OC-A Optical Communications Associate Student Guide R2.0

Optical Communications Certification
Optical Communications Associate (OC-A), Release 2.0
Student Guide
Copyright © 2011 - 2020 Ciena Corporation. All rights reserved. Revision 2.0
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Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide
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Contents
Module 0: Optical Communications Certification ................................................................... 13
Overview .................................................................................................................. 13
Objectives ................................................................................................................. 13
Certification Tracks .................................................................................................... 13
Certification Details .................................................................................................... 14
OC-A Course Description ............................................................................................ 15
OC-A Course Objectives ............................................................................................. 15
Course Schedule ........................................................................................................ 16
Student Responsibilities .............................................................................................. 16
Summary .................................................................................................................. 16
Module 1: Introduction to Optical Communications................................................................ 17
Overview .................................................................................................................. 17
Objectives ................................................................................................................. 17
Introduction to Optical Communications ...................................................................... 17
Applications of Optical Communications ....................................................................... 18
Key Optical Communications Technology Developments for OC Transport Networks ........ 19
Advantages of Optical Communications over Legacy Technologies ................................. 20
Optical Communications Transport Networks................................................................ 21
OC Transport Network Deployment Types.................................................................... 22
Protocols Used in Optical Carrier Networks ................................................................... 23
Application Example ................................................................................................... 23
Review Questions ...................................................................................................... 24
Module 2: Properties of Light ................................................................................................ 27
Overview .................................................................................................................. 27
Objectives ................................................................................................................. 27
The Optical Spectrum ................................................................................................. 27
Wavelength and Frequency ........................................................................................ 29
Wave Properties of Light ............................................................................................ 30
Particle Properties of Light .......................................................................................... 31
Light Energy Intensity is Expressed in Decibels (dB) ..................................................... 32
Propagation of Light................................................................................................... 33
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Coupling Light onto the Transmission Medium Concepts................................................ 33

Light propagation ...................................................................................................... 33
Refraction ................................................................................................................. 34
Refractive Index (RI) or Index of Refraction (IoR) ........................................................ 34
Reflection .................................................................................................................. 34
Snell’s Law ................................................................................................................ 34
Cone of Acceptance ................................................................................................... 35
Numerical Aperture (NA) ............................................................................................ 35
Angle of Incidence ..................................................................................................... 35
Total Internal Reflection ............................................................................................. 36
Total Internal Reflection ............................................................................................. 37
Optical Impairments - Linear Effects ............................................................................ 37
Dispersion ................................................................................................................. 37
Chromatic Dispersion ................................................................................................. 38
Material Dispersion .................................................................................................... 38
Waveguide Dispersion ................................................................................................ 38
How to Compensate for Chromatic Dispersion .............................................................. 39
Polarization Mode Dispersion ...................................................................................... 40
Dispersion and Nonlinear Impairments ........................................................................ 42
Optical Impairments - Nonlinear Effects ....................................................................... 42
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering .................................................................................... 42
Stimulated Raman Scattering ...................................................................................... 43
Self-Phase Modulation ................................................................................................ 44
Cross-Phase Modulation ............................................................................................. 44
Four-Wave Mixing ...................................................................................................... 45
Module 3: Optical Modulation ................................................................................................ 49
Overview .................................................................................................................. 49
Objectives ................................................................................................................. 49
Modulation ................................................................................................................ 49
Purpose of Modulation................................................................................................ 50
Optical Modulation techniques based on modulation of optical-field parameter ................ 50
Optical Modulation Types ........................................................................................... 50
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Optical Modulation – Carrier Wave Signal ..................................................................... 51

Modulation Techniques............................................................................................... 51
Symbols and Bit Rate ................................................................................................. 52
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying Example ...................................................................... 53
Symbols rate ............................................................................................................. 53
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation ............................................................................... 54
Advantages of Modulation .......................................................................................... 54
Module 4: Optical Transmitters.............................................................................................. 56
Overview .................................................................................................................. 56
Objectives ................................................................................................................. 56
Optical Transmitters and its Types .............................................................................. 57
Introduction to Optical Transmitters ............................................................................ 57
Optical Transmitters ................................................................................................... 57
Laser Types............................................................................................................... 58
Dual Polarization Modulation Techniques using Multi Laser ............................................ 59
Types of Laser Diodes ................................................................................................ 60
Types of LDs Used in Optical Communications Transmitters .......................................... 60
Distributed Feedback Lasers (DFB) .............................................................................. 60
Fabry Perot Lasers (FP) and Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSEL) .................. 61
Construction and Factors Affecting Performance of LD .................................................. 62
LD Physical Connection .............................................................................................. 62
Factors Affecting LD Performance ............................................................................... 62
Module 5: Optical Receivers ................................................................................................. 65
Overview .................................................................................................................. 65
Objectives ................................................................................................................. 65
Introduction to Optical Receivers................................................................................. 65
Types of Optical Receivers .......................................................................................... 66
How Does a Receiver Recover the Data?...................................................................... 66
Direct Detection ......................................................................................................... 66
Coherent Detection .................................................................................................... 67
How Does a Receiver Detect Light? ............................................................................. 67
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Optical Detection Components .................................................................................... 68

Optical Detection Components – Photodiodes ............................................................... 68
Optical Detection Components – Coherent Detectors .................................................... 69
Module 6: Optical Transmission Medium ............................................................................... 72
Overview .................................................................................................................. 72
Objectives ................................................................................................................. 72
Optical Fiber Construction........................................................................................... 72
Optical Fiber Layers ................................................................................................... 72
Basic Fiber Configurations .......................................................................................... 73
Optical Fiber Cables ................................................................................................... 73
Optical Fiber Cable Types and Categories..................................................................... 73
Fiber Optic Cable Varieties .......................................................................................... 75
Distribution Cable ...................................................................................................... 75
Breakout Cable .......................................................................................................... 76
Ribbon Cable ............................................................................................................. 76
Armored Cable .......................................................................................................... 76
Submarine Cable ....................................................................................................... 77
Optical Fiber Types .................................................................................................... 78
Single-mode Fiber ...................................................................................................... 78
Single-mode Fiber Types ............................................................................................ 78
Multimode Fiber and its Types .................................................................................... 79
Loss/Attenuation in Optical Fiber ................................................................................. 82
Silica-based Glass Fiber Loss Profile............................................................................. 82
Loss at Intersections .................................................................................................. 83
Optical Attenuation .................................................................................................... 83
Optical Attenuation - Absorption ................................................................................. 83
Optical Attenuation - Rayleigh Scattering ..................................................................... 84
Optical Attenuation - Bending Losses: Microbends ........................................................ 85
Optical Attenuation - Bending Losses: Macrobends ....................................................... 86
Optical Attenuation - Fresnel Reflections ...................................................................... 87
Optical Attenuation - Splices ....................................................................................... 88
Optical Attenuation - Fiber Connector Contamination .................................................... 88
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Module7: DWDM Optical Components .................................................................................. 91
Objectives ................................................................................................................. 91
DWDM Terminology ................................................................................................... 91
DWDM Network Components ...................................................................................... 96
Optical Filters ............................................................................................................ 97
Fixed Filters............................................................................................................... 97
Bragg Grating Fixed Filters ......................................................................................... 98
Arrayed Waveguide Grating Fixed Filters .................................................................... 100
Optical Protection Switch (OPS) ................................................................................ 103
Transponder Protection Tray (TPT) ........................................................................... 104
Wavelength Selective Switch..................................................................................... 106
Optical Amplifiers ..................................................................................................... 107
Optical Amplifier packaging....................................................................................... 107
Fixed-gain Amplifiers ................................................................................................ 107
Variable-gain Amplifiers ............................................................................................ 108
Raman Amplifiers..................................................................................................... 109
Raman Gain Bandwidth ............................................................................................ 109
Hybrid EDFA/Raman Amplification Deployment........................................................... 113
Laser safety ............................................................................................................ 114
Review Question ...................................................................................................... 118
Module 8: Optical Networking Types ................................................................................... 119
Overview ................................................................................................................ 119
Objectives ............................................................................................................... 119
OC Transport Network Definitions ............................................................................. 119
Client signal ............................................................................................................ 119
OC Transport Network Lines ..................................................................................... 120
Operations, Administration, and Maintenance (OAM) .................................................. 120
Fault, Configuration, Accounting, Performance, and Security (FCAPS) .......................... 120
Service Level Agreement (SLA) ................................................................................. 120
Optical Transport Network Configuration ................................................................... 120
Evolution of OC Transport Technology ....................................................................... 121
Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) ...................................................................... 122
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SONET/SDH improvements over earlier PDH .............................................................. 124

Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM) ................................................................ 124
Optical Transport Hierarchy (OTH) ............................................................................ 124
OC Transport Network Requirements ......................................................................... 125
Network Availability ................................................................................................. 125
Network Redundancy ............................................................................................... 126
Network Resiliency ................................................................................................... 127
Large Capacity......................................................................................................... 127
Standardized Operations, Administration, and Maintenance ......................................... 129
Low Latency ............................................................................................................ 130
Serialization Delay ................................................................................................... 130
Propagation Delay.................................................................................................... 130
Flexible Client Signal Support .................................................................................... 130
Linear Topologies .................................................................................................... 131
Ring Topology ......................................................................................................... 132
Mesh Topology ........................................................................................................ 133
OC Transport Network Site Types.............................................................................. 134
Terminal and OADM DWDM site types ....................................................................... 134
Reconfigurable Add/Drop Multiplexer ......................................................................... 135
ROADM Terms ......................................................................................................... 136
OC Transport Network Applications ........................................................................... 137
Distance Extension and Carrier Site Interconnectivity .................................................. 137
Packet Networking ................................................................................................... 138
Cloud Computing ..................................................................................................... 139
Storage Area Networks............................................................................................. 140
Optical Virtual Private Network.................................................................................. 141
Bandwidth Grooming................................................................................................ 141
Core Router Offload ................................................................................................. 142
Client Signal Protection Options ................................................................................ 143
Client and Line Unprotected ...................................................................................... 143
Client Unprotected/Line Protected ............................................................................. 143
Client and Line Protected .......................................................................................... 144
Wireless Backhaul and the Impact of 5G .................................................................... 144
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Agile Networking ..................................................................................................... 145

Review Questions .................................................................................................... 146
Module 9: SONET Fundamentals........................................................................................ 149
Overview ................................................................................................................ 149
Objectives ............................................................................................................... 149
SONET Overview ..................................................................................................... 149
SONET and TDM ...................................................................................................... 151
SONET: An OC Transport Technology ........................................................................ 151
The SONET Frame ................................................................................................... 151
SONET Multiplexing Hierarchy ................................................................................... 153
Byte Interleaving ..................................................................................................... 154
Electrical (STS) and Optical (OC) Rates ...................................................................... 154
SONET Synchronization ............................................................................................ 155
SONET Network Elements......................................................................................... 156
Functions of SONET NEs........................................................................................... 156
SONET Network Topologies ...................................................................................... 159
SONET Ring Topology .............................................................................................. 159
Unidirectional Path Switched Ring ............................................................................. 159
Bidirectional Line Switched Ring ................................................................................ 160
SONET Linear Point-to-Point ..................................................................................... 160
SONET Mesh Topology ............................................................................................. 161
The Evolution of SONET ........................................................................................... 162
SONET Today .......................................................................................................... 162
SONET as Legacy..................................................................................................... 163
SONET Migration ..................................................................................................... 163
SONET Alarms ......................................................................................................... 164
Review Question ...................................................................................................... 165
Module 10: SDH Fundamentals .......................................................................................... 166
Overview ................................................................................................................ 166
Objectives ............................................................................................................... 166
SDH Overview ......................................................................................................... 166
SDH Multiplexing ..................................................................................................... 168
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TDM Technology...................................................................................................... 168

PDH Traffic ............................................................................................................. 168
SDH Frame ............................................................................................................. 169
SDH Multiplexing Hierarchy....................................................................................... 170
SDH STM-n Line Rates ............................................................................................. 170
SDH Containers ....................................................................................................... 171
SDH E1 Low Order Multiplexing Example ................................................................... 172
SDH E3 High Order Multiplexing Example................................................................... 172
SDH Synchronization and NE .................................................................................... 173
SDH Synchronization Timing ..................................................................................... 173
SDH Synchronization Example................................................................................... 173
SDH NE Components................................................................................................ 174
SDH NE Roles .......................................................................................................... 175
Alarm Management .................................................................................................. 176
Alarm Surveillance ................................................................................................... 176
Alarm History Management ....................................................................................... 176
SDH Network Topologies .......................................................................................... 177
SDH Network Topology Types ................................................................................... 177
SDH Network Ring Topology ..................................................................................... 177
SDH Network Linear and Linear Chain Topologies ....................................................... 179
SDH Network Mesh Topology .................................................................................... 179
SDH Evolution ......................................................................................................... 180
Next-Gen SDH ......................................................................................................... 180
Next-Gen SDH Technologies ..................................................................................... 180
SDH Today .............................................................................................................. 181
SDH Migration ......................................................................................................... 181
SDH Migration: Layer 2/3 Packet Switching ................................................................ 181
Limitations of Packet Switching ................................................................................. 182
SDH Migration: Multiservice OTN............................................................................... 182
Multiservice OTN – Bit-Rate Transparency.................................................................. 182
Multiservice OTN – Universal Switching ...................................................................... 183
Multiservice OTN Benefits ......................................................................................... 183
Smooth SDH Network Migration ................................................................................ 183
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Module 11: Optical Transport Network ................................................................................ 186
Overview ................................................................................................................ 186
Objectives ............................................................................................................... 186
Optical Transport Network and its Benefits................................................................. 186
Introduction to OTN ................................................................................................. 186
Chronology of OTN Development .............................................................................. 186
OTN Wrapper .......................................................................................................... 188
Benefits of OTN ....................................................................................................... 188
Evolution of OTN ..................................................................................................... 188
OTN Evolution ......................................................................................................... 188
OTN and SONET/SDH .............................................................................................. 190
Comparison between OTN and SONET/SDH ............................................................... 190
OTN, SONET/SDH, and DWDM.................................................................................. 190
Evolution of the Standards: Beyond 100 Gbit/s ........................................................... 191
Evolution of the Standards: FlexE and FlexO .............................................................. 191
OTN Deployment ..................................................................................................... 191
OTN Deployment ..................................................................................................... 191
OTN Transport ........................................................................................................ 191
Working of OTN....................................................................................................... 192
Distribution of OTN Frame ........................................................................................ 193
Forward Error Correction .......................................................................................... 193
OPU, ODU and OTU ................................................................................................. 193
Optical Multiplex and Transmission Sections ............................................................... 195
Tandem Connection Monitoring ................................................................................. 195
Optical Supervisory Channel ..................................................................................... 197
Payload Mapping ..................................................................................................... 197
Multiplexing and Mapping ......................................................................................... 198
OTN Multiplexing ..................................................................................................... 198
ODU0 and ODU1 Mapping ........................................................................................ 199
ODUflex Mapping ..................................................................................................... 200
OTN B100G Mapping ................................................................................................ 200
OTN Mapping .......................................................................................................... 202
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Module 12: Software Defined Networks .............................................................................. 206
Overview ................................................................................................................ 206
Objectives ............................................................................................................... 206
Introduction ............................................................................................................ 206
Network Usage Patterns ........................................................................................... 206
SDN: Evolution in Carrier Ethernet............................................................................. 207
Emergence of Cloud Services .................................................................................... 207
Virtualization ........................................................................................................... 208
Types of Cloud Service ............................................................................................. 208
Software as a Service (SaaS) .................................................................................... 208
SaaS Example.......................................................................................................... 208
Platform as a Service (PaaS) ..................................................................................... 209
PaaS Example.......................................................................................................... 209
PaaS: Benefits and Requirements .............................................................................. 209
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) .............................................................................. 210
IaaS Example .......................................................................................................... 210
IaaS: Requirements & Data Analytics......................................................................... 210
Benefits of Cloud Storage ......................................................................................... 211
Impact of Cloud Storage........................................................................................... 211
Cloud Applications ................................................................................................... 211
Social Networking .................................................................................................... 211
Video Sites .............................................................................................................. 213
Internet of Things (IoT) ........................................................................................... 214
Cloud and IoT ......................................................................................................... 214
Cloud Service Access ................................................................................................ 214
Mobile Data Traffic................................................................................................... 215
Characteristics of the Cloud Model............................................................................. 216
List of Cloud Challenges ........................................................................................... 216
Solutions for Cloud Services ...................................................................................... 217
Software Defined Networks (SDN) ............................................................................. 217
SDN Controller......................................................................................................... 218
SDN Architecture ..................................................................................................... 218
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SDN Operation ........................................................................................................ 219

SDN Addresses Cloud Challenges .............................................................................. 220
Service Orchestration ............................................................................................... 221
Network Analytics .................................................................................................... 221
SDN with Enterprise Networks .................................................................................. 221
SDN Testing and Interoperability............................................................................... 222
Network Challenges ................................................................................................. 222
Benefits of NFV........................................................................................................ 222
NFV Addresses Cloud Challenges ............................................................................... 223
Evolution of OC Transport Technology - SDN ............................................................. 224
OC Transport Networks ............................................................................................ 224
Virtualization of OC Transport Networks..................................................................... 224
OC Transport Network Virtualization Benefits ............................................................. 225
OC Transport Network Virtualization Challenges ......................................................... 225
Module 13: Control Plane Foundations ............................................................................... 229
Overview ................................................................................................................ 229
Objectives ............................................................................................................... 229
Concepts of L0 Control Plane (CP) ............................................................................. 229
Advantages of CP .................................................................................................... 229
Layers in CP ............................................................................................................ 230
Advantages of CP .................................................................................................... 230
Layers in Control Plane ............................................................................................. 230
Control Plane Interaction .......................................................................................... 231
L0 CP Terminology ................................................................................................... 232
Types of L0 CP ........................................................................................................ 232
Mesh Restorable L0 CP ............................................................................................. 233
Non-Mesh Restorable L0 CP ...................................................................................... 234
L0 CP SNC Types ..................................................................................................... 235
L0 CP Permanent SNCs (P-SNCs)............................................................................... 235
L0 CP Non MR-SNCs................................................................................................. 235
L0 CP MR-SNCs ....................................................................................................... 236
L0 CP SNCP Auto-Cross Connect ............................................................................... 236
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Concepts of L1 CP.................................................................................................... 237

Control Plane protocols and algorithms ...................................................................... 237
Sun Network Connection Types ................................................................................. 237
Review Question ...................................................................................................... 238
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Module 0: Optical Communications Certification

Overview
The Ciena Optical Communications Certification Program provides Optical Communications (OC)
expertise to a wide range of telecommunications personnel – from beginners to skilled professionals.
The Certification Program provides two “tracks” to allow students the opportunity to tailor their training
to meet their specific needs.
Figure 0-1: Program Overview
Objectives
After this module, you will be able to:
● List an overview of Ciena Optical Communication (OC) certification program
Certification Tracks
Associate Certification
This course focuses on the fundamentals and concepts behind OC and builds a
foundation for further certification levels.
Professional Certification
This specialization course focuses on the technologies used by OC technologies,
devices and how they are provisioned to support OC services.
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Certification Details
Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): The OC-A course is a four-day course designed for anyone
seeking a firm understanding of OC with a focus on optical communications transport networks. In
addition, OC-A certification provides the foundation and prerequisite knowledge for the next levels of
certification, OC-Professional and OC-Consultant.
Optical Communications Professional (OC-P): The OC-P course is a four-day specialization course that
focuses on how OC networks are deployed to support critical transport applications. The training is
delivered in a lab-based environment in which students configure, test, and troubleshoot OC devices and
networks.
Certification Course Type of Instruction Prerequisite

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A) Traditional and virtual None
Duration: 4 days classroom
Foundation
Optical Communications Professional (OC-P) Traditional OC-A
Duration: 4 days classroom
Specialization (Hands On)
Table 0-1: Certification Overview
Page 14
OC-A Course Description

By the end of the course, you will have a basic-level knowledge of optical communication and be
prepared for higher-level certification courses
The OC-A course:

● Provides instruction at the foundational level of OC certification and provides the basis for specialized
courses.
● Focuses on the fundamentals of optical communications, such as network device
types, functions and topologies.
● Provides instruction in OC technology and networks through lecture and real-world examples.
● Develops a broad understanding of OC networks and the services they support.
OC-A Course Objectives

Upon successful completion of this course, you should be able to:
● Describe optical communications

● Identify the properties of light
● Identify optical transmission basics
● Describe optical modulation
● Describe optical transmitters and receivers
● Describe optical fiber and connectors
● Identify DWDM optical components
● Identify and describe optical network types
● Identify and describe optical transport protocols
● Describe cloud service model
● Describe SDN and NFV
● Describe Control Plane Foundation
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Course Schedule
Day Session Plan
Day 1 Module 0 - Optical Communications Certification Program
Overview Module 1 - Introduction of optical communication
Module 2 - Properties of light
Day 2 Module 3 - Optical modulation

Module 4 - Optical transmitters
Module 5 - Optical receivers
Day 3 Module 6 - Optical fiber and connectors

Module 7 - DWDM optical components
Module 8 - Optical network types
Day 4 Module 9 - SONET foundations
Module 10 - SDH foundations
Module 11 - OTN foundations
Module 12 - Software Defined Networks (SDN)
Module 13 - Control Plane Foundation
Course review
Table 0-2: OC-A Course Schedule

Student Responsibilities
Student participation in class discussions is strongly encouraged.
Students are expected to arrive on time and stay until the class is dismissed. Students
need to tell the instructor if they anticipate arriving late for the class or if they need to
leave early to fulfill outside responsibilities.
Although many students fulfill critical roles in their organizations, cell phones should be
placed in silent mode during class. Class time is the time to focus on learning.
Summary
In this module, we discussed:
● List an overview of Ciena Optical Communication (OC) certification program.
Page 16
Module 1: Introduction to Optical Communications

Overview
In this module, we define optical communications, describe key developments, and discuss optical
communications network types.
Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
● Define applications of optical communications
● List key Optical Communications technology developments for OC Transport Networks
● List the advantages of optical communications over legacy technologies
● Define Optical Communications (OC) transport networks, including:
● Operational roles and requirements
● Deployment types
● Related protocols
Introduction to Optical Communications

Optical communications is the transmission of information, using light, over a given distance (Figure 1-1).
● The light path is defined by a transmission medium
● Light is propagated down the medium by a light source
● Light is collected and interpreted by a receiver
● The light signal must account for the properties of light
Figure 1-1: Fiber Optic Light
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Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 1: Introduction to Optical Communications
Applications of Optical Communications

Optical communications is used for:
● Optical Communications (OC) transport networks
● Cloud computing
● Carrier Ethernet support
● Data centers
● Medical centers
The focus of this class will be optical communications over OC transport networks (Figure 1-2).
Figure 1-2: OC Transport Network
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Key Optical Communications Technology Developments for OC Transport

Networks
The following developments are covered in more detail in subsequent modules.
● Optical transmitters – lasers (Figure 1-3):
● Continuous-wave lasers produce a steady stream of light, which is critical to optical communications.
● Room temperature lasers allow the laser to operate at room temperature, eliminating the need for
heat dissipating equipment.
Figure 1-3: Laser
● Transmission medium (Figure 1-4):

● Low loss optical fiber
Figure 1-4: Optical Fiber
● High sensitivity low noise photo detector (Figure 1-5):

● Photo detectors collect light and convert it to electrical current.
● Photo detectors can be thought of as receivers.
Figure 1-5: Photo Detector
● Advanced modulation schemes (Figure 1-6):

● Allow for more data to be imposed on the transmission medium.
Figure 1-6: Modulation
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Advantages of Optical Communications over Legacy Technologies

Optical communications provide the following benefits over legacy copper-based
communications technologies including:
● Greater supported distances
● Higher service capacity
● Greater service flexibility
● Lower cost
● Increased security
OC based transport networks support much greater distances as compared to legacy

copper based communications systems. The primary reason is the use of low loss
optical fiber, light as a carrier signal and the ability to support optical amplification.
Optical based transport networks offer much greater system capacity for two reasons,
higher bit rate support and multiple optical signal support when using Wave Division
Multiplexing (WDM). WDM will be covered later in the course.
Service flexibility is achieved due to the ability to support:

● Sub-lambda electrical client multiplexing using an optical transport protocol
● Lambda-based (wavelength) services with the use of WDM channels. Lower costs
compared to copper based technologies are achieved from the ability of a single
infrastructure support all client traffic types, reduction and/or elimination of the
need for regeneration and the use of optical amplification for physical distance
extension. Additional benefits exist for management and control and the inherent
security of using light as a transmission medium versus copper.
Figure 1-7 illustrates an optical Network Element’s ability to offer higher service capacity
and service flexibility when deployed as part of an OC transport network.
Figure 1-7: Scalability in OC Transport Network
Page 20
Optical Communications Transport Networks

An OC transport network is a purpose-built network for bulk transport of services and/or business
applications from:
● provider-to-provider
● provider-to-enterprise
● enterprise-to-enterprise
Provider
An optical provider is defined as an OC transport network operator that carries data traffic for the purpose
of revenue generation or to support an operational goal. A traditional telecommunications carrier, Multi-
Service Operator (MSO), Internet Content Provider (ICP), government or government agency may be
considered a provider.
Enterprise
An enterprise is defined as a business entity or organization that does not derive its main revenue stream
from carrying another operational entity’s traffic over an OC network. A given enterprise network is used to
support the business goals of that organization alone. For example; Health Care Network, Utility Company.
OC Transport Networks
OC transport networks share the following characteristics:
● Have higher bandwidth requirements than access networks
● Have higher reliability requirements than access networks
● Require standardized manageability across operational entities such as providers and carriers
● Are photonic networks that may span data centers, clouds, Metro Area Networks (MANs), Wide Area
Networks (WANs), and long haul distances including submarine deployments
● Transport voice, video, and data within and across geographical locations
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OC Transport Network Deployment Types

Metro Area Network (MAN)
● A medium distance OC network:
● Connects business or sites in a geographical location, such as a city
● Often used to aggregate traffic access to common points for service connectivity
Long haul terrestrial:

● Connects different geographical locations
● Provides aggregation of the MANs
● Can be long haul (600-1000 km), extended long haul (1000-2000 km) or ultra-long haul spans greater
than 2000 km
● Typically the core of the network
Submarine:
● A long haul network that connects geographical locations separated by large bodies of water
● An ultra-long haul WAN
● Can be used at sea depths up to 8000 meters or 24,000 feet
● Optical span distances may be thousands of kilometers long
Figure 1-8: Submarine
Page 22
Protocols Used in Optical Carrier Networks

● Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)
● Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
● Optical Transport Network (OTN)
● Ethernet
● Fibre Channel
Application Example
A common application of optical carrier networks is the use of an Optical Virtual Private Network (OVPN).
● Give the operator the ability to partition the network into private partitions
● Provide a dedicated set of resources to a client independent of the rest of the network
● Each client sees only the resources associated with their VPN
● Allow the operator to further monetize network resources
Figure 1-9: Optical Virtual Private Network
Page 23
Review Questions
The following review questions are based on information in this student guide and the supplemental
materials distributed during the class. Your instructor may review these questions in class after you have
had time to complete your answers.
1. Define optical communications.
2. List four applications of optical communications.
3. List three developments that were key to the advance of optical communications.
4. What are the advantages of optical communications versus older copper based technologies?
5. _________, allow for more data to be imposed on the transmission medium.
A. Optical transmitters
B. Photo detector
C. Advanced modulation schemes
D. Data centers
Page 24
6. Which of the following statements are TRUE for optical communication? (Select all that apply)
A. Shorter supported distances
B. Higher service capacity
C. Greater service flexibility
D. Expensive
E. Increased security
7. What is the purpose of an OC transport network?
8. List three OC transport network deployment types.
9. List three OC transport protocols.
Page 25
10. Which of the following deployment type connects business or sites in a geographical location.
A. Wide Area Network
B. Metro Area Network
C. Long haul terrestrial
D. Submarine
11. Which statement is NOT true for OC transport networks?
A. Have lower bandwidth requirements than access networks
B. Have higher reliability requirements than access networks
C. Require standardized manageability across operational entities
D. Transport voice, video, and data within and across geographical locations
Page 26
Module 2: Properties of Light

Overview
In this module, we describe the concepts associated with light as a transmission medium.
Objectives
● Understand the mathematical relationship of frequency and wavelength
● Define the optical spectrum in terms of wave properties and particle properties
● Explain reflection and refraction of light
● Understand what linear and non-linear optical impairments are and how the contribute to optical loss
The Optical Spectrum

Light is one form of Electro Magnetic Radiation (EMR). Other forms of EMR include radio waves, X-rays,
and gamma rays. EMR consists of waves of energy particles that have both an electrical and a magnetic
component.
In optical communications, light is defined as electromagnetic radiation that occurs in a specific region of
the electromagnetic spectrum: the optical spectrum. The optical spectrum includes ultraviolet, visible, and
infrared light (Figure 2-1). As we will describe later, spectral bands for optical transmission systems are
located between 850- 1675 nm. Ultraviolet (UV) is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelength
from 10 nm (with a corresponding frequency of approximately 30 PHz - petahertz) to 400 nm (750 THz-
Terahertz), shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays.
Note:
-9
nm = nanometer, and 1 nm = 10 meter, which is 1 billionth of a meter.
Figure 2-1: Optical Spectrum
Page 27
Six spectral bands (Figure 2-2) are defined by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) for optical
transmission systems using single-mode fiber. (We will discuss single-mode fiber and these six bands in
a later module.) This includes six wavelength bands referred to as the Original-band (O), Extended band
(E), Short band (S), Conventional band (C), Long band (L) and Ultra long (U) bands.
Figure 2-2: Spectral Bands
Page 28
Wavelength and Frequency

Light is characterized in terms of either wavelength or frequency. Optical transport
equipment such as transmitters and receivers (optics) is usually qualified by operational
wavelength (nm) and/or frequency (THz).
λ = wavelength
f = frequency
c = speed of light
In terms of frequency: f = c/λ
In terms of wavelength: λ = c/f
Note: The Greek symbol, , is pronounced “lambda” and is used to represent wavelengths in
the equations above. Optical wavelengths are sometimes referred to as lambdas.
8
Note: * In a vacuum, the speed of light = 2.99792458 x 10 meters/second
The following example shows the process for converting a wavelength, 1552.52 nm, to a frequency.
-9
λ = 1552.52 nm or, 1552.52 x 10 m
8
c = 2.99792458 x 10 m/s
8
f = 2.99792458 x 10 m/sec
-9
1552.52 x 10 m/cycle
17
f = 0.00193100 x 10 cycles/sec 193.10 terahertz (THz)
The frequency of a 1552.52 nm wavelength is 190.10 THz.
Page 29
Wave Properties of Light

Light is considered to exhibit both wave and particle properties.
From a wave perspective, light consists of an electric field and a magnetic field, each of which is
characterized by direction and amplitude. The two fields are oriented to each other at a 90-degree angle.
In this context, we refer to light energy in the form of a lightwave.
Figure 2-3 is a graphical representation of a lightwave. The electrical energy of the lightwave is shown
acting along the Y-axis and the magnetic energy is shown acting along the X-axis. These two energy
fields move together along a line of travel that is oriented at a 90-degree angle to the two fields. The
direction of travel is assigned to the Z-axis.
The electrical and magnetic fields oscillate in amplitude and direction, following the shape of a sine wave.
The length of one complete cycle of the waveform represents the wavelength of the light.
Figure 2-3: Graphical Representation of a Lightwave
Page 30
Particle Properties of Light

Light also exhibits properties normally associated with particles. These properties are
important in understanding how light sources (such as lasers) and light detectors
function, which we describe later in this course.
In the context of light as a particle, the basic unit of light (and other forms of
electromagnetic radiation) is the photon. This elementary packet of light energy has no
mass and travels at, or close to, the speed of light. Photons are created in atoms when
electrons transition from a higher energy state to a lower energy state. The energy
released in this transition is emitted in the form of photons.
While photons are bundles of energy, not physical particles, they do exhibit
characteristics of individual, physical particles. The classic demonstration of this
behavior is the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which
matter (typically, but not limited to, metals or nonmetallic solids) emits electrons in
response to the absorption of energy from light. As shown in Figure 2-4, photons of light
striking a metallic surface (in this example, sodium) cause electrons to be ejected from
the surface of the metal.
Incoming photons Emitted electrons
M
etal
Electrons
in metal
Figure 2-4: The Photoelectric Effect
Page 31
Light Energy Intensity is Expressed in Decibels (dB)

The decibel is the unit used to express optical power levels. A dB is a measurement that
expresses the ratio between two power values. A dB is a logarithmic rather than a linear
expression. Advantages of using a logarithmic expression include the following:
● Numbers that differ from each other in orders of magnitude are easier to represent and compare.
● Mathematical computations are simpler.
● Example: When amplifiers are placed on an optical link, the power gain (in dB) of
each amplifier is added to determine the overall gain across the span. If a linear
scale is used, computing the overall gain requires multiplying each amplifier gain
value. This practice can be cumbersome as the numbers can get large quickly,
making the mathematical computations difficult.
dBm is a measure of power referenced to 1 mW. 1 mW = 0 dBm. A measurement in dBm is a

measurement of a specific energy intensity, or power level, as seen in figure 2-5.
● Optical loss is measured in dB.
● Optical power is measured in dBm
Figure 2-5: Decibel Power Levels
Page 32
Propagation of Light
Coupling Light onto the Transmission Medium Concepts

In order to understand how the light signal is placed onto the optical fiber the following concepts need to
be explored.
● Light propagation
● Refraction
● Refractive Index (RI) or Index of Refraction (IoR)
● Reflection
● Snell’s Law
● Cone of Acceptance
● Numerical Aperture
● Angle of Incidence
● Total Internal Reflection
Light propagation
Optical communications relies on the ability for light to travel (propagate) over the transmission medium
(fiber). Optical communications is made possible by light propagation over optical fiber. In order for light
propagation to occur, the light must be reflected into and remain in the optical core.
Optical communication relies on the ability for light to be propagated over the transmission medium
(optical fiber) as shown in figure 2-7.
Figure 2-6: Light Propagation
Page 33
Refraction
Refraction is the bending of a ray of light at the intersection between two dissimilar materials. A rainbow is
an example of light refraction, Sunlight is split (refracted) due to light passing between the two materials,
water and air. Water and air, being different materials each have different Index of refraction (IoR) also
known as Reflective Index (RI). RI varies based on the frequency or wavelength of light.
Continuing with the rainbow example, we see the light in colors because as the white light is refracted the
light is split into different frequencies that travel at different speeds; this causes us to see different colors.
Refractive Index (RI) or Index of Refraction (IoR)

RI/IoR is the ratio of the velocity of the speed of light in an optical fiber versus the speed of light in a
vacuum.
Reflection
Reflection is the immediate change in direction of a light ray at the intersection of two different media. In
other words, the light ray bounces back into the original material.
In the case of optical fiber, the fiber core must have a higher RI than the fiber cladding for light to remain
trapped in the core and for the light to be propagated down the optical fiber .
Snell’s Law
Snell’s Law defines the mathematical relationship between the refractive indices of two mediums and is
important to know when attempting to pass light into a transmission medium (fiber optic core). The RI is
determined and labeled by the fiber manufacturer, so the correct fiber for each installation can be
selected.
The relationship is defined in terms of the angle of incidence and angle of refraction. Both of these angles
are measured in relation to the normal. The normal is defined as a line drawn perpendicular to the
boundary between the two mediums (Figure 2-8). Snell’s law states that the ratio of the sines of the
angles of incidence and refraction is equivalent to the ratio of phase velocities in the two media, or
equivalent to the reciprocal of the ratio of the indices of refraction:
(Theta1, or Ø1) is the angle of incidence (Theta2, or Ø2) is the angle of refraction, v1 and v2 are the
velocity of light in the respective medium and n1 and n2 are the refractive indexes of the respective
medium.
Figure 2-7: Snell’s Law Example
Page 34
Cone of Acceptance
Light entering the core of optical fiber must enter the fiber within the cone of acceptance (also known as
the “acceptance cone”) to propagate down the fiber (Figure 2-9). Light entering the fiber at an angle
outside the cone of acceptance is refracted into the cladding instead of propagating down the fiber.
Light that is outside the cone of acceptance is

not refracted into the core and therefore is
not used for transmission.
Cladding medium
anc
ept
acc
Co
ne
of
Figure 2-8: Cone of Acceptance
Numerical Aperture (NA)

Optical fiber manufacturers specify the cone of acceptance of a fiber by the Numerical Aperture (NA). The
NA is based on the refractive indices of the core and cladding material of the fiber.
Angle of Incidence
Light may be refracted, reflected or absorbed at the boundary between two mediums. The angle of
reflection equals the angle of incidence (Figure 2-10).
Figure 2-9: Angle of Incidence
Page 35
Total Internal Reflection

Under the right conditions, a phenomenon called total internal reflection occurs at the boundary of two
mediums.
Figure 2-11 shows an example. Total internal reflection occurs when the refractive index of the core medium
is greater than the refractive index of the cladding medium. Total internal reflection occurs when the angle
of incidence is past a point called the critical angle.
When total internal reflection occurs, all light energy is reflected and no light energy enters the cladding
medium.
Fiber manufacturers coat (dope) the material in the fiber cladding with materials such as germanium to
maintain an RI lower than the RI of the fiber core so that the light energy remains in the fiber core.
Figure 2-10: Total Internal Reflection
Page 36
Total Internal Reflection

Optical loss represents a reduction in the optical signal. Optical impairments contribute to and/or cause
optical loss. We will discuss linear and nonlinear optical impairments that cause optical loss and impact
OC network performance.
Optical Impairments - Linear Effects
Dispersion
Dispersion is the signal distortion that results from the spreading or broadening of a light pulse as it
travels through the fiber. Dispersion is an impairment to optical transmission, as it significantly limits the
distance a signal can travel through an optical fiber.
In optical transmission, there are two types of dispersion:

● Intermodal or multimode dispersion (only in multimode fibers)
● Intramodal dispersion, which includes the following types:
● Chromatic dispersion
● Polarization mode dispersion
Chromatic Dispersion (CD) and Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD), also known together as intramodal
dispersion, occur in single-mode fibers. Because OC transport networks are based on single-mode fiber,
CD and PMD are the only dispersions types that must be accounted for in current OC transport networks.
Intermodal Dispersion
Wavelengths traveling through multimode fiber can take different paths. (The large core diameter of multimode fiber allows
wavelengths to take multiple paths.) As a result, wavelengths traveling through multimode fiber may reach the destination at
different times, as shown in Figure 2-12. This behavior is referred to as intermodal dispersion. Intermodal dispersion is also
known as multimode distortion, modal distortion, and intermodal delay distortion.
Figure 2-11: Intermodal Dispersion
Page 37
Chromatic Dispersion
Chromatic Dispersion (CD) is the most common form of dispersion found in single-mode fiber
applications. CD occurs when different wavelengths travel at different speeds in a fiber, causing the light
to spread and creating inter-symbol interference. The different components of a signal travel at different
speeds, distorting the received signal.
The broadening or spreading of the wavelength and the resulting signal degradation depends on many
factors, including the spectral width of the laser used, bit rate or temporal pulse separation, and the type
of single-mode fiber used. Figure 2-13 shows different wavelengths of a signal traveling at different
speeds, causing the received signal to broaden and become distorted.
Material and waveguide dispersion combine to cause CD in single-mode fibers.
Material Dispersion
Material dispersion results from different wavelengths traveling at different velocities in the fiber. The
slower wavelengths begin to lag, and cause the light to spread. If the light is traveling a great distance,
the lag in the slower wavelengths can cause them to overlap the faster wavelengths in the following
signal. These overlaps can degrade and ultimately destroy the signal.
Waveguide Dispersion
WD occurs as the light passes through the cladding as well as the core. By design, the core has a higher
Refractive Index (RI) than the cladding, but some dispersion still occurs. While the difference in refractive
indices of single-mode fiber core and cladding are minuscule, they can still become a factor over great
distances
Figure 2-12: Chromatic Dispersion
Page 38
How to Compensate for Chromatic Dispersion

CD can be compensated for with the following solutions:
● Using or mixing Optical fiber with different dispersion characteristics on an optical span:
● Dispersion-Shifted Fiber: Specified in ITU-T G.653, Characteristics of a dispersion-shifted
single mode optical fiber and cable. Has a zero dispersion point at 1550 nm
● Nonzero Dispersion Shifted Fiber: Specified in ITU-T G.655, Characteristics of a non-zero
dispersion-shifted single-mode optical fiber and cable. Has a zero dispersion point at any point
except 1310/1550 nm
● ITU G.652 Non-Dispersion Shifted Fiber (NDSF): Also referred to as Standard Single-Mode
Fiber (SSMF or SMF) Has a zero dispersion point at 1310 nm
● Dispersion Compensation Modules (DCMs)
● Dispersion Sloped Compensation Modules (DSCMs)
● Electronic dispersion compensation
Figure 2-14 shows the zero dispersion points in common single mode fiber.
Figure 2-13: Single Mode Fiber Dispersion Points
Page 39
Polarization Mode Dispersion

Single-mode fiber is designed to transport wavelengths in what can be thought of as two perpendicular
waveforms or polarization modes. As shown in Figure 2-15, extremely minor changes in the fiber content
and density mean that these two polarization modes travel at slightly different speeds. The delay between
them at the end of the fiber is called Differential Group Delay (DGD). When the receiver adds the two
polarized modes together, the pulse of light is expanded, just as in chromatic dispersion. This behavior is
referred to as Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD) and is measured in picoseconds (ps).
Figure 2-14: Polarization Mode Dispersion
Some of the factors contributing to PMD are the bit rate of the signal (which is a
function of the modulation scheme), fiber core symmetry, environmental factors, and
bends or stress in fiber.
PMD starts to be an issue with high-speed systems, typically with systems with bit
rates of 40 Gbps or greater. PMD does not need compensation up to 40 Gbps in
systems with distances up to about 1600 km optical transmission. Compensation is
required for systems with bit rates of 40 Gbps for longer distance transmissions.
Recommended solutions include:
Page 40
● Next-generation optical transmitters and receivers

● Use of improved fibers
● Use of manufacturer’s recommended installation techniques for fiber
Page 41
Dispersion and Nonlinear Impairments

Optical Impairments - Nonlinear Effects
With higher data rates (above 2.5 Gbps) and higher power levels, optical signals can be impaired by
nonlinear effects. These effects are also dependent on the length of an optical span and the cross-
sectional area of the optical fiber. It is important to note that while the nonlinear effects of optical
transmission are generally seen as a destructive impairment, they are also in some situations used for
constructive purposes (such as using the SRS nonlinear effect for RAMAN amplification).
Nonlinear effects include:

● Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
● Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
● Self-Phase Modulation (SPM)
● Cross-Phase Modulation (CPM)
● Four-Wave Mixing (FWM)
Each of these nonlinear effects is described in the following paragraphs.
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering

SBS is a type of backscattering caused by acoustic vibrations in optical fiber. As a wavelength
propagates along an optical fiber, variations in the electric field of the wave can generate acoustic
molecular vibrations in the fiber. The acoustic vibrations cause fluctuations in the refractive index of the
fiber. These fluctuations in the refractive index cause scattering of the transmitted wavelength. As shown
in Figure 2-16, the scattering is in the form of a reflected wavelength that propagates in the opposite
direction of the transmitted wavelength.
In the context of SBS, the transmitted wavelength is referred to as the pump wave. The backward-
propagating wavelength generated by SBS is referred to as the Stokes wave.
Figure 2-15: Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
The primary effects of SBS on optical transmission are:
Page 42
● Attenuation of the transmitted signal: SBS transfers power from the transmitted signal to the
reflected wavelength.
● Power saturation: The effect of SBS increases as the power of the transmitted signal increases.
Eventually, as the power is increased, SBS cancels out any increase in the power of the transmitted
signal.
● Noise in amplifiers and transmitters: The reflected wavelength can generate noise in these
devices, causing degradation of the transmitted signal.
The following techniques are used in optical transmitters to limit SBS:

● Use of phase modulation instead of amplitude modulation in optical transmitters
● Limit optical power per channel to a level much lower than the threshold level at which the effects of
SBS become significant
● Increase the line width of the transmitted signal (Line width is the width of the optical spectrum of the
transmitted signal).
Stimulated Raman Scattering

Like SBS, SRS is also caused by interaction between the transmitted wavelength and acoustic molecular
vibrations in the fiber. In contrast to SBS, the effects of SRS are not limited to a single wavelength. SRS
impairs other channels transmitted in the fiber. Another difference is that SRS causes scattering in both
directions, whereas SBS only causes backscattering.
As shown in Figure 2-17, SRS transfers optical energy from a shorter wavelength channel to a higher
wavelength channel when separated by approximately 100 nm. Therefore, SRS impairs optical
transmission by suppressing shorter wavelengths in a multiple channel transmission. The effect of SRS is
dependent on channel spacing. Therefore, SRS particularly affects optical transmission systems with
closely spaced optical channels.
SRS is a potential impairment to optical transmission; however, SRS can also be used to the benefit of
optical transmission. Optical amplifiers can use SRS as an amplification technology. (This topic is
described later in the course.)
Figure 2-16: Stimulated Raman Scattering
Page 43
Self-Phase Modulation
The refractive index of optical fiber is dependent on the intensity or power of the light signal. This intensity
dependence of the refractive index is called the Kerr effect. The refractive index at the intensity peak of
the pulse is slightly higher than the value in the leading and trailing edges of the pulse. This behavior
results in an impairment referred to as SPM.
Figure 2-17: Self-Phase Modulation (SPM)
Different intensity components contained within an optical signal travel at different speeds. This variation
in speeds results in a time varying phase shift which varies throughout the pulse duration, creating a
frequency chirp. In short, SPM causes the spectrum of the pulse to be broadened. SPM interacts with
chromatic dispersion, changing the rate at which the wavelength broadens as the pulse travels through
the fiber.
SPM is due to a nonlinear change in the refractive index as a function of optical intensity. One way to
overcome this effect is to operate at lower optical power, where this nonlinear effect is nonexistent.
Another way to address the effects of SPM is to use optical fiber characterized by dispersion greater than
zero in the operating wavelength range. In fiber with this characteristic, SPM compresses an optical
pulse, which compensates for the effect of chromatic dispersion.
Cross-Phase Modulation
CPM (sometimes called XPM) is similar to SPM, except CPM involves multiple wavelengths. With CPM,
power fluctuations in one optical signal cause phase fluctuations in other optical signals. Increasing the
effective area of the fiber reduces the effect of CPM, due to the decrease in optical intensity.
Page 44
Four-Wave Mixing
Nonlinearity in the refractive index of optical fiber can give rise to signals other than transmitted signals. This
phenomenon is called FWM. With FWM, when two or more wavelengths are transmitted simultaneously on a
fiber, an additional wave is generated, as shown in Figure 2-20. The additional wave interferes with other
transmitted wavelengths.
As shown in the figure, the number of interfering products increases significantly as the number of wavelengths
(channels) in a system increases. As an example, if the number of wavelengths is 8, the number of interfering
products is 224.
The additional wavelengths created by FWM are referred to as ghost channels. In radio, this phenomenon is
known as harmonics. As shown in Figure 2-19, these wavelengths can overlay real channels and interfere with
transmitted data by creating crosstalk between channels. (Crosstalk occurs when a signal from one channel is
being picked up unintentionally on another channel.)
Figure 2-18: Ghost Channels Created by Four-Wave Mixing
The effect of FWM is significantly influenced by the following factors:

● Channel spacing: closer channel spacing increases FWM, wider channel spacing reduces FWM
● Chromatic dispersion: less chromatic dispersion increases FWM, more
chromatic dispersion reduces FWM
The following techniques can be used to reduce the effects of FWM:

● Forward Error Correction (FEC), because of its coding gain, allows for lower
power levels while getting the same distance
● Increase channel spacing
● Lower signal power
● Use asymmetrical channel spacing
● Reduce the number of channels being transmitted
● Introduce CD
Page 45
Review Questions
1. In mathematical terms, how are wavelength and frequency related?
2. Briefly describe light from both a wave perspective and a particle perspective.
3. Decibels is the unit of optical loss.

A. True
B. False
4. Converting a 400 nm wavelength, will result in a frequency:
A. 747.48 THz
B. 750.67 THz
C. 749.48 THz
D. 752.12 THz
5. Define refraction.
6. What is total internal reflection?
Page 46
7. What happen to the light when it enter the fiber at an angle outside the cone of acceptance?
8. What are the terms on which numerical aperture is based?
9. Which nonlinear impairment transfers optical energy from a shorter wavelength channel to a longer
wavelength channel and suppresses shorter wavelengths in multiple-channel (DWDM) transmission?
10. What are the two types of dispersion in optical transmission?
11. What is Polarization Mode Dispersion?
12. What of these are examples of intramodal dispersion?
A. Chromatic dispersion
B. Polarization Mode Dispersion
C. Both
D. None of these
Page 47
13. Which of these does not fall under the category of non-linear effects?
A. Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
B. Polarization Mode Dispersion
C. Stimulated Raman Scattering
D. Cross-Phase Modulation
Page 48
Module 3: Optical Modulation

Overview
In this module, we describe optical modulation.
Objectives
● Explain the concepts of optical modulation and detection
Modulation
● Modulation is the process by which carrier wave, is altered to impose information (data) onto the
wave for transmission.
● The carrier wave transmits the data to the destination.
● The extraction process is called detection
Modulation process Detection
Information/data Information/data
Plus Minus
Electromagnetic send Data modulated receive Extract data from

carrier-wave signal carrier-wave signal carrier-wave signal
Figure 3-1: Optical Modulation/Demodulation
A carrier wave may be modulated either directly or indirectly. Direct modulation is done by
varying the laser current; that is, turning the laser off and on. Direct modulation is used in
lower-speed networks (up to 10Gbps, but usually2.5 Gbps or less). Indirect modulation is
done by varying the output of the laser by components other than the laser itself. Indirect
modulation requires additional components to modulate the optical signal.
In optical modulation, the properties of a carrier wave signal that may be varied to convey
data information include:
● Amplitude: Signal power
● Phase: Phase: Point in the cycle of a wave, measured in degrees (0° -360°), from a reference point
● Polarization: Direction of the oscillations of a wave as it propagates
Page 49
Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 5: Optical Receivers
Purpose of Modulation
The main purpose is to generate a modulated signal that suits the characteristics of a transmission
channel.
Optical Modulation techniques based on modulation of optical-field parameter

● Phase modulation
● Frequency modulation
● Polarization modulation
● Amplitude modulation
● Spatial modulation
● Diffraction modulation
Optical Modulation Types

● Direct Modulation
● Direct modulation is done by varying the laser current. This is achieved by turning the laser off and
on.
● It is used in lower-speed networks (up to 10Gbps, but usually 2.5 Gbps or less).
● Indirect Modulation
● Indirect modulation is done by varying the output of the laser by components other than the laser
itself.
● It requires additional components to modulate the optical signal.
Page 50
Optical Modulation – Carrier Wave Signal
In optical modulation, the properties of a carrier wave signal that may be varied to convey
data information include:
● Amplitude: Signal power

● Phase: Point in the cycle of a wave, measured in degrees (0˚ -360˚), from a reference point
● Polarization: Direction of the oscillations of a wave as it propagates
Dual Polarization modulation techniques transmit data using multiple signal streams
simultaneously, using both the electrical and magnetic polarization states (Figure 3-2).
Figure 3-2: Polarization
Modulation Techniques
Dual polarization modulation techniques allow higher bit rates, at tighter wavelength
spacing, with longer supported distances and reduced Optical-Signal-to-Noise Ratio
(OSNR) values versus single polarization modulation schemes in DWDM networks.
Table 3-1 shows some common modulation techniques.
OSNR is the measure of the ratio of signal power to noise power in an optical channel.
Page 51
Modulation Types Laser Max Supported Bit Rate

IM-OOK Laser Typically, 2.5 Gps or less
Intensity Modulation ON/OFF Keying Direct modulation
D-BPSK Laser constant 40 Gbps
Differential Binary Phase Shift Keying Indirect modulation, dual polarized
DP-QPSK Laser constant 40 -100 Gbps
Dual Polarization Quadrature Indirect modulation, dual polarized
Phase Shift Keying
QAM Laser constant 200 - 800 Gbps with evolution to
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation Indirect modulation, dual polarized greater than 1 Tbps
Table 3-1: Common Modulation Techniques
Symbols and Bit Rate

Modulation uses symbols to convey information. A symbol is one or more data bits,
depending on the modulation technique.
A data bit is a binary (2) digit, expressed as “0” (off) or “1” (on). A bit rate is the number
of bits that can be expressed per second. Bits represent digital transmission.
Symbol rate (also known as baud or modulation rate) is the number of symbol changes
per second. Symbol rate is expressed as baud (Bd) or symbols/second. Because a
symbol can convey one or more data bits, symbol rate is not always the same as the bit
rate unless each symbol conveys only one data bit. Some example of symbols are the
presence or absence of light, a specific phase angle of a carrier wave, and a phase shift
of a carrier wave.
Page 52
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying Example

QPSK modulates the phase of the carrier wave to encode bits of digital information in
each phase change. For SONET/SDH rates, the modulation format is binary: the 0 bit
is off and the 1 bit is on.
QPSK transmits four different, discrete phase states that carry two bits per baud, or
symbol. A symbol rate is computed by dividing the bit rate by the number of bits
transmitted in a symbol (two for QPSK). Symbol rate can be measured either in symbols
per second (symbol/s) or baud.
As an example, a 100 Gbps QPSK signal, transmitting symbols with two bits each,
operates at 50 G symbol/s. A phase shift keying algorithm with eight phase states
(8PSK) transmits signals with three bits each, so a 100 Gbps 8PSK signal operates at
33.3 G symbol/s.
Figure 3-3: QPSK
Symbols rate
● The symbol rate is computed by dividing the bit rate divided by the number of bits transmitted in a
symbol (two for QPSK).
● It is measured either in symbols per second (symbol/s) or baud.
● As an Example: A 100 Gbps QPSK signal, transmitting symbols with two bits each, operates at 50
Gsymbol/s.
● A phase shift keying algorithm with 8 phase states (8PSK) transmits signals with three bits each.
Page 53
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM):
● It combines Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) and Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
● It can have several variations:

● 16-QAM: 16 symbols
● 64-QAM: 64 symbols
Advantages of Modulation
● It avoids mixing of the signals
● It increases the range of communication
● It helps in multiplexing of signals
Page 54
Review Questions
The following review questions are based on information in this student guide and
the supplemental materials distributed during the class. Your instructor may review
these questions in class after you have had time to complete your answers.
1. Describe the process of modulation in the context of optical transmission.
2. Explain the difference between a symbol (baud) rate and a bit rate.
3. Mention the optical Modulation Techniques based on modulation of optical-field parameter
4. What is indirect modulation?
5. QAM combines ASK and PSK
A. True
B. False
6. Baud is the number of symbol changes per second
A. True
B. False
Page 55
Module 4: Optical Transmitters

Overview
In this module, we describe optical transmitters used in optical communications.
Objectives
● Describe the role of Optical transmitters used in optical communications
● List and describe optical transmitter types used in optical communications networks
● List the factors that affect laser diode performance
Page 56
Optical Transmitters and its Types
Introduction to Optical Transmitters

Optical Transmitters are devices that convert electrical signals into light pulses (wavelength) for
transmission
(Figure 4-1). Between the transmitter output and the receiver, each component of the optical transmission
system suffers signal loss.
Figure 4-1: Optical Receiver
Optical Transmitters
Optical Transmitters are devices that convert electrical signals into light pulses (wavelength) for
transmission.
Laser diodes and light emitting diodes are the most commonly used optical transmitter that helps in
producing light.
Laser diode produces a concentrated beam of light and can have the data rates upto and beyond 100
Gbps.
Laser diode produces an intense and powerful optical signal, suitable for transmission over long
distances. Laser diodes used in single-mode fiber and are in common use (Figure 4-2).
Figure 4-2: Laser Diode

Laser emitting diodes emit light in a cone shape (Figure 4-3) and are best for data rates less than 1 Gbps
used only for client-side support.
Figure 4-3: Light Emitting Diode
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Laser Types
Following are the types of laser in use today:
● Gas laser: There are most common gas lasers in use today, like: helium and helium-neon, HeNe.
They have a primary output of a visible red light. CO 2 are used for cutting hard materials. This type of
laser emits energy in the far-infrared, 10.6 micrometers.
Page 58
● Liquid laser: To ensure the proper concentration of radiating species are present, the dye molecules
are dissolved in a solvent at a concentration of about one part in ten thousand. The system is known
as a liquid dye laser, due to the solution form.
● Semiconductor laser: These types of laser is different from solid-state lasers, and it is also known as
diode lasers. These electronic devices are generally very small and use low power. They may be built
into larger arrays, e.g., the writing source in some laser printers or compact disk players.
● Solid-state laser: As the name suggest, this laser has lasing material distributed in a solid matrix, e.g.,
the ruby or neodymium-YAG (yttrium aluminum garnet) lasers. The neodymium-YAG laser emits
infrared light at 1.064 micrometers., and
● Fiber laser: A fiber laser is defined as a laser where the optical fiber is itself the gain medium which
can be distinguished from having another type of laser or gain medium simply being coupled to an
optical fiber. The core of optical fiber, which is a glass host material, is doped with the laser-active
ions like: Yb, Er and Tm.
Dual Polarization Modulation Techniques using Multi Laser

Tributary signals, such as 10, 40, or 100 Gb/s standard format, and Forward error connection are
multiplexed and pre-coded.
Then the signals are multiplexed to baud value of 11.5 Gbaud. Then four data streams modulate the light
from a tunable laser, encoding in-phase and quadrature signals on X and Y polarizations and then all
data streams are imposed on a single optical signal (Figure 4-6).
The transmission link is generally of fibers, filters and amplifiers.
At the receiver end, the signal is mixed with the laser which actually serves as a local oscillator.
Firstly, the signal is split into single polarization but it further combined with each of two mutually
orthogonal phases of co-polarized light from the local oscillator.
This can be done using splitters, phase shifters and combiners to send four orthogonal optical signals to
the four photo-diodes.
The function of Agile engine is to receive analog-to-digital converters and digital signal processing
function.
Figure 4-6: Dual Polarization Technique
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Types of Laser Diodes
Types of LDs Used in Optical Communications Transmitters

This table (Table 4-1) shows the following laser diodes used in optical communications transmitters:
● Distributed Feedback laser (DFB) (best suited for OC transport networks)
● Fabry-Perot laser (FP), and
● Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser (VCSEL)
Table 4-1: Introduces the various types of LDs commonly used in optical communication systems.
There are several other transmitters which are having bit rate support around 100 Gbps. Some are:
Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) transmitter, Laser diode-transmitter optical
subassembly (TOSA), etc.
LD quality has improved to meet the requirements for long-haul high capacity OC transport networks.
● LDs with extremely narrow spectral width (in the tenths of a nanometer range) have been developed.
● Channel separation can be so small that an LD spectral width of less than 0.1 nm is needed to
support the channel spacing requirements.
Distributed Feedback Lasers (DFB)

DFB lasers (Figure 4-7) produce one wavelength that is calibrated precisely by the Bragg grating, which
has evenly spaced ridges of semiconductor material that scatter light to produce a specific wavelength.
We can tune this laser by using the cooling device to change the temperature of the semiconductor or by
running a current through the material. The DFB laser is most suited for OC transport networks.
Figure 4-7: DFB Laser Structure
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Fabry Perot Lasers (FP) and Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSEL)
Fabry Perot Lasers

The FP laser is named after French physicists Charles Fabry and Alfred Perot, inventors of the Fabry-Perot interferometer in the
late 1890s. The FP interferometer was constructed of parallel plates of coated glass (mirrors) mounted on an extremely
accurate adjustment device. The adjustment device allowed the mirrors to be moved at precise distances and angles. The FP
interferometer, called an etalon (French word meaning measuring gauge or standard), was used for studying wavelength
radiation, resonance, phase polarization, and destructive/ constructive interference.
As shown in Figure 4-8, the FP laser has a laser cavity (containing an active medium) enclosed by two parallel mirrors (facets).
One mirror is highly reflective, and the other is slightly transparent (laser output side).The laser cavity and the two mirrors
form a resonant cavity. The distance between the two mirrors defines the dominant wavelength.
FP lasers are used for rates under 1 Gbps, and/or in CWDM systems, because they have relatively wide spacing between each
wavelength. FP lasers are not suitable for DWDM systems because of the spacing.
Cavity
Input Output
Figure 4-8: Fabry-Perot Laser Cavity
VCSEL lasers eventually form a diode junction, as they have the upper and lower mirrors doped as p-type
and n-type materials. These lasers are used for rates under 4 Gbps.
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Construction and Factors Affecting Performance of LD
LD Physical Connection
The structure of LD discrete components is such that the 14-pin butterfly Distributed Feedback (DFB)
diodes are connected with pigtail connectors (Figure 4-9).
Usually laser diodes are paired with a Thermo-Electric Cooler (TEC) module and a mounting plate to
dissipate heat because of heat sensitivity.
Figure 4-9: DFB Laser Construction
Factors Affecting LD Performance

Laser chirp:
Laser chirp is a factor for transmitters that use direct IM-OOK modulation techniques:
● Directly modulating a laser (by varying the current within the laser) can cause the output wavelength
to shift, which results in laser chirp.
● Lasers output a specific wavelength, but several other wavelengths are also produced within the
laser. Chirp is a broadening of the wavelength as it enters the optical fiber. The effect of pulse
broadening becomes critical as the data rate increases.
● External modulation devices (separate from the laser) help prevent laser chirp.
Back-reflection:
● Created when the light that is reflected off a mirror in a laser re-enters the laser cavity and causes the
emission of unwanted light.
Temperature:
● Laser temperature must be maintained to ensure wavelength stability. LDs consume power, so they
generate heat. Excessive heat can severely affect the stability of the LD, leading to equipment and
network failure.
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Review Questions
1. What are the two most common optical transmitter types?
2. What are the common types of laser in use today?
3. What are the different types of Laser Diodes (LDs) used in Optical
communications transmitters?
4. What Laser Diode (LD) type is used commonly in DWDM transmission?
5. How do we tune DFB laser?
Page 63
6. What are the three factors that affect Laser Diode performance?
7. Why do we need to maintain the laser temperature?
Page 64
Module 5: Optical Receivers

Overview
In this module, we describe optical receivers used in optical communications.
Objectives
● Describe the role of optical receivers used in optical communications
● Describe detection techniques used in optical communications
● List the types of photodiodes used in optical receivers
Introduction to Optical Receivers

Optical receivers are components that convert light pulses into electrical signals (Figure 5-1).
The purpose of the optical receiver is to convert the optical signal into the electrical signal and to recover
the transmitted data.
Figure 5-1: Optical Receiver
Optical Receiver Characteristics

One important characteristic of optical receivers is the ability to detect a broad spectrum of wavelengths. One
drawback is that multiplexed signals must be demultiplexed before they are detected at the receiver, because the photodiode
cannot select a specific wavelength itself.
Another important characteristic of a good optical receiver is the amount of current produced for a given amount
of light. The more efficient the conversion, the more sensitive the receiver is said to be. Ideally, if 100% efficiency were possible,
one electron of electrical energy would be produced for every photon that strikes the photodiode material. In reality, this
efficiency is not possible.
The ability to detect very fast pulses is also a key characteristic. This detection enables the photodiode to
differentiate between different photons hitting in close proximity of each other. Of course, the most sensitive and fastest
receivers cost more to manufacture.
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Types of Optical Receivers

There are two basic types of fiber optic receivers. The first type is digital and the other type is analog.
Digital receivers detect the input optical signal coming through an optical fiber, do the amplification of
digital photo current, and then reshape the signal to produce an undistorted output electrical signal.
On the other hand, analog optical receivers detect the input optical signal and amplify the generated
photo current.
PIN (Positive-Intrinsic-Negative) diodes or high impedance amplifiers are used for low-frequency
applications. PIN diodes or high impedance amplifiers or trans-impedance amplifiers are used for
moderate-frequency applications. PINs or APDs are used with trans-impedance amplifiers for high-
frequency applications.
For both analog and digital receivers, Avalanche Photo Diodes or APDs are rarely used in low or
moderate frequency applications unless receivers with extremely low sensitivities are needed.
How Does a Receiver Recover the Data?

There are two types of optical detection techniques that may be used in an optical receiver:
● Direct detection
● Coherent detection
Direct Detection
A direct detection receiver uses a photodiode to convert the incoming optical signal directly to electric
current.
Direct detection is the most widely deployed detection technique in optical transmission systems up to 10
Gbps.
Figure 5-2: Signal Recovery in the Receiver
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Coherent Detection
Coherent detection is used in conjunction with polarization modulation schemes to support 40, 100, and
greater Gbps DWDM line rates. These ultra-high-speed applications cannot be achieved using direct
detection.
Coherent detection refers to the ability of a receiver to recover information from both the electrical and
magnetic fields of the optical signal. These receivers always operate with dual polarization transmitters.
Coherent detection allows the greatest flexibility in modulation formats, providing access to both
amplitude and phase information.
Figure 5-3: Dual Polarization Transmission
How Does a Receiver Detect Light?

Photodiodes in the form of semiconductors are used as optical detectors at the receiver end of an optical
transmission.
The primary function of an optical detector is to convert photons that comprise an optical signal into
electrons, thereby converting the optical signal to an electrical signal.
The data transmitted by the optical signal is extracted through additional processing of the electrical
signal at the receive end.
Figure 5-4: Light Detection
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Optical Detection Components

These are the main types of optical detection components that may be used in an optical receiver:
● Photodiode:
● Positive-Intrinsic-Negative (PIN) photodiode
● Avalanche Photodiode (APD)
● Coherent detector
Optical Detection Components – Photodiodes

Positive-Intrinsic-Negative (PIN) photodiodes have many advantages, including low cost and reliability.
Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs) provide amplification as well as detection and are often used for long-
haul networks. APDs are more accurate than PIN photodiodes, but also more temperature sensitive,
complicated, and expensive.
Figure 5-5: Example Photodiode
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Optical Detection Components – Coherent Detectors

Coherent detectors (Figure 5-6) are used in conjunction with dual polarization modulation schemes to
support 40, 100, and greater Gbps DWDM line rates. These ultra-high-speed applications cannot be
achieved using direct detectors.
The benefits of coherent detectors include support for higher bit rate, dual polarization modulation
schemes such as Dual Polarization Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (DP-QPSK) and Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation (QAM). Coherent detectors are paired with a Digital Signal Processor (DSP) to
extract the data from the signal.
Coherent detectors preserve phase information post detection, allowing for real- time PMD compensation
and dynamic CD compensation.
Figure 5-6: Example Coherent Detector
Coherent detectors use multiple photo detectors to pull information from different polarization states of the
optical signal. Figure 5-7 shows a coherent detector with four photodiodes that might use DP-QPSK or
QAM modulation techniques. The converted electrical signal is processed in the DSP.
Figure 5-7: Example Coherent Detector Construction
Page 69
Review Questions
1. Define the role of an optical receiver.
2. What type of detection technique supports real-time polarization mode dispersion compensation?
3. What type of photodiode provides amplification as well as detection for an

incoming optical signal?
4. Accuracy of PINs are higher as compared to APDs, with more temperature

sensitive, complicated, and expensive components.
A. True
B. False
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5. What is the upper limit of the direct detection technique in optical transmission
systems?
A. 10 Gbps
B. 20 Gbps
C. 40 Gbps
D. 100 Gbps
6. Which of the following optical detection component is used for low-frequency

applications?
A. Trans-impedance amplifier
B. APD
C. PIN
D. Coherent detector
Page 71
Module 6: Optical Transmission Medium

Overview
In this module, we discuss the characteristics of fiber, how fiber is made, fiber types, and connector types.
Objectives
● Describe the physical construction of optical fiber
● Explain the varieties of optical cables currently in use
● Explain characteristics of single-mode and multimode optical fiber types
● Describe optical fiber connector types
● Explain light propagation in optical fiber within the contexts of entering the fiber core, transmission
windows, and associated impairments
Optical Fiber Construction
Optical Fiber Layers

As shown in Figure 6-1, optical fiber typically consists of three layers:
● Core: Made of nearly pure silicon dioxide, the core provides the transmission path for optical signals
● Cladding: Also made of nearly pure silicon dioxide, cladding confines light to the core
● Buffer or coating: Made of a durable resin, the buffer protects the core and
cladding from moisture and physical damage
As described later in this module, there are two types of optical fiber: single-mode and multimode.
Buffer or coating Cladding Core
Figure 6-1: Optical Fiber Construction
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Basic Fiber Configurations

Optical fiber is made in two basic configurations: 250 micron (μm) coated fiber and 900 μm tight buffered
fiber. For reference, one micron (µm) = one millionth/meter, and 25,400 microns = one inch (2.54 cm).
Figure 6-2 shows the layers of each of these fiber configurations.
Figure 6-2: Basic Fiber Configurations
Optical Fiber Cables
Optical Fiber Cable Types and Categories

For many applications, particularly those involving long distance communication links, a group of fibers is
bundled in a larger protective jacket. Fiber bundles range from simple assemblies for intra-building use to
heavily armored, shark-bite resistant cables for undersea applications. Cables containing over a thousand
individual fibers have been developed. There are two types of optical fiber cables: tight buffered and
loose tube.
Tight buffered cable (Figure 6-3) has multiple, color-coded 900 μm optical fibers, and is used typically for
indoor applications. Indoor cables must pass the flame-retardant and smoke-inhibitor ratings specified by
the National Electrical Code (NEC).
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Figure 6-3: Tight Buffered Cable
Loose tube cable (Figure 6-4) includes multiple loose tubes, each containing multiple 250 μm bare fibers.
This type of cable is used typically for outdoor applications. Outdoor cables must be moisture resistant,
Ultraviolet (UV) resistant, and temperature tolerant.
Figure 6-4: Loose Tube Cable
Both indoor and outdoor cables have the same general properties in the cable jacket material, which
provides extra environmental and mechanical protection:
Low smoke generation

Low toxicity
Low halogen content
Flame retardant
High abrasion resistance
Stable performance over temperature
Page 74
Fiber Optic Cable Varieties

Fiber optic cables are manufactured to meet specific needs.
Cordage
Cordage is typically made into patch cords for connections to equipment and patch panels. Cordage has
only one fiber/buffer combination in a jacket. The two common types of cordage are simplex and duplex.
Simplex and duplex cordage are meant for short distance connections between equipment and for
temporary connections only. They should not be used as permanent cabling for a network or long
distance transmissions.
● Simplex: Simplex cordage (Figure 6-5) consists of a single fiber with a tight buffer, an aramid yarn
strength member, and a PVC jacket. Simplex cordage with plastic fiber uses no strength members,
but has a thicker jacket. Simplex cordage is used only for one-way or simplex transmission.
Figure 6-5: Simplex Cordage
● Duplex: Duplex cordage, also known as zipcord, combines two simplex cords for duplex or two-way
transmission. Duplex cordage is similar in appearance to household electrical cords (Figure 6-6).
Figure 6-6: Duplex Cordage
Distribution Cable
Distribution cables (Figure 6-7) are multiple, tight-buffered fibers bundled in a jacket to run through a
building to patch panels or communication closets. These fibers are not meant to be run outside of office
walls.
Figure 6-7: Distribution Cable
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Breakout Cable
Breakout cables (Figure 6-8) consist of two or more simplex cables bundled around a central strength
member and covered with an outer jacket. These fibers are also run through buildings, but they are
connected individually rather than to patch panels.
Figure 6-8: Breakout Cable
Ribbon Cable
Ribbon cables (Figure 6-9) consist of fibers bonded side by side or held in grooves in a single, tight
jacket. Ribbon cables save space because the fibers are not individually jacketed and are useful in high-
volume installations.
Figure 6-9: Ribbon Cable
Armored Cable
Armored cables (Figure 6-10) are surrounded by a steel or aluminum jacket that is covered with a
polyethylene jacket to protect it from moisture and abrasion. Armored cable may be run aerially, installed
in ducts, or placed in underground enclosures with special protection from dirt.
Figure 6-10: Armored Cable
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Submarine Cable
Submarine cables (Figure 6-11) have steel wire to provide armor in several layers and a stainless steel
tube to provide strength and water-blocking properties at depths of up to 8,000 meters. Submarine cables
are laid on the sea bed to carry communication signals across stretches of ocean and sea.
Figure 6-11: Submarine Cable
Page 77
Optical Fiber Types

Two basic types of fiber are used in optical communications: single-mode fiber and multimode fiber. The
basic difference between single-mode and multimode fiber is the size of the core, which affects light-
carrying characteristics.
Single-mode Fiber
Single-mode fiber is used for most optical network applications, because of its suitability for long distance,
high bandwidth applications. In single-mode fiber, the core diameter is sized to be a small multiple of the
wavelength range of the light signal. This design concentrates the light signal in a single path, or mode,
through the fiber, which reduces optical signal loss.
Light entering the core at incidence angles greater than the critical angle is totally reflected back at the
core/ cladding boundary, as shown in Figure 6-12.
Figure 6-12: Single-mode Fiber
Single-mode Fiber Types

The three most common types of single-mode fibers used are:
● Non-Dispersion Shifted Fiber (NDSF), also referred to as Standard Single-Mode Fiber (SSMF or
SMF), defined in ITU G.652
● Dispersion Shifted Fiber (DSF), defined in ITU G.653
● Non-Zero Dispersion Shifted Fiber (NZ-DSF), defined in ITU G.655
Each of these fiber types has unique properties related to chromatic dispersion, an impairment that
distorts optical signals.
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Multimode Fiber and its Types

Multimode fiber is used only for optical network applications requiring short spans, such as data centers.
Multimode fiber has a larger diameter core than single-mode fiber, which allows wavelengths to take
multiple paths through the core (Figure 6-13).
Because of taking different paths, wavelengths may reach the destination at different times. This behavior
is referred to as modal dispersion. Because of modal dispersion, multimode fiber is typically limited to
short distance, low bandwidth applications.
Figure 6-13: Multimode Fiber
The following multimode fiber types (all of which operate at wavelengths of 850 and 1300 nm) are defined
by the International Standards Organization (ISO) in the ISO/ International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) 11801 standard:
● OM1
● OM2
● OM3
● OM4
● OM5
OM1 and OM2 were used typically for premises applications. They were ideal for LED transmitters. OM2
provided longer distances than OM1. OM3 was optimized for Vertical Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers
(VCSELs). OM3 provided higher bit rates than OM2. OM4 and OM5 provide higher bandwidth and
greater distances. OM4 and OM5 also provide higher transmission rates. OM5 is used for wideband
applications using shortwave Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM).
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Optical Fiber Manufacturing Process

Manufacturing optical fiber for telecommunications applications takes three steps:
• Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
• Collapse
• Fiber draw
As shown in Figure 6-14, the chemical vapor deposition process begins by passing highly pure chemicals through a tube of
pure silicon dioxide while applying heat to the tube.
Hollow glass tube
The chemicals
Silicon and react to the heat by
germanium depositing layers of
chlorides soot on the inside
of the tube
The soot consists of submicron

particles of Silica and Germania.
Figure 6-14: Chemical Vapor Deposition Process

As the chemicals pass through the tube, the chemicals form solid submicron particles called soot, which are deposited on the
inside of the tube. The process is repeated, depositing multiple layers of soot on the glass tube. The chemical composition of
these layers determines the characteristics of the core and cladding of the fiber.
After the chemical deposition process is completed, the hollow tube is converted to a solid glass rod through a collapse
process. As shown in Figure 6-15, this process is performed by heating the hollow tube in a high temperature furnace until
the tube collapses into a solid rod.
Furnace
Hollow glass tube Soot
Preform
Figure 6-15: Collapse Process

After the preform has been created, a fiber draw process is used to convert the preform into an optical fiber. As shown in
Figure 6-16, the preform is loaded into a furnace and heated to a molten state. The molten glass is then pulled by gravity into
a thin strand. The result is a strand with a core and cladding. Then, required coatings are applied to the strand, yielding the
three-layer optical fiber. The finished fiber coming out of the draw process is collected by wrapping the fiber on a drum.
Preform
Furnace
Coater
Fiber
take-up
Figure 6-16: Fiber Draw Process
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Optical Connector Types

Full-size Connectors
Various types of connectors are used to temporarily or permanently connect or terminate fiber segments along the fiber
transmission length. The design allows mechanical alignments of the cores of the two fiber segments so that light can pass
without interruption.
The full-size connectors, shown in Figures 6-17-19, have a 2.5 mm ferrule (the ferrule is the center of the connector, that
holds the glass fiber):
• Straight Tip (ST): Single- and • Ferrule Connector (FC): • Standard or Subscriber
multimode, twist-on connection Single- and multimode, screw-on Connector (SC): Single- and
connection, becoming legacy multimode, snap-in connection
product
Figure 6-17: ST Figure 6-18: FC Figure 6-19: SC
Small Form Factor (SFF) Connectors

Most SFF connectors have a 1.25 mm ferrule. The Multi-fiber Push-On is an exception (Figures 6-20-24).
• Lucent Connector (LC): Single- • Mechanical Transfer Registered • Miniature Unit (MU): Single- and
and multimode, 1.25 mm ferrule, Jack (MT-RJ): Multimode, 2 fibers multimode, push-pull connection,
push and latch connection inside one ferrule 1.25 mm ferrule
Figure 6-20: LC Figure 6-21: MT-RJ Connector Figure 6-22: MU Connector

• E2000 (LX.5): Single- and • Multi-fiber Push-On (MPO):
multimode, automatic spring- Single- and multimode, push-pull
loaded protective cap, 1.25 mm connection, mass terminated in
ferrule 4-72 ribbon cables
Figure 6-23: LX.5 Connector Figure 6-24: MPO Connector
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Loss/Attenuation in Optical Fiber
Silica-based Glass Fiber Loss Profile

Optical transmission systems are designed to operate in specific regions of the optical spectrum
characterized by low optical loss. In addition, bands for specific applications are selected based on the
type of transmitters, detectors, and optical fiber to be used. Figure 6-25 shows the three primary, low loss
windows -- 850, 1310, and 1550 nm -- that are used for communication over silica glass fiber optic cable.
Figure 6-25 maps the loss profile for silica-glass optical fiber. The three areas of higher loss are called
water peak and are due to fiber impurities caused by the OH (hydroxyl ion) molecule during the
manufacture of the optical fiber. However, Low Water Peak (LWP) fibers can be used to reduce losses at
water peak. LWP fibers have lower losses in the water peak of the spectrum. These fibers reduce
attenuation significantly at water peak.
Figure 6-25: Fiber Loss and Optical Transmission Windows
Initially, optical transmission systems operated at a wavelength of 850 nm, which was located in an
area of the spectrum referred to as the first window. While the optical loss in this window was a relatively high 3 dB
per km, multimode fiber and low-cost LED transmitters and receivers were available that operated in this window.
Technological advances in optical transmission led to the use of lower-loss regions of the optical
spectrum. The second window, at 1310 nm, offered a lower optical loss of 0.5 dB per km. Further development led to
use of the third window, located at 1550 nm. The optical loss in the third window is approximately 0.2 dB per km.
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Loss at Intersections
Optical loss is caused whenever the signal in the wavelength is interrupted. Some loss is caused at fiber
intersections as shown in Figure 6-26. Some loss is caused by other anomalies in the optical fiber itself,
as we will discuss.
Figure 6-26: Loss at Intersections
Optical Attenuation
After light enters the fiber, the light is subject to a number of optical signal impairments including optical
attenuation. Optical attenuation is loss of optical power as the light signal travels through the fiber,
measured in decibels (dB).
Attenuation limits the length a signal can travel before the signal is too weak to be detected at the
receiving end. There are many factors that cause attenuation in fiber and fiber connections, but the
primary causes of attenuation are:
● Absorption
● Scattering
● Bending losses
● Fresnel reflection
● Splices
● Contamination in fiber connectors
Each of these causes is described in the following sections.
Optical Attenuation - Absorption

Absorption is a significant source of optical signal attenuation. The glass in optical fiber, just like every
material, absorbs a portion of the light passing through, which is then converted to heat. Three factors
contribute to absorption:
● Flaws in the atomic structure of the glass

● The intrinsic light-absorption properties of the glass
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● Presence of impurities in the glass
The amount of absorption depends on the wavelength and the molecular structure of glass. Certain
wavelengths exhibit higher absorption rates than others.
Absorption cannot be changed or controlled; absorption is an intrinsic loss characteristic of fiber. Also,
absorption is uniform. Therefore, the same amount of light is always absorbed by a specific type of glass
in a certain wavelength window per unit of length of fiber. Absorption peaks in glass are found at
approximately 1000 nm, 1400 nm, and above 1600 nm (at which point absorption rises rapidly).
Optical Attenuation - Rayleigh Scattering

Another major, intrinsic source of optical loss in fiber is Rayleigh scattering. This effect occurs when light
hits a discontinuity in the index of refraction. When light hits a particle or impurity in the fiber, part of the
light is scattered in all directions, as shown in Figure 6-27. The light that gets scattered back towards the
source is called the backscatter, or back reflectance. The light is weaker after going through the impurities
because part of its power is reduced by the scattering process. The backscatter is approximately
0.0001% of the transmitted light.
Figure 6-27: Rayleigh Scattering
The end of a fiber may also reflect light to the transmitter, which is typically the largest backscatter
factor (up to 4% of the total signal). As the fiber length increases, chances of light loss due to Rayleigh scattering
also increase. Scattering depends on the size of the particles relative to the wavelength of light. The closer the
wavelength is to the particle size, the more there is scattering. So, as the wavelength decreases, say from 1310 nm
to 850 nm, the amount of scattering increases quite rapidly. Therefore, the 1310 and 1550 nm operating wavelength
windows are considered least attenuation windows.
The loss effects caused by Rayleigh scattering and absorption in common silica fibers are illustrated in
Figure 6-28. Rayleigh scattering defines the absolute theoretical minimum for fiber loss. This limit also
decreases as the wavelength increases. Hydroxyl ion absorption caused by the OH– ions in the fiber is
shown in the figure. This type of absorption increases in the 1400 nm window.
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Figure 6-28: Loss Effects
Optical Attenuation - Bending Losses: Microbends

Bending the fiber also causes attenuation. Depending on the bend radius relative to the fiber diameter,
bending loss is categorized as microbend or macrobend. Microbending occurs on a microscopic scale.
The bend is not visible to the eye; however, the bend appears as a wrinkle in the fiber. A microbend can
be caused by temperature variations during manufacturing. Microbending can also be caused by extreme
temperature changes in installed cable when the different materials in the cable structure expand and
contract at different rates. This squeezing and stretching of fiber causes microbends in the fiber.
As shown in Figure 6-29, microbend losses are also caused by small discontinuities or imperfections in
the fiber. Uneven coating applications and improper cabling procedures increase microbend loss.
Additionally, microbends can occur from external forces that deform the cabled jacket surrounding the
fiber, although this might cause only a small bend in the fiber. Microbends change the path that
propagating modes take. Microbend loss increases attenuation because low-order modes become
coupled with high-order modes.
Figure 6-29: Loss Due to Microbend
Page 85
Optical Attenuation - Bending Losses: Macrobends

A macrobend is a bend that is visible to the eye. Macrobends have large bend radius relative to the fiber
diameter. As shown in Figure 6-30, macrobend losses can occur from various causes, including:
● Bending fibers too sharply during installation, such as wrapping fiber around a corner with a very
small bending radius relative to fiber diameter
● Installing tie wraps
Macrobend losses can be reduced by eliminating tight bends in the fiber and cable.
Figure 6-30: Loss Due to Macrobend
Longer wavelengths are more sensitive to macrobending, so a fiber that has been stressed by bending
will show a greater loss or attenuation at 1550 nm than at 1310 nm. Cable manufacturers recommend a minimum
bend radius of 5-10 times the outer diameter to prevent excessive bending loss.
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Optical Attenuation - Fresnel Reflections

Spans of longer distances typically consist of multiple fiber segments. Fiber segments are joined by either
splicing or using connectors to precisely match the core of one optical fiber with the core of another. This
practice helps to produce a smooth junction through which light signals can continue without alteration or
interruption.
When optical fibers are connected using connectors, an air gap may be created between the connected
fibers. The air gap may result from faulty mechanical connectors or connections. As shown in Figure 6-31,
when the optical signal encounters the air gap a portion of the optical signal is reflected back into the fiber
segment. These reflections of the optical signal are called Fresnel reflections.
Air gap
ladding
medium Core
medium
Fresnel reflections
Figure 6-31: Fresnel Reflections
The value of Fresnel reflections depends on several factors including:

● Angle of incidence (straight on or 90° reflects most)
● Density difference of the materials (with greater difference producing more reflection)
● Quality of polish (the finer the polish, the lower the reflectance) (Typically, connector-induced loss is
between 0.10 dB to 0.25 dB)
The total loss from the combined effects of all reflected light in a fiber link is referred to as Optical Return
Loss (ORL). The total loss includes losses due to Fresnel reflections and Rayleigh scattering. Optical
return loss is measured in dBs, with typical values ranging from +30 dB to +50 dB. An ORL value of +50
dB is preferable to a value of +30 dB, because the higher value indicates less reflected power (therefore
the effect of the reflection is smaller).
Page 87
Optical Attenuation - Splices

Attenuation can be caused by poor splices in optical fiber. Two methods of splicing optical fiber are fusion
splicing and mechanical splicing. Fusion splicing provides a fast, reliable, low-loss, fiber-to-fiber
connection by creating a homogeneous joint between the two fiber ends. The fibers are melted or fused
together by heating the fiber ends, typically using an electric arc. Fusion splices provide a high-quality
joint with the lowest loss, typically in the range of 0.01 dB to 0.10 dB for single-mode fibers. Fusion
splicing is practically non-reflective.
However, if the cores are misaligned during splicing, or are of different sizes or shapes, then some of the
light may not be passed into the second fiber core and will be lost. The amount of light that does not
make it into the second core is the splice loss. The cladding may not be aligned if the cores are not
exactly centered.
The loss from mechanical splicing depends on the alignment of the core of two fibers: the wider the gap,
the more the loss. Different types of materials (including adhesives and gels) are used for splicing fibers.
The disadvantages of mechanical splicing have been slightly higher losses, less-reliable performance,
and a cost associated with each splice. However, advances in the technology have significantly improved
performance. Mechanical splices are typically used for emergency restoration because mechanical
splicing is fast, inexpensive, and easy. Typically, mechanical splice losses range from 0.05 to 0.2 dB for
single-mode fiber.
There are also losses when connectors are used to join two fiber segments. Connector losses also
depend on passing light from one core to another. Because a connector relies on the ability of the
bulkhead to line up the two fiber ends, the connector allows for some different loss factors than with
splices. If two fiber ends are separated or misaligned, loss occurs because of the spreading of light as the
light comes out of the first core. Even when the gap is small, some light may be lost.
Optical Attenuation - Fiber Connector Contamination

Contamination in fiber connectors is a significant cause of attenuation in optical fiber links. Even
microscopic dirt can drastically reduce the performance of an optical link. Therefore, cleaning and
inspection of fiber connectors is very important. Figure 6-32 shows examples of finger oil contamination
and particle contamination, as observed with a fiber inspection scope. An example of a clean fiber end is
also shown.
Figure 6-32: Contaminated and Clear Optical Fiber Connectors
Page 88
Review Questions
1. Identify the three layers of optical fiber and describe the purpose of each layer.
2. What is the major physical difference between single-mode and multimode fiber? How does that
difference affect light transmission?
3. What impairment limits the distance a signal can travel before the signal is too weak to be detected at
the receiving end?
4. Which of the following windows are the primary low loss windows that are used for communication over
silica-glass fiber optic cable?
A. 850 nm
B. 1310 nm
C. 1400 nm
D. 1550 nm
Page 89
5. The total loss from the combined effects of all reflected light in a fiber link is referred to as Optical
Return Loss (ORL).
A. True
B. False
6. Which of the following properties are indoor cables properties?

A. Moisture resistant
B. Flame-retardant
C. Ultraviolet (UV) resistant
D. Smoke-inhibitor
7. Which cable is suitable for underwater signal transmission at depths of up to 8,000m?

A. Breakout cable
B. Ribbon cable
C. Submarine cable
D. Armored cable
Page 90
Module7: DWDM Optical Components

In this module, we describe Network Elements (NEs) and the components required for DWDM operation.
Objectives
 Describe NEs and the components required for DWDM operation, including:
 Cards
 Optical filters
 Transceivers
 Wavelength Selective Switches (WSS)
 Amplifiers
DWDM Terminology
WDM
WDM is a term for the concept of Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM), a technology that
enables simultaneous transport of multiple data streams, each on a different wavelength, over a
single fiber.
DWDM
Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM) is a physical transport technology. “Dense” refers to the close
spacing between DWDM wavelengths, which is defined by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU).
The ITU recommendation includes wavelength plans for wavelength spacing of 12.5, 25, 50, and 100 GHz.
The term “wavelength” may be used interchangeably with the term “channel” when describing DWDM.
The DWDM wavelength plans are based on a center frequency of 194 THz, which corresponds to a
wavelength of 1550 nm. This wavelength centers the C [conventional] band. DWDM systems primarily operate
in the C band. The channel density can be up to 100+ supportable wavelengths. With amplification, DWDM
systems may extend optical span distances up to thousands of kilometers.
CWDM
Although there are only 16 usable channels, Coarse Wave Division Multiplexing supports up to 18 channels
widely spaced at 20 nm (although vendors typically use only 8-10 channels). CWDM equipment is much less
expensive than equipment in a DWDM system because the wide channel spacing does not require complicated
filters and the laser tolerances can be less strict. CWDM systems are unamplified and cover short optical links
of about 80 km. Therefore they are not supported in OC transport networks.
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Client Card
A client card (Figure 7-1) is an optical interface unit that interfaces customer protocol and customer bit rate
over customer-side wavelengths (850, 1310 or 1550-single service nm). Note that these wavelengths are
client-side wavelengths, not DWDM wavelengths. Client cards interface the customer wavelength onto a
DWDM network.
Cards are also called circuit packs, CPs, modules, or blades plus many manufacturer-specific designations.
Figure 7-1: Optical Card
Line Card
A line card (Figure 7-2) is an optical interface unit with, at a minimum, ports for transmitting and receiving
optical signals. A line card faces the DWDM network and may have a fixed or a flexed protocol and bit rate.
Some cards support specific wavelengths and some are tunable (allowing the wavelength to be selected by
the user).
Some line cards also contain client-side optics; these are Transponder/Transceiver cards.
Figure 7-2: Line Card
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Cards
Equipment manufacturers package both transmitters and receivers onto card/modules that include the
following characteristics (Figure 7-3):
 Protocol and bit rate support for the client signal
 DWDM wavelength(s) supported for the card
 Distance supported by the transmitter on the card
 Ability to support wavelength selectivity
Figure 7-3: DWDM Cards
Band
A band is a subset of wavelengths from a wavelength plan, grouped to take advantage of fixed filters to
support bulk add/drop multiplexing.
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Channel
A channel is a single wavelength. There are several channel band plans depending on network demands.
Table 7-1 list 44 channels in ITU C-Band 100Ghz spacing DWDM grid by both THz and nm, and Table 7-2 list some of the
channel in the L-Band.
Table 7-1: Channels in the ITU C-Band 100GHz grid
Table 7-2: L-Band Channels listed by both THz and nm
Page 94
Network Elements
NEs (Figure 7-4) are defined by the requirements of the particular network where they are
located as well as their placement in the network. Additionally, NEs are defined by the
function(s) of the cards they contain. The size and capacity of NEs varies based on the above
parameters. NEs are connected to create an optical transport network.
At a minimum, an NE contains these components:

 Card cage and/or chassis
 Power supply or input
 Fan(s)
 Visual alarm and power indicators
 Management interface card(s)
 Client- and/or network-facing cards
Figure 7-4: Network Element Example
Page 95
DWDM Network Components

DWDM components (Figure 7-5) are deployed strategically over a carrier network to support
specific network requirements, such as:
 Adding and dropping customer signals at desired locations

 The required number of customer signals (channels)
 The physical distance between provider sites
 Operating over the existing fiber plant between provider sites
 Future growth requirements
 Ease of manageability
These components may be separate devices, or may be combined onto one card.
RX
TX
Figure 7-5: DWDM Components Example
DWDM components typically include line cards, filters to add/drop or pass through
wavelengths, fiber plant, and amplifiers (Figure 7-6).
Page 96
Figure 7-6: Typical DWDM Components
Optical Filters
Optical filters allow the multiplexing of wavelengths onto a single fiber, allowing for huge
capacity gains. However, optical filters also add optical loss for the wavelengths
adding/dropping or passing through them. Optical filters also have an optical power limit that
may be reached when incoming optical power exceeds the isolation capabilities of the filter
device.When using optical filters, “pass-through” traffic is a band (subset of total wavelengths),
rather than a “channel (single wavelength),” concept.
Fixed Filters
A DWDM fixed filter (Figure 7-7) is an add/drop module that supports a subset of the
wavelength grid for flexibility and cost savings. This filter type is passive, requiring no
electrical power.
A fixed filter consists of multiple optical filters packaged as an Optical Module (OMX), and
adds/drops only the wavelengths that the individual filter is tuned to add/drop. Fixed filters are
deployed in pairs to facilitate channel(s), near-end add/drop to far-end add/drop. They pass
through all incoming traffic that is not dropped locally.Physical OMX packaging differs by
application, product, and vendor (may be a standalone device, card on an NE, etc.).
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Add filter
Multiplexer
Demultiplexer
Figure 7-7: Fixed Filters
Bragg Grating Fixed Filters

A Bragg grating is an optical component packaged in an optical filter. In the example DWDM filter in Figure
7-8, each contains:
 One band add and one band drop filter

 One channel multiplex and one channel demultiplex filter
The gratings are fixed to a specific range of ITU wavelengths. The optical filter supporting
wavelength range must match DWDM line optics to add/drop the signal at a site. In reality,
there would be hundreds of gratings, each reflecting back some of the specified wavelength. The
other wavelengths are passed through.
Figure 7-8: Bragg Grating Fixed Filter
Figure 7-9 shows how a Bragg grating fixed filter, with integrated optical circulators, can be
used to select different wavelengths to be dropped or demultiplexed at different ports. The
circulators pass light through filters that shift the angle of the light, preventing the light from
reflecting back to the previous input.
Page 98
Figure 7-9: Bragg Grating Fixed Filter with Optical Circulators
Lower channel count Bragg grating based filters are cheaper, but add more loss and use
more real estate when deployed at higher densities at one site. Figure 7-10 shows both a
low- and a high-density Bragg grating fixed filter.
DWDM Module DWDM Module

Band Band
add filter add filter
Band Band
CH add CH drop Channel add Channel drop
DWDM line cards DWDM line cards

Low-channel density Bragg grating based filter High-channel density Bragg grating
(typically 4 channel) based filter (typically 16 channel)
Figure 7-10: Low- and High-density Bragg Grating Fixed

Filters
Page 99
Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module7: DWDM optical Components
Arrayed Waveguide Grating Fixed Filters
AWGs (Figure 7-11) do not have bandpass components. All wavelengths are
dropped/added. AWGs provide very high capacity (high channel counts), with a fixed
predictable loss for all channels. AWGs are very well suited to deployments with
Wavelength Selective Switches (WSS) to create flexible Reconfigurable Optical Add/Drop
Multiplexer (ROADM) sites.
There are challenges for AWGs, for example the have a higher loss across all supported
channels, and are not as well suited to low channel deployments.
Demultiplexer Multiplexer
Figure 7-11: Arrayed Waveguide Filters
Star couplers (Figure 7-12), at the input and output ends of the AWG filter, split and
combine the light. To direct different frequencies, each guide is a different length. The
different fiber lengths apply differing phase shift in such a way that the output channel
receives only the light of a certain wavelength.
Figure 7-12: Star Couplers on AWGs
Page 100
Optical Transceivers
Optical transceivers are pluggable devices that both transmit and receive. Transceivers support different
rates.
An SFP interface on networking hardware is a modular slot for a media-specific transceiver in order to
connect a fiber-optic cable or sometimes a copper cable
The Small Form Factor Pluggable (SFP) transceiver supports up to 4.25 Gbps for 850, 1310,
1550 nm, and DWDM (Figure 7-14).
Figure 7-13: SFP Transceiver
The Small Form Factor Pluggable Plus (SFP+) is an enhanced version of the SFP that
supports data rates up to 16 Gbps (Figure 7-14).
Figure 7-14: SFP+ Transceiver
The XFP (10 gigabit small form factor pluggable) is a standard for transceivers for
high-speed computer network and telecommunication links that use optical fiber. It was
defined by an industry group in 2002, along with its interface to other electrical
components, which is called XFI.
The 10 Gbps Form Factor Pluggable (XFP) transceiver supports 850, 1310, 1550 nm,
DWDM, and tunable optics (Figure 7-15).
Figure 7-15: XFP Transceiver
The C form-factor pluggable (CFP) is a multi-source agreement to produce a common form-factor for
the transmission of high-speed digital signals. The c stands for the Latin letter C used to express the
number 100 (centum), since the standard was primarily developed for 100 Gigabit Ethernet systems.
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The 100 Gbps Form Factor Pluggable (CFP) has rates of 40 or 100 Gbps that
supports 850, 1310, 1550 nm, DWDM, and tunable optics (Figure 7-16).
Figure 7-16: CFP Transceiver
The CFP2 form factor pluggable is half the size of CFP module and supports 10 x 10 Gbit/s,
4 x 25 Gbit/s, 8 x 2 5 Gbit/s, or 8 x 50 Gbit/s lanes (Figure 7-17).
Figure 7-17: CFP2 Transceiver
The CFP4 form factor pluggable is half the size of CFP module and supports both 4 x 25
Gbit/s and 4 x 10 Gbit/s interfaces (Figure 7-18).
Figure 7-18: CFP4 Transceiver
QSFP
Another expansion on the original SFP concept, QSFP uses double fiber pairs. The Q stands for “quad,” and
the additional pair allows for substantially more powerful data transmission. QSFP connectors are still small and
hot-pluggable, and they still support Ethernet and fiber optics.
QSFP data rates get up to 1 Gbps per channel, allowing for 4X1 G cables and stackable networking designs
that achieve better throughput.
QSFP+
QSFP+ is the modern incarnation of QSFP. In most data centers, it has completely replaced its
predecessor. QSFP+ can reach speeds of 10 Gbps per line. This makes it a 40G connection type that still
maintains the small form factor that is essential to so many network designs.
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Quad Small Form Factor Pluggable plus (QSFP+): Supports 4x10 Gbit/s channel.
Figure 7-19: QSFP+

Transceiver
QSFP28
The latest advance on QSFP connections is QSFP28. It expands on the transmission rate per line, and it
easily gets throughput beyond 100G.
Qudad Small Form Factor Pluggable 28 (QSFP28): carries upto 28G data rate,4x25G and, 2x50G
breakout connection
Figure 7-20: QSFP28 Transceiver
Optical Protection Switch (OPS)
The Optical Protection Switch provides 1+1 optical protection switching in a 1RU form factor. When OPS is
used with diversely routed fiber pairs, the Optical Protection Switch can protect against fiber plant failure by
switching to the good fiber pair. An optical splitter at the head end broadcasts the DWDM wavelengths on
both fibers and a 1x2 optical switch at the tail end selects the surviving signal. Optical photo detectors at
the switch end monitor power levels that are used for switching decisions.
Page 103
Figure 7-21: optical Protection switch
Transponder Protection Tray (TPT)
 The Transponder Protection Tray (TPT) provides per wavelength protection against an Optical Transponder
card failure and also against a site-to-site fiber failure
 The signal received from the client is optically split using a TPT and connected into two Optical Transponder
cards
 The Optical Transponder cards are configured to send their trunk facing signals over two diverse
site-to-site fiber links
Figure 7-22: Interior view of a 2-channel Transponder Protection Tray
Page 104
Optical Protection Switch (OPS): Example
Figure 7-23: 4xOPS circuit pack faceplate
 Red triangle (Fail): Used to communicate hardware or software failure state

 Card not failed = LED off, Card failed = LED on
 Green rectangle (Ready): Used to communicate hardware or software functional state
 Card initializing = Blinking LED; Card OK = LED on; Card not ready = LED off
 Blue diamond (In Use): Used to communicate whether circuit pack can be extracted
(on->no pull, off->can be pulled)
 Equipment in-service = LED on; Equipment out-of-service = LED off
Page 105
Wavelength Selective Switch

The Wavelength Selective Switch (WSS) is the “heart” of a Reconfigurable Optical Add/Drop
Multiplexer (ROADM), enabling an operator to direct a wavelength or band of wavelengths to any
outbound fiber on any port.
Power Processor Optical Power 2x1 Monitor 1

Supply Module Monitor Optical
PD Switch
Monitor 2
Switch In-1
Switch In-2
Wavelength
Selective Switch
9x1 50 GHz Switch In-3
Switch In-4
Switch In-5
PD PD PD PD PD PD PD PD
PD Common Out 20
PD
Demux Out-1 4
Demux Out-2 6
Demux Out-3 8
Passive
Demux Demux Out-4 10
Demux Out-5 12
Passive
Demux
EDFA 1x2 Demux Out-6 14
EDFA = Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier PD = Photodiode
Figure 7-24: Wavelength Selective Switch
A WSS can be deployed on a card, as shown in Figure 7-21. This example card is called a
“9x1 WSS.” Up to 88 channels (wavelengths) are supported on this card, with a spacing of
50 GHz.
Figure 7-25: A Different View of a WSS
Page 106
Optical Amplifiers
Prior to the introduction of optical amplifiers, optical spans were severely limited in the ability to support
long optical spans. They relied solely on the output power if the optical transmitter and required channel
regeneration in order to extend distances. Regeneration for the purpose of span distance extension is
undesirable due to the extreme cost and additional equipment required to support a given optical span.
Optical amplifiers are optical components that provide optical signal gain. Unlike regeneration, amplification
does not require the optical conversion to electrical and back to optical (O-E-0). Amplifiers have the ability
to amplify optical signals across a defined range (gain window) of the EMF spectrum. This is efficient as
one amplifier can provide gain for many/all the operational client signals on the common optical span.
Amplifier gain is measured in dB.
While optical amplification is technically possible for a single wavelength optical span; it is almost never
designed or deployed as such. In real optical networks amplifiers are deployed only in DWDM based OC
transport networks due to the cost and capacity benefits that DWDM provides. DWDM combined with
amplification provide great cost savings and capacity increase over previous single lambda unamplified
optical spans. As such, amplifier support is considered mandatory for DWDM networks.
There are two types of amplification commonly used for OC transport networks:
Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA)
Raman amplifier
Optical Amplifier packaging

Amplifiers are typically packaged as:
 Fixed-gain Amplifiers (FGA) (see figure 7-24)
 Variable-gain Amplifiers (VGA) (see figure 7-25)
Fixed-gain Amplifiers
Figure 7-26: Fixed Gain Amplifier
FGA amplifiers provide a constant amount of gain. Typically around +23 dB, but this value varies based on vendor,
equipment etc. Because the gain is fixed, external power balancing of active wavelengths is required. FGA
deployments require a higher level of human intervention compared to VGA deployments. VGAs provide the ability
to dynamically change or adjust the optical gain the amplifier produces. This ability provides a level of gain control for
the optical span. Photodetectors monitor the input and output power levels and use the information to adjust the
optical gain of the amplifier.
Page 107
Variable-gain Amplifiers
Monitor B
EDFA VOA
Backplane
OSC B In
PD PD PD
Line B IN 6
Mon
Monitor A
VOA OSC
EDFA
Module
PD PD PD
OSC A In 4
Power
PD
Line A In 7 Line B5
EDFA = Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier PD = Photodiode VOA = Variable Optical Attenuator
Figure 7-27: Variable Gain Amplifier
VGAs may be controlled either manually or by auto power control software. The main benefit
of VGAs compared to fixed-gain amplifiers is the reduction in the time to react to an optical
span changes (both outages and failures) and the ability to support automatic power control
for the optical span. This ability reduces operational expense (OPEX) and increases network
reliability.
Page 108
Raman Amplifiers
Raman amplifiers are based on Raman gain, which results from the nonlinear effect of Stimulated Raman
Scattering (SRS) intrinsic in all optical fiber.
Optical gain is achieved through energy released by mechanical vibrations (phonons) when light is
transmitted through the fiber. When two wavelengths (separated by 100 nm) are transmitted over the same
optical fiber, optical energy from the lower wavelength is radiated and absorbed as optical energy by the
higher wavelength. Amplification occurs.
Using a high powered pump laser to generate the lower wavelength enables the power to be coupled to the
higher wavelength, resulting in amplification of the higher wavelength.
Raman amplification can be applied to any wavelength within the optical telecom spectrum.
Figure 7-26 shows a high powered 1450 nm laser pumping light in a counter-propagating direction, through a
circulator, and into a fiber. The signal is a wavelength in the C-band ~1550 nm.
Because the wavelength of the laser is 100 nm less than the 1550 nm wavelength, Stimulated Raman
Scattering (SRS) occurs, causing amplification of the 1550 nm wavelength, which is the data-carrying signal.
Figure 7-28: Raman Amplifier

Raman Gain
For a single pump system, Raman gain is typically between 7-11 dB.
Raman Gain Bandwidth

Raman gain bandwidth is approximately 48 nm wide. The peak gain wavelength is 100 nm above the
wavelength of the laser pump (Figure 7-27).
Any wavelength can be amplified by adjusting the laser pump wavelength. The total Raman gain
bandwidth can be expanded by using multiple pump lasers with overlapping wavelength spectra.
Page 109
A drawback of Raman amplifiers is that the pump laser is required to output 500 mW to 1 Watt of
optical power to induce the Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS) amplification process.
Figure 7-29: Raman Bandwidth Gain
Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS)
 Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) is an important nonlinear process that can turn optical fibers into broadband
Figure 7-30: Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS)
Raman amplifiers and tuneable Raman lasers.
 When an atom is in ground state and it absorbs the photon having a particular energy level to reach to excited state
and when the atom falls back from excited state to ground state, it emits the photon having different energy.
 Due to the difference in their energy levels, the vibration of optical cable takes place.
 SRS occurs, whenever there is interaction between optical energy and vibrational mode of cable.
Page 110
Type of Raman Amplifier
Raman amplifier in which Pump counter-propagates with signal (reverse pump)
Figure 7-31: Pump counter-propagating with the signal
 Raman pump is applied in reverse direction with signal.

 The transmitted signal is being amplified while its intensity level is still high enough to cause fibre nonlinearity to
take place.
Page 111
Raman amplifier in which Pump CO-propagates with signal
Figure 7-33: Pump Counter + CO-propagates with signal
The high power counter-propagating unit injects counter-propagating optical power to generate a Raman effect in
the span fibre and thus amplifies the signals propagating in the same fibre. Similarly, the co-propagating Raman
unit injects co-propagating optical power that also amplifies the signal through a Raman effect in fibre.
The signal thus receives amplification from the optical power injected by both these units present on opposite
ends of the span.
Raman amplifier in which Pump Counter + CO-propagates with signal
Figure 7-32: Pump CO-propagating with signal
Page 112
High Power Raman Span Configurations
The objective of the high power Raman span is to provide high-speed backbone connectivity across a stretch of water
and typically over an extended span. Unlike the repeatered submarine application (transoceanic or regional
crossings), the high power Raman span does not require costly undersea electronics.
The Raman amplifier allows DWDM signals to be sent over extended spans without the use of costly regenerating
equipment or undersea electronics.
Hybrid EDFA/Raman Amplification Deployment

In some networks, depending on vendor, equipment, and deployment, it may be desirable to use
both amplification types to achieve the required gain across the defined operational range of the
EMF. Both EDFA and Raman amplification methods may be combined on the same optical span in
order to achieve the required gain across the deployed wavelength range as shown in Figure 7-27.
While hybrid EDFA/Raman amplification deployments are uncommon there are situations where this
deployment is desirable—usually specialized, long-haul spans.
Using partially gain-flattened, wideband EDFA and Raman amplification in the fiber, an extremely
large bandwidth of 67 nm (1549-1616 nm) can be obtained. Using partially gain-flattened, wideband
EDFA and Raman amplification in the fiber, an extremely large bandwidth of 67 nm (1549-1616 nm)
can be obtained (Figure 7-28).
Figure 7-34: Hybrid EDFA/Raman Amplification
Page 113
Laser safety
Small amounts of laser light can lead to permanent eye injuries.
High-power lasers can burn the retina of the eye or the skin.
Figure 7-34: Human Eye
Effects
 Moderate and high power lasers in the visible to near infrared range (0.4 -1.4 μm) will cause burns on the
retina resulting in permanent blind spots.
 Excessive exposure to UV light from lasers can cause effects similar to sunburn.
 Visible and infrared rays can cause thermal damage:
 UV-A (0.315 μm-0.400 μm) can cause hyper pigmentation and erythema.
 UV-B range (0.280 μm -0.315 μm) is most injurious to skin. Can cause radiation carcinogenesis.
 UV-C (0.200 μm-0.280 μm) is less harmful to human skin.
Some Causes of Laser accidents are:
 Eye exposure during alignment
 Misaligned optics
 Non-use of laser safety glasses
 Equipment malfunction
 Improper methods of handling high voltage
 Unauthorised operation
 Lack of protection for non-beam hazards
Page 114
Laser Classification and Laser Risks
Risk class Description Risk level
 Low energy level, non-hazardous to skin. Safe during normal operation.
 usually not capable of producing damaging radiation levels during normal

Class 1 operation Low
 Exempted from control measures.
 Examples: Lasers used in laser printers and compact disc players.
 Safe during normal operation, but may cause eye injury if viewed with an
optical instrument.
 Used for fibre optic communication system comes under this

classification.
Class 1M Low-Medium
 Not capable of producing hazardous exposure conditions during normal
operation, except when the beam is viewed with an optical instrument.
 Control measures not recommended but potentially hazardous optically

aided viewing to be avoided.
 Visible wavelengths only; Blink response provides eye safety; Will not
burn skin.
Class 2  Because of the human aversion response, do not normally present a Low-Medium
hazard, but may be a potential hazard if viewed directly for a long time.
 Example: Laser pointers.
 Visible wavelengths only; Blink response provides eye safety for unaided
viewing but can be hazardous if viewed with an optical instrument Will not
burn skin.
Class 2M  Aversion response of eyes offer protection to the eyes. Medium
 Can be potentially hazardous when viewed with optical aids.
 Example: Lasers used in level and orientation instruments in civil work.
 Transitional zone between safe and hazardous laser products. Direct

viewing of beam may be hazardous.
 Potentially hazardous under direct and specular reflection viewing

Class 3R condition if the eye is appropriately focused and stable, but the probability Medium-High
of injury is small.
 Is not a fire hazard or diffuse-reflection hazard.
 Some laser pointers are classified as Class 3R lasers.
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 Direct viewing and specular reflections can cause eye injury.
 Can be hazardous under direct and specular reflection viewing conditions.

Class 3B High
 Normally not a diffuse reflection or fire hazard.
 Used in physiotherapy treatments and research work.
 Can cause severe skin and eye injury through any direct exposure. Often
a fire hazard as well.
 A hazard to the eye and skin from the direct beam.
 May pose a diffuse reflection hazard.

Class 4 Extreme
 Can cause fire.
 May produce laser generated air contaminants and hazardous plasma

radiation.
 Used in displays and cutting of metals.
Safety Precautions
Basic precautions when working with lasers or fiber connections:
 Do not look into lasers or fibers (Take appropriate precautions)
 Always assume lasers and fiber connections have signal present
Follow safety guidelines:
 Follow the applicable product documentation for the operation or maintenance activity being performed
Avoid direct exposure:
 Direct eye or skin exposure to direct or scattered radiation must be avoided.
 Never look into the end of a fiber transmitter or fiber pigtail
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Electro-Static Discharge (ESD) Precautions

ESD protective equipment:
 ESD wrist strap
 Foot/heel straps (if used on anti-static floor mats)
 Anti-static mat (found in some labs)
 ESD packing material
 ESD neutralizer equipment (Ionizers)
 ESD test equipment (wrist and foot / heel strap tester)
Foot heel straps are only effective if properly worn:
 Always wear two straps
 Must be used with a conductive floor
Figure 7-35: ESD Precautions
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Review Question
The following review questions are based on information in this student guide. Your instructor may review these
questions in class after you have had time to complete your answers.
1. Line cards are both be fixed and tunable.
A. True
B. False
2. Name the two types of fixed filter used commonly in DWDM systems
3. The Optical Protection Switch provides 1+1 optical protection switching.

A. True
B. False
4. What type of transceiver supports 40+ Gbps?
5. WSS enables the system to direct a wavelength or band of wavelengths to any outbound fiber on any port.
A. True
B. False
6. List the two types of amplifiers commonly employed in DWDM networks
7. CWDM has wider channel spacing than DWDM

A. True
B. False
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Module 8: Optical Networking Types

Overview
In this module, we describe how communications networks evolved into today’s optical networks. We discuss
Optical Communications (OC) transport in the context of requirements, definitions, supporting topologies,
protection schemes, and network site types.
Objectives
● Define terms commonly used in optical communications
● Discuss the evolution of the Optical Communications (OC) transport network, from the Plesiochronous Digital
Hierarchy (PDH) through today
● List the requirements for carrier grade OC transport
● Understand the protection schemes used in OC transport networks
● Explain network topologies
● Understand network site
OC Transport Network Definitions

Before we begin our discussion, we will cover some definitions that will enhance our understanding of this
module.
Client signal
A client signal contains traffic inputs into the optical network infrastructure. The client signal may be the optical
provider’s internal traffic, another carrier’s traffic, or the traffic of another operational entity that ingresses an
optical network.
“Client signal” does not necessarily mean that the traffic ingressing the optical network is “customer” traffic. The
term client signal may mean:
● A subtending electrical rate signal into a TDM-based NE
● A lower bit rate optical SONET/SDH signal into a higher line rate SONET/SDH NE
● Any input traffic into a DWDM/CWDM system that operates outside the WDM system’s transport wavelength
plan such as: 850 nm, 1310 nm, 1550 nm (single service)
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OC Transport Network Lines

OC transport networks consist of network elements and connections between them, referred to here as “lines.” OC
transport network lines may consist of single- or multi-wavelength connections depending on technology or
protocols utilized in a given OC transport network. OC transport network connections are sometimes referred to as
“optical spans,” but typically involve more than just the physical fiber; amplifiers, filters and protection schemes
may also be included.
Lines are responsible for the bulk movement of data across the OC transport network .
Operations, Administration, and Maintenance (OAM)

OAM is the processes of managing network resources and services efficiently. OAM defines the processes,
protocols, and applications for managing network equipment and resources. Day-to-day operation, troubleshooting,
and network upgrades are part of OAM.
Fault, Configuration, Accounting, Performance, and Security (FCAPS)

FCAPS is the network management framework that formalizes OAM into the standard responsibilities that must be
enabled, supported, and accounted for in an OC transport network. FCAPS is defined by the International
Organization for Standardization, ISO/IEC 7498-4. FCAPS is also defined as the Telecommunications Management
Network (TMN) by the International Telecommunication Union ITU-T M.3000.
Service Level Agreement (SLA)

An SLA is a contractual agreement that outlines the responsibilities for a service for both the provider and customer,
it also sets the expectations and scope for the service provided. Financial penalties for failure to deliver the defined
service levels are often a component of the SLA.
Optical Transport Network Configuration
● Interexchange Carrier (IXC): A telephone company that provides connections between local exchanges
in different geographic areas.
● Access: A network that serves individual or groups of homes and businesses
● Metro: A network that connects groups of data centers or Central Offices (COs) in a city or region and
distributes traffic to or collects traffic from customer sites in the access network
● Core: The long-haul portion of a network, optimized for bulk data transport at high speeds. Network core
devices make up the backbone of any network and are specialized to connect networks across cities and
even nations. The links in the core are multiple fiber pairs spanning long distances.
Figure 8-1: OC Transport Network
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Evolution of OC Transport Technology

Figure 8-2 is a reference for the approximate timelines that optical technologies were used as the primary
mechanisms for provider optical transport networks. As with any generalization, there are exceptions. For
example, SONET and SDH are deployed even today. The figure illustrates technology evolution and provides a
chronological context for OC transport technology evolution. Table 8-1 provides an expanded timeline for the
figure.
Figure 8-2: Optical Carrier Evolution
Table 8-1 Expanded Timeline for Optical Carrier Evolution
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Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)

The Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) is the layered structure of plesiochronous networks such as
T-, E-, and J-carrier. (Plesiochronous means almost synchronous.) Each hierarchical level is formed by
successively carrying out the TDM bit multiplexing of the lower-level signals.
Bit-multiplexing provides better quality signals than other techniques such as buffering. The drawback is
difficulty in adding or dropping lower level signals from a higher level PDH bit stream. Demultiplexing must
be done at each level of the PDH hierarchy above the level of the lower level signal.
PDH was designed originally to carry voice traffic. In 1965, Canada and the United States adopted the T1
standard, which is based on the Digital Signal (DS)-1:
 1.544 Mbps Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) signal containing 24 digital voice channels, each at a
rate of 64 Kbps
 8,000 DS-1 frames per second X 193 bits per frame = 1.544 Mbps
The E-carrier standard was adopted everywhere else except Japan:
 E0: Basic unit of E-carrier system; one voice channel operating at 64 Kbps
 32 E0 channels -> multiplexed -> 2.048 Mbps E1 signal
 128 E0 channels -> multiplexed -> next higher signal, E2
Note: The J-carrier standard was adopted in Japan. However, J Carrier is not valid anymore and Japan is
mostly SDH now.
 The advantages of PDH include:

 Supports transportation of huge amounts of data over digital equipments using various
transmission mediums
 Equipment small enough for use in street cabinets
 Good for point-to-point connections
 Cost-effective support for access networks
 Network management has been enhanced to greater extent
 The drawbacks of PDH include:
 Difficulties in adding or dropping lower level signals from a higher level PDH bit stream
 Demultiplexing that has to be done at each level of the PDH hierarchy above the level of the
lower level signal
Copyright © 2011 - 2020 Ciena Corporation.

Figure All8-3:
rights reserved. T-carrier, and J-carrier Frames
E-carrier, Revision 2.0
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A key development in the evolution of communications networks was the replacement of analog
transmission by digital transmission. In the following paragraphs, you can choose to learn about this transition,
and how digitizing data contributed to the development of high-speed optical transmission.
Early Development of Digital Transmission
When telephones started to become household necessities in the 1950s, telephone companies ran copper from
each house to a connection on an exterior pole. That junction went to a Central Office (CO), which routed each call to its
destination. Telephone companies had multiple switching offices, which were interconnected by copper. The telephone systems
used analog transmission technology to route calls over the copper-based connections. In the CO, multiplexing was used to
aggregate calls between COs. Initially, multiplexing combined 12 call channels onto two twisted pairs of copper wire. As the
number of subscribers grew, the trunking network that interconnected offices became overwhelmed. Higher levels of multiplexing
were implemented to meet the demand, but problems continued. The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) in the United
States relied solely on analog transmission technology until the 1960s. (Even today, in North America, analog technology is widely
used in the PSTN for connections to end users.) Because of its dependence on analog technology, the PSTN was hampered by
the following problems:
• Signal noise: Analog signals require regeneration when transmitted over long distances. Regenerators cannot
distinguish between a signal and noise in a transmission so they regenerate both the signal and the noise. Therefore, noise in an
analog transmission is additive as the signal traverses the network. Advances in analog telephony reduced the effect of noise, but
the additive characteristics continued to be a problem over long distances
• Difficulty in scaling to meet increased demand: To meet the increasing demand for telephone services,
expanding the analog system required adding more lines. This work was expensive, time-consuming, and required more and
more space.
These problems led to the use of digital transmission in the PSTN. One of the key technological advances in digital
transmission technology was Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), which has enabled the reconstruction of the digital signal. United
Kingdom engineer Alec Reeves developed PCM in 1937. From the time of Alexander Graham Bell’s invention of the telephone in
1876, voice transmission had been hampered by noise and transmission errors. Reeves’ solution was to sample the analog voice
waveform at regular intervals and convert the analog waveform to a digital signal. The samples were represented by binary
numbers, which were transmitted in the form of on-off pulses. By digitizing the analog signal, PCM reduced the noise and
transmission errors associated with analog transmission.
PCM digitizes an analog signal using a three-step process: sampling, quantizing, and encoding.
Reeves based the sampling process used in PCM on the Nyquist sampling theorem. The theorem states that the
sampling frequency of an analog wave must be at least twice the highest frequency of that wave.
In telephony, the highest frequency of voice signals is about 3,400 Hz. Therefore, using the Nyquist
theorem, the sampling rate should be no less than 6,800 samples per second. In the telephone system, the actual
bandwidth allocated to each voice channel was 4,000 Hz; therefore, when PCM was implemented in the
telephone system, the sampling rate was 8,000 samples per second. Figure 9-5 shows an analog wave with
sampling points.
amplifying an Analog Wave
Wave The next step in the PCM process is quantizing the samples. In this step, a numeric value is
assigned to each sample, representing the level of the analog signal at each sample point. The quantizing
process has 255 values (in the range of +127 to -127) for representing various levels. This set of numeric data
becomes the digital representation of the analog signal. After the samples are quantized, the next step is to
encode the data into a digital bit stream for transmission. This encoding is done by converting each quantized
value into a binary string of eight 1s and 0s. Each string forms an 8-bit word (byte). Then, the transmission rate
for each channel can be calculated as follows:8,000 samples per second X 8 bits per sample = 64,000 bits per
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SONET/SDH improvements over earlier PDH

 The standardized SONET/SDH optical interfaces made it very convenient for interconnection in lines
 The world-standard frame structure and rate of digital signals made it easy to interconnect in the world
 SONET/SDH had excellent ability of Digital Cross Connecting
 Adopted the synchronous mapping, encapsulation and pointer to facilitate the add/drop capability
 Possessed forward and backward compatibility and avoided synchronization issues
 SONET/SDH protection schemes: BLSR, MS-SPRing, UPSR,1+1, 1:N
Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM)

OC transport networks evolved from SONET/SDH-based networks to DWDM-based networks for an increase in
capacity without having to expand the existing fiber plant. However, this evolution led to issues with management
and control, because no standardized Operations, Administration, and Management (OAM) existed for
DWDM-based networks.
Unlike SONET/SDH, DWDM does not natively provide:
● In-band communications channel
● OAM mechanism for alarm and notification
● Service Level Agreement (SLA) supporting mechanism
● Standardized OAM functionality
Optical Transport Hierarchy (OTH)

● In the Optical Transport Hierarchy, the Optical Channel (OCh) layer is further structured in layers:
● Optical Payload Unit (OPUk),
● Optical Data Unit (ODUk), and
● Optical Transport Unit (OTUk)
● The primary benefits of OTN include:
● Enhanced OAM for wavelengths
● Universal container supporting any service type
● Standard multiplexing hierarchy
● End-to-end optical transport transparency of customer traffic
● Multi-level path OAM
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OC Transport Network Requirements

OC transport networks today must have the ability to support carrier grade reliability, including network availability,
network redundancy, network resiliency, and client signal protection. In addition, large capacity, standardized
Operations, Administration, and Maintenance (OAM), flexible client signal support, low latency, and flexible
deployment options such as linear, ring, and mesh topologies must be supported.
OC transport network carrier grade reliability requires the ability to support:
 Availability
 Redundancy
 Resiliency
 Client signal protection
Client signal protection support requires that the OC transport network can support the physical protection
requirements of the customer signal/service.
Network Availability
Availability is based on the Mean Time between Failures (MTBF) rating of NEs and the anticipated Mean Time to
Repair (MTTR) after a failure. Availability is calculated as:
 Uptime/total time
Correspondingly, individual NE availability is calculated as:

 MTBF/(MTBF + MTTR)
MTBF is a vendor-specified rating for NEs, and its determination is based on Telcordia standards SR-332 and
MIL-HDBK-217 (although many NE MTBF ratings exceed this number).
MTTR is an operational rating and describes the duration of failures or the mean time for operational processes to
restore elements to normal operation.
Availability is expressed as a percentage of network availability over a year (8,760 hours). To be considered
“carrier grade,” availability is specified with at least 99.999% network availability:
 99.99% = 4-nines
 99.999% = 5-nines
 99.9999% = 6-nines
Table: 8-2 Network Availability Parameters
Availability can be significantly increased using link and NE redundancy. Net availability for series NEs is less than
a single NE with the same availability.
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Network Redundancy
Redundancy increases effective/calculated network availability. An NE, a path, or both can be redundant. Network
redundancy is expressed when both NE and path are redundant.
Path redundancy is expressed by diverse physical fiber paths.
NE redundancy is expressed by duplicated components such as:
 Cards
 Switch fabric
 Power supplies
 Cooling fans
 Optics
Figure 8-4: No Redundancy
Figure 8-5: NE and Path Redundancy
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Network Resiliency
Network resiliency is accomplished by the network reaction to a fault, and the ability to maintain service. The
typical requirement for time to detection and reporting of a failure is 1-10 milliseconds (ms). The typical
requirement for the time from failure detection (Figure 8-6) to completion of the switchover action is no more than
50 ms.
Figure 8-6: Network Resiliency
Large Capacity
Higher capacity in OC transport networks is achieved with DWDM multiplexing, and protocols that support higher
bit rates (100+ Gbps for example), or both.
DWDM networks achieve large capacity gains with adherence to a closely spaced ITU wavelength grid (12.5-200
GHz). Figure 8-7 shows examples of the tremendous gains that can be made with dense wave division
multiplexing.
Figure 8-7: Capacity Gains
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Ciena WaveLogic evolution involve two parallel development streams:
 WaveLogic 5 Extreme:
 First in the industry to deliver single-wave 800G
 400GbE anywhere at any distance
 Step-function improvement in network performance and economics
 50% more capacity per wave
 Up to 20% higher spectral efficiency
 WaveLogic 5 Nano Technical:

 100G-400G footprint-optimized solutions
 Meet your specific space. power and operational requirements by use case:
 400ZR pluggable
 Next gen access solution
 Metro/regional integrated solution
 Delivering the best economics through vertical integration
 Some of WaveLogic 5 extreme applications include:

 Single Span DCI:
 800G wavelength
 Max spectral efficiency
 Adaptation b/w 100/400G routers
 Demarcation device
 Multi-span Metro / Long Haul:
 Best-in-class network economics
 Tunable 2006 — 800G capacity
 600G metro/regional, 4006 LH
 Fewer waves to manage
 Submarine:
 Best-in-class spectral efficiency
 Less waves to manage
 Ability to maximize return on cable investment
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Standardized Operations, Administration, and Maintenance

OC transport networks must support standardized OAM, which includes the ability to support performance
monitoring, Service Level Agreements (SLAs), and Fault, Configuration, Accounting, Performance, and Security
(FCAPS).
OAM supports comprehensive fault detection and isolation, embedded communications channels including
General Communication Channel/Data Communication Channel (GCC in OTN and DCC in SONET/SDH), and an
Optical Supervisory Channel (OSC) to support OAM, SLA, and operational goals.
OC transport protocols (such as SONET/SDH or OTN) define an area of the client signal mapping structure that
allows for carrying OAM information.
OAM information may be carried in-band (along with the client signal, Figure 8-8). In-band management is defined
by the OC transport protocol (SONET/SDH, OTN).
Figure 8-8: In-band OAM
OAM information may also be carried out-of-band (on a separate wavelength, Figure 8-9) in a
DWDM-based OC transport network.
Figure 8-9: Out-of-band OAM
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Low Latency
Latency (or delay) is the total time it takes traffic to enter and exit the optical network. New networks require low
latency for client applications such as real-time video and live video applications. Factors that affect latency are:
 Serialization delay
 Propagation delay
Serialization Delay
Serialization delay is the time required to modulate the signal onto the fiber. Serialization delay is affected by:
 Protocol bit rate
 Modulation type used
Propagation Delay
Propagation delay is related to the distance the signal has to travel. Propagation delay values are slightly different
based on the type of fiber being used. The values are typically published by the fiber manufacturer and will be
expressed as μs/km or μs/mile.
Generally speaking, for an OC transport network, propagation delay can be calculated as:
 Distance/speed of light (2*108 ms)
Longer routes through the network increase propagation delay. Dispersion Compensation (DC) techniques affect
propagation delay:
 The use of traditional DC modules increases propagation delay
 The use of electronically dispersion compensating optics reduces propagation delay
Flexible Client Signal Support

 An OC transport network must have the capability to support various client signals, depending on customer
requirements. Common client signals include:
 PDH rates such as E1/DS-1, DS-3, E4, E3
 SONET rates: OC-3/12/48/192
 SDH rates: STM-1/4/16/64
 Gigabit Ethernet rates: 1 GbE, 10GbE and above
 Fibre Channel
 Fiber Connection (FICON)
 Video, HD video
 OTN rates: OTU1, OTU2, OTU3 and above
Greater client signal support allows for a more flexible OC network.
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OC Transport Network Topologies
Physical topology of a network is the physical arrangement of NEs in the network. Network operators decide on a
topology based on their future needs. A network may be based on a combination of topologies. The following
network characteristics are directly affected by the choice of a network topology:
 Resilience, in the event of a failure
 Fault detection capabilities
 Costs involved in setting up a network topology
 Costs involved in expanding the size of a network
 Complexity of monitoring services
Linear Topologies
Figure 8-10: Linear Point-to-Point Unprotected Line
Figure 8-11: Linear Point-To-Point Protected Line
Figure 8-12: Linear Point-To-Point with Optical Trunk Switch Line
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Linear Point to point topology with optical trunk switch line can use optical protection switch (OPS) or Transponder
Protection Tray (TPT). The 4xOptical Protection Switch (4xOPS C-Band 1xOPSM2) circuit pack provides 1+1
optical layer protection n functionally similar to ETS (Enhanced Trunk Switch). In 6500, the Transponder
Protection Tray (TPT) provides line and/or client protection for some of 6500 circuit packs by using the Ciena
Transponder Protection Tray (TPT) modules.
This type of protection offers low cost, because there is no equipment duplication. Only one set of Transponder is
used. A customer with a tolerance for outage time might benefit from this protection.
Figure 8-13: Linear Point-To-Point with Optical Trunk Switch Detail
Ring Topology
NEs are attached to each other in a series to form a ring. One or more NEs in a ring can be connected to other
NEs in the network. Networks implementing the ring topology are also referred to as network rings.
Network rings (Figure 8-14) are used to provide network resiliency to a large geographic area.
Figure 8-14: Ring Topology
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Mesh Topology
Each NE is connected to more than one other NE in the mesh (Figure 8-15). There is high resiliency because of
multiple paths among the different NEs. Optical mesh topologies are enabled by ROADM technology.
The mesh network can be fully or partially meshed. Partially meshed is cost effective but provides less reliability
than a fully mesh.
Advantages of mesh topology are that a fully meshed network provides a high level of network resiliency by
providing alternative paths to the network core and to every device on the network. In addition, a single device or
link failure does not disrupt network connectivity to other devices in the mesh. Finally, mesh topology provides the
flexibility to scale up the network without disrupting existing NEs.
Figure 8-15: Mesh Topology
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OC Transport Network Site Types

OC transport networks that use DWDM use these site types:
 Optical Add/Drop Multiplex (OADM) DWDM site
 Terminal (TOADM) DWDM site
 Reconfigurable OADM (ROADM) DWDM site
 Amplifier site
Terminal and OADM DWDM site types

OADM sites add/drop some, but not all, operational wavelengths in a given DWDM-based OC transport network
while TOADM sites add/drop all operational bands/groups in a given DWDM-based OC transport network.
Figure 8-16: TOADM and OADM Sites
Figure 8-17: Boston OADM site optical filter detail
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Reconfigurable Add/Drop Multiplexer

A ROADM site (Figure 8-18) provides the ability to reconfigure individual wavelengths remotely using a
Wavelength Selective Switch (WSS). WSS are optical switches. They can switch optical wavelengths from one
path to another photonically without requiring an optical to electrical to optical (O-E-O) conversion. A wavelength
(client signal) can be changed on demand without affecting other traffic or services. As a result, ROADM sites
provide the following benefits:
 Enables the ability to pre-deploy services without a predetermined channel path (source to destination)
 Reduces line/transponder to ROADM re-cabling for reduced operating expense
 Reduces sparing costs
 Enhances flexibility and scalability
 Enables new provider offerings for clients, such as Optical Virtual Private Networks (OVPNs)
Figure 8-18: ROADM Physical View
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ROADM Terms
Flex Grid:
 Allows to use extended spectrum, where supported, up to 96x50 GHz channels, with careful channel planning
to allow efficient spectral usage without impacting the existing channels
 Extended photonic support with Flex Grid implementation is supported
Fixed Grid:
One drawback of this approach is that the spectral width of the wavelength increases from 50 GHz to either 75
GHz, 100 GHz or even 150 GHz depending on the selected baud rate. The increase in spectral width can, in some
cases (such as for older ROADM systems), become an obstacle to the successful transmission of the wavelength
across the network.
Directional ROADM:
 A 2-degree ROADM node supports two DWDM line interfaces. It also allows two add/drop branches of all line
interfaces
 Multi Degree: Multi degree ROADMs support more than two DWDM line interfaces. The number of possible
add/drop branches is determined by the WSS port count
Directionless ROADM:
 Directionless or direction-independent frequency functionality enables full flexibility in routing to any direction.
Wavelength can be routed from any add/drop port to any direction in software
 Are deployed for restoration purposes or the temporary re-routing of services (for example, because of
network maintenance or bandwidth on demand requirements)
Colorless ROADM:
 Colorless or color-independent functionality unblocks wavelength assignment on any add/drop. ROADM ports
are not frequency specific; retuned laser doesn’t require fiber move
Contentionless ROADM:
 Contentionless or wavelength contention-free functionality unblocks the wavelength inside ROADM that
occurred due to wavelength collision. In the same add/drop device, you can add and drop the same frequency
to multiple ports.
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OC Transport Network Applications

Cloud computing, remote storage, and other bandwidth-intensive services are driving demand for higher-speed
connectivity. Customers of service providers are finding advantages in consolidating voice, data, storage, and
video networks into a high-performance metro or regional optical network. Such a network supports all
applications between large locations and data centers. In some applications, increasing customer demands for
bandwidth are driving service providers to replace existing 10 Gbps links with 400 or greater Gbps links.
Optical networks provide bandwidth for even the most demanding applications. For example, using DWDM in
metro networks, 40 or more protected 100 or greater Gbps channels can fit on a single pair of optical fibers.
Optical networking enables application traffic to be handled transparently, reducing network management
complexity to manage congestion.
Applications for OC transport networks include:
 Distance extension and carrier site interconnectivity
 Cloud computing
 Remote storage
 OVPN
 Bandwidth grooming
 Core router offload
Distance Extension and Carrier Site Interconnectivity

Distance extension and carrier site interconnectivity provide:
 A carrier the ability to create a network that supports its operation requirements by connecting its physical
locations in a geographic region.
 The ability to support connectivity requirements of its customers, ultimately enabling new the ability to support
new applications and services that require higher capacity than previous transport technologies.
 The ability to connect cities, countries and continents from distances ranging from tens of Kilometers to
thousands of Kilometers enabling new levels of connectivity .
Figure 8-19: Distance Extension and Carrier Site Interconnectivity
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Packet Networking
Packet Networking evolutionize your packet networks, from access to metro to:
 Transform your network to better compete against traditional and non-traditional competitors while lowering
ongoing total cost of network ownership to protect your margins
 Successfully target 4G to 5G evolution, Business Services, Cloud, Edge Computing, and Fiber Deep
opportunities from access to metro networks via simpler, cost-effective, purpose-built solutions
 Implement the Adaptive Network to future-proof businesses via greater automation, intent-based control, self-
optimization, and programmable infrastructure to capitalize on new business opportunities
The 6500 Family of Packet-Optical Platforms is designed to address today’s unpredictable traffic patterns by
delivering new levels of capacity, flexibility, resiliency, and openness required for a more adaptive network.
Leveraging the latest technology innovation, the 6500 integrates packet, OTN, and flexible WaveLogic Photonics
capabilities across multiple chassis form factors to enable a programmable infrastructure that can scale and
respond on demand to changing customer requirements.
The 6500 Packet Transport System (PTS):
 Preserves TDM service, no change to customer end or revenue, customer experience, and tariffs
 Launches new Packet and CE services, including MEF CE 3.0-certified for E-Tree, E-Line, E-LAN, E-Access,
and E-Transit
 Features hardware-assisted packet OAM capabilities for guaranteed SLA differentiation
 Offers Zero-Touch Provisioning (ZTP) for rapid, secure, and error free turn-up of packet services
 Integrates line-rate Service Activation Testing capabilities
 Includes Ciena’s Blue Planet® MCP multi-layer provisioning support for end-to-end network management
control and planning
Page 138
Cloud Computing
Cloud computing is the delivery of computing services-including servers, storage, databases, networking,
software, analytics, and intelligence—over the internet (“the cloud”) to offer faster innovation, flexible resources,
and economies of scale. Benefits of cloud computing generally includes:
 Create cloud-native applications
 Store, back up and recover data
 Test and build applications
 Analyze data
 Deliver software on demand
 Embed intelligence
Two examples of cloud computing are Google and Amazon. Cost is one of the most significant drivers of cloud
computing: Amazon charges as little as 1/40 of what a large company pays for its own internal storage.
Optical networking provides the high-speed transmission necessary for the user or business to interact with a
cloud. Types of cloud services include:
 Infrastructure as a service (IaaS),
 Platform as a service (PaaS),
 Serverless
 Software as a service (SaaS)
Figure 8-20: Cloud Computing
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Storage Area Networks

A Storage Area Network (SAN) is a dedicated high-speed network or subnetwork that interconnects and presents
shared pools of storage devices to multiple servers. A SAN connects data storage devices to customers who wish
to store and access stored data. A SAN stores data by connecting customers’ computer systems to backup
systems. SANs transport data to a backup and recover data in the event of a failure. The data must be protected,
yet must be quickly available when needed. Some systems have duplicated recovery sites, separated by long
distances.
SANs offer a technology solution for medium to large sized business and government entities. Governments,
hospitals, utilities, financial, manufacturing, retail, and transportation companies who store terabytes and even
petabytes of data use SANs.
SAN enables each server to access shared storage however, they are very costly and complex.
SANs connect storage devices that reside on their own network and are also connected to a customer server
system. A SAN might span a metro or even a long-haul network. These networks can have thousands of
connections between the data centers that host the storage devices.
Storage devices on a SAN are connected using high-speed switches. As competition for bandwidth becomes
more intense, an advantage of SAN technology is that it does not copy data through customer servers or across
LANs. SAN uses an intelligent gateway to route storage data away from servers and mainframes. Figure 8-21
shows storage arrays and the high-speed switches that connect to them. The switches and storage servers use a
mesh network for protection and reliability.
Figure 8-21: Storage-Area Network Example
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Optical Virtual Private Network

OVPNs (Figure 8-22) enable a service provider to partition a network virtually by dedicating a network
that might include NEs, fiber, and wavelengths to a specific customer. A virtual partition means that the
customer is provided a secure network without the cost of a physical infrastructure.
Figure 8-22: Optical Virtual Private Network
Bandwidth Grooming
Bandwidth grooming groups’ lower-rate signals into a higher-rate signal, thus using fewer wavelengths on
a DWDM system and reducing equipment cost.
Figure 8-23: Bandwidth Grooming
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Core Router Offload

As traffic in the network core increases, more routers are needed to direct the traffic. Routers are
expensive, and they use a lot of real estate and power. The optical switching (provided by ROADMs)
available in an OC transport network supports traffic re-direction without routers .
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Client Signal Protection Options

An OC transport network provider has the ability to set client signal protection depending on customer
needs. The client is responsible for signal protection switching on the client card(s). The network provides
physical diversity.
Client signals on an OC transport network may be handled in the following ways:
 Client and line unprotected
 Client unprotected/line protected
 Client and line protected
Protection can be set up at either the client side, the line side, or both.
Client and Line Unprotected

An unprotected client signal deployment over an OC transport network (Figure 8-24) uses a single line
and non-redundant equipment. Any point of failure will disrupt the signal.
This setup is appropriate for non-critical traffic or client signals protected by another network provider.
Figure 8-24: Unprotected Network
Client Unprotected/Line Protected

In a line protected deployment (Figure 8-25), the OC transport network is responsible for protection
switching on the line. The single point of failure is the customer signal itself or the handoff between the
network and client equipment.
Figure 8-25: Client Unprotected/Line Protected
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Client and Line Protected

Client and line protected client signals require duplicated client signals from duplicated optics, from the
customer into the OC transport network.
The OC transport network is responsible for physical path redundancy only. The customer equipment is
responsible for detecting and reacting to a network link failure (Figure 8-26).
Figure 8-26: Client and Line Protected
Wireless Backhaul and the Impact of 5G

Mobile Backhaul (MBH) are in a constant state of change as Mobile Network Operators (MNOs) struggle
to maintain pace with voracious bandwidth demand growth rates. Hence, it must improve in terms of
capacity, reliability, and availability.
The MBH network connects radio access network air interfaces at the cell sites to the inner core network
which ensures the network connectivity of the end user (e.g., mobile phone user) with the mobile
networks.
Mobile backhaul (MBH) networking technologies are in a constant state of change as Mobile Network
Operators (MNOs) struggle to maintain pace with voracious bandwidth demand growth rates that show no
signs of abating.
MBH networks must improve in terms of capacity, reliability, and availability as access to user content is
increasing via mobile devices such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, and even cars.
Some characteristics of 5G network include:
 More capacity per device:
 One of the main goals of the introduction of 5G services is to provide ultra-high capacity per
end-device
 GSMA1 expects 1-10Gbps connections to end points in the field
● New types of devices:
 The exponential growth in the number of “standard” devices is expected to continue and
increase the average number of human-controlled devices per person
● New services:
 The mass introduction of IoT (Internet of Things) and M2M (Machine to Machine) services will
create an explosion in the number of connected devices
● More devices:
 The massive increase in infrastructure capabilities in 5G will enable new services such as
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augmented reality.
Multiplying the increase in capacity per device by the expected growth in the number of mobile devices
results in a huge increase in capacity density. The clear effect of the increase will lead to more capacity
per cell site-both at the radio access network (RAN) and at the backhaul layer. Since the forecasted move
to higher RAN frequencies will also require smaller coverage areas per cell site, the mobile grid will
become far denser than it is today. The grid will incorporate the addition of macro-cells as well as small
cells, on poles, towers, rooftops, but also mass-deployment at the street level, utilizing street furniture and
light poles as physical infrastructure.
These issues will present wireless transport networks with the following challenges:
• Higher capacity wireless backhaul links per cell site: While current wireless backhaul links serve
requirements of hundreds of Mbps, future links will be required to support tens of Gbps.
• Denser wireless backhaul links, due to denser cell site grid, will require better utilization of wireless
backhaul spectrum, since frequency reuse will be highly limited as links get closer to each other.
• Mass deployment of street level sites will require high capacity non-line-of-sight wireless backhaul
links, as well as quickly installed, low footprint, low-power consumption equipment.
Agile Networking
Providers need a more programmable infrastructure that can scale and respond on demand, to meet
shifting customer expectations and unpredictable traffic requirements. One of the solutions addressed at
this type of emerging challenges is the introduction of Agile Optical Network (AON). AON streamlines the
capacity of the network. It allows packet, electrical and photonic switching technologies all in one
integrated platform. By deploying AON, the bandwidth crunch does not need to resort to additional
bandwidth or additional CAPEX.
The photonic layer is the foundation of this programmable infrastructure, leveraging the latest coherent
optical technology to deliver maximum scale at the lowest cost per bit. This provides an edge in quick and
simple turn-up and management of services, superior performance with fewer regenerator points,
improved network efficiency, and increased service availability and automation for faster time to market.
Ciena's Liquid Spectrum:
 Changes the way optical networks are engineered, operated, and monetized.
 Enables systems that are both scalable to meet today’s significant bandwidth demands, as well as
open and programmable to deliver the exact service performance required at any point in time.
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Review Questions
1. What is the difference between an FCAPS, an OAM, and an SLA?
2. What standard was adopted by Canada and the US in 1965? What signal was it based on, and what
multiplexing plan did it use?
3. Which carrier standard was adopted by Japan which is not valid anymore?
4. Which of the following is NOT true for SONET/SDH?

A. Excellent ability of digital cross connecting
B. Possess forward and backward compatibility
C. Adopted the synchronous mapping, encapsulation and pointer to facilitate the add/drop
capability
D. Increased synchronization issues
5. List three benefits of Optical Transport Network (OTN)?
6. List the requirements for carrier-grade transport.
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Review Questions
7. ________ is accomplished by the network reaction to a fault, and the ability to maintain service.
A. Low Latency
B. Network Resiliency
C. Network Availability
D. Network Redundancy
8. Which of the following multiplexing technique helps in achieving higher capacity in OC transport
networks?
A. WDM
B. DWDM
C. CWDM
D. TDM
9. State whether True or False.
Unlike SONET/SDH, DWDM does not natively provide In-band communications channel and
OAM mechanism for alarm and notification.
10. List two benefits of Optical Transport Hierarchy (OTH).
11. List the three topologies that provides the most protection in OC transport networks.
12. List the network characteristics that are directly affected by the choice of a network topology.
13. Which of the following statement is NOT true for SANs?

A. Transport data to a backup
B. Recover data in the event of a failure
C. Enables each server to access shared storage
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D. Are cost effective and simple

14. What site type can dynamically configure add/drop wavelength paths?
15. Which type of ROADM is deployed for restoration purposes?

A. Directional ROADM
B. Directionless ROADM
C. Colorless ROADM
D. Contentionless ROADM
16. What are the advantages of ROADM sites? (Select all that apply)
A. Reduces sparing costs
B. Enhances flexibility and scalability
C. Disables new provider offerings for clients
D. Reduces line Transponder/Transceiver to ROADM re-cabling
E. Disables the ability to pre-deploy services without a predetermined channel path
17. What types of protection are deployed to protect the client signal?
18. List types of cloud services.
19. State whether True or False.

Client and Line Unprotected type of Client Signal Protection will disrupt the signal at any point of
failure.
20. _________ connect data storage devices to customers who wish to store and access stored data.
A. Core Router Offload
B. Storage Area Networks
C. Cloud Computing
D. Optical Virtual Private Networks
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Module 9: SONET Fundamentals

Overview
In this module, we examine the structure of SONET signals and the function of each component of a
SONET signal. Specifically, we describe SONET frames and how payloads are organized and
transported in SONET frames.
Objectives
● Describe SONET
● Discuss the signals SONET was designed to transport
● Explain the structure of the SONET frame and how signals are mapped into the frame
● Describe the role of synchronization in SONET
● Describe a SONET Network Element (NE)
● Explain SONET network topologies
● Discuss the evolution of SONET
SONET Overview
Figure 9-1 shows the timeline of optical transmission as it evolved from the copper Plesiochronous Digital
Hierarchy (PDH) in the 1980s and continues to evolve today. In this module, we will discuss SONET, which
was the standard for US, Canada, Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong optical transmission in the 80s and 90s.
Figure 9-1: Optical Transmission Timeline
SONET is a mature, Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)-based standard for optical communications transport,
developed by the Exchange Carriers Standards Association (ECSA) now supported by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI).
Initially, SONET was developed to create a common transport protocol for use by the Regional Bell Operating
Companies (RBOCs) and Inter-exchange Carriers (IXCs) in the US, Canada, Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong.
In 1984, when the ECSA started to work on the protocol, voice was the primary type of traffic SONET was
intended to transport. As a result, SONET framing and lines have been defined based on the transport of voice
traffic operating at a rate of 64 Kbps.
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SONET has gone through several evolutions over its years of existence. The technology now offers additional
features and functionality, including the ability to transport other traffic types such as ATM, Frame Relay,
Ethernet, Fiber Channel, and video.
Prior to the introduction of SONET, no common optical transport protocol existed (Figure 9-2).
Figure 9-2: Pre-SONET Days
Without a standardized transport protocol such as SONET, the RBOCs and IXCs suffered any or all of the
following pitfalls to efficient telecommunication:
● All optical transport technologies were ad hoc and proprietary.
● There was a requirement for fixed TDM multiplex/demultiplex equipment at all provider add/drop locations.
● Standardized connections were available only for lower bit rate electrical connections.
● There was no efficient or cost-effective electrical signal distance extension mechanism.
● There were limited provider-to-provider interconnection opportunities and increased complications where
interconnection was required.
● Each provider used a different supplier that in turn used different transport technology, resulting in a lack of
common transport equipment.
● There was a lack of a common management and control plane for provider transport.
● Restoration and protection guarantees were very complex.
The initial benefit of the creation of SONET was a standardized optical transport that provided:
● Highly reliable and resilient transport, the protocol that defined carrier grade resilience and reliability for all
future transport protocols at 50ms switch time and 99.999% (“5 9s”) availability
● High speed line rate interfaces that did not exist before SONET was standardized, leading to huge capacity
gains for carrier networks
● Reduction in equipment and real estate costs
● Reduced complexity, particularly for traffic between providers and handoff scenarios
● Simplified management because the management and control bytes were defined in the standard
● Simplified multi-vendor equipment interconnection and deployments
● A flexible architecture that accommodates new applications and supports a variety of line rates
● Simplified provisioning
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SONET and TDM

SONET is a time division multiplexing technology. TDM allocates bandwidth into timeslots and uses them as
traffic- carrying containers to transport digital signals over a fixed and constant line rate.
The following points describe SONET TDM:
● Signals are mapped into timeslot containers that are dedicated along the entire communication path.
● SONET framing occurs at the line rate of the Optical Carrier (OC)-n, even when there are no signals to
transport.
● Digital signals must be mapped end-to-end as a circuit to be carried over a SONET network.
● Oversubscription is not inherent to TDM technologies due to the fixed nature of timeslot allocation.
● Scaling and upgrades are costly and complex.
● Because service rates are guaranteed, service level agreements are inherently guaranteed and easy to
support.
● Bandwidth inefficiencies exist for non-traditional traffic types (that is, Ethernet over SONET).
SONET: An OC Transport Technology

SONET was designed to transport Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) traffic. “Plesiochronous” means
“near” or “almost synchronous.” The PDH is standardized by ANSI, with the rates shown in Table 9-1. Digital
Signal (DS) - 1s can multiplex up to 24 DS-0 signals, which are the equivalent of 24 phone calls. DS-3 signals
may be either channelized or clear channel depending on the intended multiplexing role that the SONET
network is to perform.
Table 9-1 shows PDH rates.
Digital Signal (Electrical) Bit Rate Channels

DS-0 (one phone call) 64 Kbps 1 DS-0
DS-1 1.544 Mbps 24 DS-0
DS-3 44.736 Mbps 28 DS-1
Table 9-1: PDH Rates
The SONET Frame

The Synchronous Transport Signal (STS)-1 is the basic framing unit of SONET transmission. The STS-1,
operating at 51.84 Mbps, is a container or timeslot for transporting signals over the TDM SONET network. The
STS-1 is an electrical multiplexing construct. The OC-1 is the optical equivalent, but all multiplexing occurs
electrically in SONET.
There are two main functional areas of an STS-1 frame:
● Management overhead that includes:
● Section Overhead (SOH): The STS SOH has 9 bytes of overhead processed at each regeneration
point and supports functions such as framing the signal and performance monitoring.
● Line Overhead (LOH): The LOH has 18 bytes of overhead accessed, generated, and processed at the
add/drop OC-n optic. This overhead supports functions such as locating the SPE in the frame,
multiplexing or concatenating signals, performance monitoring, automatic protection switching, and line
maintenance.
● Path Overhead (POH): The POH includes nine bytes of STS POH and, when the frame is Virtual
Tributary (VT)-structured, 5 bytes of VT POH. The POH is accessed, generated, and processed by the
incoming tributary card/module.
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● Synchronous Payload Envelope (SPE)

● Carries customer signals
● An STS-1 SPE is 49.536 Mbps and can transport up to:
● 28 DS-1s
● 1 DS-3
● 21 E1 2.048 Mbps signals
● Smaller combinations of DS-1 and E-1s
● Not all traffic types fit into an STS-1 frame, including:
● 100 Mb Ethernet
● Gigabit Ethernet
● Fiber Channel
● FICON
● Video
Figure 9-3 shows an STS-1 frame.
STS-1 = 51.84 Mbps
Figure 9-3: STS-1 Frame
The base rate of the electrical STS-1 is computed as follows:

Frame rate x frame capacity = bit rate
8,000 frames / second x 6,480 bits / frame = 51.840 Mbps
Each multiple of STS-n is a linear increment of 51.84 Mbps.
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SONET Multiplexing Hierarchy

SONET electrical signals are expressed as STS-n. Each higher STS-n rate is formed by interleaving STS-1s.
Figure 9-4 shows an example of SONET STS rate signals.
Figure 9-4: SONET STS Rate Signals
SONET has the ability to multiplex/demultiplex and transport both high order and low order traffic types. Low
order services are defined as all sub DS-3 line rates. These low order traffic types are mapped into a Virtual
Tributary (VT), and then into an STS-1.
Figure 9-5: SONET Multiplexing Hierarchy
A VT is a container designed for transport and switching of sub-STS-1 payloads, typically DS-1 or E1 signals.
Seven Virtual Tributary Groups (VTGs) fit into one SPE.
Low order traffic types include POH and include:
● DS-1 1.544 Mbps mapped into a VT1.5
● E-1 2.048 Mbps mapped into a VT2
High order traffic types are defined as DS-3 and higher bit rates. These traffic types include POH and are
mapped directly into an STS-1:
● DS-3 services at 44.736 Mbps
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Byte Interleaving
Byte interleaving is the multiplexing scheme used by SONET. Bytes in different STS-1s are laced or
“interleaved” together, so that each STS-1 can be seen with the high order signal and all VT and STS-1
timeslots have visibility to the SONET NE. This scheme allows any traffic to be added and/or dropped
individually from the SONET network without adding and/or dropping the entire STS-n traffic flow. Bytes are
transmitted row by row, from left to right, with a byte from each STS processed until all STSs of the STS-n rate
have been processed. Byte interleaving reduces the complexity of transmitting higher-rate signals.
Figure 9-6 shows an example of a SONET byte interleaving STS-n frames.
Figure 9-6: Byte Interleaving
Electrical (STS) and Optical (OC) Rates

Electrical STS-n and optical OC-n rates are identical, as shown in Table 9-2. The electrical STS-n is created,
then converted to optical as an OC-n rate. OC-n rates exist only on the fiber between NEs. No multiplexing
occurs optically.
The right column of the table illustrates the maximum number of legacy voice calls (DS-0 = 64 Kbps) each line
rate can support.
Table 9-2 shows an example of a SONET STS-n and OC-n line rates.
Signal Level Call Capacity

Electrical Optical Bit Rate Payload Capacity (Maximum Ds-0S)
STS-1 OC-1 51.84 Mbps 50.112 Mbps 672
STS-3 OC-3 155.52 Mbps 150.336 Mbps 2,016
STS-12 OC-12 622.08 Mbps 601.334 Mbps 8,064
STS-48 OC-48 2.488 Gbps 2.405 Gbps 32,256
STS-192 OC-192 9.953 Gbps 9.621 Gbps 129,024
STS-768 OC-768 39.813 Gbps 38.486 Gbps 516,096
Table 9-2: STS-n and OC-n Line Rates
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SONET Synchronization
In time division multiplexed SONET, the average frequency of all clocks in the system is the same
(synchronous). Every clock can be traced back to a highly accurate timing reference.
● The result of synchronization in SONET is:
● The STS-1 rate remains at a nominal 51.84 Mbps, allowing many synchronous STS-1 signals to be
stacked together when multiplexed without any bit stuffing.
● The STS-1s are easily accessed at a higher STS-n rate.
● Low-speed synchronous VT signals are simple to interleave and transport at higher rates.
● DS-1s are transported by synchronous VT1.5 signals at a constant rate of 1.728 Mbps (POH added).
● Single-step multiplexing up to STS-1 requires no bit stuffing, and VTs are easily accessed.
Failure to synchronize a SONET network properly leads to bit errors, lost data, and unpredictable network
performance.
Pointers
Pointer bytes are part of the SONET overhead. They locate the floating SPE in the STS-1. SONET uses pointer
bytes to re-synchronize the payload to accommodate for differences in the timing reference source frequencies
and phase wander. Pointer bytes also prevent frequency differences during synchronization failures, remove
the need for large buffers, and decrease latency.
Alignment
The adjustment for timing differences between the STS-1 and the SPE is called alignment. Alignment uses
pointer bytes to locate the SPE in the STS-1. By adjusting the pointer placement, the SPE can realign to match
the rate of the STS-1.
If the frame rate of the SPE is too slow in relation to the STS-1, then positive justification bytes are added to
move the pointer to compensate.
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SONET Network Elements

SONET NEs vary depending on network role, equipment vendor, age, and so on. Generally, all SONET NEs
are made up of these basic components:
● Chassis or card cage
● Main optics (OC-n)
● Always deployed in pairs to support protection and redundancy
● Switching matrix
● Communications/management interface
● Tributary slots/modules, which may contain:
● DS-1 mappers
● DS-3 mappers
● Ethernet cards/modules
● Lower OC-n rate optics
● Input/output (I/O) slots to support electrical connections
● Power inputs
Figure 9-7 shows an example card chassis.
Figure 9-7: Example Card Chassis
Functions of SONET NEs

Add/Drop Multiplexers (ADM): It is any NE that adds or drops signals on or off the SONET network. All SONET
NEs that are deployed in a ring are ADMs. A terminal ADM is deployed at the ends of a linear network,
terminating the SONET topology. Figure 9-8 shows a diagram of a SONET ADM.
O-E-O
STS-n switch matrix

OC-n OC-n
STS-n VT STS-1
OC-n DS-1 DS-3
OC-n DS-1 DS-3
Figure 9-8: SONET ADM
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Regeneration: All SONET NEs are regenerators. Optical signals are always converted to electrical where
multiplexing occurs. Optical to electrical to optical conversion are required for pass-through signals through a
SONET NE
Figure 9-9: Regeneration
.
Digital Cross Connect System (DCS): It is a higher OC-n rate system that multiplexes only high order (STS-1
and above) services. A DCS is typically deployed as a central hub, connecting geographically diverse SONET
topologies.
Not to be confused with a DACS; A digital access and cross-connect system (DACS) is a telecommunication-
specific circuit-switching device that is used to route voice/data among cross-connected T1/E1 carrier lines.
DACS are used in telecommunication networks to connect a variety of carrier voice and data channels. DACS
supports connectivity among DS0 and DS1 channels also higher-level carriers such as T3/E3, SONET & SDH.
Figure 9-10: Digital Cross Connect
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Traffic grooming: It is multiplexing/demultiplexing lower rate signals into a higher rate signals. M13 multiplexing
is a type of traffic grooming. Figure 9-11 shows traffic grooming with a SONET ADM.
Figure 9-11: Traffic Grooming
Hairpinning: Traffic can be brought into the network on one NE and immediately sent out of the network on the
same NE, without using any of the primary optical bandwidth available in the network. This process is called
hairpinning. Figure 9-12 shows an example of SONET hairpinning.
Figure 9-12: Hairpinning
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SONET Network Topologies

SONET may be deployed in ring, linear, linear chain, and meshed topologies.
SONET Ring Topology

As a ring, SONET uses two protection mechanisms, Unidirectional Path Switched Ring (UPSR) and
Bidirectional Line Switched Ring (BLSR).
Unidirectional Path Switched Ring
UPSR provides dedicated protection bandwidth, because the same signal uses an STS or VT container on
both sides of the ring. The path selector on the receive side chooses which signal to use. Upon failure,
switching time is 50 ms. Upon restoration, traffic is non-revertive. Optics on both sides of the ring in a UPSR
configuration are active.
Figure 9-13: Unidirectional Path Switched Ring
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Bidirectional Line Switched Ring
BLSR reserves the upper half of the ring line rate as dedicated protection bandwidth. Traffic on the broken fiber
span uses the upper protection bandwidth and wraps traffic around the unaffected portion of the ring. Upon
failure, switching time is 50 ms. Upon restoration, traffic is revertive. BLSR is supported at line rates of OC-48
and above. The maximum number of NEs supported per ring is 16.
Figure 9-14 shows an example of a BLSR protected SONET ring.
Figure 9-14: Bidirectional Line Switched Ring
SONET Linear Point-to-Point

A linear point-to-point topology provides 1+1 Automatic Protection Switching (APS). Upon failure, switching
time is 50 ms. This configuration provides standby equipment and fiber, but they are not active unless there is a
failed connection. Linear networks with an intermediate ADM or ADMs are linear chains.
Figure 9-15 shows an example of an APS 1+1 protected SONET network.
Figure 9-15: Linear and Linear Chain Topology with Automatic Protection Switching
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SONET Mesh Topology

The mesh provides interconnection and handoff access for services over geographically diverse areas. Upon
failure, switching time is 50 ms. Depending on design, a mesh may use multiple protection methods (depending
on carrier requirements). Usually, the design involves a DCS at a head end or main office.
Figure 9-16 shows an example of a SONET meshed network topology.
Figure 9-16: Mesh Topology
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The Evolution of SONET

In the late 1990s and into the 2000s, SONET was further developed to carry newer higher-rate traffic types.
This evolution is sometimes referred to as Next-Gen SONET. The intention was to extend and expand SONET
as a transport technology, allowing the large existing carrier-deployed SONET infrastructure to support next-
generation services such as:
● 100 Mb Ethernet
● GbE
● Fibre Channel
● FICON
● Video
Next-Gen SONET allowed providers to bridge the technology gap between their circuit switched infrastructures
and the demand for new, data-centric services.
To support data transport, SONET can transport Frame Relay (over DS1 to DS3 signals), Asynchronous Traffic
Mode (ATM) (at DS-3 up to SONET OC-12 rates), Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS), and various Ethernet
rates.
To support data center and storage protocol traffic, SONET supports Fibre Channel, FICON and various
Ethernet rates.
To support these new traffic types more efficiently, SONET needed to evolve a more flexible method for traffic
transport. Several technologies, shown in the following list, were introduced to allow SONET to become more
flexible:
● Virtual Concatenation (VCAT)
● VCAT with Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS)
● Next-Gen transport methods for SONET:
● Generic Framing Procedure (GFP)
● Generic Framing Procedure –Framed (GFP-F) for Ethernet
● Generic Framing Procedure-Transparent (GFP-T) for Fiber Channel
● Resilient Packet Ring (RPR)
● Packet over SONET (PoS)
These technologies give SONET the ability to support new services over existing carrier infrastructure. While
functionally different, all these technologies allow SONET the ability to carry new data traffic types and are
essentially an encoding method for mapping either packetized or block-coded traffic into a SPE.
SONET Today
While still widely deployed, SONET is now considered a legacy transport technology:
● SONET exists largely for legacy voice support today.
● SONET is a North American standard only.
● The STS-1 structure does not scale well to newer service types.
● SONET cannot compete with the cost per bit benefits of Ethernet.
● Even though OC-768 (40G) SONET is defined, it is not widely deployed in real networks because of the
cost and operational benefits of OTN based and 40 GbE based connections types.
● Ethernet has evolved to include concepts of bandwidth guarantees and Operation, Administration, and
Maintenance (OAM) tools.
Unlike SONET, OTN was purpose-built to include DWDM interoperation.
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SONET as Legacy
The age of SONET and SDH networks is nearing an end. Much of the legacy SONET/SDH equipment in carrier
networks today has already reached or passed its end-of-life, creating mounting issues as failure rates for this
equipment rises. A perfect example of this phenomenon is Digital Cross Connect systems (DCS), network
elements that were widely deployed in the 1990s and early 2000s. As failure rates for DCS increase, spare
circuit packs to replace failures are more difficult to acquire, causing many service providers to create costly
sufficiency pools so they can maintain a stock of critical spares.
Ultimately, there are two scenarios that force operators to modernize their SONET networks:
● Operators are no longer able to obtain the parts or systems required to keep their legacy networks running.
● Operators find that the opex of running and maintaining their legacy network exceeds the capex of
deploying a new replacement network.
For operators that need to modernize their legacy SONET networks, there are two major technology options
available:
● Pure Layer 2/3 packet switching introduces high latency relative to SONET that may make it unsuitable for
applications that are highly latency-sensitive or have strict requirements for latency guarantees. Latency in
packet switched networks is unpredictable and cannot always be guaranteed.
● Multiservice switched OTN packet switching has evolved to take on a portion of the burden of legacy
SONET, it is not always the best option. Multiservice OTN comprises two key features:
● The bit-rate transparency of OTN encapsulated signals,
● Universal switching fabrics that can switch all kinds of service types, including TDM- and packet-based
services.
SONET Migration
Ensuring a smooth migration with Ciena Services migrating a network from TDM to packets can be challenging,
and providers often find it difficult to plan, start, or execute on schedule. Often, their legacy systems and
processes and out-of-date inventory and circuit office records present significant barriers to successful
completion. Establishing a baseline of the current network is essential and fundamental to getting a project off
to a good, and correct, start. Ciena’s professional service engineers and consultants are uniquely positioned to
guide customers successfully through the migration process to the Adaptive Network.
Ciena Services include five project phases:
● During Initiation, Ciena consultants meet with each agency to establish a project team and success criteria
specific to the agency. This team then extracts and synthesizes network data from multiple sources to
establish a baseline of the network. These baselines are validated with physical audits of the legacy
network.
● Discovery is once the baseline is validated, Ciena engineers plan each migration, balancing business and
technical requirements to develop a step-by-step Engineering Method of Procedure (EMOP) that must be
executed during each scheduled maintenance window, including contingency plans.
● Concurrent with the Planning phase, Ciena deploys the new 6500 PTS equipment and executes
premigration tests to ensure the success of each window.
● Ciena executes post-migration tests to ensure the network is operating as expected and customer traffic is
flowing as it should.
● During Closure, Ciena decommissions and removes legacy equipment to reduce power consumption and
use of rack space. Ciena can also provide staff and training to help agency teams learn how to operate and
manage their new infrastructure and services.
From Discovery through Closure, Ciena uses a set of software tools and automated provisioning solutions that
enable expedited planning with fewer mistakes. The process also optimizes use of onsite resources, based on
the business outcomes desired, to reduce costs.
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SONET Alarms
SONET alarms are defined as follows:
● Anomaly is the smallest discrepancy which can be observed between the actual and desired
characteristics of an item. The occurrence of a single anomaly does not constitute an interruption in the
ability to perform a required function.
● Defect is the density of anomalies has reached a level where the ability to perform a required function has
been interrupted. Defects are used as input for performance monitoring, the control of consequent actions,
and the determination of fault cause.
● Failure is the inability of a function to perform a required action persisted beyond the maximum time
allocated.
Some of the SONET alarm anomalies, defects and failures are:

● LOS is raised when the synchronous signal (STS-N) level drops below the threshold at which a BER of 1 in
103 is predicted. It could be due to a cut cable, excessive attenuation of the signal or equipment fault. The
LOS state clears when two consecutive framing patterns are received and no new LOS condition is
detected.
● OOF state occurs when four or five consecutive SONET frames are received with invalid (errored) framing
patterns (A1 and A2 bytes). The maximum time to detect OOF is 625 microseconds. OOF state clears
when two consecutive SONET frames are received with valid framing patterns.
● LOF state occurs when the OOF state exists for a specified time in milliseconds. The LOF state clears
when an in-frame condition exists continuously for a specified time in milliseconds.
● LOP state occurs when N consecutive invalid pointers are received or "N" consecutive New Data Flags
(NDF) are received (Other than in a concatenation indicator), where N= 8, 9, or 10. LOP state is cleared
when three equal valid pointers or consecutive AIS indications are received.
● The AIS is an all-ONES characteristic or adapted information signal. It is generated to replace the normal
taffic signal when it contains a defect condition in order to prevent consequential downstream failures being
declared or alarms being raised.
● An indication returned to a transmitting node (source) that an errored block has been detected at the
receiving node (sink). This indication was formerly known as Far End Block Error (FEBE).
Figure 9-17 shows the hierarchical diagram based on the priority of alarms. Loss of signal at higher priority and
RFI/RDI at lower priority.
Figure 9-17: Alarm Hierarchy
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Review Question
1. What multiplexing technique does SONET use? What are two benefits this technique provides?
2. What is the traffic carrying capacity of an STS-1 frame?
3. How are low order signals, such as DS-1 and E1, transported through a SONET network?
4. What is the purpose of SONET pointers?
5. What are the different SONET network topologies?
6. Electrical STS-n and optical OC-n rates are identical.

A. True
B. False
7. STS-1 operates at _______Mbps.
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Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 10: SDH Fundamentals
Module 10: SDH Fundamentals

Overview
In this module, we examine the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) networks. We describe SDH
framing, the use of overhead bytes, the handling of payloads in SDH frames, SDH Network Elements
(NEs), network topologies, and its migration to new technologies.
Objectives
 Describe SDH and the signals it was designed to transport
 Explain the structure of the SDH frame and how signals are mapped into the frame
 Explain the role of synchronization in SDH
 Describe an SDH NE
 Explain alarm management in an SDH network
 Explain SDH network topologies
 Discuss the evolution of SDH
 Explain SDH migration to new technologies
SDH Overview
Figure 10-1 shows the timeline of optical transmission as it evolved from the copper Plesiochronous
Digital Hierarchy (PDH) in the 1980s and continues to evolve today. In this module, we will discuss SDH,
which was the standard for optical transmission in most of the world in the1990s.
Figure 10-1: Optical Transmission Timeline
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SDH is a mature, Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) based standard for optical communications transport,
developed by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), previously called the Consultative
Committee on International Telegraphy and Telephony (CCITT). CCITT developed the SDH standard in
1989 to allow country-to-country and global standardized optical transport.
At this time, SONET was in the late stages of development. The CCITT became involved and built SDH to
be compatible with (but not exactly identical to) SONET.
SDH has gone through several iterations over its many years of existence, evolving with additional
features and functionality, and the ability to transport other traffic types such as Asynchronous Transfer
Mode (ATM), Frame Relay, Ethernet, Fiber Channel, and video.
SDH was initially developed to create a common optical transport protocol for use by the
telecommunications operators in different countries, for interoperation and global standardization. Prior to
SDH, there was no standardized global optical transport available (Figure 10-2).
Figure 10-2: Pre-SDH Days
The initial benefit of the creation of SDH was a global, standardized, optical transport that provided:
 Highly reliable and resilient transport, the protocol (along with SONET) that defined carrier grade
resilience and reliability for all future transport protocols at 50ms switch time and 99.999% (“5 9s”)
availability
 High speed line rate interfaces that did not exist before SDH was standardized, leading to huge capacity
gains for carrier networks
 Reduction in equipment and real estate costs
 Reduced complexity, particularly for traffic between providers and handoff scenarios
 Simplified management because the management and control overhead were defined in the standard
 Simplified multi-vendor equipment interconnection and deployments
 A flexible architecture that accommodates new applications and supports a variety of line rates
 Simplified provisioning
 As a newer standard than SONET, SDH was created to be backward-compatible and interoperable with
the SONET standard, with the added benefit of having three times the payload capacity of SONET on its
base line rate:
o SDH STM-1 frame = 155.52 Mbps, whereas SONET STS-1 frame = 51.840 Mbps
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SDH Multiplexing
TDM Technology
SDH is a TDM technology. TDM allocates bandwidth into timeslots and uses them as traffic-carrying
containers to transport digital signals over a fixed and constant line rate.
The following points describe SDH TDM:

 Signals are mapped into timeslot containers that are dedicated along the entire communication path.
 SDH framing occurs at the line rate of the Synchronous Transport Module (STM), even when there are
no signals to transport.
 Digital signals must be mapped end-to-end as a circuit to be transported over an SDH network.
 Oversubscription is not allowed, due to the fixed nature of TDM connections.
 Scaling and upgrades are costly and complex.
 Service rates are guaranteed and service level agreements are inherently guaranteed and easy to
support.
 Bandwidth inefficiencies exist for non-traditional traffic types.
PDH Traffic
SDH was designed to transport PDH traffic. PDH is defined by the European Conference of Postal and
Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT). SDH multiplexes at E1 PDH rates and above. These
signals are mapped into corresponding bit rate Virtual Containers (VCs) that in turn are mapped into an
STM frame.
Table 10-1 shows PDH rates.
Table 10-1: PDH Rates
Figure 10-3 shows the PDH multiplexing hierarchy.
Figure 10-3: PDH Multiplexing Hierarchy
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SDH Frame
The STM-1 is the basic framing unit of SDH transmission. The STM-1, operating at 155.52 Mbps, is a
container or timeslot for transporting signals over the TDM SDH network. All multiplexing is electrical in
SDH.
There are two main functional areas of an STM-1 frame:

 Management overhead that includes:
o Path Overhead (POH) added to the VC
o Regenerator Section Overhead (RSOH)
o Multiplexer Section Overhead (MSOH)
 VC
o Carries customer signals
Figure 10-4 shows an SDH frame.
Figure 10-4: SDH Frame
The RSOH is processed at each regeneration point and supports functions, such as framing the signal
and performance monitoring.
The MSOH is accessed, generated, and processed at the add/drop STM-n optic. MSOH supports
functions such as locating the payload in the frame, multiplexing or concatenating signals, performance
monitoring, automatic protection switching, and line maintenance.
The POH is accessed, generated, and processed by the incoming tributary card/module. POH supports
functions such as tracking the path, and communicating status.
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SDH Multiplexing Hierarchy

SDH signals are expressed as STM-n. Each higher STM-n rate is formed by interleaving STM-1s.
Figure 10-5 lists and describes container types.
Figure 10-5: SDH STM Rate Signals
SDH STM-n Line Rates

SDH networks carry traffic optically at STM (STM-n) rates.
Table 10-2 lists and describes container types.
Table 10-2: STM-n Bit Rates
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SDH Containers
Table 10-3 lists and describes container types.
Table 10-3: SDH Containers
Full forms:
 C-n: Container, level n
 TU-n: Tributary Unit, level n
 TUG: Tributary Unit Group
 AU-n: Administrative Unit “n”
 AUG: Administrative Unit Group
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SDH E1 Low Order Multiplexing Example

Figure 10-6 shows an example of SDH low order multiplexing.
Figure 10-6: SDH Low Order Multiplexing
SDH E3 High Order Multiplexing Example

Figure 10-7 shows an example of SDH high order multiplexing.
Figure 10-7: SDH High Order Multiplexing
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SDH Synchronization and NE
SDH Synchronization Timing

In SDH, the average frequency of all clocks in the system is the same (synchronous). Every clock can be
traced back to a highly accurate timing reference.
Failure to synchronize an SDH network properly leads to bit errors, lost data, and unpredictable network
performance.
SDH requires a common clock reference that is either externally, internally, or line timed. External timing
can be done with a Synchronization Supply Unit (SSU). The source for the Stratum 1 level clock that
provides the timing may be either a GPS or a cesium clock. Internal timing uses a built-in oscillator (G.812
type IV). The line timing is done off an optic or mapper.
SDH Synchronization Example

Figure 10-8 shows a synchronization example.
Figure 10-8: SDH Synchronization Example
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Table 10-4 shows the accuracy of SDH synchronization types.
Table 10-4: Accuracy of SDH Synchronization Types
SDH NE Components
SDH NEs vary depending on network role, equipment vendor, age, and so on. Generally, all SDH NEs
are made up of these basic components:
 Chassis or card cage
 Main optics (STM-n)
o Always deployed in pairs to support protection and redundancy.
 Switching matrix
 Communications/management interface
 Tributary slots/modules, which may contain:
o E1 mappers
o E3 mappers
o Ethernet cards/modules
o Lower STM-n rate optics
 Input / Output (I/O) slots to support electrical connections
 Power inputs
Figure 10-9 shows an example card chassis.
Figure 10-9: Example Card Chassis
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SDH NE Roles
An SDH NE can perform the following roles in an SDH network:
 Add/Drop Multiplexer (ADM)
 Regenerator
 Digital Cross-connect Switch (DCS)
 Traffic grooming
 Hairpinning
Figure 10-10 shows an SDH NE with data flow.
Figure 10-10: SDH NE with data flow
An ADM is any NE that adds/drops signals on/off the SDH network. All SDH NEs that are deployed in a
ring are ADMs. An SDH ADM is deployed at the ends of a linear network to terminate the SDH topology.
All SDH NEs are regenerators. Optical signals are always converted to electrical where multiplexing
occurs. Optical to electrical to optical conversion is required for pass-through signals through an SDH NE.
A DCS is a higher STM-n rate system that multiplexes only high order (VC-4 and above) services. A DCS
is typically deployed as a central hub, connecting geographically diverse SDH topologies.
Traffic grooming is multiplexing/demultiplexing lower rate signals into higher rate signals. PDH signal
multiplexing is a type of traffic grooming.
Traffic can be brought into the network on one NE and immediately sent out of the network on the same
NE without using any of the primary optical bandwidth available in the network. This process is called
hairpinning. Media conversion and traffic aggregation are possible reasons to use hairpinning.
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Alarm Management
Alarm Surveillance
It is the detection and reporting of relevant events and conditions which occur in the network. In a
network, events and conditions detected within the equipment and incoming signals should be reported.
In addition, a number of events external to the equipment should also be reported. Alarms are indications
that are automatically generated by an NE as a result of the declaration of a failure.
The following functions are supported:

 Autonomous reporting of alarms
 Request support for reporting of all alarms
 Allowing or inhibiting of autonomous alarm reporting
 Reporting on request status of allow or inhibit alarm reporting
 Control of the termination point mode of termination points
 Reporting of protection switch events
Alarm History Management

Alarm history management is concerned with the recording of alarms. Historical data is stored in registers
in the NE. Each register contains all the parameters of an alarm message.
Registers are readable on demand or periodically. OS defines the operating mode of the registers as
wrapping or stop when full. OS may also flush the registers or stop recording at any time.
Note: Wrapping is the deletion of the earliest record to allow a new record when a register is full. Flushing
is the removal of all records in the register.
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SDH Network Topologies
SDH Network Topology Types

SDH is deployed in ring, linear, linear chain, and mesh topologies.
SDH Network Ring Topology

As a ring, SDH uses two protection mechanisms: Subnetwork Connection Protection (SNCP) and
Multiplex Section Shared Protection Ring (MS-Spring).
SNCP:
SNCP provides dedicated protection bandwidth, because the same signal uses an STM or VC container
on both sides of the ring. The path selector on the receive side chooses which signal to use. Upon failure,
switching time is 50 ms. upon restoration, traffic is non-revertive. Optics on both sides of the ring in an
SNCP configuration are active.
Figure 10-11 shows an example of SDH SNCP ring protection.
Figure 10-11: SDH SNCP Ring Protection
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MS-Spring:
MS-Spring reserves the upper half of the ring line rate as dedicated protection bandwidth. Traffic on the
broken fiber span uses the upper protection bandwidth and wraps traffic around the unaffected portion of
the ring. Upon failure, switching time is 50 ms. Upon restoration, traffic is revertive. MS-Spring is
supported at line rates of STM- 16 and above. The maximum number of supported NEs per ring is 16.
Figure 10-12 shows an example of SDH MS-Spring ring protection.
Figure 10-12: SDH MS-Spring Ring Protection
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SDH Network Linear and Linear Chain Topologies

A linear point-to-point topology provides 1+1 Automatic Protection Switching (APS). Upon failure,
switching time is 50 ms. This configuration provides standby equipment and fiber, but they are not active
unless there is a failed connection. Linear networks with an intermediate ADM or ADMs are linear chains.
Figure 10-13 shows an example of SDH linear APS 1+1 protected topologies.
Figure 10-13: SDH Linear and Linear Chain APS 1+1 Protected Topologies
SDH Network Mesh Topology

The mesh, shown in Figure 10-14, provides interconnection and handoff access for services over
geographically diverse areas. Upon failure, switching time is 50 ms. A mesh may use multiple protection
methods (SNCP, MS-Spring, APS), depending on carrier requirements and network design. Usually, the
design involves a DCS at a head end or main office.
Figure 10-14: SDH Mesh Network Example
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SDH Evolution
Next-Gen SDH
In the late 1990s and into the 2000s, SDH was further developed to carry additional higher-rate traffic
types. This evolution is sometimes referred to as Next-Gen SDH. The intention was to extend and expand
SDH as a transport technology, allowing the large existing carrier-deployed SDH infrastructure to support
next-generation services such as:
 Gigabit Ethernet (GbE)
 Fiber Channel
 FICON (Fiber Connection)
 Video
Next-Gen SDH allowed providers to bridge the technology gap between their circuit switched
infrastructure and the demand for new data-centric services.
To support data transport, SDH supports ATM (TDM E1 up to SDH STM-16 rates), MPLS, and various
Carrier Ethernet rates. To support data center and storage protocol traffic, SDH supports Fiber Channel,
FICON, and GbE.
Next-Gen SDH Technologies

To support these new traffic types more efficiently, SDH needed to evolve to a more flexible method for
traffic transport. Several technologies, shown in the following list, were introduced to allow SDH to
become more flexible:
 Virtual Concatenation (VCAT)
 VCAT with Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS)
 Ethernet transport methods over SDH:
 Generic Framing Procedure (GFP)
 GFP-F for Ethernet
 GFP-T for Fiber Channel
 Resilient Packet Ring (RPR)
 Packet over SONET (PoS)
VCAT allows for customizable, non-contiguous concatenation groups.
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SDH Today
While still widely deployed, SDH is now considered a legacy transport technology:
 SDH exists largely for legacy voice and ATM network support today.
 SDH cannot compete with the cost-per-bit benefit of Ethernet.
 The STM-1 structure does not scale well to newer service types.
 Even though STM-256 (40 Gbps) SDH is defined, it is not widely deployed due to the cost and
operational benefits of OTN and 40 GbE services.
 Ethernet has evolved to include concepts of bandwidth guarantees and Operation, Administration, and
Maintenance (OAM) tools.
 Optical Transport Network (OTN) was purpose-built to include Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing
(DWDM) interoperation, while SDH was not.
SDH Migration
SDH Migration: Layer 2/3 Packet Switching

One option to migrate from SDH transport is to move directly to packet-based transport using carrier-
grade Layer 2/3 switches. Technological advancements have made Layer 2/3 switching a suitable
replacement for SDH particularly for applications that are carrying Layer 2 and Layer 3 traffic:
 Circuit Emulation Services (CES) enables operators to run their TDM services over packet networks.
 The ITU-T Synchronous Ethernet and IEEE 1588v2 synchronous standards were critical for packet
backhaul.
 Carrier Ethernet services is another application in which packet switching equipment has fit well.
CES was important for converged infrastructure applications in which operators wanted to run both
packet and TDM services over the same network. CES, once it matured, has proven effective for
networks that are predominantly packet-based with a limited amount of TDM services that can be carried
via CES.
In the early days of Ethernet, operators required Ethernet services to travel over SDH networks due to
reliability requirements (that is EoSDH) and OAM features provided by SDH, which Layer 2/3 switches
lacked. However, carrier-grade reliability and Ethernet OAM functionality (including ITU-T y.1731) made
packet switching suitable for many Carrier Ethernet applications.
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Limitations of Packet Switching

Despite technology progress over the past decade, packet switching also has limitations that make it
unsuitable for many applications that continue to rely on SDH. These are the following limitations of
packet switching:
 Layer 2/3 switching introduces high latency relative to SDH that may make it unsuitable for applications
that are highly latency-sensitive. Latency in packet switched networks is unpredictable and cannot
always be guaranteed. Despite advancements, packet switching cannot match the ultra-high reliability of
SDH networks.
 CES is only an option for lower-capacity circuits, as the technology is limited to T1/E1 and T3/E3 rates.
 SDH set the gold standard in reliability with "five nines" uptime and sub-50 ms recovery time.
 Shared packet-switched networks are not private like dedicated circuit-switched SDH networks, and
certain operators and enterprise customers require the security of a private, dedicated connection.
Some high-value end customers are simply not willing to move away from their TDM services, and forcing
a migration to packet-based networks risks losing these customers.
SDH Migration: Multiservice OTN

Another option for SDH network migration is multiservice OTN. Multiservice OTN comprises two key
features:
 The bit-rate transparency of OTN encapsulated signals
 Universal switching fabrics that can switch all kinds of service types, including TDM and packet-based
services
Multiservice OTN – Bit-Rate Transparency

In OTN, the ITU defines a payload encapsulation, OAM overhead, FEC, and multiplexing hierarchy. The
result is a transport standard that includes the benefits of SDH (such as resiliency and manageability), but
with improvements for transporting data payloads.
OTN is asynchronous, and so does not require the costly and complex timing that SDH requires. Yet OTN
is a transparent protocol, so it can carry asynchronous traffic such as GbE, synchronous traffic such as
SONET/SDH, and even a mixture of synchronous and asynchronous, without interfering with the OAM of
the client traffic itself.
This bit-transparent transport of the client signal is commonly referred to simply as "transparency“. Note
that OTN transport is also timing-transparent. OTN's asynchronous mapping transfers the input signal
timing to the far end of the connection. This is in contrast to SDH, which imposes its own timing on client
signals.
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Multiservice OTN – Universal Switching

A protocol-agnostic, or universal, switch fabric can process any type of TDM or packet traffic natively,
without requiring protocol encapsulation. There are different technologies used for universal fabrics,
including TDM-based and cell-based fabrics. The traffic entering the switch (whether it is Ethernet,
SONET/SDH, OTN, etc.) exits the switch in the same format.
Universal switching fabrics are an important tool in achieving transport NE convergence. A converged NE
eliminates multiple boxes in a central office and creates Capital Expenditure (CAPEX) and Operations
Expenditure (OPEX) savings, while also simplifying management.
Multiservice OTN Benefits

These are the primary benefits of multiservice OTN:
 Guaranteed ultra-low latency: OTN provides a high consistency of latency across different data rates, as
well as high consistency across different client protocols, such as GbE or Fiber Channel.
 High scalability with guaranteed bandwidth:
 OTN has been standardized up to 100 Gbps transmission (ITU-T OTU4).
 OTN signals ride on DWDM wavelengths, so OTN is scalable at the DWDM level. This makes
OTN suitable for high-bandwidth applications.
 OTN provides guaranteed bandwidth, meaning that a customer that orders a 10 Gbps service
over an OTN network will always receive a 10 Gbps signal.
 High security:
 OTN enables operators to dedicate a full channel/wavelength for individual customers. Thus, an
end customer can put all of their traffic on a private wavelength without sharing capacity with
other customers.
 OTN provides Layer 1 encryption.
Smooth SDH Network Migration

Multiservice OTN universal switching fabric provides an advantage by enabling a site-by-site migration
from the old SDH. The Multiservice OTN equipment can support all SDH services and can fit in the old
SDH network without requiring changes to other sites. With Multiservice OTN, potential mistakes can be
located easily and service interruptions can be avoided.
Migrations using IP and other packet-based equipment, by contrast, are more complex. Typically, in these
cases, a new packet network must be built before the SDH offload takes place, requiring extra fiber and
space for the new sites and introducing risks for service interruptions and delays.
Some vendors propose a third option, that is, a mixed network that consists of both SDH equipment and
separate, switched OTN elements. This option is proposed by vendors that don't have multiservice
capabilities within their OTN systems. However, this architecture also raises compatibility issues between
the new network and the old.
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Review Questions
1. What is the basic rate of the SDH signal hierarchy?
2. How is the VC located within the frame?
3. What is the operating rate of an STM-4 frame?

A. 155.52 Mbps
B. 622.08 Mbps
C. 2.488 Gbps
D. 9.953 Gbps
4. A protocol-agnostic, or universal, switch fabric can process any type of TDM or packet traffic natively,
without requiring protocol encapsulation.
A. True
B. False
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5. PDH signal multiplexing is a type of __________.

A. Hairpinning
B. ADM
C. Traffic grooming
D. Digital Cross-connect Switching
6. Which SDH network topology involves a DCS at a head end or main office?
A. Ring
B. Linear
C. Linear chain
D. Mesh
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Module 11: Optical Transport Network

Overview
In this module, we discuss the overview of Optical transport network and the benefits, multiplexing and
mapping of OTN.
Objectives
● Define OTN and list the benefits it provides to optical communications
● Describe the evolution of OTN as an optical transport mechanism
● Describe the protocols and multiplexing techniques supported by OTN
● Define payload mapping in OTN
Optical Transport Network and its Benefits
Introduction to OTN
Optical transport network is OC transport protocol that provides wavelength switching capability when
deployed with WDM, and standardized sub-wavelength switching capability. Wavelength switching
involves both OTN and DWDM technologies. Sub-wavelength switching is enabled using the OTN
electrical multiplexing scheme defined by the ITU.
Sub-wavelength switching is accomplished with a digital wrapper that encapsulates client services,
regardless of their native protocols, and preserves their individual sets of monitoring capabilities.
Any client, digital video, Ethernet, SONET/SDH, wavelength, full-rate 10GbE, and more can be mapped
onto an OTN wavelength.
The ITU-T standards cover the encapsulation format, multiplexing, switching, management, supervision,
and survivability of optical channels carrying client payloads. OTN is defined by the following ITU-T
standards:
● ITU-T G.709/Y1331, Interfaces for the optical transport network. The Optical Channel (OCh) is
standardized, with the client signal encapsulated in the frame structure
● ITU-T G.798, Characteristics of optical transport network hierarchy equipment functional blocks.
Defines the OTN architecture based on the OCh
● ITU-T G.872, Architecture of optical transport networks
● ITU-T G.873.1, Optical transport network (OTN): Linear protection. Defines Automatic Protection
Switching (APS) standard
Chronology of OTN Development

Chronology of optical network technology development over the last 30 years ;
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Figure 11-1
Note: While OTN can be deployed without DWDM, it is most often deployed with DWDM.
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OTN Wrapper
The digital wrapper mechanism allows for:
● Client signal protocol independence
● Client signal timing transparency
● The ability to support Constant Bit Rate (CBR) packetized data for Ethernet transport
Figure 11-2
Benefits of OTN
OTN provides these benefits for optical networks:
● Support for encapsulated wavelength-based services

● Sub-wavelength switching capability
● Tandem Connection Monitoring (TCM)
● Forward Error Correction (FEC)
● Standardized Operations, Administration, and Maintenance (OAM) for DWDM networks
Evolution of OTN
OTN Evolution
The original purpose of OTN was to provide:
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● Optical backbone for transparent transport of SONET/SDH payloads

● Extended SONET/SDH-like OAM
● Fault, Configuration, Accounting, Performance, and Security (FCAPS) capabilities to a variety of
client payloads
As the majority of traffic over OTN became Ethernet-based, OTN was enhanced to accommodate
Ethernet data rates and packet formats. OTN is now the protocol of choice for the transport of Ethernet
over DWDM networks.
● OTN switching is becoming the standard for DWDM-based networks.
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Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 11: Optical Transport etwork
OTN and SONET/SDH

OTN improves over SONET/SDH as an optical transport mechanism because OTN is the only optical
transport protocol that currently scales beyond 40 Gbps (100+ Gbps). SONET/SDH only scales up to 40
Gbps.
OTN supports client bit rates natively, which reduces latency and network complexity. Additionally, the
OTN multiplexing structure is lighter and more flexible than SONET/SDH. And finally, OTN was designed
to work with DWDM, while SONET/SDH (due to their age), were not.
Comparison between OTN and SONET/SDH

Table 11-1 Compares characteristics of OTN and SONET/SDH
OTN defines fixed frame sizes, whereas SONET/SDH defines fixed frame rates.
OTN is asynchronous and thus does not require the complex and costly timing distribution and verification
of SONET/SDH. Instead, OTN includes per-service timing adjustments to carry both asynchronous (GbE,
ESCON) and synchronous (OC-3/12/48, STM-1/4/16) services. OTN can additionally multiplex these
services into a common wavelength.
OTN, SONET/SDH, and DWDM

Unlike SONET/SDH, OTN was designed to provide support for optical networking for DWDM-based
networks by providing error correction through the use of Forward Error Correction (FEC), embedded
communication channels, an electrical multiplexing mechanism, and a robust management and control
plane that DWDM alone does not have, including OAM concepts such as:
● Integrated standardized Optical Supervisory Channel (OSC)
● Performance management capability and hierarchy
● Remote failure messaging
● Traffic trace capability
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Evolution of the Standards: Beyond 100 Gbit/s

OTN is extended with a new, flexible frame format (OTUCn) called B100G.
B100G is the OTN standard for rates beyond 100Gb/s.
● The Ethernet rate greater then 100G will be mapped into OTUCn containers
● OTN standardization includes both electrical (digital) and photonic layers
The standard also covers rates lower then 100G (such as 25G) which are intensively used in Data
Centers.
Fitting within the specific wavelength of 50Hz, it requires increasingly complex modulation as rates
increase beyond 100Gbit/s. Due to this, it lowers the signal to noise ratio (SNR).
For example, DP-16QAM (Dual Polarization – 16QAM) is expected to be used for rates around 200Gbit/s
in order to fit within the 50GHz optical channel. Higher rate B100G signals will typically be divided across
multiple optical channels4. While interfaces using multiple wavelengths were already an option for OTU3
and OTU4, they will typically be required for a 400Gbit/s OTN signal.
For rates beyond 100 Gbit/s, ITU-T is using the similar line of reasoning as for other rates.
At line-side, the standard support interfaces with rates up to 25.6 Tbit/s.
The physical layer of the OTUCn signal will depend on the interface. For example, it can be transmitted
as a single serial stream, as n 100Gbit/s streams, or n/2 200Gbit/s streams in the optical domain, or as
multiples of 25Gbit/s or 50Gbit/s with electrical domain interfaces.
“C” corresponds to the Roman numeral for “100”.
Evolution of the Standards: FlexE and FlexO
● FlexE standard promotes an evolution of link aggregation protocol, a solution to bind together slow
links to improve the overall capacity of the bound links in terms of speed and performances.
● FlexE communications protocol defined by the OIF Flex Ethernet Implementation.
● Flexible OTN (FlexO) communications protocol is defined by G.709.1 standard.
● The FlexE concept inspired an analogous approach for OTN B100G interfaces that is called “Flexible
OTN” (FlexO).
● OTUCn relays on FlexO frame format at client and line side interface.
● With FlexE and FlexO, any client rate can be handed over to any line rate.
OTN Deployment
OTN Deployment
OTN may be deployed in an optical communications network in the following ways:

● Transport
● Takes advantage of OTN FEC for optical distance extension
● Standardized OAM for wavelength management
● Tandem Connection Monitoring (TCM)
● Switching
● Transport and switching
OTN Transport
The figure (Figure 11-3) provides an OTN transport deployment example. This graphic exemplifies the
distance extension that can result from the FEC, FEC and standardized OAM provided by the OTN
overhead
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Figure 11-3
Second figure (Figure 11-4) is an example of an OTN transport plus optical switching deployment. The
ROADM sites provide sub-wavelength switching, so there are fewer endpoints required.
ROADMs also enable optical multiplexing at a higher rate, and switching is photonic. At the sub-
wavelength level, switching is electrical. The multiplexing creates a larger container, so the lower speed
client bit rates get mapped into a higher rate aggregate signal on a single wave-length on the transport
network.
Figure 11-4
Working of OTN
Working
The OTN wrapper is made up of components that constitute the hierarchy for overhead communication
between network elements. The Optical Transport Module (OTM) is the structure transported across the
optical line interface. It has two parts: a digital (electrical) and an analog (photonic/optical) section.
● OCH is for Optical channel while OTSi is for Optical tributary signal.
● OTSi is used for higher bandwidth signal.
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Distribution of OTN Frame

There are three overhead areas in an OTN frame: the Optical Payload Unit (OPU) overhead, the Optical
Data Unit (ODU) overhead, and the Optical Transport Unit (OTU) overhead. These overhead bytes
provide path and section performance monitoring, alarm indication, communication, and protection
switching capabilities.
An additional feature is the inclusion of Forward Error Correction. FEC improves the Optical Signal-to-
Noise Ratio (OSNR) by 4-6 dB, resulting in longer spans and a reduction in the need for regeneration
(therefore, reduced equipment cost).
Forward Error Correction

● FEC corrects a high number of errors.
● Standard FEC uses a Reed-Solomon (RS) (255/239) coding technique, in which 239 bytes are
required to compute a 16-byte parity check. Allowing service providers to extend the distance
between optical repeaters, FEC helps reduce both capital and operational expenses while simplifying
the network topography by being able to skip amplifier sites.
● The G.709 standard allows for customized FEC deployments.
OPU, ODU and OTU

The Optical Channel Payload Unit (OPU):
● Contains the payload frames
● A client signal is mapped into the OPU payload, with the OPU overhead providing information on the
type of signal mapped into the payload and the mapping structure.
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The Optical Channel Data Unit (ODUk):

● Contains the OPU plus overhead
● The ODU is the basic payload that is electronically groomed and switched within an OTN network.
● The ODU overhead adds optical path-level monitoring, alarm indication signals, automatic protection
switching bytes, and embedded data communications channels (GCC1/GCC2).
The Optical Transport Unit (OTUk):
● Contains the ODU, provides section-level overhead, and supports the General Communication
Channel (GCC0) bytes for overhead communication between network elements
● The OTU overhead adds bytes to provide optical section layer PM, alarm indication, and the GCC0
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● Data communications channel. The OTU represents a physical optical interface or port, such as an
OTU2 (10 Gbps), OTU3 (40 Gbps), OTU4 (100 Gbps) and OTUCn C=Container and n=speed.
● The GCC is used for OAM functions such as performance monitoring, fault detection, and
signaling and maintenance commands in support of protection switching, fault isolation,
service-level reporting, and control plane communications. The physical layer maps the
OTU into a wavelength and the Optical Channel (OCh) or OTSi, which runs across the
optical line.
Optical Multiplex and Transmission Sections

The Optical Multiplex Section (OMS), which is composed of multiplexed Och or OTSi, provides the link
between locations where the OCh are added or dropped. The OMS OH provides the ability to assess the
transmission channel quality and connectivity for that layer.
The Optical Transmission Section (OTS) is the fiber connecting devices that perform an optical function
on the signal.
Tandem Connection Monitoring

OTN offers six levels of tandem connection monitoring that enable a network operator to monitor a signal
as it passes through other operators’ networks. This functional breakdown aids in fault management, as
OTN overhead is aligned with these points.
Tandem sections are bidirectional segments alongside the path, but managed separately from the path,
enable each carrier along the route to determine the signal condition in their own network.
In large, interconnected networks, multiple path monitoring points allow multiple carriers to perform end-
to-end signal monitoring across the network. Tandem sections, which are bidirectional segments
alongside the path, but managed separately from the path, enable each carrier along the route to
determine the signal condition in their own network, within the much larger network.
For example, many small-scale carriers lease network resources from a larger carrier. For quality of
service, it is critical for them to be able to identify and then locate faults.
The tandem sections carry maintenance signals in overhead bytes to convey fault messages by their
values. The value of the byte determines the location of the error.
The only drawback is no layer/level is reversed for any specific user. It is all SLA-related.
The figure shows three carriers using TCM, identified by TCM1, TCM2, and TCM3 overhead bytes.
TCM gives each carrier its own administrative domain and the ability to monitor their own networks
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within the larger network.
Figure 11-5
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Figure 11-6
Optical Supervisory Channel

● The OSC is a separate wavelength that carries management information between two devices.
● The OSC is standardized in the OMS and supports DWDM amplified networks .
Figure 11-7
Payload Mapping
There are two types of payload mapping into an ODU:
Transparent: maps the complete client payload into an ODU (so the OTN rate is higher than the client
rate).
Non-transparent: Removes some of the client signal overhead to conserve network capacity. More
ODUs can be mapped into an OTU using non-transparent mapping
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Data rates associated with OTN mapping:
Multiplexing and Mapping
OTN Multiplexing
Multiplexing is performed at the ODU level.
● Each client signal is mapped into a Low Order (LO) ODU, and multiple clients are carried in a High
Order (HO) ODU by multiplexing the low order ODUs into the high order ODU.
● OPU1 – OPU4 (the OPU contains the client signal plus OPU overhead) containers are divided into
tributary slots that are interleaved within the OPU.
● The tributary slot includes part of the OPUk payload area and part of the OPUk OH area. These
tributary slots can carry any combination of low order ODU clients, up to the capacity of an ODUk.
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ODU0 and ODU1 Mapping

The ODU0 frame structure was meant primarily to add support for Ethernet based applications to the
original G.709 OTN standard.
The ODU0 frame size offers 1.25 Gbps tributary slots for client bit rate support:
● 1 GbE
● STM-1/OC-3
● STM-4/OC-12
● FC-100
● Video (270 Mbps)
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ODUflex Mapping
● ODUflex can be sized to fit any client rate.
● New client signals are being developed, such as Fibre Channel and various video distribution signals,
and they are mapped into ODUflex with Generic Mapping Procedure (GMP), thus using only the
amount of bandwidth necessary.
● Circuit ODUflex supports any possible client bit rate as a service in circuit transport networks.
● Packet ODUflex creates variable size packet trunks (containing GFP-F mapped packet data) for
transporting packet flows.
OTN B100G Mapping

There are total of 7 of payload areas in OTN B100G mapping.
A to F are the letters assigned to the overhead area. Each letter signifies some specific payload
channel.
● A refers to frame alignment area.
● B refers to OTUC specific overhead area.
● C refers to ODUC specific overhead area.
● D refers to OPUC Justification control and HAO overhead. In this column 15 refers to the GMP
byte/bit resolution overhead.
● And column 16 refers to GMP word count overhead.
● E refers to payload structure indicator (PSI) byte, in this various PSI bytes can be merged, like PT,
reserved, Multiplex structure identifier (MSI).
● F refers to OPUC multi-frame identifier.
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OTN Mapping
ODU2 can carry 10 Gbps which can be divided into:
● Four 2.5 Gbps tributary slots
● Eight 1.25 Gbps slots
ODU2e (ODU2 extended) can carry 10.3995 Gbps:
● 10 GbE LAN
● FC-1200
ODU3 can carry 40.15 Gbps which can be divided into:
● 16 2.5 Gbps tributary slots
ODU4 can carry 104.8 Gbps which can be divided into:
The table shows how ODU containers correspond to OUT containers:
Bit-synchronous Mapping Procedure (BMP):

● Adds OTN overhead to a client signal:
● OC-48/STM-16 → ODU1
● OC-192/STM-64 → ODU2
● OC-768/STM-256 → ODU3
● BMP also maps Constant Bit Rate (CBR) clients other than SONET/SDH clients into ODUflex.
Asynchronous Mapping Procedure (AMP):
● Maps SONET and SDH
● Multiplexes low order ODU clients into 1.25 and 2.5 Gbps tributary slots
Generic Mapping Procedure (GMP):
● Maps signals into ODU0, ODU2
● Maps and de-maps low order ODU signals into and from high order ODU tributary slots
Generic Framing Procedure (GFP):
● Flexible mapping procedure that carries two types of packet signals:
● Ethernet
● Storage Area Networks (SAN) protocols such as ESCON, Fibre Channel, FICON
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The table shows AMP and GMP used to map ODU containers into OPU containers:
OTN Gigabit Ethernet Support:

● Initially, OTN support for Ethernet was limited.
● The following two scenarios show how OTN supports Ethernet rate::
● The ODU0 is half the OPU1 rate (1.24416 Gbps).
● The GbE signal is compressed and mapped into the OPU0 payload.
● ODUk overhead is added.
● The ODUj is divided into 2 tributary slots and mapped into the low order ODTUj (ODU
Tributary Unit j) with AMP.
or
● The ODUk is mapped into a high order OPUk (>1) with GMP.
● The tributary slot is multiplexed with other tributary slots into the payload of a high order
OPUk.
● High order OPUk OH is added.
In both examples, the ODTUs may be combined into a larger logical entity, the ODTUG
(ODU Tributary Unit Group)
● With the addition of high order OPUk OH, the GbE signals are now part of a high order ODUk
payload
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Review Questions
The following review questions are based on information in this student guide. Your instructor may review
1. List the benefits OTN provides to optical communication.
2. List and describe the three layers of the digital OTN domain.
3. Which layer supports multiplexing in OTN? How is multiplexing ordered is there a one-to-one
correspondence between layers?
4. What is the protocol that maps signals into ODU0 and ODU2?
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5. What is the scaling limit of SONET/SDH?
6. List the number of way of OTN deployment.
7. Define FlexO?
8. Describe the types of payload mapping?
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Module 12: Software Defined Networks

Overview
In this module, we discuss Software Defined Networks (SDNs) and it’s the impact on OC transport
networks.
Objectives
Upon successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:
● Discuss the cloud service model
● List the types of cloud services and their uses
● List cloud service applications and their impact on carrier networks
● Identify cloud challenges
● Identify the solutions for the challenges faced by the service providers:
 Define Software-Defined Networking (SDN)
 Define Network Function Virtualization (NFV)
● Explore enablement of SDN over OC transport networks
Introduction
Over the past few years, there has been a fundamental shift in the way network resources are used. New
devices, such as smartphones and tablets, are replacing desktops as the preferred medium for Internet
access. The Internet is no longer just a place to make a purchase or do casual research. Today, the
Internet is used for a number of other tasks including communication and entertainment. Everything we
do is Internet-connected, leading to an increase in bandwidth demands from individual users.
This module explores the changes in consumer and business behaviors and the changes in technologies
that are the drivers behind the shift. As a result of the behavioral changes, service providers are facing
certain challenges that are covered in the module. Service providers are looking for new ways to address
those challenges. This module covers the proposed solutions to these challenges.
Network Usage Patterns

There is a significant growth in Internet users over the past few years. Use of Internet is not limited to just
desktops or laptops. Increased use of devices such as mobile and tablets over the years. Enterprise
applications no longer located on a single server. Enterprise applications on shared servers can be
accessed using the Internet.
Globally, the total number of Internet users is projected to grow from 3.9 billion in 2018 to 5.3 billion by
2023 at a CAGR of 6% (Figure 12-1). In terms of population, this represents 51% of the global population
in 2018 and 66% of global population by 2023.
Figure 12-1: Internet Users (2018-2023)
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SDN: Evolution in Carrier Ethernet

The growing tsunami of data driven by the growth in mobile phones and tablets, the emergence of BIG
DATA, and the rise in machine-to-machine communications requires that we think about networking
differently.
Carrier Ethernet attempts to solve this problem by providing high-value-per-bit at a lower-cost-per-bit
while maintaining the reliability and predictable performance required by traditional SONET/SDH
networks.
The next stage of Carrier Ethernet growth will come from cloud services and Carrier Ethernet
interconnects, combined with virtualized network services. The cost advantages of Ethernet alone cannot
keep pace with the uncontrollable demand for bandwidth combined with the emergence of on-demand
network services.
If the move to Ethernet alone can’t keep pace, what is the next evolutionary (or perhaps revolutionary)
step in Carrier Ethernet?
The solution is Software Defined Networks (SDN). SDN moves from the monolithic network equipment
design based on custom silicon, a custom control plane, and tightly integrated network applications
(services) to a modular, programmable, and distributed design.
SDN is a next logical step in the evolution of Carrier Ethernet. It provides a new mechanism for
architecting networking equipment (NE) and network design that complements and co-exists with today’s
Carrier Ethernet networks.
Emergence of Cloud Services

Cloud services provide shared computing resources on an on-demand basis to cloud consumers.
The Metro Ethernet Forum (MEF) has developed a model for illustrating the roles of cloud carrier, cloud
service provider, and the customer (cloud consumer).
In this model, the cloud consumer, which could be an enterprise Information Technology (IT) department,
initiates service activity based on changing application needs. The cloud service provider responds by
allocating computing resources, and the cloud carrier responds by allocating network resources, such as
bandwidth and Class of Service (CoS).
Figure 12-2: Cloud Services
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Virtualization
To understand cloud computing, it is important to understand the role virtualization in delivering cloud
services. Virtual machines are a collection of computing resources assembled together to emulate a
computer.
A software called the hypervisor manages these machines. The hypervisor can automatically move a
virtual machine running on one server to another without disrupting the service.
Some of the reasons for movement of virtual machines:
 To balance the workload on different servers
 To provide additional computing or storage power to a virtual machine
The ability to move virtual machines enhances the flexibility and scalability of computing operations.
Virtual machines running on one server can be shifted to another server without disrupting the service
being provided to the user.
Types of Cloud Service

 Software as a Service (SaaS): Saas provides the applications for business process operations
and is used primarily by end users, business users, and software application administrators.
 Platform as a Service (PaaS): PaaS provides the development, testing, deployment, and
management of applications hosted in a cloud environment. PaaS is used primarily by application
developers, testers, and administrators.
 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): IaaS provides the creation, management, and monitoring of
computing, storage, and network resources for IT infrastructure operations. IaaS is used primarily
by system developers, administrators, and IT managers.
Software as a Service (SaaS)

SaaS is used to access software applications provided by a cloud service provider, who delivers on-
demand access to software stored on the cloud.
No additional space or computing power on a user’s computer is required to install and use the software,
which can be accessed from anywhere at any time.
The cloud service provider is responsible for software upgrades and patches.
Enterprise customers could use SaaS for customer records management, accounting, and collaboration.
SaaS Example
In this example (Figure 12-3), the end user is using an application provided by the cloud service provider.
The application is hosted and maintained by the cloud service provider.
Figure 12-3: Software as a Service Example
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Optical Communications Associate (OC-A): Student Guide Module 12: Software Defined Networks
Platform as a Service (PaaS)

PaaS provides the computing platform, which includes:
 Operating system
 Application development platform
 Databases
 Web servers
The consumer can use the application development platform to develop, test, and host the applications.
The consumer controls the application and the configuration settings for the hosting environment. The
cloud service provider controls and manages the underlying cloud infrastructure.
PaaS Example
In this example (Figure 12-4), a startup company wants to develop a game and make it available to the
users over the Internet. The company is using the PaaS service provided by a cloud service provider to
develop, test, and host the game. The developers use the application development platform to develop
the game. The testers test the game using the testing platform provided by the cloud service provider.
The game is hosted and delivered to the end users using the web servers provided by the cloud service
provider. The company does not have to worry about maintaining a server to manage the user base or
store the data related to the users. If the game becomes popular and more space is required to store the
user data, they can simply lease more data storage space from the cloud service provider.
Figure 12-4: Platform as a Service Example
PaaS: Benefits and Requirements

The cloud environment provides seemingly infinite computing resources for application development.
Multiple developers can include external parties working together to create an application.
Developers require reliable Internet connectivity, as application development is done on remote servers.
Increased use of PaaS increases bandwidth demand from users.
The cloud service provider requires high bandwidth to deliver application and related data to the users.
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Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

IaaS provides computing infrastructure, such as:
 Physical or virtual machines
 Storage
 Load balancers
 Firewalls
The cloud service provider rents out infrastructure to cloud consumers. The use of infrastructure is
controlled by the consumer, while the underlying infrastructure, which includes the network, servers, and
operating systems, is maintained and controlled by the cloud service provider.
The cloud service provider bills the cloud consumer for the resources that have been allocated and
consumed.
IaaS Example
In this example (Figure 12-5), an enterprise is using the IaaS service offered by a cloud service provider.
The enterprise IT department uploads a VM image on the storage space provided by the cloud service
provider. The cloud service provider provides the computing power for the VM to operate. The enterprise
users can access the applications stored on the cloud service provider network through a firewall. The
cloud service provider delivers storage, computer power, and the required network elements to host and
operate the enterprise applications. As a result, the enterprise does not have to invest in physical
hardware.
Figure 12-5: Infrastructure as a Service Example
IaaS: Requirements & Data Analytics

Requirements for IaaS:
Users require a good bandwidth connection, as all work is performed on IaaS servers. The cloud service
provider requires high bandwidth to provide data access to users wherever and whenever data is
required.
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Data Analytics Using IaaS:

The cloud service provider provides the infrastructure to perform analytics that have high computing
requirements. The user then uploads the data to the cloud service provider’s servers.
The processing power of the cloud service provider’s infrastructure is used to perform all the required
data analysis, and the results can then be extracted by the user.
A possible case might be that a credit card company wants to analyze all the transactions to find out any
fraud. The computing power required to analyze all the credit card transactions may not be available in
the credit card company infrastructure.
In that case, the credit card company can use the analysis services provided by Google BigQuery. The
company needs to upload all the credit card transactions on to the Google servers and then use the
Google BigQuery service to execute the queries to find the fraudulent transactions.
Benefits of Cloud Storage

In cloud-based services, users can store and access various types of data such as photos, videos, and
documents on the cloud service provider’s storage. Users can store data on servers provided by cloud
service providers. Users can access their stored data from anywhere, at any time, and across multiple
devices.
In addition, users can share documents with others and sync files automatically on multiple devices.
Services are often free or at nominal cost.
Impact of Cloud Storage

Internet connection:
Cloud based storage is dependent on internet connection and a device that can access the data.
Costs:
These services are often provided for free or at nominal costs; therefore, the user base for these services
is increasing exponentially. But there are additional costs for uploading and downloading files from the
cloud.
This has led to an increase in the bandwidth consumption from the individual users.
Bandwidth limitations:
Depending on what service the user choose, there may be a bandwidth allowance.
Cloud Applications
Social networking and video-sharing are two common cloud applications.
Social networking sites:

 Social networking sites provide cloud storage facilities to users
 Users post images, videos, and other content on these sites, which is stored on the site’s servers
 Users can access uploaded content on multiple devices using an Internet connection
Video-sharing sites:
 Video-sharing sites allow users to store and share their videos
 The uploaded videos can be accessed using an Internet connection
Social Networking
Social networking sites have become widely popular. These sites provide cloud storage facilities to users,
who post images, videos, and other content, which is stored on the site’s servers.
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Facebook, Tumblr, and Twitter are used by billions of users around the world.
According to the eMarketer report (Figure 12-6), Worldwide Social Network Users: 2013 Forecast and
Comparative Estimates:
 In 2012, 1.47 billion used social networking
 In 2013, nearly every 1 in 4 people worldwide used a social network
 By 2017, the number is expected to grow to 2.55 billion
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Figure 12-6: Social Network Site Use
Using an Internet connection, users can access uploaded content on multiple devices.
Social networks flood the networks with multimedia content:
 Social networking sites provide features such as picture/video sharing, audio/video streaming,
blogging, and instant messaging
 Facebook has more than 250 billion photos, and more than 350 million photos are uploaded
every day on average
 Social networking apps on smartphones are used to share updates on the move
 Smartphone cameras take pictures and videos, which are then shared on social networking sites
 A post or a tweet can instantly be made available to users around the world
Data usage has increased due to social networking sites:

 Data that is consumed is not limited to the data stored on the site’s servers
 Users have the option to share content from other sites
 For example, Facebook users can share YouTube videos with their friends
 The videos can be watched by the friends, and the friends can in turn share the videos with their
friends
 The same video can be viewed by thousands or millions of users around the world in a short
amount of time
Video Sites
Video-sharing sites allow users to store and share their videos, which can be accessed using an Internet
connection. The popularity of video sites has increased over the years. Video traffic is expected to grow
five times or greater in the next three years.
Video site usage affects bandwidth demand.
 The amount of data used to upload a video depends on the resolution of the video
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 For example, a 5-minute video with a resolution of 480p can use around 20 MB
 2 Tb of data would be consumed if this video were viewed by 100,000 people
The primary sources of video traffic are:
 Video-sharing sites: YouTube generates over 6 billion hours of video traffic each month
 Video-streaming sites: Netflix and Hulu are used for on-demand access to movies and
television programs over the Internet
Internet of Things (IoT)

Everyday appliances, such as televisions, thermostats, and refrigerators, can now come equipped with
wireless connectivity.
For example, a smart thermostat could be programmed to control the room temperature by a remote
device, such as a smartphone.
A popular term describing the concept of a network of smart objects is the Internet of Things (IoT). The
IoT concept can be applied in various fields including smart metering, industrial automation, logistics, and
personal sensors.
In a nutshell, the IoT is the concept of connecting any device to the internet and to other connected
devices. The IoT is a giant network of connected things and people – all of which collect and share data
about the way they are used and about the environment around them.
Cloud and IoT

IoT nodes could far exceed the number of nodes using the core Internet. With the increase in the number
of endpoints, bandwidth demands are also expected to surge significantly.
Cloud services can be used to store, process, and present this data in a seamless, efficient, and easily
interpretable form (Figure 12-7).
Figure 12-7: Integration of cloud and IoT
Cloud Service Access

Mobile devices are used to access cloud-based services, such as social networking and video-sharing
sites. According to recent reports, almost 40% of time spent online is on mobile devices.
Services commonly used on mobile devices are shown in Figure 12-8.
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Figure 12-8: Internet Usage on Mobile Devices
Smartphones and tablets are gaining popularity. The International Data Corporation (IDC) Worldwide
Quarterly Smart Connected Device Tracker, 25 Oct 2019 forecast (Figure 12-9). The number of
smartphones shipped worldwide is greater than the number of PCs shipped worldwide.
In 2017, smartphones and tablets are 87% of the total market; and PCs (both desktop and laptop) are
13%.
Figure 12-9: Smart-connected devices in the World Market
Mobile Data Traffic

Nearly two-thirds of the global population will have Internet access by 2023. There will be 5.3 billion total
Internet users (66 percent of global population) by 2023, up from 3.9 billion (51 percent of global
population) in 2018.
The increased use of new devices has impacted the overall bandwidth demand:
 Users need Internet connectivity to use mobile applications, such as 3G, 4G or 5G
 3G speed ranges from several hundred Kbps to a couple of Mbps, and 4G can provide around
100 Mbps
 5G wireless technology is meant to deliver higher multi-Gbps peak data speeds
 Increases in bandwidth demand are due to:
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 Data rates of Internet connection

 Increases in service mobility and availability
 According to market studies, mobile data traffic is expected to grow more than 10 times by 2025
as compared to 2017-2018.
Characteristics of the Cloud Model

The National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST) has identified five essential characteristics of the
cloud model:
 On-demand self-service: The cloud consumer should be able to provision computing capability
without human interaction
 Broad network access: A cloud service should be able to access cloud services on multiple
devices, such as mobile phones, tablets, laptops, and workstations
 Resource pooling: Network resources, like bandwidth, are assigned and re-assigned
independently of location and are transparent to the consumer
 Rapid elasticity: Network-supporting cloud services can scale automatically and quickly to
changes in demand
 Measured service: Cloud resources are metered, both for billing and to optimize their use
Of course, there are challenges to both cloud service providers and cloud carriers to meet these
characteristics.
List of Cloud Challenges

Scaling the network:
 Scaling the network may be required to meet customer demands
 Scaling network resources may involve adding more ports, storage, computing power, and so on
 Scaling may involve adding new servers and network devices to the existing infrastructure
 Switching equipment with terabyte data-handling capability requires a surprising amount of
energy to run, which adds cooling problems
Rapid cloud service provisioning:

 Cloud carriers sell services based on service attributes, such as bandwidth profile
 A change in bandwidth or any other service attribute may require a modified Service Level
Agreement (SLA)
 For cloud services, a dynamic change (in minutes or seconds) is envisioned
 Cloud consumers may require a temporary change and then revert to original service levels
Security:
 Many cloud services use the public Internet
 Large enterprises are hesitant to move to cloud due to inherent security vulnerabilities of the
Internet
Reliability and Performance:
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 Reliable-access network connection is required for mission-critical applications

 High availability and faster recovery from network failures is required
 Automatic configuration of backup paths will occur as the network adapts to changes in
application-driven data demands
Bandwidth:
 Carriers and cloud service providers need methods for optimizing the network architecture
dynamically to make optimal use of available bandwidth. Several factors increase bandwidth
demand
 The mobility of devices, the number of applications, and their availability
 Enterprises adopting cloud services requiring higher bandwidth services at different locations
 Data center interconnectivity requirements
Interoperability:
 Interoperability is the ability for a system made up of disparate subsystems to operate correctly.
Accomplishing interoperability can be a challenge
 For OC networks, interoperability means that a network can be deployed using Network Elements
(NEs) from different vendors
 Interoperability is important during expansion of cloud computing characteristics; in particular,
resource pooling
 Incompatible feature sets can result from the selection of different vendors’ equipment
 Interoperability testing is conducted in a lab environment by groups that represent major
stakeholders in the industry, such as carriers and providers
 The goals of interoperability test design are to produce test results that are consistent,
repeatable, and accepted across all markets and geographies
Solutions for Cloud Services

Service providers are looking for new concepts and technologies to overcome challenges faced due to
the changing customer demands.
Solutions that help service providers in overcoming the challenges we discussed:

 Software-Defined Networks (SDN)
 Network Function Virtualization (NFV)
These solutions also allow service providers to offer new services to customers.
Software Defined Networks (SDN)

SDN is an emerging network architecture that provides a software-based approach to networking. The
network is controlled using a software-based SDN controller. The SDN controller is used to configure the
devices, thus eliminating the need to configure the devices individually. The network devices receive the
instructions from the SDN controller and forward the traffic based on those instructions.
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There are four critical areas in which SDN technology can make a difference for an organization:
 Network programmability: SDN enables network behavior to be controlled by the software that
resides beyond the networking devices that provide physical connectivity
 Logically centralize intelligence and control: SDN is built on logically centralized network
topologies, which enable intelligent control and management of network resources
 Abstraction of the network: Services and applications running on SDN technology are
abstracted from the underlying technologies and hardware that provide physical connectivity from
network control
 Openness: SDN architectures usher in a new era of openness, enabling multi-vendor
interoperability as well as fostering a vendor-neutral ecosystem
SDN Controller
The SDN controller configures the devices, thus eliminating the need to configure the devices individually.
The network devices receive the instructions from the SDN controller and forward the traffic based on
those instructions. The SDN controller has an overall global view of the network topology and
configuration (Figure 12-10).
Figure 12-10: SDN Controller View
SDN Architecture
SDN architecture (Figure 12-11) is defined by the Open Networking Foundation (ONF). It consists of
application layer, control layer, and infrastructure layer.
Figure 12-11: SDN Architecture
Application Layer
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The application layer is all the business applications and services that can interact with and manipulate
the control software of the network devices and resources, such as:
 Network provisioning applications
 Cloud orchestration applications
 Path reservation applications
 Network topology discovery applications
Control Layer
The control layer is the SDN controller that controls the path that the data should take when forwarded
through the network. The SDN controller sends instructions to the devices as to how the data needs to be
forwarded by them.
Infrastructure Layer
The Infrastructure layer is composed of various networking equipment or device which forms underlying
network to forward network traffic. The devices are responsible for forwarding, dropping, or changing the
data that being sent from one location to another.
SDN Operation
Applications and network services (Figure 12-12) treat the network as a logical entity. Applications and
network services can inform the SDN controller about their network requirements.
The SDN controller can automatically configure the network devices based on the application
requirements.
Figure 12-12: Applications and Network Services
The SDN controller has the global demand view from the application layer and the global resource view
from the infrastructure layer.
It can use that data to perform analysis and then allocate the network resources accordingly.
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The SDN controller can use that data to perform analysis and then allocate the network resources
accordingly (Figure 12-13).
Figure 12-13: SDN Controller with Global View
The SDN controller communicates with the devices in the infrastructure layer using a device control
protocol, which can be an open source or proprietary protocol.
The OpenFlow standard is an open source device control protocol. OpenFlow defines the structure of
flow tables and over-the-wire communication. OpenFlow enables the SDN controller to communicate
seamlessly with devices from multiple vendors.
OpenFlow was created by the ONF and is implemented on both the SDN controller side and the data
layer side. OpenFlow enables the SDN controller to access and manipulate the forwarding plane of the
network devices, and enables the SDN controller to configure a set of rules that can be used to identify
the type of traffic being transmitted.
SDN Addresses Cloud Challenges

Reliability and performance:
 Logically centralized network intelligence offers unprecedented control of forwarding behavior in
NEs
 Flow-based network control that is abstracted from the hardware through OpenFlow may be
achieved
 SDN allows automatic configuration of the network based on the application requirement without
any human intervention
 SDN allows dynamic reconfiguration of the network to respond to any demands from the IT
department

 SDN enables configuration changes without directly accessing individual NEs
 This enables service providers to build highly scalable and flexible networks that readily adapt to
changing business and end-user needs
Rapid cloud provisioning:

 Network automation significantly reduces provisioning time and configuration errors
 Frequent reprovisioning of the network is possible based on the application of customer needs
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 Network automation decreases operations costs

 Network automation allows network virtualization, network capacity expansion, and efficiency
while improving revenue potential and service innovation
Service Orchestration
Service orchestration is the execution of the operational and functional processes involved in designing,
creating, and delivering an end-to-end service.
Challenges:
Creating and deploying services from end to end in this environment is traditionally a very manual
process that entails updating multiple vendor- and domain-specific element managers, SDN controllers,
or orchestrators. Then integrating these changes with the back-end Operational Support System (OSS).
On the surface, this could make the move to NFV complex and inefficient because, to fully orchestrate
services from end to end across both the physical and virtual domains, network operators will have to
select vendors for each and then engage in a complex process of stitching this all together to create
services.
Solutions:
The solutions is Multi-Domain Service Orchestration (MDSO). MDSO sits atop each domain and
orchestrates services from end to end. It interfaces with NMSs and/or SDN controllers, the NFV
orchestrator, and the data center SDN controller and understands available resources, both physical and
virtual, that need to be managed. The result is the successful orchestration of those resources and the
delivery of services across a multi-vendor, multi-domain infrastructure.
Network Analytics
The use of artificial intelligence and automation technologies in network analytics is paving the way for
the vision of the Adaptive Network—an intelligent, self-configuring and self-optimizing environment that
understands and adjusts to network conditions.
Some key benefits of network analytics include:

 Optimized use of network resources: Analytics can help you understand your network, and
balance and utilize resources in the best way possible so you can optimize network performance
and lower cost structures
 New revenue streams: Analytics plays a critical role in mining insights that can identify new
revenue streams and build data-driven business cases for quick action
 Accelerated time to market: Analytics can help make capacity planning easier for new services.
As a result, the resources required for a new or expanded service can be calculated and then
provisioned well in advance of going live, ensuring products get to market on time
SDN with Enterprise Networks

SDN can also be used in enterprise networks to offer the following benefits:
 Centralized provisioning and maintenance of multi-vendor environments
 Common network services and policies implemented across the entire network
 Automated provisioning and management of network resources based on individual user profiles
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and application requirements

 Rapid provisioning of cloud services and easy handoff to the cloud provider
SDN Testing and Interoperability

ONF has established test labs internationally for accelerating the adoption of OpenFlow and SDN. The
test labs have published performance specifications and established equipment certification processes.
As of 2013, there were over 100 companies participating in ONF. Testing events called PlugFests are
held periodically to promote collaboration and provide testing.
Network Challenges
NFV faces several challenges in traditional networks.
Traditionally, network functions are performed using dedicated, proprietary NEs. When deploying new
hardware, space and power requirements of hardware devices have to be taken into account. It becomes
difficult for service providers to fulfill the power and space requirements of new devices.
Existing hardware reaches its end of life and needs replacement. The deployment of new devices is a
costly process, and requires both time and manpower with little or no revenue benefit to the service
provider.
In the current network environment, dedicated proprietary hardware appliances such as routers, firewalls,
and Provider Edge (PE) routers, are used to perform various network functions such as switching, traffic
analysis, and network security.
Network function virtualization (NFV) is a way to virtualize network services, such as routers, firewalls,
and load balancers, that have traditionally been run on proprietary hardware. Along with SDN, NFV
creates an agile, automated, and programmable network environment, providing network operators with
the ability to implement a software-centric network infrastructure that can adapt dynamically to customer
needs and requirements.
Benefits of NFV
When NFV is employed (Figure 12-14), costs are reduced, as multiple network functions can be
consolidated onto a single hardware platform. A single device consumes less power and space than
multiple devices performing different functions.
Network functions move from dedicated hardware to software, which runs on industry-standard high-
volume servers, switches, and storage. For example, use of encryption software can be deployed for
network encryption instead of deploying new hardware.
NFV is a step toward alleviating the issues by moving the network functions from dedicated hardware
appliances to software running on industry-standard, high volume servers, switches, and storage.
For example, instead of deploying a network security hardware for network encryption, encryption
software can be deployed on a standardized server or switch already in the network.
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Figure 12-14: Network Function Virtualization Deployed
NFV Addresses Cloud Challenges

Rapid cloud service provisioning:
 Helps service providers in reducing the rollout time for new services
 The service providers can easily test new services and implement those services if they are
satisfied with the results

 Allows service providers to easily scale services easily, based on customer and network
demands
 Eliminates wait time, as there is no need to wait for deployment of hardware for scaling up the
services because the functionality can be implemented in the software
 Reduces Capital Expenditure (CAPEX), as the purchase of purpose-built hardware is not
required, and reduces Operations Expenditure (OPEX), as space and power requirements are
reduced
 Simplifies the rollout and management of new network services
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Evolution of OC Transport Technology - SDN

Figure 12-15 is a reference for the approximate timelines that optical technologies were used as the
primary mechanisms for providers. The figure illustrates technology evolution and provides a
chronological context for OC transport technology evolution. SDN and NFV enable an OC transport
network to be extremely flexible and dynamic, and allow the entire OC network be seen as a virtualized
(cloud) construct.
Figure 12-15: Evolution of OC Transport Technology
OC Transport Networks
The OC transport network(s) becomes the cloud. The network is seen as a single virtualized entity rather
than individual, connected physical topologies. SDN and NFV allow the OC transport network to be seen
as a resource. The application services an OC transport network can support are either:
 -based service virtualization
 Sub -based service virtualization
Virtualization of OC Transport Networks

For virtualization OC transport networks to be possible, the OC network must support:
SDN enabled -based services require the following optical technologies:
 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) support for wavelength availability
 Reconfigurable Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer (ROADM) for optical switching capability
 Full optical mesh for optical path diversity
 Automated photonic control (optical power control and equalization)
 Standardized NE support for SDN to control optical resources
 SDN control equipment (servers and other)
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SDN enabled sub -based services require the following optical technologies:
 OTN switching to support electrical (sub ) multiplexing* (SONET/SDH also provide sub -based
service support, but current and new networks would likely take advantage of the additional
benefits of OTN.)
 DWDM support for wavelength availability
 ROADM for optical switching capability
 Full optical mesh for optical path diversity
 Automated photonic control plane (optical power control and equalization)
 Standardized support for SDN to control optical resources
 SDN control equipment (servers and other)
OC Transport Network Virtualization Benefits

The following benefits related to virtualization of OC transport networks can be achieved:
 Rapid cloud based service provisioning: OC transport networks can adapt to the changing
needs of the consumer without requiring human intervention. Services can be added quickly
and/or changed to suit the customers changing service requirements.
 Security: OC transport can provide high levels of security through private and virtual private
standardized services, -based and or sub -based services.
 Reliability and performance: OC transport network protocols have advanced OAM and provide
lower failover times for low latency and ultra-low latency based services. SDN controlled 
switching allows for vastly increased reliability and performance.
OC Transport Network Virtualization Challenges

Challenges related to virtualization of OC transport networks are:
 OC transport network requirements as previously indicated
 Standardization of SDN control messaging between equipment vendors (some vendors use
proprietary control plane)
 Implementation of standardized OpenFlow by equipment vendors
 Standardization of SDN control messaging between providers
 SDN equipment support on existing OC transport NEs and equipment
 Complexity of implementation of OpenFlow and the SDN control plane
Page 225
Review Questions
1. What do cloud services do?
2. List three types of cloud services.
3. What type of cloud services provide the applications for business process operations?
4. Which software is used to manage virtual machines as part of virtualization?
5. Which of the following is considered as video streaming as well as video sharing site?
A. Hulu
B. YouTube
C. Netflix
D. Prime video
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6. Which popular term describes the concept of a network of smart objects such as televisions,
thermostats, and refrigerators?
7. According to which characteristics of the cloud model, cloud resources are metered, both for billing
and to optimize their use?
A. On-demand self-service
B. Broad network access
C. Rapid elasticity
D. Measured service
8. How is the scaling the network can act as a challenge to cloud services?
9. What is SDN?
10. What are the three layers in which the SDN architecture is defined?
11. Large enterprises are hesitant to move to cloud due to inherent security vulnerabilities of the Internet.
A. True
B. False
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12. What are the new technological solutions that help service providers in overcoming the cloud
challenges?
13. Which of the following comes under the infrastructure layer?

A. SDN controller
B. Centralized Software Program
C. Network device
D. Business application
14. SDN allows automatic configuration of the network based on the application requirement with some
human intervention.
A. True
B. False
15. How the SDN controller communicates with the network devices in the Infrastructure layer?
16. In which of the following SDN architecture layer, cloud orchestration is performed?
A. Application layer
B. Infrastructure layer
C. Control Layer
17. What are the requirements for OC transport network to enable SDN for sub l-based service support?
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Module 13: Control Plane Foundations

Overview
In this module, we will look at the L0 and L1 Control Plane concepts.
Objectives
● Explain the concepts of Layer 0
● Explain the types of Sub Network Connection (SNC)
● Explain the concepts of Layer 1
Concepts of L0 Control Plane (CP)

L0 CP is deployable where networks have evolved to a complex mix of linear and ring systems, forming
mesh-like topologies. The type of L0 CP deployed is either non-Mesh Restorable or Mesh Restorable,
based on the type of L0 Optical Signal and Routing Protocol (OSRP) node provisioned at commissioning
time.
A control plane at any layer of the OSI model is defined as software that provides autonomous control of
various network functions at that layer. The L0 CP, which is referred to as the Photonic Control Plane,
operates within a photonic network built upon a fiber-optic infrastructure.
Advantages of CP
L0 CP takes advantage of advances in software automation and gives certain benefits.
It enhances faster provisioning of optical channels and provides operation over both fixed grid and flexible
grid.
The L0 CP offers non-Mesh Restorable and Mesh Restorable service improving survivability.
The mesh restorable option can be used in along with higher-layer protected signal formats to provide the
highest network availability
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Layers in CP
The Control Plane places the “intelligence” of the network into multiple “controllers” where the topology is
discovered and switching, and restoration paths are calculated.
The switching and restoration criteria are based on specific traffic metrics and policies, which are
conveyed to nodes in a distributed fashion.
The L0 CP, which is referred to as the Photonic Control Plane, operates within a photonic network built
upon a fibre-optic infrastructure. It has distributed nature which allows greater flexibility and scalability in
terms of resource management, service provisioning, management and restoration.
Advantages of CP
L0 CP takes advantage of advances in software automation and gives certain benefits.
It enhances faster provisioning of optical channels and provides operation over both fixed grid and flexible
grid.
The L0 CP offers non-Mesh Restorable and Mesh Restorable service improving survivability.
The mesh restorable option can be used in along with higher-layer protected signal formats to provide the
highest network availability
Layers in Control Plane

Specific standards bodies define control plane implementations within the telecom industry for different
layers of the OSI transport model.
● L3 (e.g. using OSPF or Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) routing protocols.

● L3/L2 (e.g. OpenFlow based on Open Networking Foundation (ONF) Software Defined Networking
(SDN)).
● L2/L1 (e.g. SONET/SDH, OTN based on ITU-T G.8080 ASON/G.7712)
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Control Plane Interaction

Messaging within and between Transport, Management and Control Planes uses a Signalling network as
defined in ITU-T G.7712.
Transport Plane
● Service activation/deletion
● Query Service and available resource status
● Response to a failure event
● Re-synchronization following failure
Management Plane
● Manage connection requests
● Determine policies
● Response to a failure event
● Re-synchronization following failure
Figure 13-1: Control plane interaction
Page 231
L0 CP Terminology
There are certain specific terminologies related to L0 CP:
● Optical Signalling and Routing Protocol (OSRP) is the Ciena protocol used in the Signalling network
● OSRP rides over In-band or Out-of-band communication channels. At L0, OSRP run over in-band
Optical Supervisory Channel (OSC).
● The Out-of-Band Signalling uses an arbitrary IP path consisting of DCC or GCC channels.
● The Path Computation Engine (PCE) stores paths in a distributed set of databases located on
primary shelf of each OSRP node.
● L0 CP works with higher protection schemes and OPS based L0 switching
● Pre-allocation of bandwidth or duplication of equipment at layer 0 is not necessary
Types of L0 CP
There are 2 types of L0 Control Plane. They are based on their OSRP node type:
● Mesh Restorable
● Non-Mesh Restorable
Mesh Restorable (OSRP Node type of ‘Photonic’)
● It is applicable for fixed grid wavelength-based or flexible grid frequency-based service provisioning.
● It allows non-mesh restorable and mesh restorable services.
Non-Mesh Restorable (OSRP Node Type of ‘L0 Provisioning’)

● It is applicable for fixed grid wavelength-based or flexible grid frequency-based service provisioning.
● It allows only non-mesh restorable services.
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Mesh Restorable L0 CP
The Photonic OSRP supports Fixed Grid and Flexible Grid Deployments.
The fixed grid deployment includes:
● Wavelength provisioning which includes:

 Permanent SNC (P-SNC)
● Non- mesh Restorable SNC (NMR-SNC)

 Mesh Restorable SNC (MR-SNC)
 SNCP (Open-Open)/MR-SNCP (Open-Open)
● Implicit or explicit routing
● Wavelength restoration, reversion, regroom and manual switch
The Photonic OSRP supports Flexible Grid Deployments as well, where Network Media Channels are
grouped together within a Media Channel. The following service types and configurations are supported:
● Network Media Channel / Media Channel provisioning using the following connection types:
 Permanent SNCs (P-SNCs) within a Permanent Subnetwork Connection Group (SNCG).
 Non-Mesh Restorable SNCs within a Non-Mesh Restorable SNC Group (NMR-SNCG)
 Mesh Restorable SNCs within a Mesh Restorable SNC Group (MR-SNCG)
 SNCP (Open-Open) within an SN
● Routing:
 Implicit or explicit
● Frequency restoration, reversion, regroom and manual switch-to-protect operations

 These operations are performed at the SNCG level
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Non-Mesh Restorable L0 CP
Non-Mesh Restorable L0 CP supports Fixed Grid Deployments.

The fixed grid deployment includes:
● Wavelength provisioning using Permanent SNC
● Implicit or explicit routing for the following configuration:
 T-Series CDC
 S/D- Series Colourless Direct Attach (CDA) with CCMD12
 S/D-Series CDA with COADM direct attach
The Photonic OSRP supports Flexible Grid Deployments as well, where Network Media Channels are
grouped together within a Media Channel. The following service types and configurations are supported:
● Network Media Channel / Media Channel provisioning using the following connection types:
 Permanent SNCs (P-SNCs) within a Permanent Subnetwork Connection Group (SNCG).
• Single P-SNC represents a single Network Media Channel (NMC)
• One or more P-SNCs are provisioned within a SNCG
• SNC (NMCs)/SNCG (MCs) are deployed in flexible grid locations within C-band spectrum
 Mesh Restorable SNCs within a Mesh Restorable SNC Group (MR-SNCG)

• S/D-Series CDA with CCMd12 or COADM direct attach
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L0 CP SNC Types
L0 CP offers the following SNC types:
● Permanent SNC
● Non-Mesh Restorable SNC
● Mesh Restorable SNC
● SNCP Auto Cross-Connect
L0 CP Permanent SNCs (P-SNCs)

L0 CP P-SNC has the following features:
● It is a wavelength service that is not restorable.
● They are non-Mesh Restorable
● They do not have a routing profile consisting of protected line routes
● They cannot be manually switched to protection
● They cannot be regroomed
● They are typically protected at a higher layer
L0 CP Non MR-SNCs
L0 CP Non MR-SNC has the following features:
● Non MR-SNCs are non-Mesh Restorable
● It can be established using a Path Communication Engine (PCE) calculated home path or manually
defined Designated Transit List (DTL)
● When faulted, Non MR-SNC do not trigger the PCE to find any restoration path
● They cannot be manually switched to protection
● They cannot be regroomed
● They are typically protected at a higher layer
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L0 CP MR-SNCs
L0 CP MR-SNC has the following features:
● L0 CP MR-SNC is also known as a dynamic SNC
● A L0 CP MR-SNC is an end-to-end bidirectional channel whose route between end nodes can
change over time since the channel can be restored to a different route in response to fault conditions
or manual user action.
● It has is the ability to restore wavelengths as a result of OSRP line failures
● The working and protection routes for the L0 CP MR-SNCs can be automatically computed by the
OSRP PCE, or can be user-provisioned
● A PCE-generated working route, and up to 20 possible PCE-generated restoration routes can be

calculated and used by the MR-SNC.
● L0 CP MR-SNCs can also be provisioned with a selected routing list
● The revertive, regroom and Mesh Restorable attributes can be optionally selected while setting up
MR-SNC.
L0 CP SNCP Auto-Cross Connect
The Auto-Cross Connect includes SNCP Open-Open Type and LO CP MR-SNCP Open-Open type.
The salient features of L0 CP SNCP Open-Open type are:
● When an SNC is provisioned to be the peer of an existing SNC they form an SNCP pair.
● An explicitly provisioned DTL is required for the home path of the working peer and protection peer
SNC.
● The “Mesh Restorable” check box is optional
The salient features of L0 CP MR-SNCP Open-Open type are:
● Mesh Restorable option is selected for each peer SNC.
● In case the Absolute Route Diversity option is used, the PCE ensures a diverse path is used between
two mated L0 CP MR-SNCs, which are handling a higher-layer 1+1 protected service.
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Concepts of L1 CP
The L1 Control Plane provides an infrastructure for network-layer tasks, such as topology discovery and
call routing, and performs Automatic Protection Switching (APS) or restoration in the event of failures.
The important features of L1 CP are:
● It has flexible and scalable network deployment.
● It enables accurate and efficient resource and service management.
● L1 CP has flexible and multi-level protection and restoration capabilities
● It supports for global, end –to-end services
Control Plane protocols and algorithms

L1 CP has certain protocols and algorithms. These include:
● Neighbour Discovery: This protocol is used by every Control Plane Node to discover neighbouring
Control Plane Nodes connected via OSRP lines, as well as discover their remote information.
● Routing Protocol: This protocol is used by every Control Plane Node to discover the entire Control
Plane network topology or all Control Plane Nodes and interconnecting OSRP links in the entire
network.
● Route Computation and Validation: This is a collection of Dijkstra-based algorithms for dynamically
calculating or validating routes for connections while considering various constraints
● Signalling Protocol: This protocol is used to create and terminate connections on a

node-by-node basis
Sun Network Connection Types

L1 CP has different types of Sub Network Types. These include:
● Dynamic SNCs: A dynamic SNC is an end-to-end circuit whose path can traverse any number of
nodes and can change over time. The route for dynamic SNCs can be automatically computed by
OSRP, or it can be a user-provisioned explicit Route (DTL)
● Permanent SNC: Permanent SNC (or P-SNC) is a fixed end-to-end circuit. A P-SNC connection can
use an explicit, exclusive user-defined routing profile. When a physical line failure occurs, the
P-SNCs are not terminated (or released) as a result of underlying OSRP line failures
● SNCP (1+1 path protected): A Sub-Network Connection Protection (SNCP) is a type of SNC that is
1+1 protected across the network using the UPSR/SNCP protocol. A head-end bridge function
transmits two copies of the path signal (working path and protection path) across the network while a
tail-end select function selects the better of two received path signals
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Review Question
1. OSRP determines whether the L0 CP is Mesh Restorable or non-Mesh Restorable
A. True
B. False
2. Which of the following is not true for L0 CP?
A. Faster provisioning of optical channels
B. It provides operation over both fixed grid and flexible grid
C. It offers only non-Mesh Restorable service improving survivability
D. The mesh restorable option along with higher-layer protected signal formats will provide
the highest network availability
3. Control Plane places the _________of the network into multiple controllers
C. intelligence
D. architecture
E. software
F. hardware
4. Which is the Ciena protocol used in the Signaling network?
5. OSRP rides over In-band only
A. True
B. False
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6. Which are the 2 types of L0 Control Plane, based on their OSRP node type?
7. What are the major classes of L0 CP, based on their restoration capability?
8. What does Routing protocol do in L1 CP?
Page 239

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Optical Communications Certification

Optical Communications Associate (OC-A), Release 2.0

In Asia-Pacific 800-CIENA-24-7 (800-2436- Email: CIENA24@ciena.com

Coupling Light onto the Transmission Medium Concepts................................................ 33

Optical Modulation – Carrier Wave Signal ..................................................................... 51

Optical Detection Components .................................................................................... 68

Review Questions ...................................................................................................... 89

SONET/SDH improvements over earlier PDH .............................................................. 124

Agile Networking ..................................................................................................... 145

TDM Technology...................................................................................................... 168

Review Questions .................................................................................................... 184

Review Questions .................................................................................................... 204

SDN Operation ........................................................................................................ 219

Concepts of L1 CP.................................................................................................... 237

Module 0: Optical Communications Certification

Figure 0-1: Program Overview

● List an overview of Ciena Optical Communication (OC) certification program

Certification Course Type of Instruction Prerequisite

Table 0-1: Certification Overview

OC-A Course Description

The OC-A course:

OC-A Course Objectives

● Describe optical communications

Day 2 Module 3 - Optical modulation

Day 3 Module 6 - Optical fiber and connectors

Table 0-2: OC-A Course Schedule

● List an overview of Ciena Optical Communication (OC) certification program.

Module 1: Introduction to Optical Communications

Introduction to Optical Communications

Figure 1-1: Fiber Optic Light

Applications of Optical Communications

Figure 1-2: OC Transport Network

Key Optical Communications Technology Developments for OC Transport

Figure 1-3: Laser

● Transmission medium (Figure 1-4):

Figure 1-4: Optical Fiber

● High sensitivity low noise photo detector (Figure 1-5):

Figure 1-5: Photo Detector

● Advanced modulation schemes (Figure 1-6):

Figure 1-6: Modulation

Advantages of Optical Communications over Legacy Technologies

OC based transport networks support much greater distances as compared to legacy

Service flexibility is achieved due to the ability to support:

Figure 1-7: Scalability in OC Transport Network

Optical Communications Transport Networks

OC Transport Network Deployment Types

Long haul terrestrial:

Figure 1-8: Submarine

Protocols Used in Optical Carrier Networks

Figure 1-9: Optical Virtual Private Network

2. List four applications of optical communications.

5. _________, allow for more data to be imposed on the transmission medium.

C. Advanced modulation schemes

B. Higher service capacity

C. Greater service flexibility

7. What is the purpose of an OC transport network?

8. List three OC transport network deployment types.

9. List three OC transport protocols.

Module 2: Properties of Light

The Optical Spectrum

Figure 2-1: Optical Spectrum

Figure 2-2: Spectral Bands

Wavelength and Frequency

In terms of wavelength: λ = c/f