A TECHNICAL REPORT

FOR THE 2021/2022

STUDENT’S INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME.

UNDERATKEN AT: NOVEL SOLAR, AKINJIDE PLAZA, NO. 76

ADEKUNLE FAJUYI RD, EKOTEDO, IBADAN,

OYO STATE.

BY: AJIBOYE AJIBOLA OLUWATOBILOBA

MATRIC NO: 215423

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING,

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN.

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 Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,

Faculty of

Technology,

University of

Ibadan. 7th October,

2023.

To: The Director,

Industrial Training Coordinating Centre,

University of Ibadan,

LETTER OF SUBMISSION OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

I, Ajiboye Ajibola Oluwatobiloba, a student of the department of Electrical and Electronic

Engineering with matriculation number 215423, hereby write to inform you of the successful
completion of my mandatory twelve-week Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme, which
started on Tuesday, July 18, 2023, and ended on Thursday, September 14, 2023, at Novel Solar,
Akinjide Plaza, No. 76 Adekunle Fajuyi Rd., Ekotedo, Ibadan, Oyo State.

As part of the prerequisite for the completion of the industrial training programme, I hereby
tender this letter alongside my industrial training technical report and logbook. The technical
report consists of the experiences garnered during the course of the industrial training
programme.

I would like to recognise the Industrial Training Coordinating Centre's efforts and initiative in
bridging the gap between the four walls of the classroom and industry.

Yours faithfully,

Ajiboye Ajibola

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My utmost appreciation goes to God for seeing me through the course of my industrial training
experience.

My profound appreciation also goes to my family for their unwavering support during the entire
span of my Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme.

I would like to express my immense gratitude to the CEO of Novel Solar Company, Mr. Wale
Fadahunsi, for granting my request to serve as an intern at his reputable company. I would also
like to acknowledge and sincerely appreciate my industry-based supervisor, Mr. Akintunde Jide,
for the technical knowledge he has imparted to me. I would also like to thank him for his
patience, encouragement, and the time he dedicated to making me an all-round engineer. I'd also
like to thank my industrial-based instructors, Mr. Amaechi Paul and Mr. Agbegunde
Oluwasegun, for being approachable.

My appreciation would not be complete without acknowledging the efforts and initiative of the
Industrial Training Coordinating Centre for putting together a platform to translate the
knowledge gained from the four walls of a classroom into tangible practical experience.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT....................................................................................................................................3
ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................................................6
CHAPTER ONE................................................................................................................................................7
1.1 Background Information................................................................................................................7
1.2 History of SIWES.............................................................................................................................7
1.3 MISSION AND VISION STATEMENT OF SIWES...............................................................................8
1.4 Objectives of SIWES.......................................................................................................................8
CHAPTER 2.....................................................................................................................................................9
2.1 About Company.............................................................................................................................9
2.2 Mission and core values.................................................................................................................9
2.3 Departments at Novel Solar Company...........................................................................................9
CHAPTER 3...................................................................................................................................................11
3.1 Safety procedures........................................................................................................................11
3.1.1 What are safety procedures?...............................................................................................11
3.1.2 Safety procedures during solar system installation.............................................................11
3.1.3 Safety procedures observed in the service and repair department....................................12
3.2 Common faults developed in solar inverters...............................................................................14
3.3 Tools and Equipment...................................................................................................................15
3.3.1 Tools and equipment used during solar system installations..............................................15
3.3.2 Tools and equipment used in a service and repair centre..................................................19
CHAPTER 4...................................................................................................................................................23
4.1 Introduction to photovoltaic systems..........................................................................................23
4.1.1 Principle of operation of PV systems...................................................................................23
4.1.2 Photovoltaic cell...................................................................................................................23
4.2 Types of solar photovoltaic system.............................................................................................25
4.3 Components of a photovoltaic solar system...............................................................................27
4.3.1 Types of solar panels............................................................................................................30
4.3.2 Modes of connecting batteries in a battery bank................................................................33
4.3.3 Types of Solar panel mounts.......................................................................................................35

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CHAPTER 5...................................................................................................................................................38
5.1 CONCLUSION......................................................................................................................................38
5.2 Recommendation...............................................................................................................................39
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................................40

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 ABSTRACT

This industrial training report is a documentation of the practical and industrial

expertise garnered during the course of my 3-month Student Internship Work
Experience Scheme undertaken at Novel Solar, Akinjide Plaza, Ekotedo Rd., Ibadan,
Oyo State.

At Novel Solar Company, there are 7 departments, namely: the technical department (installation
and maintenance), the store department, the sales department, the customer care unit, the repair
and service centre, the ICT department, and the human resources department.

As an intern, I had the opportunity to work in two departments; the technical department and the
repair and service centre. During the course of my internship, I was exposed to the various units
that make up a solar system, how to perform simple energy audits, how to perform basic battery
maintenance, how to install a solar system, and how to test and troubleshoot simple electrical
faults in power and solar inverters.

This report is a compilation of the pertinent knowledge gained throughout industrial training as
well as the operating theories of the various solar system components.

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Background Information

The Industrial Training Fund (ITF) launched the Student Industrial Work Experience
Scheme (SIWES) in 1973. By allowing students to apply what they had learned in class
to actual situations, it sought to close the knowledge gap between theoretical knowledge
acquired in the classroom and technical knowledge acquired in the workplace. SIWES
has made a significant contribution to the creation of a shared pool of technical and
associated skills in the Nigerian economy, which is critical for the country's industrial
growth.

The importance of the programme is further emphasised by the fact that SIWES helps to
raise the standard of technical skills that are typically available in the pool from which
firms hire technical professionals. It enables students to integrate the academic
knowledge acquired in the classroom with the practical application of knowledge
required to perform a job in business. By facilitating the transfer from school to industry
after graduation, it also aids students in getting ready for jobs. I completed my SIWES at
Novel Solar Company, located at 76 Adekunle Fajuyi Road, Akinjide Plaza, Ekotedo,
Ibadan.

1.2 History of SIWES

The Students' Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) was created in 1973 by the
Industrial Training Fund in response to the deficiencies and weaknesses in the development
of science, engineering, and technology (SET) graduates, particularly with regard to the
acquisition of relevant production skills (RPSs). After graduation, students will be able to
readily contribute their fair share to the country's economic and technological development
thanks to the program's exposure to the workplace and development of their occupational
competencies.

Consequently, SIWES is a planned and structured programme based on stated and specific
career objectives that are geared towards developing the occupational competencies of
participants. Despite the difficulties faced by SIWES over the course of its forty years of
operation, the programme has not only increased awareness of the need for SET students to
receive training, but it has also aided in the development of skilled and competent indigenous
labour that has been manning and managing the economy's industrial sectors and
technological resources. Participation in SIWES has become a necessary condition for the
award of degrees and diplomas to SET students graduating from higher institutions in
Nigeria. It is therefore not in doubt that SIWES is a veritable means or tool for national
economic development.

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 The primary goals of ITF programmes and services are to boost productivity, promote
value-added production in business, and enhance human performance. The Fund also
increases graduates' and young people's potential for self-employment in the context of
the economy's all-scale industrialization through its SIWES and vocational and
apprenticeship training programmes. The Federal Ministry of Industry, Trade, and
Investment oversees the grade 'A' parasternal known as the Industrial Training Fund. It
has been in operation for 43 years as a specialised organisation that stimulates and
promotes the acquisition of the industrial and commercial skills necessary for the growth
of the national economy.

1.3 MISSION AND VISION STATEMENT OF SIWES

To set and regulate standards and offer direct training interventions in industrial and
commercial skills training and development using a corps of highly competent
professional staff and modern techniques and technology.

1.4 Objectives of SIWES

The Industrial Training Fund’s policy document No. 1 of 1973, which established SIWES,
outlined the objectives of the scheme. The objectives are to:

(a) To provide avenues for students in Nigerian universities to acquire industrial skills
and experience in their course of study.

(b) To prepare students for work situations they are likely to meet after graduation.

(c) To expose students to work methods and techniques for handling equipment
and machinery that may not be available at the university.

(d) To make the transition from university to the world of industry easier and thus
enhance prospects for later job placement.

(e) To provide students with an opportunity to apply their theoretical knowledge in real-
life work situations, thereby bridging the gap between university and actual practice.

(f) To enlist and strengthen employers’ involvement in the entire educational process
of preparing university graduates for employment in the industry.

(g) To develop the entrepreneurial abilities of students for self-sufficiency.

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 CHAPTER 2
2.1 About Company

Novel Solar is a cardinal provider of innovative solar energy solutions dedicated to

making clean and affordable energy accessible to all Nigerians. The company, which was
established in 2011, offers a wide range of high-quality solar products to suit the needs of
prospective customers. The company specialises in the servicing, repair, maintenance,
and installation of sophisticated solar systems for residential and commercial purposes.

2.2 Mission and core values

Novel Solar's mission is to revolutionise the Nigerian energy sector by providing clean,
reliable, and affordable solar power solutions. The aim of the company is to harness the
power of sustainable energy to transform communities and spur economic growth. The
core values of the company are listed below:

 Sustainability: The company is dedicated to reducing the carbon footprint by harnessing

the limitless power of the sun. Through solar solutions, the company aims to promote
environmental sustainability and combat climate change.
 Innovation: Innovation is the cornerstone of Novel Solar. The company invests in
cutting-edge technology and research to develop advanced solar systems that are
efficient, durable, and tailored to meet the diverse needs of clients.
 Customer Focus: Clients are at the heart of everything at Novel Solar. The company
prioritises customer satisfaction by offering personalised consultations, expert
installations, and reliable support services. Building strong, lasting relationships with our
clients is fundamental to our success.

2.3 Departments at Novel Solar Company

Novel Solar Company has various departments; below is a list of these departments and
their functions:

 Technical Department: The Technical Department is the backbone of the company,

responsible for designing, installing, and maintaining solar energy systems. Engineers
and technicians in this department assess clients' needs, design custom solar solutions,
oversee installations, and ensure the systems operate efficiently. They stay updated with
the latest solar technologies and industry standards.
 Store Department: The Store Department manages inventory, procurement, and
logistics. Staff in this department maintain stock levels of solar panels, inverters,
batteries, and other equipment. They keep track of product availability, work with
suppliers, and guarantee prompt delivery to project sites. Effective management of the
store is crucial for project implementation and customer satisfaction.

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 Sales Department: The Sales Department focuses on building relationships with
potential clients, understanding their energy requirements, and offering suitable solar
solutions. Sales representatives engage in consultations, prepare project proposals,
negotiate contracts, and secure deals. They play a key role in expanding the company's
client base and increasing revenue.
 Service and Repair Centre: The Service and Repair Centre provides post-installation
support. Technicians in this department conduct routine maintenance, diagnose issues,
and perform repairs when necessary. They respond to client concerns promptly, ensuring
that solar systems continue to function optimally. Timely and effective service enhances
customer satisfaction and fosters long-term relationships.
 ICT (Information and Communication Technology) Department: The ICT
Department manages the company's digital infrastructure, including software, networks,
and communication systems. IT professionals in this department ensure data security,
develop software tools for project management, and maintain the company's website and
online presence. They play a crucial role in optimising internal processes and enhancing
efficiency.
 Human Resource Department: The Human Resource Department is in charge of
managing hiring, benefits, training, and performance reviews for employees. Human
resources specialists manage employee relations, foster a healthy work environment, and
assure adherence to corporate guidelines and labour regulations. They are essential in
developing talent, maintaining a positive workplace culture, and supporting professional
growth.
 Customer Care Unit: The Customer Care Unit focuses on maintaining excellent
relationships with existing clients. Representatives of customer service resolve questions,
deal with issues, and offer assistance following installations. They solicit client input,
carry out customer satisfaction surveys, and guarantee a great customer experience. A
satisfied customer base leads to referrals and repeat business.

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 CHAPTER 3

3.1 Safety procedures

3.1.1 What are safety procedures?

Safety procedures are directions on how work is to be carried out safely and are
required for all hazardous tasks performed at the workplace. They identify
hazards and clarify what must be done to eliminate or minimise risks.

3.1.2 Safety procedures during solar system installation

The following are safety procedures observed during the installation of a solar
system:

I. Site Assessment and Planning:

 Conduct a thorough site assessment to identify potential hazards such
as uneven terrain, overhead obstructions, or nearby power lines.
 Create a thorough installation plan that outlines safety guidelines,
emergency measures, and equipment needs.
II. Training and Certification:
 Ascertain that all individuals working on the installation have received
the necessary training and certification in solar installation practises
and safety regulations.
 Conduct frequent safety training sessions to bring staff members up to
date on new safety regulations and best practises.
III. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):
 Require all workers to wear appropriate PPE, including helmets, safety
glasses, gloves, and non-slip footwear.
 Workers at heights should wear fall protection equipment, such as
harnesses and lanyards, and be tied off to secure anchor points.
IV. Electrical Safety:
 Identify and de-energize all existing electrical circuits before starting
the installation.
 Clearly mark and lock out electrical panels to prevent accidental
energization.
 Use insulated tools and equipment during electrical work and ensure
all wiring is properly insulated.
V. Ladder and Equipment Safety:
 Use ladders that are in good condition, properly rated for the weight
they will support, and placed on stable ground.

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  Secure tools and equipment to prevent them from falling and causing
injuries.
 Implement proper equipment handling and lifting techniques to
prevent strains and injuries.
VI. Fire Safety:
 Have fire extinguishers readily available on-site and ensure workers
know how to use them.
 Prohibit smoking in the installation area and have designated smoking
zones away from the work site.
VII. Weather Considerations:
 Closely monitor weather conditions, especially in unfavourable
weather such as high winds or thunderstorms.
 Suspend work during inclement weather to prevent accidents related to
slippery surfaces or unstable structures.
VIII. First Aid and Emergency Response:
 Have a well-equipped first aid kit on-site and personnel trained in first
aid and CPR.
 Establish clear emergency response procedures and ensure all workers
are familiar with them.
IX. Documentation and Communication:
 Document safety procedures and make sure all workers have access to
this information.
 Encourage open communication among team members about safety
concerns and near misses.
X. Post-Installation Safety Inspection:
 Conduct a thorough inspection of the installed solar system to ensure
all components are secure and properly connected.
 Verify that all electrical connections are insulated and well-protected.

3.1.3 Safety procedures observed in the service and repair department

The following are specific safety procedures observed during servicing and repair
of solar inverters and solar kits.

I. Isolation and Disconnection:

 Electrical Isolation: Ensure that the inverter and associated electrical
circuits are completely isolated and de-energized before beginning any
service or repair work.
 Proper Disconnection: Disconnect the solar power source and the
battery bank (if applicable) to eliminate the risk of electrical shock.
II. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):
 Safety equipment: To guard against electrical shocks and arc flashes,
technicians must wear the proper PPE, such as insulated gloves, safety
goggles, and flame-resistant clothes.
 Tool Use: To reduce the danger of electrical accidents, use insulated
tools and equipment made for electrical work.

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III. Equipment Inspection:
 Visual Inspection: Conduct a thorough visual inspection of the
inverter, solar panels, wiring, and accessories to identify any signs of
wear, damage, or corrosion.
 Testing Equipment: Use multimeters and other testing equipment to
check voltage, current, and continuity to diagnose issues accurately.
IV. Safe Work Environment:
 Ventilation: Ensure the work area is well-ventilated, especially when
working indoors, to dissipate any fumes that might be emitted during
servicing.
 Avoid Clutter: Keep the work area clean and organized to prevent
tripping hazards, and clearly mark the work zone to alert others of
potential dangers.
V. Emergency Procedures:
 Emergency Shut-off: Identify and clearly label emergency shut-off
switches and procedures for shutting down the system quickly in case
of an emergency.
 Emergency Contacts: Maintain a list of emergency contacts,
including local emergency services and utility providers, in case
assistance is needed.
VI. Training and Knowledge:
 Qualified Technicians: Ensure that technicians conducting repairs are
qualified and trained specifically for solar equipment servicing and
repair.
 Documentation: Technicians should have access to manuals,
schematics, and documentation related to the specific models they are
working on.
VII. Fire Safety:
 Fire Extinguishers: Have appropriate fire extinguishers nearby and
ensure technicians are trained to use them effectively.
 Fire-Resistant Materials: Use fire-resistant materials where
applicable to prevent fires in case of electrical malfunctions.
VIII. Post-Service Testing:
 Functionality Testing: After repairs are completed, conduct
comprehensive functionality tests to ensure the repaired components
are working as intended.
 Insulation Resistance Testing: Perform insulation resistance tests to
confirm that there are no electrical leakages or shorts in the repaired
components.
IX. Proper Waste Disposal:
 Hazardous Materials: Dispose of damaged or replaced components
properly, especially batteries and electronic components, following
local regulations for hazardous waste disposal.

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3.2 Common faults developed in solar inverters

Solar power systems cannot function without solar inverters, which transform the DC
(direct current) electricity produced by solar panels into AC (alternating current)
electricity that may be used in residences and commercial buildings. Solar inverters can
develop a number of defects and problems over time, just like any other electronic
device. Here are a few typical issues that arise with solar inverters:

I. Overheating:
 Cause: Inverters can overheat due to high ambient temperatures, inadequate
ventilation, or dust accumulation on internal components.
 Symptoms: Sudden shutdowns, reduced power output, or abnormal noises.
 Solution: Improve ventilation, clean dust regularly, and install the inverter in
a shaded, well-ventilated area.
II. Grid Voltage Fluctuations:
 Cause: Fluctuations or surges in the grid voltage can damage inverter
components.
 Symptoms: Inverter shutdowns, error codes related to grid voltage, or
abnormal behavior in the output.
 Solution: Install surge protectors and voltage stabilizers to safeguard the
inverter from grid voltage fluctuations.
III. Isolation Fault:
 Cause: Internal or external factors can cause an isolation fault, indicating a
breakdown in insulation between the DC and AC sides of the inverter.
 Symptoms: Error codes indicating isolation faults, inverter shutdowns, or
safety switches tripping.
 Solution: Consult a qualified technician to diagnose and repair the isolation
fault, which might require component replacement.
IV. DC Arc Faults:
 Cause: Arcing in the DC circuit due to loose connections, damaged wiring, or
faulty components.
 Symptoms: Burn marks, melting, or discoloration around DC terminals, error
codes, or inverter shutdowns.
 Solution: Inspect and repair damaged wiring, tighten connections, and replace
faulty components to eliminate the arc fault.
V. Ground Faults:
 Cause: Ground faults occur when an unintended connection between the DC
circuit and ground is established.
 Symptoms: Error codes indicating ground faults, inverter shutdowns, or
abnormal readings in the monitoring system.
 Solution: Inspect DC wiring, connectors, and components for damage.
Properly insulate and secure all connections to prevent ground faults.
VI. Software or Firmware Issues:
 Cause: Bugs, glitches, or compatibility issues in the inverter's software or
firmware.

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  Symptoms: Unexpected behavior, error messages, or failure to communicate
with monitoring systems.
 Solution: Update the inverter's firmware/software to the latest version
provided by the manufacturer. Consult technical support if issues persist.
VII. Component Failure:
 Cause: Wear and tear, manufacturing defects, or electrical stress can cause
individual components (such as capacitors or transistors) to fail.
 Symptoms: Inverter malfunctions, unusual noises, or burning smells.
 Solution: Component-level repair or replacement is often necessary. This
should be performed by trained technicians or authorized service centers.

3.3 Tools and Equipment

3.3.1 Tools and equipment used during solar system installations.

Solar installations require a variety of tools and equipment to ensure the safe and
efficient setup of solar panels and related components. Here is a list of common
tools and equipment used during solar installations:

I. Power Tools:

 Drill: For making holes in various materials, such as wood, metal, or

concrete, for mounting solar panels and racking systems.
 Screwdriver: Used for driving screws during the installation of solar
panels, brackets, and electrical components.
 Impact Driver: Provides high torque for driving screws quickly,
especially useful for larger installations.
 Circular Saw: Cuts through wood or other materials to create custom
mounts or frames for solar installations.

Fig 3a Power tools

II. Hand Tools:

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  Wrenches: Different sizes of wrenches for tightening bolts and nuts on
mounting structures and other components.
 Pliers: Gripping, cutting, and bending wires and cables during the
installation.
 Wire Strippers: Removes insulation from electrical wires to expose the
conductive metal.
 Crimping Tool: Used to create secure electrical connections by crimping
connectors onto wires.
 Level: Ensures that solar panels and mounting structures are installed
straight and level.

Fig 3b Hand tools

III. Safety Equipment:

 Safety Harness and Lanyard: Provides fall protection for workers

installing solar panels on rooftops or elevated structures.
 Hard Hat: Protects the head from falling objects and potential impacts.
 Safety Glasses: Eye protection from dust, debris, and other hazards.
 Gloves: Protects hands during handling of panels and electrical
components.
 Ear Protection: Guards against loud noises, especially during the use of
power tools.

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 Fig 3c Safety equipment

IV. Measurement Tools:

 Tape Measure: Measures distances accurately for proper alignment of

solar panels and mounting structures.
 Angle Finder: Determines the angle of the roof or mounting structure to
optimize solar panel positioning for maximum sunlight exposure.

Fig 3d Tape measure and angle finder

V. Electrical Tools:

 Multimeter: Measures voltage, current, and resistance to troubleshoot

electrical issues and ensure proper connections.
 Insulation Resistance Tester: Measures the insulation resistance of
electrical components to prevent electrical leakage.

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  Cable Tracer: Locates and traces cables and wires within walls or
conduits.

Fig 3e Cable tracer and multimeter

VI. Installation-Specific Tools:

 Solar Panel Lifting Devices: Assists in lifting heavy solar panels onto
rooftops or other elevated surfaces.
 Roof Mounting Kit: Includes specialized brackets and flashing for secure
attachment of solar panels to different types of roofs.
 Ground Mounting System: Components for installing solar panels on the
ground, suitable for larger installations.
 Battery System Tools: Specific tools for installing and connecting
batteries in off-grid or hybrid solar systems.

VII. Miscellaneous Supplies:

 Sealant: Weatherproof sealant to prevent water leakage around mounting

penetrations.
 Cable Management Accessories: Such as clips, ties, and conduits to
organize and secure electrical wiring.
 Concrete and Anchors: For secure installation on rooftops or ground
mounts requiring a concrete foundation.

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 Fig 3f Sealant

3.3.2 Tools and equipment used in a service and repair centre

Here is a list of tools and equipment frequently used for maintenance and repairing solar
inverters and kits:

I. Multimeter:

 Measures voltage, current, and resistance, essential for diagnosing electrical

issues, checking continuity, and verifying proper connections.

II. Insulation Resistance Tester:

 Measures insulation resistance to identify potential faults or leakages in

electrical components, ensuring electrical safety.

III. Clamp Meter:

 Measures current in conductors without having to disconnect the circuit,

helpful for checking the current flow in various parts of the system.

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 Fig 3g Clamp meter

IV. Oscilloscope:

 Displays waveforms of electrical signals, allowing technicians to diagnose

complex issues in the inverter's electrical circuits.

V. Torque Wrench:

 Ensures that bolts and nuts are tightened to the manufacturer's specifications,
preventing over-tightening or under-tightening that can lead to electrical
problems.

Fig 3h Torque wrench

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VI. Screwdrivers and Nut Drivers:

 Various sizes and types for opening the inverter's casing, tightening screws,
and securing connections.

Fig 3j Screw and nut-driver

VII. Insulated Tools:

 Insulated screwdrivers, pliers, and other hand tools protect technicians from
electrical shocks while working on live components.

VIII. Safety Equipment:

 Personal protective equipment (PPE) such as safety gloves, safety goggles,

and flame-resistant clothing to ensure technicians' safety.

IX. Inverter Test Box:

 Simulates various electrical conditions, allowing technicians to test the

inverter's responses without affecting the actual system.

X. Battery Load Tester:

 Tests the condition and capacity of batteries in off-grid or hybrid solar systems,
ensuring they are functioning optimally.

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 Fig 3i Battery load tester

XI. Spare Parts and Replacement Components:

 Essential spare parts like fuses, capacitors, and transistors, along with
replacement components provided by the manufacturer for common inverter
models.

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 CHAPTER 4
4.1 Introduction to photovoltaic systems

A photovoltaic system, also called a PV system or solar power system, is an

electric power system designed to supply usable solar power by means of
photovoltaics. It consists of an arrangement of several components, including
solar panels to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity, a solar inverter to
convert the output from direct to alternating current, as well as mounting, cabling,
and other electrical accessories to set up a working system. It may also use a solar
tracking system to improve the system's overall performance.

4.1.1 Principle of operation of PV systems

PV materials and devices convert sunlight into electrical energy. A single

PV device is known as a cell. An individual PV cell is usually small,
typically producing about 1 or 2 watts of power. These cells are made of
different semiconductor materials and are often less than the thickness of
four human hairs. In order to withstand the outdoors for many years, cells
are sandwiched between protective materials in a combination of glass
and/or plastics. To boost the power output of PV cells, they are connected
together in chains to form larger units known as modules or panels.
Modules can be used individually, or several can be connected to form
arrays. One or more arrays is then connected to the electrical grid as part
of a complete PV system. Because of this modular structure, PV systems
can be built to meet almost any electric power need, small or large.

Fig 4a Flow of energy in a photovoltaic system

4.1.2 Photovoltaic cell

Conversion of light energy in electrical energy is based on a phenomenon

called photovoltaic effect. When semiconductor materials are exposed to
light, the some of the photons of light ray are absorbed by the
semiconductor crystal which causes a significant number of free electrons
in the crystal. This is the basic reason for producing electricity due to

23
photovoltaic effect. The fundamental building block of a system that uses
the photovoltaic effect to generate electricity from light energy is a
photovoltaic cell. The most used semiconductor material for making solar
cells is silicon. There are four valence electrons in the silicon atom. Each
silicon atom in a solid crystal exchanges one of its four valence electrons
with the next-closest silicon atom, forming covalent bonds between the
two. This results in a tetrahedral lattice arrangement for the silicon crystal.
A portion of the light that reaches any substance is reflected, a piece is
transmitted through the medium, and the remaining component is
absorbed by the material. If the intensity of incident light is high enough,
sufficient numbers of photons are absorbed by the crystal and these
photons, in turn, excite some of the electrons of covalent bonds.

Fig 4b Photovoltaic cell

These excited electrons then get sufficient energy to migrate from valence
band to conduction band. As the energy level of these electrons is in the
conduction band, they leave from the covalent bond leaving a hole in the
bond behind each removed electron. These are called free electrons move
randomly inside the crystal structure of the silicon. These free electrons
and holes have a vital role in creating electricity in photovoltaic cell.
These electrons and holes are hence called light-generated electrons and
holes respectively. These light generated electrons and holes cannot
produce electricity in the silicon crystal alone. There should be some
additional mechanism to do that. If light strikes on n-type semiconductor
the electrons from such light-generated electron-hole pairs are unable to
migrate to the p-region since they are not able to cross the potential barrier
due to the repulsion of an electric field across depletion layer. At the same
time, the light-generated holes cross the depletion region due to the
attraction of electric field of depletion layer where they recombine with
electrons, and then the lack of electrons here is compensated by valence

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 electrons of p-region, and this makes as many numbers of holes in the p-
region.

As such light generated holes are shifted to the p-region where they are
trapped because once they come to the p-region cannot be able to come
back to n-type region due to the repulsion of potential barrier. A cell's two
sides will have a different potential because the positive charge (light-
generated holes) is trapped on one side and the negative charge (light-
generated electrons) is trapped on the other. Typically, there is a 0.5 V
potential difference. This is how solar or photovoltaic cells generate
potential difference.

4.2 Types of solar photovoltaic system

There are mainly 3 types of solar PV systems; below is an outline of the main
types of PV solar systems

 On-grid solar system:

An on-grid solar system or grid tied, is a solar PV system which connects

directly to the National Grid. This kind of Solar PV System is the most
common amongst home and business owners. This type of system is perfect
for someone who is already connected to the Grid, yet wants to reduce their
carbon footprint and energy bills. An on-grid solar system doesn’t require a
battery storage system, and is connected to the National Grid directly via a
Solar or micro inverter. As the solar panels convert sunlight into energy, your
home uses this green energy supply to power your appliances. When you
generate any excess solar energy, this electricity is exported back to the Grid.

Fig 4c On-grid solar system

 Hybrid solar systems

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 Hybrid solar systems combine the technology of solar panels and solar
batteries to create a green energy solution that provides a backup supply of
energy. Although a hybrid PV system remains connected to the national grid,
any solar energy generated is first stored in a home battery solution before
going to the grid. The main advantage of a hybrid solar system is that by
storing your surplus energy in a battery, you can use your solar energy to
power your home during the night and export less energy back to the grid.
What’s more, unlike an on-grid system, when the national grid is down, you
can also draw energy from your battery supply. This is known as islanding
and is particularly ideal for property owners who live in areas prone to power
outages.
Hybrid solar panel systems offer great flexibility, as when you have used up
all your energy in your battery, you still have the ability to draw from the grid.
This makes a hybrid solar system the perfect in-between solution. As an in-
between solution, a hybrid solar system is more budget-friendly compared to
an off-grid system, but is more expensive than an on-grid system. A huge
advantage of a hybrid solar system is that you can expand your battery storage
system at any time, and because you are still connected to the grid, you can
also charge your batteries at cheap-off peak rates. However, because there are
more components involved in a hybrid solar system, it is less efficient
compared to a grid-tied system.

Fig 4d Hybrid solar system

 Off-grid solar system

Unlike an on-grid solar system, an off-grid system has zero ties to the national
grid. This makes it desirable for those who can’t connect to the grid easily or
wish to be energy independent. With energy prices rising, energy
independence is more in demand than ever. A complete off-grid solar system
contains everything you need to generate your own solar energy. Unlike
hybrid systems, off-grid systems tend to feature backup generators and other
types of renewable sources to ensure your battery is fully charged year-round.

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 This is because your off-grid system is the only means of energy supply you
have. Off-grid solar systems have the ability to provide electricity even in the
remotest of locations. Through an off-grid solar system, you can be energy
self-sufficient with a supply of power no matter where you decide to live. The
benefits of an off-grid system include having no energy bill and relying only
on environmentally friendly resources.

Fig 4e Off-grid solar system

4.3 Components of a photovoltaic solar system

There are few components that make up a photovoltaic solar system; below is an
outline of the rudimentary components present in a PV solar system:

 Solar panels:

The main component of a solar panel is a solar cell, which converts the sun’s
energy to usable electrical energy. The most common form of solar panels
involve crystalline silicon-type solar cells. These solar cells are formed using
layers of elemental silicon and elements such as phosphorus and boron. The
elements added to the silicon layers form an n-type layer, which has an excess
of electrons, and a p-type layer, which has a deficit of electrons. These two
layers form a p-n junction. When light falls on a solar cell, electrons are
excited from a lower-energy ground state, in which they are bound to specific
atoms in the solid, to a higher excited state, in which they can move through
the solid. In the absence of the junction-forming layers, these free electrons

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 are in random motion, and so there can be no oriented direct current. The
addition of junction-forming layers, however, induces a built-in electric field
that produces the photovoltaic effect. In effect, the electric field gives a
collective motion to the electrons that flow past the electrical contact layers
into an external circuit where they can do useful work.

Fig 4f Solar panels

 Inverters:

A solar power inverter is a key part of any solar photovoltaic system, as it

converts electricity from DC to AC. This is necessary, since you need AC
power for the energy supply of your home appliances.

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 Fig 4g Solar Inverter

 Charge controller:

Charge controllers regulate the DC from the solar panels to make sure that the
batteries don’t overcharge. A charge controller can measure whether the
batteries are fully charged, and can stop the current from flowing in order to
prevent the batteries from damage. Since not every photovoltaic system has a
solar battery bank, it is not always necessary to include a charge controller
into your system. In other words, you only need a charge controller if you
have a battery bank.

Fig 4h Charge controller

 Battery bank:

A battery bank refers to a group of connected batteries that store the excess
electricity generated by solar panels. This stored energy can be used during
periods when solar panels aren't producing electricity, such as during the night
or on cloudy days. Battery banks are a key component of off-grid and hybrid
solar systems, providing a reliable source of electricity when the sun isn't
shining.

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 Fig 4i Battery bank

4.3.1 Types of solar panels

Solar panels, also known as photovoltaic (PV) modules, come in

different types, each with its own unique characteristics and
applications. Here are the main types of solar panels:

I. Monocrystalline Solar Panels:

 Description: Monocrystalline solar panels are made
from a single crystal structure, usually silicon. They are
highly efficient and space-efficient, making them
suitable for residential and commercial installations
where space is limited.
 Advantages: High efficiency, sleek appearance, and
good performance in low-light conditions.
 Disadvantages: Generally more expensive to produce
than other types.

Fig 4.3a Monocrystalline Solar panel

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 II. Polycrystalline Solar Panels:
 Description: Polycrystalline solar panels are made
from multiple crystal structures. They are less efficient
than monocrystalline panels but are more affordable to
produce.
 Advantages: Lower cost, widely available, and
moderate efficiency.
 Disadvantages: Slightly lower efficiency compared to
monocrystalline panels.

Fig 4.3b Polycrystalline panels

III. Thin-Film Solar Panels:

 Description: Thin-film solar panels use thin layers of
semiconductor materials (like amorphous silicon,
cadmium telluride, or copper indium gallium selenide)
deposited on a substrate like glass, metal, or plastic.
They are lightweight and flexible.
 Advantages: Lightweight, flexible, and can be used in
various applications, including solar shingles and
portable solar devices.
 Disadvantages: Lower efficiency compared to
crystalline panels, shorter lifespan, and higher
degradation rate over time.

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 Fig 4.3c Thin-film solar panel

IV. Bifacial Solar Panels:

 Description: Bifacial solar panels have a transparent
backsheet, allowing them to capture sunlight from both
the front and back sides. This design increases energy
production by reflecting sunlight from the ground or
nearby surfaces onto the rear side of the panel.
 Advantages: Higher energy yield, especially in
locations with reflective surfaces like snow or white
rooftops.
 Disadvantages: Typically more expensive than
traditional monofacial panels.

Fig 4.3d Bifacial solar panel

V. Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) Solar Panels:

 Description: Cadmium telluride solar panels use a thin
film of cadmium telluride as the semiconductor
material. They are commonly used in large-scale utility
projects.
 Advantages: Lower manufacturing costs, potential for
higher efficiency, and lower carbon footprint during
production.

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 Disadvantages: Lower efficiency compared to
crystalline panels, concerns about cadmium toxicity
(although panels are generally safe for everyday use),
and limited recycling infrastructure.
VI. Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) Solar Panels:
 Description: Amorphous silicon solar panels are
another type of thin-film technology. They are often
used in small-scale applications such as calculators and
portable solar chargers.
 Advantages: Lightweight, low manufacturing costs,
and can be integrated into various devices.
 Disadvantages: Lower efficiency compared to
crystalline panels, higher degradation rate, and
sensitivity to high temperatures.

4.3.2 Modes of connecting batteries in a battery bank

In a solar power system, connecting multiple batteries into a

battery bank is a common practice to store the energy generated by
solar panels for later use. There are several different ways to
connect batteries in a battery bank, each with its advantages and
disadvantages. The choice of connection method depends on the
specific requirements of the solar system and the desired balance
between capacity, voltage, and safety. Here are the most common
modes of connecting a battery bank in a solar system:

I. Series Connection:

In a series connection, the positive terminal of one battery is

connected to the negative terminal of the next battery, and so on.
This increases the total voltage of the battery bank while keeping
the capacity the same. For example, if you connect four 12V
batteries in series, you would get a total voltage of 48V (12V +
12V + 12V + 12V).

Advantages:

 Increased total voltage for applications requiring higher voltage

levels.
 Allows the use of standard 12V components.

Disadvantages:

 If one battery fails or has significantly lower capacity, it affects

the entire bank's performance.

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 II. Parallel Connection:

In a parallel connection, all the positive terminals of the batteries

are connected together, and all the negative terminals are
connected together. This keeps the total voltage the same but
increases the overall capacity of the battery bank. For example, if
you connect four 12V batteries in parallel, you would get a total
capacity four times that of a single battery while maintaining a
voltage of 12V.

Advantages:

 Increased total capacity for longer backup power.

 Redundancy - if one battery fails, the others can still provide
power.

Disadvantages:

 No increase in voltage, which might be necessary for certain

applications.

Fig 4.3e series and parallel connection of battery banks

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4.3.3 Types of Solar panel mounts

Solar panel mounts, also known as racking or mounting systems, are crucial
components of a solar energy system. They provide the necessary support and
orientation for solar panels to capture sunlight effectively. There are several types
of solar panel mounts designed to suit different installation scenarios and
requirements. Here are some common types of solar panel mounts:

I. Ground-Mounted Systems:

a. Fixed Tilt Ground Mounts: Fixed tilt ground mounts are stationary structures
that hold solar panels at a fixed angle, optimized for the specific latitude of the
installation site. They are simple and cost-effective, suitable for installations
where the angle of the sunlight does not vary significantly throughout the year.

b. Adjustable Tilt Ground Mounts: These mounts allow the angle of the solar
panels to be adjusted seasonally to optimize energy production. They are ideal for
locations where the angle of sunlight changes significantly between seasons.

c. Tracking Mounts: Solar tracking mounts automatically follow the sun's path
throughout the day, maximizing energy production. There are two main types:

 Single-Axis Tracking: These mounts move the panels either from east to west
(horizontal axis) or from north to south (vertical axis).
 Dual-Axis Tracking: These mounts move the panels in two directions, both
horizontally and vertically, to capture sunlight at the optimal angle at all times.

II. Roof-Mounted Systems:

a. Flush Mounts (Fixed Tilt Roof Mounts): Flush mounts are attached directly
to the roof and hold the solar panels at a fixed tilt angle. They are suitable for
roofs with the appropriate orientation and tilt angle for efficient solar energy
capture.

b. Tilted Roof Mounts: These mounts allow solar panels to be installed at an

angle on roofs that are not ideally oriented or tilted. Tilted roof mounts can be
adjusted to the correct angle, ensuring maximum sunlight exposure.

c. Ballasted Roof Mounts: Ballasted roof mounts use weights to secure the solar
panel system on flat or low-slope roofs without penetrating the roof surface. They
are suitable for buildings where roof integrity must be preserved.

d. Roof-Integrated Mounts: These mounts are integrated directly into the

roofing material, providing a seamless and aesthetically pleasing solar
installation. Roof-integrated mounts are especially popular in residential
applications.

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III. Pole-Mounted Systems:

Pole mounts are designed for locations where ground space is limited or uneven.
They use sturdy poles to elevate the solar panels above the ground at an optimal
height and angle for maximum sunlight exposure.

IV. Carparking Mounts:

Solar carparking mounts are structures with solar panels installed on top,
providing shade to parked vehicles while generating solar energy. They are
commonly used in commercial parking lots and help utilize idle space for
renewable energy generation.

V. Floating Solar Mounts:

Floating solar mounts are designed for solar installations on bodies of water, such
as lakes, reservoirs, or ponds. Solar panels are mounted on floating platforms,
utilizing water surfaces to generate energy without occupying land space.

4.3.4 Factors to consider before installing solar systems

The following factors ensure optimum performance of solar systems.

These factors should be duly considered before mounting or installing a
solar system.

 Location of the house and inclination of the roof:

For solar panels to optimally perform, they need an area receiving

adequate solar radiation, as they work well in areas with wide sunlight
coverage. Locations which receive average annual sunlight
distribution offer more leverage to solar users. They don't have to rely
on the main grid for their power supply if they installed adequate and
efficient solar equipment. Anyone intending to install solar systems
should observe that the sunlight distribution is adequate or consider
using more powerful or additional systems to cater for inefficiency in
the solar radiation.

 Energy requirement of the property:

Solar energy can meet all the energy requirement of a home should the
owner want to go off-grid. This is possible if powerful PV solar
systems are adequately configured to meet all the power demands of
the property. A home or a property owner can as well decide to use
solar energy to complement the supply from the main grid. The energy

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 requirement of a home plays a key role in influencing the type of the
PV installation, depending on whether the property is to be partially or
totally disconnected from the main grid. Going off the grid would
mean that additional and more powerful solar systems need to be
mounted to meet all the power demands. Using powerful equipment is,
however, also recommended even if solar energy is intended as an
alternative source of electricity.

 Cost of installation

It is appropriate that one understands the cost of installation upon

deciding to integrate the solar systems to their homes. Due to the
fascination towards the use of clean energy and the global support
towards the initiative, the cost of solar installation, however, has gone
down considerably. Most governments have implemented rebates and
tax cuts to encourage more people to adopt the use of clean energy. It
is a wide step towards achieving a sustainable environment for
communities today and in future. Once the rebates and the tax cuts
have been taken into consideration, one needs to confirm that the
finances set for the project are adequate for it not stall in the process
once the installation has begun.

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 CHAPTER 5
5.1 CONCLUSION

My internship at Novel Solar Company has been nothing short of transformational. I was able to
obtain firsthand knowledge of the intricacies of renewable energy. My interactions with driven
experts afforded me the opportunity of asking questions, thereby enabling me to have a sound
understanding of the working principle and significance of solar systems.

The difficulties I encountered and conquered have strengthened not only my technical
competence but also my resilience and adaptability. In addition, the relationships I formed and
the mentorship I got have been crucial in refining my outlook and directing my objectives.

This internship has been more than simply a professional turning point; it has also been a sojourn
of personal development that has solidified my dedication to advancing renewable energy
solutions. As I say goodbye to this rewarding experience, I am grateful for the opportunity and
excited to make a significant future contribution to the renewable energy industry.

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5.2 Recommendation
I recommend that the Industrial Training Coordinating Center, University of Ibadan
should liaise with the University to make provision for accommodation of students in the
SIWES programme.

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 PV cells REFERENCES
https://www.electrical4u.com/working-principle-of-photovoltaic-cell-or-solar-cell/
 Principle of operation of photovoltaic systems
http://www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/consumer/solar_Electricity/basics/how_pv_system_works.htm
 Types of solar systems
https://www.deegesolar.co.uk/different_types_of_solar_pv_systems/
 Components of solar systems
https://gemenergy.com.au/what-are-the-main-components-of-a-solar-energy-system/
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/components-solar-pv-systems-david-muhoho
 Types of solar panels
https://news.energysage.com/types-of-solar-panels/
 Novel solar manual/handbook
 Factors to consider before installing solar systems
https://na.panasonic.com/us/green-living/6-factors-consider-when-installing-solar-systems

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