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The Oxford Handbook of

PORTUGUESE
POLITICS
The Oxford Handbook of

PORTUGUESE
POLITICS

Edited by
J O R G E M . F E R NA N D E S ,
P E D R O C . M AG A L HÃ E S
and
A N T Ó N IO C O S TA P I N T O
 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.

It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries

© Oxford University Press 2023

The moral rights of the authors‌have been asserted

First Edition published in 2023

Impression: 1

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above

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Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

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TJ Books Limited

Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
 Table of Contents

Preface xi
Acknowledgements xv
List of Contributors xvii
Editors Bios xxi
Figures xxiii
Tables xxvii

SE C T ION 1 PA ST A N D P R E SE N T
1. From Problematic Laggard to Star of the South? The Comparative
Significance of the Portuguese Case 3
Robert M. Fishman
2. Democratization and its Legacies 18
António Costa Pinto and André Paris
3. Dealing with the Authoritarian Past 38
Filipa Raimundo
4. Social, Economic, and Demographic Change during the Portuguese
Democracy (1974–​2020) 53
Luciano Amaral
5. Empire and Decolonization in Portuguese Africa 70
Miguel Bandeira Jerónimo and José Pedro Monteiro
6. The Centre-​Left and the Radical Left in Portuguese Democracy,
1974–​2021 88
André Freire
7. The Right and Far-​Right in the Portuguese Democracy (1974–​2022) 102
Riccardo Marchi and André Azevedo Alves
vi   Table of Contents

SE C T ION 2 P OL I T IC A L I N S T I T U T ION S
8. Semi-​Presidentialism in Portugal: Academic Quarrels Amidst
Institutional Stability 121
Octavio Amorim Neto
9. The Role of the Portuguese Parliament 136
Eunice Goes and Cristina Leston-​Bandeira
10. Executive Politics 149
Pedro Silveira and Patrícia Silva
11. Judicial Politics in Portugal 164
Nuno Garoupa and Lydia Tiede
12. Electoral System 181
Jorge M. Fernandes
13. Bureaucracy and Public Administration 197
António F. Tavares
14. Decentralization and Local Politics 212
Filipe Teles

SE C T ION 3 M A S S P OL I T IC S A N D VOT E R S
15. Portuguese National Identity: Historical Constructions and
Contemporary Expressions 227
José Sobral and Jorge Vala
16. Citizens and Politics: Support and Engagement 244
Pedro C. Magalhães
17. Election Campaigns 262
José Santana-​Pereira
18. Voting Behaviour 276
Ignacio Lago
19. Electoral Turnout 291
João Cancela
20. Mass Media and Political Communication 308
Susana Salgado
 Table of Contents    vii

SE C T ION 4 PA RT I E S A N D PA RT Y SYS T E M

21. Candidate Selection in Portugal 325

Carlos Jalali and Edalina Rodrigues Sanches
22. The Executive Political Elite 339
Pedro Tavares de Almeida
23. Political Parties and Party System 353
Mafalda Pratas and Fernando Bizzarro
24. Parties and Political Representation 371
Ana Maria Belchior and Conceição Pequito
25. Plus Ça Change? Party Regulation in Portugal (1974–​2020) 388
Ingrid van Biezen and Fernando Casal Bértoa

SE C T ION 5 S O C I E T Y
26. Gender and Politics in Portugal 407
Ana Espírito-​Santo and Ana Catalano Weeks
27. Interest Groups, Business Associations, and Unions 423
Marco Lisi and João Loureiro
28. Emigration and Immigration in Portugal 440
João Carvalho
29. Movements at the Border. Conflict and Protest in Portugal 457
Guya Accornero and Pedro Ramos Pinto
30. The Relations Between the Catholic Church and the Political
Arena in Portugal 472
Madalena Meyer Resende
31. Social and Economic Inequality 487
Carlos Farinha Rodrigues
viii   Table of Contents

SE C T ION 6 G OV E R NA N C E A N D
P U B L IC P OL IC I E S
32. The Portuguese Welfare State 507
Amílcar Moreira and Miguel Glatzer
33. Portuguese Labour Market Governance in Comparative Perspective 527
Alexandre Afonso
34. The Portuguese Macroeconomic Policy Framework 542
Fernando Alexandre and Pedro Bação
35. Education Policies 557
Ana Balcão Reis
36. Health Policies 573
Céu Mateus
37. Political Corruption in Portugal 589
Luís de Sousa and Susana Coroado
38. Taxation and Accountability at the Local Level 604
Mariana Lopes da Fonseca
39. Portugal and the Challenges of Economic Globalization 619
João Amador

SE C T ION 7 P ORT U G A L A N D T H E
E U ROP E A N U N ION
40. Portugal and the European Monetary Union 635
Margarida Duarte
41. Portugal in the European Union: Chronicling a
Transformative Journey 648
Laura C. Ferreira-Pereira
42. Politicizing Europe: How the EU Affects Political Competition
in Portugal 666
Marina Costa Lobo
43. Bailout Politics in Portugal (2008–​2020) 683
Catherine Moury and Elisabetta De Giorgi
 Table of Contents    ix

SE C T ION 8 F OR E IG N P OL IC Y A N D DE F E N C E
44. Portuguese Foreign Policy 701
Maria Raquel Freire
45. Portugal and Brazil 715
Andrés Malamud and Pedro Seabra
46. Portugal and Africa 728
Ricardo Soares de Oliveira
47. Security and Geostrategy 743
Bruno Oliveira Martins and Daniel Pinéu
48. The Military and Defence Policies 757
Helena Carreiras

Index 775
 Preface

Why publish an Oxford Handbook of Portuguese Politics? In the mid-​1970s, the military coup
that put an end to the Estado Novo regime in Portugal attracted significant international
attention. Almost overnight, social scientists and journalists from all over Europe and the
United States arrived in Lisbon and placed the country on the roadmap of comparative pol-
itics. The Portuguese democratic transition put a final nail in the coffin of the age of empires
and initiated what Samuel Huntington famously called ‘the third wave of democratization’,
which would later spread to the rest of Southern Europe, Latin America, Eastern Europe,
and parts of Asia and Africa. Since then, Portugal has joined the European Union, becoming
an advanced economy and one of the countries classified with ‘very high human develop-
ment’. In time, as Portuguese democracy became consolidated and Portugal became ‘just
another case’, international attention from social scientists waned.
For all its similarities in terms of economic and political development with most advanced
industrial democracies, Portuguese politics contain remarkable specificities that make
the country an interesting laboratory for several pivotal problems assailing contemporary
democracies and which warrant closer inspection. For one, the nature of the Portuguese
democratic transition in the 1970s—​unusually triggered by a coup conducted by mid-​
ranking military officers—​paved the way for a social revolution, whose legacies many argue
have survived to this day. As various authors have stressed, including several who have
contributed to this volume, those legacies can be recognized in the role of the state in the
economy, in political culture, in the repertoires of political action, and in the social cleavages
underlying the party system. Portugal provides therefore an important illustration of how
the understanding of contemporary politics benefits from an historical perspective that
addresses the origins of political regimes and their legacy to the future.
Furthermore, despite being an average country in the European context, Portugal is an
interesting case to explore in terms of its foreign policy. Positioned in the westernmost re-
gion of mainland Europe and coming from a centuries-​old empire that once—​and until ex-
ceptionally late—​held territories in four different continents, Portugal has turned to Europe
as a catalyst for democracy and development since the 1980s. This has resulted in a remark-
ably complex foreign policy, balancing the demands of transatlantic relations, European
commitments, and deep cultural and economic ties with former colonies. The country’s
post-​colonial legacy has been relevant not only in terms of international affairs, but also
within Portuguese society itself, raising issues related to social integration, racial attitudes,
and cultural and national identities that remain visible today.
Political institutions, parties, and mass political behaviour in Portugal also provide sev-
eral different points of interest. These include, first and foremost, the process through which
Portugal shifted from high levels of cabinet instability and party system fragmentation in
the 1970s and 80s to stable majority and minority cabinets and comparatively low levels of
xii   Preface

ideological polarization in the noughties. Today, however, Portuguese politics are in flux,
with higher cabinet instability and a changing party system, with the emergence of new
parties, including on the radical right. The consequences for the party system and political
competition remain to be seen. Furthermore, Portugal’s semi-​presidential system, with an
elected head of state whose role corresponds neither to the ‘all-​powerful’ French model nor
to the mostly ceremonial Irish one, is also an interesting case from a comparative point of
view, especially considering similar or comparable offices in Eastern Europe.
Finally, Portugal was at the very heart of the Eurozone crisis, becoming one of the
countries bailed out by the European Union (EU) and the International Monetary Fund
(IMF) in the early 2010s. The social and political impact of that crisis—​particularly as it
manifested itself on partisan politics, electoral behaviour, and cabinet formation—​and the
way that this crisis was ultimately overcome have sparked intense interest from compara-
tive scholars. In comparison with similarly affected countries, the return to credibility in
international markets was quick and secured without the kind of political backlash observed
elsewhere, and the post-​crisis recovery in political trust and public support was more robust.
This becomes more interesting when we look at the causes, rather than the consequences,
of the Portuguese economic crisis itself. Although many of them were exogenous and
common to many other countries, it is also true that Portugal was already experiencing
a long period of protracted economic stagnation in the decade leading up to the Great
Recession. During the first decades of democracy, starting out as a fundamentally rural,
backward, and deeply unequal society, Portugal leapfrogged many of the developmental
stages that elsewhere had led to consolidated and effective welfare states, converging with
Europe in most social and economic indicators. However, in this century, comparatively
low levels of education and productivity, a rapidly-​ageing population, systemic regulatory
failures, extreme centralization, and flailing quality of governance seem to have combined to
pose enormous challenges to Portugal’s development prospects. The political economy and
the policy dimensions behind these challenges are central to this volume.
Portuguese social sciences have developed significantly over the past five decades. The
maturity of the field permits us to take stock of Portuguese specificities, and the comparative
leverage they allow, to produce a systematic and state-​of-​the-​art coverage in the English lan-
guage that has been missing thus far. The Oxford Handbook of Portuguese Politics aims to be-
come the contemporary reference text about Portugal and its political system. We hope that
political scientists, economists, historians, and sociologists take advantage of the wealth of
data and knowledge amassed in this volume and find more incentives to include Portugal in
their studies. Our Handbook includes 48 chapters, covering most aspects of Portuguese pol-
itics from an interdisciplinary perspective. The edition is divided into eight sections.
The first section looks at the Past and Present of Portuguese politics. It offers an overview
of Portuguese political developments since democratization in the 1970s. It begins with a
chapter outlining the comparative relevance of the Portuguese case. The subsequent chapters
delve into democratization and its legacies, the political and socio-​economic evolution of the
country since 1974, as well as the empire and decolonization process as a watershed moment
in Portuguese history. The section concludes with two chapters on the historical and cultural
roots of left-​and right-​wing politics in Portugal.
The second section looks at Political Institutions as the building blocks of Portuguese
democracy. These chapters cover a constellation of topics ranging from semi-​
presidentialism, a defining trait of Portuguese democracy since its inception, to legislative
 Preface   xiii

politics, executive politics, and judicial politics. Furthermore, this section contains work on
the electoral system, public administration and bureaucracy, as well as decentralization and
local politics.
Our third section examines Mass Politics and Voters, that is, a thorough analysis of
the demand-​side of mass politics. We start by looking at nationalism and national iden-
tity, in a chapter discussing how the Portuguese envisage the country’s imagined commu-
nity. Next, we examine how Portuguese citizens engage with and support democracy and
its institutions. This section further looks at election campaigns, voting behaviour, electoral
turnout, and mass media and political communication.
The fourth section turns to the supply side of mass-​politics by looking at Parties and the
Party System, that is, how political parties structure political competition by channelling
the demands of the citizenry. This part starts by examining candidate selection. In so doing,
it offers a detailed analysis of the recruitment mechanisms used by Portuguese parties.
Next, it moves on to political elites and executive leadership. In this part, we further include
a chapter on political parties and party systems whose content focuses on the internal or-
ganization of parties and the structuring of political competition. Furthermore, the section
includes a chapter on parties and political representation, focusing on ideological congru-
ence and citizens’ preferences. Section Four concludes with a chapter on party regulation in
Portugal over the past 50 years.
The fifth section looks at the Portuguese Society by unpacking a plethora of societal
aspects with direct implications for politics. It begins with a chapter on gender and pol-
itics, devoted to inclusion of women, from a highly patriarchal society to increasing par-
ticipation in political and economic life. Next, the section delves into interest groups,
business associations, and unions, followed by a chapter on emigration and immigration,
whose consequences loom large in Portuguese society. Subsequently, we move on to social
movements and protest, with a strong focus on the consequences of the Great Recession for
the revival of protest repertoires in Portugal. Next, there is a chapter dealing with the role of
religion in Portugal, with an emphasis on how the Church played a role in democratization
and how it subsequently adapted to its waning influence in society. The final chapter focuses
on social and economic inequality and its consequences for the functioning of democracy.
The sixth section examines Governance and Public Policies, with a view to under-
standing how a constellation of public policies has an impact on the quality of governance
and in fostering well-​being. More specifically, it opens with a chapter on the welfare state,
followed by comparative analyses of labour market policies and the macroeconomic policy
framework. Furthermore, it includes chapters on education and health policies, whose im-
portance is vital to promote social inclusion in Portugal, a highly unequal country. Next, this
section offers a chapter on corruption, whose goal is to analyse its impact on the quality of
governance, as well as a chapter on taxation and accountability at the local level. This sixth
part concludes with a chapter on how Portugal has dealt with the challenges of economic
globalization and increasingly open markets for goods and services.
The seventh section looks at Portugal and the European Union. It begins by providing a
chapter on Portuguese participation in monetary integration, focusing on its consequence
for economic growth, competitiveness, and how it influenced the 2011 bailout. The following
chapter takes a more general view by chronicling the historical roots of Portugal’s participa-
tion in European integration from 1986 through today. Subsequently, we look at the politi-
cization of ‘Europe’ and European integration in Portugal, and how it has changed domestic
xiv   Preface

political competition. This section concludes with a chapter on the roots and consequences
of the Eurocrisis in Portugal.
The eighth and final section unpacks Portuguese Foreign Policy and Defence. Since dem-
ocratization, Portugal’s position within the international arena has faced some tensions,
as it attempts to pivot between Europe, Africa, and the Atlantic. This final part of the book
begins with an overview of Portuguese foreign policy, followed by a more focused analysis
of relations with regions of interest, including Brazil and Africa. Next, the section includes
a chapter on security and geostrategy. It concludes with a chapter on the army and defence,
discussing the evolution of the role played by the army since democratization through to its
twenty-​first-​century role in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
 Acknowledgements

Over the past 50 years, Portuguese social sciences have become a mature field of research.
The constellation and diversity of topics covered in this volume illustrate how the study of
Portuguese politics has come a long way since democratization when social scientists had
only a modest understanding of the fabric of Portuguese society. The editors are grateful to
all the authors for accepting the challenge of contributing to this Handbook. Their enthu-
siasm in embracing the project allowed us to put together an edition that, we believe, will
become a landmark in Portuguese social sciences. The chapters offer a wealth of analysis and
data that have hitherto been unavailable in a systematic fashion to international audiences.
We hope that the understanding of Portuguese politics in a comparative perspective will
benefit from these contributions.
We would like to express our gratitude to the Francisco Manuel dos Santos Foundation
for supporting this ambitious project. The Foundation has played an invaluable role in
promoting the study of Portuguese society. We are grateful for the generous support from
Gonçalo Saraiva Matias. At the Foundation, Susana Norton has provided us with un-
wavering support. We would also like to thank João Tiago Gaspar for his inexhaustible pa-
tience with our many requests. Thanks are due to Rita Matos for an excellent job in editing
and proofreading this volume. We would like to thank the Guide team, especially Nuno
Cartaxo, for designing high-​quality figures for all chapters.
Finally, we are grateful to Dominic Byatt at Oxford University Press. His unfettered enthu-
siasm and support from the very first day we came to him with the idea of making an Oxford
Handbook of Portuguese Politics have been extremely important to this endeavour.
Jorge M. Fernandes
Pedro C. Magalhães
António Costa Pinto
 List of Contributors

Guya Accornero is Assistant Professor at ISCTE-​IUL, Portugal

Alexandre Afonso is Associate Professor of Public Policy at Leiden University, Netherlands
Fernando Alexandre is Associate Professor at the University of Minho, Portugal
Pedro Tavares de Almeida is Professor at FCSH-​UNL, Portugal
André Azevedo Alves is Associate Professor at Catholic University Lisbon, Portugal
João Amador is Guest Assistant Professor at Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Portugal
Luciano Amaral is Associate Professor at NOVA SBE, Portugal
Octavio Amorim Neto is Professor of Political Science at the Getúlio Vargas Foundation,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Pedro Bação is Assistant Professor at the University of Coimbra, Portugal
Miguel Bandeira Jerónimo is Associate Professor at the University of Coimbra, Portugal
Ana Maria Belchior is Associate Professor at ISCTE-​IUL, Portugal
Ingrid van Biezen is Professor in Comparative Politics at the University of Leiden,
Netherlands
Fernando Bizarro is a PhD student at Harvard University, USA
João Cancela is Assistant Professor at FCSH-​UNL, Portugal
Helena Carreiras is Associate Professor at ISCTE-​IUL, Portugal
João Carvalho is a researcher at ISCTE-​IUL, Portugal
Fernando Casal Bértoa is Associate Professor at University of Nottingham, United
Kingdom
Susana Coroado is a Researcher at University of Lisbon, Portugal
António Costa Pinto is Research Professor at the University of Lisbon, and Professor of
Politics at Lusófona University, Portugal
Margarida Duarte is Professor of Economics at the University of Toronto, Canada
Ana Espírito-​Santo is Assistant Professor at ISCTE-​IUL, Portugal
Carlos Farinha Rodrigues is Associate Professor at the University of Lisbon, Portugal
Jorge M. Fernandes is Assistant Research Professor at the University of Lisbon, Portugal
xviii   List of Contributors

Laura C. Ferreira-Pereira is Professor at University of Minho, Portugal

Robert M. Fishman is Professor of Political Science and Sociology at Carlos III
University, Spain
André Freire is Professor of Political Science at ISCTE-​IUL, Portugal
Maria Raquel Freire is Professor at the University of Coimbra, Portugal
Nuno Garoupa is Professor of Law at George Mason University, USA
Elisabetta di Giorgi is Assistant Professor at the University of Trieste, Italy
Miguel Glatzer is Associate Professor of Political Science at La Salle University, USA
Eunice Goes is Professor of Politics at Richmond University, United Kingdom
Carlos Jalali is Associate Professor at the University of Aveiro, Portugal
Ignacio Lago is Professor of Political Science at Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Spain
Cristina Leston-​Bandeira is Professor of Politics at the University of Leeds, United
Kingdom
Marco Lisi is Associate Professor at FCSH-​UNL, Portugal
Marina Costa Lobo is Principal Researcher at the University of Lisbon, Portugal
Mariana Lopes da Fonseca is Assistant Professor at University of St. Gallen, Switzerland
João Loureiro is Associate Researcher at FCHS-​UNL, Portugal
Pedro C. Magalhães is Senior Research Fellow at the University of Lisbon, Portugal
Andrés Malamud is Senior Researcher at the University of Lisbon, Portugal
Riccardo Marchi is Researcher at ISCTE-​IUL, Portugal
Céu Mateus is Professor at University of Leicester, United Kingdom
Madalena Meyer Resende is Assistant Professor at FCSH-​UNL, Portugal
José Pedro Monteiro is Assistant Research Professor at the University of Minho, Portugal
Amílcar Moreira is Guest Assistant Professor at SOCIUS/ISEG, University of Lisbon,
Portugal
Catherine Moury is Associate Professor at FCSH-​UNL, Portugal
Bruno Oliveira Martins is Senior Researcher at the Peace Research Institute Oslo, Norway
André Paris is a PhD student at University of Lisbon, Portugal
Conceição Pequito is Assistant Professor at the University of Lisbon, Portugal
Daniel Pinéu is a lecturer at the University of Amsterdam, Netherlands
Pedro Ramos Pinto is Associate Professor in International Economic History at
Cambridge, United Kingdom
 List of Contributors    xix

Mafalda Pratas is a PhD student at Harvard University, USA

Filipa Raimundo is Assistant Professor at ISCTE-​IUL, Portugal
Ana Balcão Reis is Associate Professor at NOVA SBE, Portugal
Susana Salgado is Principal Researcher at the University of Lisbon, Portugal
Edalina Sanches is Assistant Professor at ISCTE-​IUL, Portugal
José Santana-​Pereira is Assistant Professor at ISCTE-​IUL, Portugal
Pedro Seabra is Assistant Professor at University of Beira Interior, Portugal
Patrícia Silva is Assistant Professor at the University of Aveiro, Portugal
Pedro Silveira is a researcher at FCSH-​UNL, Portugal
Ricardo Soares de Oliveira is Professor of the International Politics of Africa at Oxford
University, United Kingdom
José Sobral is Senior Researcher at the University of Lisbon, Portugal
Luís de Sousa is Assistant Researcher at the University of Lisbon, Portugal
António F. Tavares is Associate Professor at the University of Minho, Portugal
Filipe Teles is Assistant Professor at the University of Aveiro, Portugal
Lydia Tiede is Associate Professor at the University of Houston, USA
Jorge Vala is Emeritus Researcher at the University of Lisbon, Portugal
Ana Catalano Weeks is Associate Professor at University of Bath, United Kingdom
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