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mccrae1989
mccrae1989
Thanks are due to Hamson Gough, Mary McCaulley, and Avnl Thome for valuable
suggestions on earlier drafts of this article, however, we retain full responsibility for
the interpretations offered Correspondence concerning this article can be addressed
to Robert R McCrae, ftrsonality. Stress, and Coping Section, Gerontology Re-
search Center, 4940 Eastem Avenue, Baltimore, MD 21224
Journal of Personality 57 1, March 1989
18 McCrae and Costa
1 The dependent vanables for which interaction effects should be found must, of
course, be different from the MBTI categonzmg vanables If MBTI mdices are
themselves simply nMsasures of tr^iitional personahty vanables, it would not make
sense to lode for interaction effects on other measures of the same perscmality van-
ables H K MBTI typology, however, claims to be sometfung other than an inventory
of personality traits, and umter this hypothesis, an examination of pMsonality mea-
sures as dependent vanables is appropnate
MBTI and NEO-PI 23
METHOD
Subjects
Participants in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Agmg (BLSA, Shock et
al , 1984) and their spouses provided data for the study BLSA volunteers
are a group of predominantly white, community-dwelling individuals who
have agreed to return for periodic biomedical and psychological testing
Most have at least a college degree, and many have advanced degrees Com-
pansons with a national sample (Costa et al , 1986) suggest that they are
somewhat higher than the general population in Openness to Expenence, but
do not differ markedly m Extraversion or Neuroticism The 267 men who
provided complete data on both the NEO-PI and MBTI ranged in age from
21 to 93 (M = 62 7), the 201 women ranged in age from 19 to 93 (M =
58 9)
A subsample of 70 men and 35 women had previously participated m a
peer ratmg study Mean ratings on the NEO-PI were provided by from one
to four fnends and neighbors, details are given elsewhere (McCrae & Costa,
1987)
Measures
Form G of the MBTI (Myers & McCaulley, 1985) was used in this study
This form consists of 126 questions, of which only 94 are actually scored
Most Items offer a forced-choice between two responses, although some
have more response options, and respondents are occasionally allowed to
endorse two or more responses Separate sconng keys are provided for each
preference (e g , both E and I, both S and N), although most items are sim-
ply reverse scored for the opposing function Because the opposing prefer-
ence scores are almost completely lpsative, they are not analyzed separately
here Preference is determined by the greater of the two preference scores
(with provisions for breaking ties), and a four-letter code (e g , INTJ) sum-
manzes all four sets of contrasts and specifies into which ofthe 16 types the
individual is classified
Four continuous scores can also be obtained that correspond to the differ-
ence between opposing preferences, these scores have a theoretical neutral
point of 100 Both intemal consistency and retest reliability of the continu-
ous scores are adequate, according to the manual, from 31% to 61% of sub-
26 McCrae and Costa
jects showed identical four-letter types after retest intervals of from 5 weeks
to 6 years The four contmuous scores show low intercorrelations except for
SN and JP, which are positively related, r = 38, m both normative data and
the present sample
The NEO-PI (Costa & McCrae, 1985b) is a 181-item questionnaire de-
veloped to operationalize the five-factor model Early work emphasized the
three domams of Neuroticism (N), Extraversion (E), and Openness to Ex-
penence (O). each measured by six 8-item facet scales and a total domain
scale The facets of Neuroticism are Anxiety, Hostility, Depression, Self-
Consciousness, Impulsiveness, and Vulnerability, the facets of Extraversion
are Warmth, Greganousness, Assertiveness, Activity, Excitement Seeking,
and Positive Emotions, and the facets of Openness are Fantasy, Aesthetics,
Feelings, Actions, Ideas, and Values Global, 18-item scales measunng the
domains of Agreeableness (A) and Conscientiousness (C) were later added
NEO-PI Items are answered on a 5-point Likert scale, and scales are bal-
anced to control for acquiescence Social desirability does not appear to bias
NEO-PI scales when used in volunteer samples (McCrae & Costa, 1983)
Intemal consistency for the five domain scales ranges from 76 to 93, and
scores for adults are very stable, with 3- to 6-year retest coefficients ranging
from 63 to 83 (Costa & McCrae, 1988) NEO-PI scales have been corre-
lated with other questionnaires, observer ratings, and sentence completions,
and have been used to predict psychological well-being, coping styles, and
somatic complaints (Costa & McCrae, 1985b) A thu-d-person form of the
NEO-PI has been developed and validated for use by raters (McCrae &
Costa, 1987)
The 18 N, E, and O facet scales and the A and C domain scales were
factored to provide an optimal operationalization of the five-factor model
(McCrae & Costa, in press-b) Factors were rotated to maximize convergent
and discnmmant validity with a senes of extemal cntena, including peer
and spouse ratings and self- and interviewer Q-sorts The NEO-PI factors
correlate highly with their corresponding domain scales (rs = 79 to 96),
but show a somewhat stronger pattem of convergent and discnminant valid-
ity, particularly for the A and C factors
The MBTI and NEO-PI were mailed to subjects m June 1986 and retumed
by mail, peer ratings on the NEO-PI were {*tained m 1983 Because of the
stability of personality scores m adults, this time lag is unlikely to affect
results substantially (Costa & McCrae, 1985a) Both inventones were
scored according to directions in the manuals, and all subjects with com-
plete data are mcluded in the analyses
Finally, instruments offenng altemative operationalizations of the five-
factor model had been administered to subsets of subjects Factors from self-
sorts on Block's (1961) CQS (McCrae et al , 1986) were available for 119
men and 49 women, factors from an adjective checklist (McCrae & Costa,
1985c) were available for 133 men and 58 women
MBTI a n d NEO-PI 27
RESULTS
Although the absence of normative information on continuous scores
makes companson difficult, the present sample seems to resemble other
adult samples m the distnbution of MBTI scores Fbr purposes of com-
panson, subjects were classified into four-letter code types Men clus-
tered m the ISTJ (27 7%) and ESTJ (18 0%) types, whereas women
were somewhat more evenly distnbuted among the 16 types Normative
data from a national sample (Tables 4 12 and 4 13 m Myers & Mc-
Caulley, 1985) show a similar pattem Age, sex, and years of education
were correlated with the four continuous scales, only three correlations
were greater than 20 age with JP (r = - 28), gender with TF (r =
39), and education with SN(r = 23) Older subjects preferred judging,
women preferred feeling, and better-educated individuals preferred in-
tuition
Jungian theory suggests that a balance between opposing functions
should be developed in later life, so it might be hypothesized that older
men and women would show less extreme scores on the SN and TF
scales However, F tests for the equality of vanance for subjects above
and below age 65 showed no significant differences—a nullfindingrep-
licated by the data m Appendix C of the MBTI manual given for a
younger group of adults These cross-sectional studies provide no sup-
port for the Jungian theory of adult personality development Either
Jung's theory is incorrect on this point, or the MBTI indices do not ade-
quately operationalize Jungian constmcts
Tabtol
Cross-Tabulation ot Hypothesized Dommant Function by Observed
Stronger Preference
Table 2
Mean Levels of NEO-PI Factor Scores for MBTI Preferences
MBTI preference
NEO-PI factor E I S N T F J P
Neuroticism 48 6 50 4* 49 4 49 7 47 7 52 8*** 48 9 51 8
Extra- 55 7 44 4*** 48 8 50 5 48 7 51 1* 48 8 51 9**
version
Openness 504 50 2 45 1 56 9*** 49 6 515 49 1 54 Q***
Agreeableness 50 3 49 1 49 0 50 6 46 9 54 4*** 49 5 50 2
Conscien- 487 49 8 49 9 48 5 50 3 47 6*** 51 4 42 •7***
tiousness
the four-letter type codes of the MBTI simply summarize four indepen-
dent main effects
Analyses were then repeated using contrasting MBTI preferences and
gender as classifying vanables Because there were no Preference x
Gender interactions, only the mam effects for preference need be consid-
ered, mean values for the NEO-PI factors (expressed as T scores) are
given m Table 2 These findings show that individuals categonzed as In-
troverts by the MBTI score slightly higher in NEO-PI Neuroticism and
much lower in NEO-PI Extraversion, Intuitive types score higher in
Openness to Expenence, Feeling types score higher m Neuroticism, Ex-
traversion, and Agreeableness, and lower m Conscientiousness, and Psr-
ceivmg types score higher m NEO-PI Extraversion and Openness, and
lower m Conscientiousness
Tabto 3
Correlations of Self-Reported NEO-PI Factors With MBTI Continuous
Scales in Men and Women
NEO-PI factor
MBTI scales N E 0 A C
Men
EI (Introversion) 16** _ •74*** 03 03 08
SN (Intuition) - 06 10 72*** 04 - 15*
TF (Feeling) 06 19** 02 44*** - 15*
JP (Perception) 11 15* 30*** - 06 - 49***
Women
EI (Introversion) 17* _ 69*** - 0 3 08 08
SN (Intuition) 01 22** 69*** 03 - 10
TF (Feeling) 28*** 10 - 02 46*** - 22**
JP (Perception) 04 20** 26*** 05 - 46***
Note A' = 267 for men, 201 for women NEO-PI = NEO Personahty Inventory,
MBTI = Myers-Bnggs Type Indicator N = Neuroticism, E = Extraversion, O =
Openness to Expenence, A = Agreeableness, C = Conscientiousness
*p< 05
**p< 01
***p< 001
Table 3, for men and women separately Note that the MBTI continuous
scores are given in the direction ofthe second letter, that is, they measure
introversion, intuition, feeling, and perceiving For both men and
women, the correlations between the two extraversion measures and be-
tween the MBTI SN index and NEO-PI Openness factor are around 7 in
absolute magnitude, corrected for unrealiability, they would approach
unity There are also substantial correlations between MBTI TF and
NEO-PI Agreeableness and between JP and Conscientiousness in both
sexes
Among both men and women there is a modest correlation between
the JP scale and Openness, which is understandable in view of the cor-
relation between JP and SN Among women. Intuition shows a small as-
sociation with NEO-PI Extraversion, and feeling preference is related to
higher Neuroticism and lower Conscientiousness In general, however,
the pattem of correlations is very similar for men and women
Table 4 gives correlations between NEO-PI factor scores denved from
mean peer ratings with the self-reported continuous MBTI scores for
men and women separately Results provide strong cross-observer reph-
MBTI and NEO-PI 31
Tabl*4
Correlations of Peer-Sated NEO-PI Factois With MBTI Continuous
Scales in Men and Women
NEO-PI factor
MBTI scales N E 0 A C
Men
EI (Introversion) 05 _ 34** 15 10 17
SN (Intuition) 07 06 61*** - 27* - 15
TF (Feeling) - 11 22 01 25* - 16
JP (Perception) - 10 11 04 10 - 34**
Women
EI (Introversion) 08 - 38* -04 03 - 02
SN (Intuition) 16 09 41* - 01 - 04
TF (Feeling) 15 - 01 - 06 46** - 39*
JP (Perception) 12 00 18 11 - 55***
Note N = 10 for men, 35 for women NEO-PI = NEO Personality Inventory, MBTI
= Myers-Bnggs Type Indicator N = Neuroticism, E = Extraversion, O = Openness
to Expenence, A = Agreeableness, C = Conscientiousness
*p< 05
**p< 01
***p< 001
DISCUSSION
The results of the present study provide the basis for a very mixed eval-
uation—-or a radical reinterpretation—of the MBTI Consistent with
much previous research (especially Stncker & Ross, 1964a), the study
found no support for the typological theory the instrument is intended to
embody There was no evidence that preferences formed true dichoto-
mies, the 16 types did not appear to be qualitatively distinct, because
analyses of then-joint effects on personality dimensions showed that only
1 of 55 interactions was significant, and only m women, and, contrary to
hypothesis, the theoretically dominant function was no more clearly pre-
ferred than the auxiliary The Jungian prediction that opposing functions
should be developed in later life was not confirmed using the MBTI The
correlates of individual scales were consistent with their item content, '
but would probably not have been predicted from Jungian theory Froni
the perspective of construct validation, the MBTI appears to have very
senous problems Weighing the evidence to date, the MBTI does not
seem to be a promising instrument for measunng Jung's types, those
who embrace Jung's theory should probably avoid the MBTI
Conversely, those who have found the MBTI to be a useful instrument
for assessing and descnbing individual differences should senously con-
sider abandoning Jungian theory and some of the associated language
Yet how can the MBTI be interpreted or employed without reference to
Jung's psychological types'? One alternative is to adopt the perspective
of the five-factor model of personality Each of the four indices showed
MBTI a n d NEO-PI 33
or so of the distnbution on each index as an "x " Data on the retest sta-
bility of types (Table 10 7 of the manual) show that such a policy could
substantially increase reliability
3 To a lesser extent, the same cnticism applies to the TF and JP mdices Descnp-
tions downplay the antagonistic side of Thinking types and the lazy and disorganized
side of Ftrceivmg types
MBTI a n d NEO-PI 37
ful and jovial, but would rather let others make decisions Such differ-
ences would be important in a variety of applied settings, and show the
potential value of supplementing the MBTI with other measures
There are two ways in which the users of other psychological tests can
benefit from experience with the MBTI First, translation of the MBTI
mdices into the common language of thefive-factormodel makes it pos-
sible to assimilate the extensive empincal literature on the MBTI For
example, dozens of occupations have been classified with respect to the
frequency of MBTI preferences (Myers & McCaulley, 1985) Intuitive
types are disproportionately found in such occupations as artist, wnter,
and psychologist, whereas sensing types choose vocations such as
farmer, mechanic, or clencal worker When the SN index is interpreted
as a measure of Openness to Experience, these data provide valuable rep-
lications of other work linking Openness to vocational preferences
(Costa, McCrae, & Holland, 1984)
At another level, those who develop and employ personahty measures
can leam a good deal from the strategies of application that have been
used with the MBTI Decades of expenence show that it is possible and
sometimes useful to descnbe personality m lay terms, to teach individ-
uals the nature and value of individual differences, and to increase un-
derstanding among people who interact by shanng information on per-
sonahty and explaining differences m styles Adapting such approaches
to instmments that include measures of ostensibly undesirable traits such
as Neuroticism will require tact and skill, but promises to be valuable in
the long mn Regardless of the mstmment used, information given to
laypersons should refiect current knowledge m personality psychology
If the MBTI IS used, evidence to date suggests that it may be better to
abandon its Jungian framework and reinterpret the MBTI in terms ofthe
five-factor model
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40 McCrae and Costa