1

ii. Diaphragm pressure gauge

• The pressure responsive

element is an elastic steel
corrugated diaphragm.

• The elastic deformation of the

diaphragm under pressure is
transmitted to a pointer by
similar arrangement as in
Bourdon tube pressure
gauge.

• It is used to measure
relatively low pressure
intensities.

2
iii. Bellows Pressure Gauge

• The pressure responsive

element is made up of a thin
metallic tube with
corrugations on its
circumference.

• The change in pressure

causes the tube to expand or
contract, thereby moving the
pointer on a graduated
circular dial.

3
iv. Dead weight Pressure Gauge

• Consists of a plunger of diameter d, which can slide within a vertical cylinder.

• The fluid under pressure enters the cylinder and exerts a force on the plunger
which is balanced by the weights loaded on top of the plunger.

• If W is the weight required to balance the fluid under pressure, pressure intensity
is determined by
𝑊
𝑝= 2
𝜋𝑑

4
Micromanometer

• Used for the measurement of very small

pressure differences or for measurement
of pressure differences with high precision.

• They magnify the readings or permit the

readings to be measured with greater
accuracy.

• Consists of a glass U tube, provided with

two transparent basins of wider sections
at the top of the two limbs.

5
 Problems
3. A rectangular plate of size 25cm by 50 cm and weighing 25kg (f)
slides down a 30˚ inclined surface at a uniform velocity of
2m/sec. If the uniform 2 mm gap between the plate and the
inclined surface is filled with oil, determine the viscosity of the
oil.

4. Determine the minimum size of a glass tubing that can be used

to measure the water level if the capillary rise in the tube is not to
exceed 0.25 cm. Take surface tension of water in contact with air
as 0.0075 kg(f)/m.

5. If the equation of velocity profile over a plate is 𝑣 = 2𝑦 2/3 ; in

which v is the velocity in m/s at a distance of y metres above the
plate, determine the shear stress at y=0 and y=7.5 cm. Given 𝜇 =
𝑁𝑠
0.835 𝑚2.

6
3.

7
8
4.

9
5.

10
 Problems

1. The left leg of a U-tube mercury manometer is connected to a pipeline

conveying water, the level of mercury in the leg being 0.6m below the
centre of pipeline, and the right leg is open to atmosphere. The level of
mercury in the right leg is 0.45 m above that in the left leg and space
above mercury in the right leg contains Benzene (specific gravity 0.88) to
a height of 0.3m. Find the pressure in the pipe.

Ans: 5.674 x 104 N/m2

2. Convert a pressure head of 100m of water to

a. Kerosene of specific gravity 0.81
b. Carbon tetrachloride of specific gravity 1.6

Ans: a. 123.46 m
b. 62.5 m

11
1.

12
1.

13
14
15
16
Mechanical Gauges

• They contain an elastic element, which deflects under

the action of applied pressure. This movement is
mechanically magnified to move a pointer against a
graduated scale

• Used for measuring high pressures and where high

precision is not required.

Different types

1. Bourdon Tube Pressure gauge

2. Diaphragm Pressure gauge
3. Bellows Pressure gauge
4. Dead-weight Pressure gauge

17
i. Bourdon Tube Pressure gauge

• Most common type of pressure gauge. It was

invented by E. Bourdon.

• Contains a steel or bronze tube with elliptical

cross section and curved into a circular arc
as the pressure responsive element

• One end of the tube is rigidly fixed, through

which the fluid enters. The other end is
closed and free to move.

• When fluid enters the tube, there is increase

in internal pressure and the elliptical cross
section of the tube tends to become circular,
causing the tube to straighten out slightly.

• The movement of the free end is transmitted

to a pointer which moves on a graduated
circular dial, thus indicating the intensity of
pressure.
18
ii. Diaphragm pressure gauge

• The pressure responsive

element is an elastic steel
corrugated diaphragm.

• The elastic deformation of the

diaphragm under pressure is
transmitted to a pointer by
similar arrangement as in
Bourdon tube pressure
gauge.

• It is used to measure
relatively low pressure
intensities.

19
iii. Bellows Pressure Gauge

• The pressure responsive

element is made up of a thin
metallic tube with
corrugations on its
circumference.

• The change in pressure

causes the tube to expand or
contract, thereby moving the
pointer on a graduated
circular dial.

20
iv. Dead weight Pressure Gauge

• Consists of a plunger of diameter d, which can slide within a vertical cylinder.

• The fluid under pressure enters the cylinder and exerts a force on the plunger
which is balanced by the weights loaded on top of the plunger.

• If W is the weight required to balance the fluid under pressure, pressure intensity
is determined by
𝑊
𝑝= 2
𝜋𝑑

21
 Problem
Q. For a gauge pressure at A of -0.15N/cm2, determine the specific
gravity of the gauge liquid B in the figure shown.

22
23
HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SURFACES
Total Pressure and Centre of Pressure
Consider a plane surface which is in contact with a static mass of fluid.
Then the fluid exerts a force on the surface. This force is called total
pressure, which acts normal to the surface.

The point of application of this force on the surface is called centre of

pressure.

Total Pressure on a plane surface

Case 1: Horizontal Plane surface

Consider a plane surface which is immersed in a static mass of liquid of

specific weight w. The plane surface is held in a horizontal position at a
depth h below the free surface of the liquid. Since every point on the
surface is at the same depth below the free surface, the pressure
intensity is constant over the entire surface. 24
 𝑝 = 𝑤ℎ

If A is the area of the plane

surface, total pressure o the
surface is

𝑃 = 𝑤ℎ𝐴

This force is acting normal to the

surface at the centroid of the h
surface.

25
Case 2: Vertical Plane
Surface

Consider a static mass

of liquid of specific
weight w. A plane
surface of arbitrary
shape and total area A is
wholly submerged in this
liquid as shown in figure.
The surface is held in a
vertical position so that
the centroid of the
surface is at a depth of
𝑥ഥ from the free surface
of the liquid.
Since the depth of the
liquid varies from point
to point on the surface,
pressure intensity is not
constant over the entire
surface.
26
The total pressure on the surface may be determined by dividing the entire
surface into a number of small parallel strips and computing the total pressure
on each strip. Summation of these total pressures on the small strips will give
the total pressure on the entire surface.

Consider a horizontal strip of width b and thickness, lying at a depth x below

the free surface. Since the thickness of the strip is very small, the intensity of
pressure on the strip may be assumed to be constant.

Pressure intensity 𝑝 = 𝑤𝑥

Area of the strip 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑏𝑑𝑥

Total pressure on the strip d𝑃 = 𝑝𝑑𝐴 = 𝑤𝑥(𝑏𝑑𝑥)

Total Pressure on the entire plane surface

𝑃 = න 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑤 න 𝑥𝑏𝑑𝑥

‫ 𝑥𝑑𝑏𝑥 ׬‬represents the sum of the first moments of the areas of the strips about
an axis OO, which is obtained by intersection of the free surface with the
vertical plane in which the plane surface is lying.
27
This is equal to the product of area A and the distance 𝑥ഥ of the centroid of the
surface area from the same axis OO
න 𝑥 𝑏𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥ҧ

𝑃 = 𝑤𝐴𝑥ҧ

𝑤𝑥ҧ is the intensity of pressure at the centroid.

Centre of Pressure

For a plane surface immersed horizontally the centre of pressure coincides with
the centroid.

But for a plane surface immersed vertically the pressure intensity increases
with depth. Therefore centre of pressure does not coincide with the centroid.

Let ℎത be the depth of centre of pressure from the free surface. The, moment of
total pressure about axis OO is 𝑃 ℎത
The total pressure on the strip shown in figure is 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑤𝑥𝑏𝑑𝑥

Its moment about axis OO is 𝑑𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑤𝑥 2 𝑏𝑑𝑥

28
By considering a number of small strips and taking the sum of moments of
total pressure on these strips about axis OO, sum of moments of total
pressures on all strips becomes

න 𝑑𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑤 න 𝑥 2 (𝑏𝑑𝑥)

By using Principle of Moments, moment of the resultant of a system of forces

about an axis is equal to sum of moments of the components about the same
axis sum of moments of total pressures on all the strips becomes

ത
𝑃ℎ=𝑤 ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 (𝑏𝑑𝑥)

‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 (𝑏𝑑𝑥) represents the sum of the second moments of the areas of the strip
about axis OO, which is equal to moment of inertia 𝐼0 of the plane surface
about axis OO.
𝐼0 =‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 (𝑏𝑑𝑥)

ത
𝑃ℎ=𝑤𝐼0

𝐼0
ℎത =
𝐴𝑥ҧ 29
 𝐼0 = 𝐼𝐺 + 𝐴𝑥ҧ 2

𝐼𝐺 is the moment of inertia of the area about an axis passing

through the centroid and parallel to axis OO.

𝐼𝐺
ℎത = 𝑥ҧ +
𝐴𝑥ҧ

30
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Buoyancy and Equilibrium of floating
bodies

46
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 Module II

• Module II
• Fluid Kinematics and Fluid Dynamics - continuum
Lagrangian and Eulerian approaches –
• Classification of fluid motions – path line, stream line,
streak line, stream tube, one, two and three dimensional
flow, velocity field – acceleration of fluid particle in a
velocity field-
• Continuity equation (one and three dimensional differential
forms) - equation of stream line – stream function –
velocity potential function – circulation – flow net – fluid
dynamics –equations of motion – Euler’s equation along a
streamline – Bernoulli’s equation – applications –
• constant head and area meters.
• Kinematics is defined as the branch of science
which deals with the motion of particles
without considering the forces causing the
motion.
• Types of fluid flow
• Steady and unsteady flow
• Uniform and non uniform flow
• Laminar and turbulent flow
• Compressible and incompressible flow
• Rotational and irrotational flow and
• One,two and three dimensional flows
FLOW PATTERNS.
Patterns of flow can be visualized in several ways. Basic types of line patterns used to
visualize flow are streamline, path line, streak line and time line.
(a) Stream line is a line, which is everywhere tangent to the velocity vector at a given
instant. Stream tube is formed by a closed collection of streamlines. . Fluid within the
stream tube is confined there because flow cannot cross streamlines. Stream tube walls
need not be solid, but may be fluid surfaces
(b) Path line is the actual path traversed by a given particle.
(c) Streak line is the locus of particles that have earlier passed through a prescribed
point.
(d) Time line is a set of fluid particles that form a line at a given instant.
• Streaklines A streakline is associated with a particular point P in space
which has the fluid moving past it. All points which pass through this point
are said to form the streakline of point P. An example of a streakline is the
continuous line of smoke emitted by a chimney at point P, which will have
some curved shape if the wind has a time-varying direction.
• Unlike a pathline, which involves the motion of only one fluid element A in
time, a streakline involves the motion of all the fluid elements along its
length.
• Hence, the trajectory equations for a pathline are applied to all the fluid
elements defining the streakline.
• The figure below illustrates streamlines, pathlines, and streaklines for the
case of a smoke being continuously emitted by a chimney at point P, in the
presence of a shifting wind. One particular smoke puff A is also identified.
The figure corresponds to a snapshot when the wind everywhere is along
one particular direction.