Environmental and Disaster

Displacement Policy: Organisational

Cooperation between the UN High
Commissioner for Refugees and the
International Organisation for Migration
Silvana Lakeman
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/environmental-and-disaster-displacement-policy-orga
nisational-cooperation-between-the-un-high-commissioner-for-refugees-and-the-inter
national-organisation-for-migration-silvana-lakeman/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

People Forced to Flee: History, Change and Challenge

United Nations High Commissioner For Refugees (Unhcr)

https://ebookmass.com/product/people-forced-to-flee-history-
change-and-challenge-united-nations-high-commissioner-for-
refugees-unhcr/

Migration, Borders and Citizenship: Between Policy and

Public Spheres 1st ed. 2020 Edition Maurizio Ambrosini

https://ebookmass.com/product/migration-borders-and-citizenship-
between-policy-and-public-spheres-1st-ed-2020-edition-maurizio-
ambrosini/

Asylum as Reparation: Refuge and Responsibility for the

Harms of Displacement James Souter

https://ebookmass.com/product/asylum-as-reparation-refuge-and-
responsibility-for-the-harms-of-displacement-james-souter/

The Interaction Between Local and International

Peacebuilding Actors : Partners for Peace 1st Edition
Sara Hellmüller (Auth.)

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-interaction-between-local-and-
international-peacebuilding-actors-partners-for-peace-1st-
edition-sara-hellmuller-auth/
International Law and the Protection of “Climate
Refugees” 1st ed. Edition Giovanni Sciaccaluga

https://ebookmass.com/product/international-law-and-the-
protection-of-climate-refugees-1st-ed-edition-giovanni-
sciaccaluga/

The Courage for Civil Repair: Narrating the Righteous

in International Migration 1st ed. Edition Carlo
Tognato

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-courage-for-civil-repair-
narrating-the-righteous-in-international-migration-1st-ed-
edition-carlo-tognato/

Environmental Policy: New Directions for the Twenty

First Century 10th Edition, (Ebook PDF)

https://ebookmass.com/product/environmental-policy-new-
directions-for-the-twenty-first-century-10th-edition-ebook-pdf/

Global Logistics Network Modelling and Policy:

Quantification and Analysis for International Freight
Ryuichi Shibasaki

https://ebookmass.com/product/global-logistics-network-modelling-
and-policy-quantification-and-analysis-for-international-freight-
ryuichi-shibasaki/

The Politics of Modelling Numbers Between Science and

Policy Andrea Saltelli

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-politics-of-modelling-numbers-
between-science-and-policy-andrea-saltelli/
 Environmental and Disaster
Displacement Policy
Organisational Cooperation between
the UN High Commissioner for
Refugees and the International
Organisation for Migration
Silvana Lakeman
Environmental and Disaster Displacement Policy
 Silvana Lakeman

Environmental and
Disaster Displacement
Policy
Organisational Cooperation between the UN High
Commissioner for Refugees and the International
Organisation for Migration
Silvana Lakeman
Bremen International Graduate School of Social Sciences
University of Bremen
Bremen, Germany

ISBN 978-3-030-84538-4    ISBN 978-3-030-84539-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84539-1

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to
the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Results incorporated in this standard have received funding from the
European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme
under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement no. 713639.
 Acknowledgements

I would like to thank all who provided feedback throughout the process of
putting together this book, and especially those who participated in inter-
views. You have both provided valuable insights and made the research
process highly enjoyable!

vii
 Contents

1 International Organisations and the Climate-­Migration

Nexus  1
Challenges Facing IO Involvement in Environmental and
Disaster Displacement   4
Legal Frameworks and Internal Displacement   7
Affected Populations, IOs and (New) Humanitarianism  12
The Argument for an Analysis of UNHCR and IOM  16
A Multi-dimensional Approach to Agency Involvement  20
Book Structure  36
Conclusion  38
References  38

2 UNHCR Involvement 2008–2017 49

A Decade of Tentative Involvement at UNHCR  50
Findings  67
Conclusion  75
References  76

3 IOM Involvement 2008–2017 85

A Decade of Expansive Involvement at IOM  86
Findings 107
Conclusion 113
References 114

ix
x Contents

4 Typhoon Haiyan: Context, Actors and Response129

Government of the Philippines 132
International Response 139
Affected Communities 148
Conclusion 151
References 151

5 Typhoon Haiyan: The Involvement of UNHCR

and IOM159
UNHCR’s Priorities 161
IOM’s Priorities 170
Reflections 181
Conclusion 185
References 186

6 Individual Perspectives on Agency Involvement193

A Division of Labour at the Policy Level 195
A Division of Labour at the Field Level 203
Agency Structure 209
The Turbulent Humanitarian Marketplace 218
Shared Values and Future Outlook 220
Final Thoughts and Conclusion 226
References 229

7 Converging International Organisations in the

Climate-Migration Debate231
Cumulative Knowledge Claims: Inheritance and Convergence 232
Implications and Recommendations for Future Research,
Policy and Practice 241
Conclusion 247
References 247

Index249
 Abbreviations

CAP Consolidated Appeals Process

CCCM Camp Coordination and Camp Management Cluster
CERF Central Emergency Response Fund
COP21 21st Conference of the Parties
CwC Communications with Communities
DILG Department of the Interior and Local Government
DSWD Department of Social Welfare and Development
DTM Displacement Tracking Matrix
GCM Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration
GCR Global Compact on Refugees
HQ Headquarters
IACAT Inter-Agency Council Against Trafficking
IAHE Inter-Agency Humanitarian Evaluation
IASC Inter-Agency Standing Committee
ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross
IDMC Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre
IDP Internally Displaced Person
IGO Intergovernmental Organisation
IO International Organisation
IOM International Organization for Migration
J/TIP US Department of State’s Office to Monitor and Combat
Trafficking in Persons
L3 Level 3 Emergency
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MECC Migration, Environment and Climate Change
MIRA Multi-Cluster/Sector Initial Rapid Assessments
NDMO National Disaster Management Office

xi
xii Abbreviations

NFIs Non-Food Items

NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
NRC Norwegian Refugee Council
NSO National Statistics Office
OFDA Office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance
OHCHR Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights
OPARR Office of the Presidential Assistant for Rehabilitation and Recovery
PDD Platform on Disaster Displacement
PDRRMA Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act
RAY Reconstruction Assistance for Yolanda
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SGBV Sexual and Gender-Based Violence
SRP Strategic Response Plan
UN United Nations
UNDP UN Development Programme
UNFCCC UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNFPA UN Population Fund
UNHCR UN High Commissioner for Refugees
UNICEF UN Children’s Fund
UNISDR UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
UNOCHA UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
USAID United States Agency for International Development
UNU United Nations University
UNU-EHS United Nations University; Institute for Environment and Human
Security
WASH Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
WFP World Food Programme
WHO World Health Organization
WIM Warsaw International Mechanism
 List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Mechanism for involvement (normative IO) 25

Fig. 1.2 Mechanism for involvement (functional IO) 26
Fig. 1.3 Causal mechanism 34
Fig. 2.1 Causal mechanism for involvement, UNHCR 68
Fig. 3.1 Causal mechanism for involvement, IOM 108

xiii
 CHAPTER 1

International Organisations
and the Climate-­Migration Nexus

During my time working on this book, the world has been gripped by a
global pandemic. Political and media attention are naturally fixated on
scientific, social and economic developments in response to Covid-19, and
momentum regarding climate change—arguably the largest threat to
humanity in the twenty-first century—has been placed on the backburner.
Despite this, few issues have received as much debate on the global stage
as migration and climate change in recent decades, and it is my belief that
in the coming years, these issues will dominate once more. Oftentimes,
climate change and migration overlap in complex and messy ways. Recent
reporting supports the argument that climate change is contributing to an
increase in both the frequency and the intensity of slow and sudden-onset
climatic events, which are major drivers of human displacement (UNDRR/
CRED, 2020). Natural hazards, such as tropical cyclones, flooding,
desertification, drought and bushfires, are increasingly unsettling tens of
millions of people worldwide, leading to natural disasters. Further, those
in the poorest, most underdeveloped parts of the world are disproportion-
ately affected by these phenomena. In fact, according to the Internal
Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), 2018 saw almost 17.2 million
individuals newly displaced internally due to climate-related disasters,
mostly in developing countries (IDMC, 2019a). Now more than ever,
inter-governmental and international organisations (IGOs and IOs) with
an agenda to protect displaced populations have an important role to play

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2022
S. Lakeman, Environmental and Disaster Displacement Policy,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84539-1_1
2 S. LAKEMAN

in addressing cases of displacement because of environmental catastro-

phes, particularly where countries request international support.
This book focuses on the critical challenge of understanding how these
types of organisations navigate rapidly developing, emerging issue areas
such as environmental and disaster displacement, as well as how and when
they cooperate in what is now an increasingly competitive environment.
This environment may be aptly defined as a ‘humanitarian marketplace’, as
Thomas Weiss (2013) describes in his provocative book Humanitarian
Business. Humanitarian actors now find themselves in an ever-expanding
field ‘that over the past two decades has become increasingly competitive
with a glut of suppliers vying for their share of the market’ (Weiss, 2013,
p. 3). Such terminology has gained traction more broadly in recent years,
with Gilles Carbonnier also referring to the current state of affairs in
humanitarianism as a ‘marketplace’ (Carbonnier, 2016). Nowadays, a
broad range of organisations find themselves increasingly engaging in
cross-cutting issues associated with the climate-migration nexus at the
policy, research and field level. At the United Nations (UN) in particular,
organisations are increasingly connecting their specific issue areas to
human mobility and climate change as part of common and ongoing
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, when considering IOs
best suited for tackling the specific area of environmental and disaster dis-
placement, two stand out.
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and
the International Organization for Migration (IOM) are widely consid-
ered two of the most capable international organisations (in terms of both
global reach and funding) for handling issues in this area. Both were
developed post World War II and have since evolved as sprawling bureau-
cratic organisations with field offices in over 100 countries, headquarters
in Geneva and with over 13,000 employees. Both are supported by a large
body of participating member states and non-state donors (International
Organization for Migration, 2018, 2019b; UN High Commissioner for
Refugees, 2019). IOM has also become a closer affiliate of UNHCR in
recent years, with the UN General Assembly unanimously adopting the
resolution to approve the Agreement to make IOM a Related Organisation
of the UN in July 2016 (International Organization for Migration, 2016).
Further, in environmental and disaster displacement, both have expanded
to respond to internal displacement (including following natural disasters)
and have become involved in a number of climate- and disaster-related
adaptation projects. This is particularly evident from the mid-2000s
 1 INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS AND THE CLIMATE-MIGRATION NEXUS 3

onwards, when a UN-wide humanitarian reform process (the Humanitarian

Reform Agenda) took place and both agencies, alongside many others,
committed to more rapid, reliable and cooperative humanitarian relief and
disaster response efforts via their roles in new structures, including the
Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) Cluster Approach (UN
OCHA, 2018). Yet, despite their similarities (and increasingly overlapping
tasks), the full extent of UNHCR’s and IOM’s involvement in issues of
displacement due to environmental causes has yet to be documented and
compared, and we know comparatively little about inter-agency coopera-
tion and competition in this issue area.
Scholars have identified both an expanding field of involved actors and
the important role that IOs play in responding to humanitarian disasters
and in tackling environmental migration more broadly. While a prolifera-
tion of actors on the overlapping issues of refugees, migration and internal
displacement has been of note for some time (Betts, 2009), in recent
years, ‘a growing number of international organizations … have moved
the issue of environmental- or disaster-related migration onto their agen-
das’ (Gemenne & Rosenow-Williams, 2016, p. 237). Although UNHCR
and IOM have been identified as crucial organisations in this regard, this
chapter will highlight how existing scholarship has focused on the chal-
lenges that climate change poses for the refugee and migration regimes,
particularly in light of mandate expansions. Such scholarship is incredibly
insightful and has provided a basis for much of the research behind this
book. However, detailed consideration of the UNHCR-IOM inter-agency
relationship, and the challenge environmental and disaster displacement
poses for inter-agency cooperation at the policy, field and individual level
is notably lacking in wider research.
This book focuses on UNHCR and IOM. It asks: How have these two
organisations become involved in environmental and disaster displace-
ment? To what extent and under what circumstances do they work
together and share resources? And what impact does local presence have?
Critical for understanding the future governance and management of
environmental and disaster displacement is a thorough examination of
these organisations as both individual agencies and partners, particularly as
globally relevant issues such as this one warrant the prioritisation of coop-
eration above competition. A consideration of UNHCR and IOM
together is especially pertinent given an increase in the overlap of tasks
these agencies carry out, and the shared challenges faced by both in the
4 S. LAKEMAN

twenty-first century. That both agencies are now UN institutions by exten-

sion only amplifies the necessity for their comparison.
This book shows that the involvement of UNHCR and IOM in the
emerging issue area of environmental and disaster displacement, particu-
larly inter-organisational involvement, has been categorised by (real or
imagined) divisions; of agency structures and mandates, activities and even
personalities. While historically inherited differences exist, the issue area
has led to a converging of agency roles, as well as amplified tensions, at a
time when cooperation is most critical. This book both elucidates difficul-
ties these agencies face in the twenty-first century—between a changing
geopolitical climate and complex inter-agency histories—and highlights
discrepancies and similarities between the two organisations, which must
be acknowledged and worked around to ensure positive progress and
involvement in environmental and disaster displacement. Moreover, draw-
ing attention to this topic is important if organisations are to realise where
resource and protection gaps may remain regarding those on the receiving
end of their involvement.
This book may serve as a lesson (and perhaps a warning) for UNHCR
and IOM—regarding the transparency of their work, their inter-agency
relationship, and how their positions in the international system are per-
ceived by researchers and the public. This book is of particular use for
UNHCR and IOM as organisations, for those studying them and for part-
ners (including other UN bodies, governments and non-governmental
organisations [NGOs]) that may benefit from a detailed understanding of
how and why these organisations do what they do. Further, in giving a
voice to those within and surrounding UNHCR and IOM by way of
interviews, this book bridges a gap between what these organisations
choose to share, and the complex and convoluted roles and positions
organisations and their staff find themselves in when it comes to environ-
mental and disaster displacement.

Challenges Facing IO Involvement in Environmental

and Disaster Displacement

Pervasive in the wider debate on displacement due to environmental fac-

tors is the association between migration and climate change. IOs (includ-
ing UNHCR and IOM) consistently frame environmental and disaster
displacement as it relates to climate change, meriting its
 1 INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS AND THE CLIMATE-MIGRATION NEXUS 5

acknowledgement. This is evident not only from the variety of policy-level

frameworks developed in recent decades (e.g. the Hyogo Framework,
Sendai Framework and UNFCCC Task Force on Displacement), but in all
manner of public documents released by UNHCR and IOM—as will
become clear from historical chapters to come. Such developments at the
IO level are reflective of those in research: although anthropogenic cli-
mate change has likely played a decisive role in human mobility for millen-
nia, the rapid increase in attention to ‘man-made’ global warming effects
on movement has been a mainstay in the discussion on environmental
migration for decades. As consensus grows regarding the multi-causal
nature of migration and displacement, we have seen a shift from broader
predictive claims in the literature (Myers, 1993) to increasing work on
country and regional case studies, which aim to map migratory and dis-
placement patterns in accordance with climatic and environmental shifts,
often with associated policy recommendations (Maldonado et al., 2013;
Saha & Ahmed, 2019; Warner et al., 2009). Such studies are necessary to
identify risks and needs of affected populations; however, they often lack
any significant critical analysis of involved IOs. Nonetheless, the twenty-­
first century has been a critical one for human mobility in the context of
climate change for all parties with a significant policy-affecting voice on
the matter. Climate science undoubtedly plays a formative role in the
decision-­making of a wide variety of entities, with climate change used as
a tool to draw attention to migration, and vice versa, with consequences
for policies and affected populations alike (Mayer, 2016; Trenberth
et al., 2015).
Nowadays, international organisations work in an increasingly uncer-
tain, rapidly evolving and often turbulent environment (Wang, 2008,
p. 425). On the one hand, climate change is a pervasive issue area affecting
a wide spectrum of issues (not least including migration and displace-
ment), which has contributed to regime complexity and resulting account-
ability issues and facilitated mandate expansion. Nowadays, it is much
harder to think of international organisations not touching upon these
issues in the twenty-first century than it is to list those engaged to an
extent—a quick look at the online presence of any UN organisation or
partner will quickly yield findings regarding the threat of climate change
in relation to ongoing projects or mandated work. Climate change (and its
associated effects on human mobility) has certainly contributed towards a
blurring of lines between international regimes across a variety of previ-
ously more distinct issues (such as humanitarianism, labour, refugees,
6 S. LAKEMAN

migration, development and security) (Betts, 2010), compounded by less

pronounced hierarchies at the international organisational level (Alter &
Meunier, 2009, p. 13).
Much of what is discussed as regime complexity translates into discus-
sions on policy convergence, which have emerged in the face of globalisa-
tion. Policy convergence has been broadly described as policies growing
more and more alike over time, visible through increasingly similar struc-
tures, outputs and processes (Drezner, 2001, p. 53), which could invari-
ably equate to policy and operational involvement at the IO level as well.
Debates on convergence have been ongoing for quite some time, with
questions raised as early as the 1990s (Bennett, 1991). However, even
where convergence has been discussed in relation to environmental policy,
the focus has, by and large, been limited to globalisation (in the economic
sense) and state behaviour, which is somewhat limiting and does not nec-
essarily encompass the full extent to which the term could be applied
(Holzinger et al., 2008). Heichel et al. (2005) have even found that there
appears to be no homogenous understanding of policy convergence
amongst scholars, leaving the concept open to interpretation. In my mind,
policy convergence in the twenty-first century is rather synonymous with
regime complexity, in the sense that regime complexities could not occur
at the IO level unless convergence were taking place.
Regardless of how they are understood, regime complexities and con-
vergence more broadly have several important ramifications for inter-actor
cooperation and coordination. Depending on context, different actors—
including IOs, states, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and oth-
ers—may be empowered by the current state of overlap. Indeed, enhanced
cooperation and other positive effects may result from increasingly shared
goals and policies (Alter & Meunier, 2009, p. 14). On the other hand, as
interests converge and organisations work on the same (or similar) tasks,
IOs may find themselves competing for attention and resources—resources
which may, as a result, be wasted or inefficiently used (Alter & Meunier,
2009, p. 14). Competing IOs may also be taken advantage of by member
states or other partners and used coercively or proactively against one
another. For example, states may bypass UNHCR and instead employ the
help of IOM in scenarios that may have otherwise been clearly classed as
refugee ones (Betts, 2010). Conversely, organisations may potentially
influence member state interest in specific topics, leading to an interest
convergence (Bearce & Bondanella, 2007, p. 703). All of these changes
 1 INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS AND THE CLIMATE-MIGRATION NEXUS 7

have the potential to equate to greater competition in the long run at the
international organisational level.
In many ways, the proliferating threat of climate change (and its ability
to worsen or exacerbate conflict and hazards which may result in natural
disasters and displacement) is the epitome of the modern crisis. This is
especially true in the sense that climate change does not respect borders or
confine itself to one policy area (Boin & Lagadec, 2000, p. 185). Given
the position of international organisations at the frontline for cross-­
boundary issues, it is perhaps unsurprising that climate change threatens
to undermine the work of a vast variety of IOs across a range of policy
spheres. Those studying crisis management would suggest it is not climate
change or ensuing challenges that cause issues, but rather the systems—
including organisations—we have in place, and their inability to adapt and
uphold their legitimacy in the face of adversity (Dayton et al., 2004,
p. 168). Despite this challenge, crises can also be powerful instigators for
positive organisational change and learning opportunities for organisa-
tions to grow and adapt to new realities (Wang, 2008, p. 427).

Legal Frameworks and Internal Displacement

A continual roadblock for addressing and managing environmental and
disaster displacement is deemed to be the lack of a legal definition for dis-
placed persons, most notably when considering cross-border displace-
ment. According to the UN General Assembly, the UN is well aware of a
lack of available frameworks to tackle this area, having stated in 2009 that
‘a new and climate focused legal framework would be necessary to protect
persons displaced by climate change’ (UN General Assembly, 2009,
p. 16). However, since the UN’s original statement, no such framework
has been established. As such, terms such as ‘refugee’, ‘migrant’ (Gogarty,
2011), ‘environmental refugee’ and ‘displaced person’ are used inter-
changeably in relevant texts (UN General Assembly, 2009). As outlined by
François Gemenne (2011), such confusion has its roots in long-standing
‘Maximalist’ versus ‘Minimalist’ debates in the wider legal and termino-
logical literature, as the field struggles to comprehend how environmental
change and associated challenges confront traditional conceptions of what
constitutes ‘forced’ or ‘voluntary’ migration. Maximalists, including
scholars such as Myers and Kent (1995) and Westra (2009), have tradi-
tionally taken a causative view, considering large-scale human migration as
‘a necessary outcome of large-scale changes in the physical environment’,
8 S. LAKEMAN

while minimalists (such as Black, 2001, and Massey et al., 2010) have
emphasised ‘the complexity of the interaction between environmental and
social systems’, noting that environmental change is just one of many
complex factors that may drive human movement (Morrisey, 2012, p. 38).
When it comes to definitions, maximalists have employed the term ‘envi-
ronmental refugee’, with the relatively few supporters of the creation of
such a definition arguing that the term was first used by a UN body (the
UN Environmental Programme) in a 1985 report, and that its previous
use at the UN provides a strong basis for its future use at the UNHCR in
particular (El-Hinnawi, 1985).
In more recent years, there has been a notable softening of rhetoric
between these two camps of thought. Bettini (2014, p. 185) has high-
lighted that nowadays, ‘nobody objects to the idea that climate change
will have a large influence on mobility’. An increasingly popular way to
approach the issue is somewhere in the middle; Cantor (2021, pp. 270–271)
has pointed to a consensus that even as one of potentially many overlap-
ping factors, environmental change ‘may produce distinct forms of mobil-
ity, as in circumstances of sudden or extreme environmental change’.
Minimalists have even softened on the use of the term ‘environmental
refugee’ (Morrisey, 2012, p. 38), with François Gemenne admitting that
despite associated legal issues, there may be benefits to using it—forgoing
the term ‘is also, in a way, forgoing the idea that climate change is a form
of persecution against the most vulnerable and that climate-induced
migration is a very political matter, rather than an environmental one’
(Gemenne, 2015, p. 71).
Perspectives on the issue continue to shift and, as environmental change
becomes an increasingly important factor in human mobility, often beyond
the desks of scholars. In 2006, the Maldives petitioned for an extension of
the 1951 Geneva Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees to include
the term ‘environmental refugees’, which was rejected (McAdam, 2011a,
p. 103). Since then, further solutions at the international level have been
discussed and proposed, such as legal concepts including ‘deterritorialised’
states or ‘nations ex-situ’ for those left without territory due to rising sea
levels (Burkett, 2013; Rayfuse, 2010). However, such proposals lack a
comprehensive analysis of previous international organisational responses
to specific cases of displacement, both short and long term. Some have
highlighted existing bilateral agreements between states that may prevent
more permanent migration as a solution, such as the Recognised Seasonal
Employer scheme in New Zealand (Shawn & Gemenne, 2011); however,
 1 INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS AND THE CLIMATE-MIGRATION NEXUS 9

a consideration of how directly relevant IOs may play a future role in such
schemes remains largely underdeveloped. Regarding actual attempts to
claim asylum or refugee status, a lack of definitional expansion has defini-
tively inhibited individuals seeking safety from environmental threat, as in
the popularised case of a Kiribati national seeking refuge in New Zealand
due to the effects of climate change (Library of Congress, 2016). The case
of Ioane Teitiota, who made the claim in 2013, was more recently rejected
by the United Nations, which found that Teitiota was not in immediate
danger. However, the case has set a precedent for the future of legal
debates in this area (BBC News, 2020). Although it remains to be seen
what effect this landmark ruling will have for the future management of
environmental displacement, future discussions should at least consider
the role of UNHCR and IOM, given their positioning as prominent refu-
gee and migration IOs. Indeed, UNHCR and legal scholars have more
recently further clarified available legal frameworks for cross-border pro-
tection in the context of climate change and disasters—at least in part
motivated by precedent set by the Teitiota case (UN High Commissioner
for Refugees, 2020a). While there have been international attempts involv-
ing IOM and UNHCR to address cross-border displacement due to cli-
mate change, such as the Nansen Initiative and Platform on Disaster
Displacement (McAdam, 2016), gaps remain regarding a critical analysis
of IO involvement and influence in such projects.
Despite reporting in recent years that a majority of human displace-
ment due to environmental and disaster-related causes have been (and will
continue to be) internal (IDMC, 2019b), internal displacement as a result
of environmental stressors has not received the same academic and policy
attention as cross-border displacement. Nor has the involvement of
UNHCR and IOM—despite definitive proof regarding their involvement
in disaster scenarios. This could be because many perceive the existence of
the 1998 UN Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement to be a suffi-
cient legal and normative protection framework (Koser, 2011). While the
Guiding Principles state that national authorities are primarily responsible
for protection and humanitarian assistance in cases of internal displace-
ment, IOs do ‘have the right to offer their services in support of the inter-
nally displaced’, and states should not see this offer as an interference or
an unfriendly act (UN High Commissioner for Refugees, 1998). Further,
when national authorities are simply ill-equipped (or potentially politically
unwilling) to handle the enormity of a disaster or environmental degrada-
tion that may result in displacement, international organisations may play
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Sire preudons, quoy qu’il aviengne,
N’en doubtez point, ne la lairay.
M’amie, je vous aideray
Voulentiers. Comment vous est il?
Certes, je crainz moult le peril
Où je vous voy.

NOSTRE DAME.

Bien, dame; pour Dieu, aidiez moy;

Vueilliez mon enfant recevoir;
Car nulle autre n’y peut pour voir
A temps venir.

ZEBEL.

Je le feray de grant desir.

Ha! Dieux! que je voy grans merveilles!
Onques mais ne vi les pareilles:
Car je tieng un fil né de mere
Sanz generacion de pere
Corporelle, et par verité
La vierge en sa virginité
Est demeurée.

NOSTRE DAME.

Doulce amie, s’il vous agrée,

En ces drapiaux envelopez
Mon enfant, et puis le metez
Ci delez moy.

ZEBEL.
Voulentiers, dame, par ma foy;
Au bien couchier vueil mettre cure.
E! enfes, doulce creature,
Bien puisses tu ore estre nez
Et bons eurs te soit donnez!
Car tu es gracieus et doulx
Et plaisant sur les enfans touz
C’onques en ma vie vi naistre.
Tenez, dame, vueillez le mettre
De vous bien près.

NOSTRE DAME.

M’amie, moult en suis engrès;

Baillez le sa.

JOSEPH.

Dame, Dieu vous gart! Il a là

Une femme d’enfant enceinte,
Et sachiez qu’elle est si atainte
Qu’il lui semble bien sanz doubter
Que maintenant doie enfanter.
Pour ce, dame, je vous requier,
S’il vous plaist, venez li aidier
Par charité.

SALOMÉ.

La dame dont m’avez compté,

Sire, où fait elle son demour,
Respondez me voir par amour,
Ne qui est elle?

JOSEPH.
C’est une jonne damoiselle
Qui m’a esté donnée à fame,
Qui n’a pas plus de treize ans, dame,
Et s’est née de Nazareth.
Pour Dieu, mais qu’il ne vous soit lait,
Ma chiére amie, à li venez,
Si que de l’enfant quant iert nez
Serez ventrière.

SALOMÉ.

Sire, avec vous à lie chiére

Yray, puis qu’en avez mestier:
Car aussi est ce mon mestier
D’enfans noviaux nez recevoir.
Alons men tost sans remanoir;
N’atarjons point.

JOSEPH.

Alons, dame: Dieu doint qu’a point

Y puissez estre!

SALOMÉ.

Sire, dites moy en quel estre

Vous me menez.

JOSEPH.

M’amie, assez tost y serez.

C’est ci, ce sachiez, qu’est la fame
Pour qui je vous amaine, dame.
Or entrez ens.

SALOMÉ.
 Diex du ciel vueil estre ceens
Par son plaisir!

ZEBEL.

Salomé, bien puissez venir!

Que venez querre?

SALOMÉ.

On m’a ci amené bonne erre

Pour une femme qui travaille,
A qui je dois estre la baille
De son enfant.

ZEBEL.

Salomé, pour voir vous créant

Que trop à tart vous y venez:
Car li enfes si est ja nez
Et vezla la mere couchie;
Et si sachiez c’onques touchie
Ne fu d’omme en nulle manière;
Ains est vierge de corps entière:
Car je l’ay bien hui esprouvé,
Et pour voir telle l’ay trouvé
A l’enfanter.

SALOMÉ.
Tu te feras des gens moquer,
M’amie, se plus diz telz moz:
Ne porte à femme ja ce loz
Qu’elle puist enfant concevoir
Sanz congnoissance d’omme avoir:
Ce ne peut estre par nature;
Ne qu’enfanter puist vierge pure,
Ne le dy mie.

ZEBEL.

Quoyque des autres ne le die,

De ceste le tesmoingneray,
Qu’après l’enfanter trouvé l’ay
Vierge pucelle.

SALOMÉ.
Certes, c’est chose si nouvelle
Que se de mes yeulz ne veoie
La dame, et de mes mains touchoie,
Je ne croiroie point tel dit;
Pour ce maintenant sanz respit
L’iray veoir et puis taster.
Lasse! j’ai perdu le taster.
Lasse! lasse! lasse! mes mains
Ay perdu. E! lasse! s’au mains
L’une des deux demourast vive,
Bien me fust; mais lasse! chetive!
Ceste forment me desconforte,
Que je voi qu’elle est toute morte:
Et ceste ci redevient seiche
Aussi comme une vielle meiche.
Dieux! or vivray je en mescheance
Quant les membres dont ma chevance
Par honneur je souloie avoir
Pers ainsi. Lasse! Or ne sçay voir
Que puisse faire.

MICHIEL.

Gabriel, pour le cuer reffaire

De joie à la vierge bénigne
Qui du filz Dieu gist en gesine
Nous fault en Bethléem aler
Et devant la dame chanter.
Or y alons.

GABRIEL.
 Certes, Michiel, c’est bien raisons
Que de nous ait aucun soulaz:
Car humains par elle des laz
A l’ennemi seront hors mis,
Et seront fait a Dieu amis;
Et dès maintenant leur paix ont
Tuit cil qui de bon vouloir sont.
Pour c’est li fil Dieu nez en terre.
Or y alons, Michiel, bonne erre;
Je vous em pri.

MICHIEL.

Alons sanz plus faire detri,

Et chantons pour nous rehaitier.

Rondel.

On doit bien la dame prisier

En qui prist par dileccion
Dieu le fil incarnacion;
Puisqu’a Dieu fist homme appaisier,
On doit bien la dame prisier.
Car Dieu enfanta sanz brisier
De riens sa vierge affeccion,
Et pour c’en grant devocion
On doit bien la dame prisier
En qui prist par dileccion
Dieu le filz incarnacion.

SALOMÉ.
E! Diex pour quelle mesprison
Sui-je ainsi laidement batue?
Lasse! de forte heure embatue
Me sui ceens, au dire voir,
Pour enfant mortel recevoir,
Quand g’y ay mes deux mains perdu:
Dont j’ay le cuer si esperdu,
Ne sçay que dire.

ZEBEL.

Salomé, je me doubt qu’en ire

Dieu contre vous meu ne soit
Pour aucun pechié qu’en vous voit,
Qui par aventure est en vous,
Ja soit ce que nous pechons touz,
Dont il se veult ore vengier:
Car il est juge droiturier.
Mais il est si misericors
Que qui de soi met pechié hors
Et merci li prie humblement
Il l’appaise ligiérement:
Si que je vous conseil pour bien,
M’amie, se vous savez rien
Qu’aiez meffait encontre li
Que vous li en criez merci:
Ce sera sens.

SALOMÉ.

A ce conseil, Zebel, m’assens;

Car il me semble raisonnable:
Mais je ne sçay de quoy coulpable
Vers li tant soie.

GABRIEL.
Michiel, bien devons mener joie;
Regardez com noble mistere!
Vierge est de son createur mere:
Car elle l’a vierge enfanté,
Et la divine majesté
C’est à enfermeté conjointe,
Et foy c’est a cuer d’omme adjointe
Pour tout ce croire.

MICHIEL.

Gabriel, c’est parole voire.

Dieu c’est fait homs dessous nature
Pour ce que soient l’escripture
Et tuit li prophete acompli,
Et li siéges es cieulx rampli
Qui sont touz vuidz.

GABRIEL.

Ce nous tournera à deduiz,

Michiel amis, et à grant gloire.
Par amour ors disons encoire
Ce rondel qui moult m’atalente:

RONDEL.

Vierge royal, dame excellente,

Sur toutes autres pure et monde,
Qui ne vous sert pensée à lente,
Vierge royal, dame excellente;
Car du fruit avez est à l’ente
Qui de nient crea tout le monde;
Vierge royal, dame excellente,
Sur toutes autres pure et monde.
 SALOMÉ.

E! sire Diex, s’en vous habonde

Ne pitié ne misericorde,
Je vous pri de moy vous recorde,
Et me vueillez estre amiable,
Dieu du ciel, pére esperitable:
Car se j’ay n’en parler n’en fait
Riens, sire, contre vous meffait,
Pour quoy vous me punissiez ci,
De cuer vous en requier merci
Que le me vueillez pardonner,
Et me vueillez, sire, donner
Par vostre infinie bonté,
S’il vous plaist, parfaite santé
Dessus mes membres.

GABRIEL.

Salomé dame, or te remembres,

Que pour ce que tu n’as veu
Vierge enfanter, ne l’as creu;
Ains le vouloies esprouver;
Pour ç’a volu Dieux estriver
A toy qu’estrivoies à lui,
Et t’a envoié cest annuy
Qui te doit estre à grant contraire.
Or t’avise que Dieu peut faire
Plus que vierge faire enfanter,
Et, se tu le croiz sanz doubter,
Atouche l’enfant seulement,
Et tes mains saines vraiement
Recouvreras.

SALOMÉ.
 Ha! sire, ne me moquez pas.
Qui estes vous? Dites le moy,
Si vous plaist, et je vous em proy:
Ne vous voi mie.

GABRIEL.

Je sui un ange, belle amie;

Sachez que je te compte voir.
Si tes mains veulz saines ravoir,
Fai ce qu’ay dit.

SALOMÉ.

Je le vois touchier sanz respit.

Enfes doulz et beneurez,
Si voirement com tu es nez
De vierge, et ainsi je le croy,
Et que mes mains en cette foy
Mett sur toy, Dieu par son plaisir,
Ains que de ci puisse partir,
A sa merci me vueille prendre!
Ha! Dieu, bien vous doy graces rendre,
Puis que tant m’avez honnouré
Que mes mains m’avez restoré,
Sire, en santé.

ZEBEL.

Il est Diex parfaiz en bonté,

Salomé, ce pouez savoir.
Nous devons espérer pour voir
Que cest enfant de par lui vient,
Puis qu’après l’enfanter il tient
Vierge la mère.
 SALOMÉ.

Voire, et dire qu’il en est pére.

Zebel, moult doiz grant joie avoir,
Quant tel enfant poz recevoir.
Et vous, dame, moult estes digne,
Qui gisez de ceste gesine
Esmerveillable.

NOSTE DAME.

A Dieu, le pére esperitable,

En soit la gloire atribuée,
Quant de sa grace m’est donnée
Si grant partie.

SALOMÉ.

Ja ne quier estre departie

De vous, dame, s’il vous agrée,
Tant que vous soiez relevée
Tout à vostre aise.

NOSTRE DAME.

Chiére amie, ne vous desplaise,

Zebel seule bien me souffist.
Alez à celui qui vous fist
Qui vous gart l’âme!

SALOMÉ.

Je m’en vois donques. A Dieu, dame.

Puissiez remaindre!
 SIMÉON.

Dieu de lassus, fai tes cieulx fraindre:

Envoie nous ton filz en terre,
Par quoy soit finée la guerre
Que tu as à l’umain lignage,
Si qu’avoir puissons l’eritage
Pour quoy, sire, tu nous formas.
Et, sire, longuement nous as
Anoncié par tes sains prophètes,
Et tant belles promesses faites
Du rachat de lignie humaine
Que li Sathans en enfer maine!
Ysaïes a dit pour voir
Qu’une vierge doit concepvoir
Et enfanter un vierge fil
Qui hors gettera du peril
D’enfer le peuple d’Israel,
Et ara nom Emanuel.
Sire Dieu père, ceste grace
Que faire nous doiz, quant sera ce?
Ha! Dieux, cil enfes quant venra
Ne quant sera ce qu’il naistra.
Afin que je veoir le puisse?
Je ne cuit pas que ci me truisse
Cest enfant que je tant désir.
Dieux, te venroit il à plaisir
A moi de grâce pourveoir,
Tant que cil œil ci de veoir
Ycellui soient saoulé,
Par qui de mon cuer reveillé
Seront il œil?

MICHIEL.
Gabriel amis, aler vueil,
Car il m’est de Dieu conmandé,
A Simeon qui demandé
Li a un don par grant desir.
Ne vous vueilliez de ci partir;
Si revenray.

GABRIEL.

Michiel, ci vous attenderay;

Alez au Dieu plaisir, amis:
Puisque vous y estes conmis,
C’est bien raison.

MICHIEL.

Paix soit avec toy, Simeon!

En ton cuer doiz avoir grant joie
Sains Esperiz à toi m’envoie
Et te mande, n’en doubte pas,
Que ja la mort ne gousteras
Si aras veu le Sauveur
Du monde: ceste grant honneur
Te veult il faire.

SIMÉON.

Ha! vrai Diex, pere debonnaire,

Quant ert ce? Ja sui je si vieulx
Qu’à peine puis lever les yeulx
Et mon corps sur piez soustenir:
Je ne cuiday onques venir
A tel vieillesce.

MICHIEL.
Or aiez cuer plain de leesce.
Pour ce que tant l’as désiré
Et en ce désir demouré
Est devant Dieu ta voix oie,
Et ta clamour est essaucie,
Si que venuz es à ce point
Que le verras; n’en doubtes point.
A Dieu te dy.

SIMÉON.

A! Dieu pére, je vous mercy,

Quant en ce siècle tant vivray
Qu’à mes deux yeux celui verray
Qui sauveur du monde sera;
Certes, mon cuer repos n’ara
Tant que le voie.

NOSTRE DAME.

Zebel, il est temps que je doye

De ceste gesine lever,
Et au temple de Dieu aler
Pour ma purificacion,
Et mon filz en oblacion
Porter: c’est droiz.

ZEBEL.
C’est mon, dame; il a plus d’un mois
Que vous acouchates, ce croy,
Voire quarante jours, par foy:
Bien m’en souvient.

NOSTRE DAME.

C’est voir, m’amie; il vous convient

Que vous m’alliez deux turtres querre
Ou deux jeunes coulons bonne erre,
Qu’avec moy seront apportez:
Mon enfant en ert rachatez
Après s’offrande.

ZEBEL.

Dame, mon cuer se reconmande

A faire tout vostre plaisir:
Querre les vois de grant desir,
Telz que je sçay qu’ils doivent estre.
Je ne revenray en cest estre
Si les aray.

NOSTRE DAME.

Or ne faites pas long delay,

M’amie chiére.

ZEBEL.

Dame, revien je tost arriére?

Vezci une paire d’oisiaux,
Qui sont et gracieux et biaux,
Je vous creant.

NOSTRE DAME.
M’amie, et nous fault mon enfant
Couchier en nouviaux drapelez,
Touz les plus biaux et les plus nez
Que j’ay; et puis si en irons
Moi et vous, et le porterons
Au temple offrir.

ZEBEL.

Ainsi le fault pour acomplir

De la loy le conmandement.
Delivrons-nous, dame, briévement;
Il en est heure.

SIMÉON.

Pére des cieulx, moult me demeure

Que je voie ton enfant chier,
Que tu doiz en terre envoier
Pour le sauvement des humains.
Haste toy, doulx pére hautains;
Romps tes cieulx, euvre paradis.
Acomplis ce que m’as promis,
Dieu de lassus!

GABRIEL.
Or tost, Symeon, liéve sus;
Aorne toy sanz deporter.
Vez ci c’on te vient apporter
L’enfant, moult te doit estre bel,
Qui sera du peuple Israel
Sauveur et sire.

SIMÉON.

Ha! Dieux, onques mais n’oy dire

Chose qui tant me feist joie.
Certes tenir ne me pourroie
Qu’à l’encontre de li ne voise:
Car sa venue moult m’envoise
Et rebaudist.

ZEBEL.

Dame, or veez s’il vous suffist.

Vezci votre enfant; couchié l’ay
Au miex que je couchier le say,
Se m’aist Diex.

NOSTRE DAME.

Zebel, m’amie, on ne peut miex:

Or en alons.

GABRIEL.
 Michiel, cy plus ne nous tenons:
Alons nostre Dieu convoier,
Et pensons de nous avoier
D’un biau chant dire.

MICHIEL.

Je ne vous vueil mie desdire.

Mon tresdoulx ami Gabriel;
Je vous pri, disons ce rondel:
Car de moy joie le cuer emble.

Rondel.

Humble vierge, à qui ne ressamble

Personne née,
Par droit devez estre honnorée
Plus que nulle autre, se me samble,
Et miex amée,
Humble vierge, à qui ne ressamble
Personne née:
Car pour vous d’omme et Dieu ensamble
Est hui donnée
Offrande au temple desirée;
Humble vierge, à qui ne ressamble
Personne née,
Par droit devez estre honnorée.

SIMÉON.
Bien puissiez estre relevée,
Dame, qui au temple venez!
Ce doulx enfant que vous tenez,
Pour Dieu mettez le sur mes bras;
Dessus l’autel, n’en doubtez pas,
Le porteray.

NOSTRE DAME.

Voulentiers le vous bailleray.

Tenez, sire, je le vous offre:
Après vous feray j’une autre offre,
Pour li ravoir.

ZEBEL.

Dame, vez la ci preste, voir,

En ce panier.

SIMÉON.

Dieu, je te doy bien mercier,

Qui le mien cuer en paix as mis;
Car ainsi com tu m’as promis
Par ta parole qui est voire,
Je voy le salut et la gloire
Qu’a ton peuple as appareillié;
S’en ay, sire, le cuer si lié
Qu’avis m’est que doie partir.
Or fay de mon corps departir,
Sire, l’ame quant te plaira,
Puis que mon cuer son desir a,
Dont tant ay joie.

NOSTRE DAME.