

■ Architectural basics: The Corinthian Capital 152

Cycladic Art 87 THE BIG PICTURE 1 6 3

Map 4-1 The prehistoric Aegean 86 Later Etruscan Art 173

■ written sources: Etruscan Artists in Rome 168

■ art and society: The “Audacity” of Etruscan Women 169

Timeline 106 ■ a second opinion: The Capitoline Wolf 174

Map 6-1 Italy in Etruscan times 166

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■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: What Should a Church

■ art and society: The Roman House 193

■ art and society: Role Playing in Roman Portraiture 200

Map 9-1 The Byzantine Empire at the death of Justinian

THE BIG PICTURE 2 9 1

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■ art and society: Pilgrimage Roads in France and Spain 350

■ written sources: The Burning of Canterbury Cathedral 353

Vikings 323 ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Crusades 360

■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: How to Illuminate a Nave 365

Carolingian Empire 328 ■ materials and techniques: Embroidery and Tapestry 377

Map 12-1 Western Europe around 1100 350

■ art and society: Medieval Books 324

■ a second opinion: The Lindisfarne Saint Matthew 326

■ materials and techniques: Stained-Glass Windows 392

■ a second opinion: Gothic Cathedrals and Gothic Cities 400

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16 China and Korea to 1279 471

Map 16-1 China during the Tang dynasty 472

15 South and Southeast THE BIG PICTURE 4 9 9

■ Architectural basics: The Stupa 450 ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Shinto 505

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Timeline 520 African Peoples and Art Forms 552

■ art and society: Nasca Lines 540 Notes 566

THE BIG PICTURE 5 4 9 Index 599