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A11Y
Unraveled
Become a Web
Accessibility Ninja

Dimitris Georgakas
A11Y Unraveled
Become a Web
Accessibility Ninja

Dimitris Georgakas
A11Y Unraveled: Become a Web Accessibility Ninja

Dimitris Georgakas
Oldham, UK

ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-9084-2 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-9085-9


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9085-9

Copyright © 2023 by Dimitris Georgakas


This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or
part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
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The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if
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While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of
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Table of Contents
About the Author���������������������������������������������������������������������������������xi

About the Technical Reviewer�����������������������������������������������������������xiii

Acknowledgments������������������������������������������������������������������������������xv

Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xvii

Chapter 1: When the Amazon Was Nothing but a River������������������������1

Chapter 2: Be a Designer, They Said. It’ll Be Fun, They Said.����������������5


Following the Rules�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7
Turning Something into Something�����������������������������������������������������������������������9
The Value of Standards���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������11

Chapter 3: One Standard at a Time�����������������������������������������������������13


Defining Web Accessibility����������������������������������������������������������������������������������13
Web Accessibility Guidelines������������������������������������������������������������������������������16
Web Content Accessibility Guidelines Sneak Peek���������������������������������������������17
Animated Graphics����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������17
Color��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������17
Contrast���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18
Content����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18
Focus States and Focus Order�����������������������������������������������������������������������18
Forms������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������19
Page Layout���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������19

v
Table of Contents

Tables and Lists���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������20


Typography����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������20
Accessibility Guideline Principles�����������������������������������������������������������������������22
Perceivable����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������22
Operable��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������22
Understandable���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������22
Robust�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������23
Conformance Levels�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������23
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������27

Chapter 4: How Do People Perceive Content?�������������������������������������29


Subjective Rather Than Objective�����������������������������������������������������������������������29
Perception as a Process��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������31
Using the Web�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������33
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������35

Chapter 5: Tell Me What to Do: Designing for People


with Disabilities����������������������������������������������������������������������������������37
Designing for Users with Blindness and Other Visual Impairments��������������������38
Designing for Users Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing����������������������������������������43
Designing for Users with Physical Disabilities����������������������������������������������������47
Designing for Users with Anxiety������������������������������������������������������������������������51
Designing for Users with Dyslexia����������������������������������������������������������������������56
Designing for Users with Autism�������������������������������������������������������������������������61
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������65

Chapter 6: How Do I Know I’m Doing It Right?�����������������������������������67


Automated Web Accessibility Testing������������������������������������������������������������������68
Web Accessibility Factors That Google Uses in Their Lighthouse Tool����������������71

vi
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Manual Web Accessibility Testing�����������������������������������������������������������������������78


Test Keyboard Navigation������������������������������������������������������������������������������79
Use a Screen Reader�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������80
Check for the Basics��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������80
Check the Content�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������81
Testing with the Help of Real Users���������������������������������������������������������������82
“Oh, Wait. Who Is This ARIA You Spoke Of?”�������������������������������������������������������83
ARIA Roles�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������85
ARIA States and Properties����������������������������������������������������������������������������86
The First Rule of ARIA������������������������������������������������������������������������������������89
The Second Rule of ARIA�������������������������������������������������������������������������������90
The Third Rule of ARIA�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������91
The Fourth Rule of ARIA���������������������������������������������������������������������������������91
The Fifth Rule of ARIA������������������������������������������������������������������������������������91
Are Designers Involved Anywhere in This?����������������������������������������������������91
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������101

Chapter 7: Do I Have to Do All These Things?�����������������������������������103


Who’s Affected?������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������103
UK����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������104
USA�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������106
Greece���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������107
Rest of the European Union������������������������������������������������������������������������������107
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������108

Chapter 8: What Is Usability?�����������������������������������������������������������109


Overview�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������109
Accessibility and Usability: A Love Affair�����������������������������������������������������������114
User Interface (UI) Components Contrast����������������������������������������������������������120

vii
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Page Layout and Structure��������������������������������������������������������������������������������121


Color, Color Contrast, and Noncolor Elements���������������������������������������������������122
Focus States�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������124
Hover States������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������124
Forms: Input and Labels������������������������������������������������������������������������������������125
Video and Audio Transcripts and Captions��������������������������������������������������������127
Visual Presentation of Text��������������������������������������������������������������������������������128
Hidden Content�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������128
General Usability Standards������������������������������������������������������������������������������129
Easy and Consistent Navigation������������������������������������������������������������������129
Going Back Home����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������130
Show the User Where They Are�������������������������������������������������������������������132
Icons and Labels������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������132
Content Placement��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������134
Common Sense�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������134
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������136

Chapter 9: Whom Are We Designing For?�����������������������������������������137


Persona Profiles������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������140
Persona Profiles for Users with Disabilities������������������������������������������������������144
Persona Spectrums�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������148
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������150

Chapter 10: Now You See Me. Now You Don’t.����������������������������������151


What Do the Users Think?���������������������������������������������������������������������������������154
What Is This Thing Called Color?�����������������������������������������������������������������������156
Reality Is Not Real���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������159
How to Design with Accessibility Requirements in Mind����������������������������������162

viii
Table of Contents

What to Do in a Nutshell�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������174
Color������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������174
Contrast�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������177
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������180

Chapter 11: Click Me Like You Mean It���������������������������������������������183


Ghost Buttons?��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������185
But Ghost Buttons Are So Pretty!����������������������������������������������������������������������188
Types of Buttons�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������189
Disabled Buttons�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������191
A Button Should Look Like a Button������������������������������������������������������������������195
Recommendations for Buttons and Other Controls�������������������������������������������198
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������205

Chapter 12: You’re Going to Tell Me What to Do, Aren’t You?�����������207


Animated Content���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������207
Content��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������211
Cards�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������216
Carousels and Sliders���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������220
Icons�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������225
Language Selector��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������228
Links�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������230
Navigation���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������234
Tabs�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������245
Focus States�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������248
Hover States������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������256
Lists������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������259
Touch Targets (Size Does Matter)����������������������������������������������������������������������260

ix
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Multimedia��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������263
Tables����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������266
Typography��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������270
Forms����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������275
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������283

Chapter 13: So What Is the Verdict?�������������������������������������������������285


Final Word���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������289
Final Word v2����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������291
Final Final Word (If You Know, You Know)����������������������������������������������������������292
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������292

Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������295

x
About the Author
Dimitris Georgakas is originally from Greece
and has been living in the UK for about 8
years now. He started working as a graphic
designer around 2004 doing mostly print work,
had his own business along the way, and is
now working as a senior designer on web
and digital products. He considers himself
as a hobbyist designer, since he has not been
formally educated in the subject (he holds a
degree in geography and is now finishing a
degree in biology). However, Dimitris does love all things about design and
has managed to transform his hobby into a profession, so he considers that
as a win.
Dimitris likes to think that the fact he is interested in multiple subjects
allows for a more spherical, multivariate approach to solving (design)
problems, and natural curiosity is one of the main reasons he decided to
write this book. While working as a designer, he always thought to himself,
“Why do I do this?”, “Does it matter?”, “How will this affect usage?” So when
he started learning about web accessibility, he naturally went in there
100% ready to make sense of it all. Combine that with the fact that he was
appointed as the main accessibility person in the company he works for,
he had to educate himself on the subject. Now, Dimitris would like to share
what he has learned and make digital professionals see that it’s actually
pretty easy to make something accessible.

xi
About the Technical Reviewer
Shanma Ahmed is a digital designer, born
and raised in the beautiful isles of Maldives.
Her love for design is fueled by her passion to
bring ideas to life as user-centric and engaging
experiences. In her day-to-day work, she
has curated resources to inspire and create
awareness on the importance of creating
barrier-free designs that are accessible and
can be used by all. When she’s not mixing
espresso shots with tonic, you can probably
find her binge-watching Friends for the
gazillionth time.

xiii
Acknowledgments
I’d like to think that, for anything, the first people one should thank is the
mum and the dad. So thank you. The genes you passed on hopefully didn’t
go to waste.
Mum, thanks for making me see that kindness and understanding is
the way to go forward. It has made me re-evaluate criminal behaviors that
pop in my head every now and again.
Dad, thanks for making me think we were lost when I was five years old
and allowing me to take lead, taking us back home. It has sparked the spirit
of adventure and the curiosity in me.
Awesome sister Sofia, you deserve a place in here too, for some reason.
I’ve always liked to share things with you, be it a chocolate, a room, or a
book you haven’t written.
This book would not have been a reality if it hadn’t been for the
support and encouragement of my superhero, AAA conformance level,
and soon-to-be wife, Shirley, who, for some reason, is willing to suffer
through all of my weird endeavors and even weirder quirks. But she says
she loves me, so it’s not really suffering, is it?
Special thanks to my stepdaughter for keeping it down while gaming
on a PC or a console and for providing me with material to include in
this book.
Of course, this section of the book would not be complete if I
didn’t thank the design crusader from the Maldives, Shanma, who, as
the technical reviewer, ensured information was always accurate and
presented in a meaningful manner.

xv
Acknowledgments

Second special thanks to Darryl who, through his confident


mannerism and endless supply of design justifications, gave me some of
his ability to explain design decisions in a way that people can understand.
You all didn’t help me write the book, but you definitely played your
part in starting this. Not sure if this needs to be said, but the fact that my
work allowed me to work remotely played a huge role, not in starting, but
definitely in finishing this book. Thanks, Access.
Finally, the support of Divya and Shon from Apress, as well as their
constant mithering reminders, helped to keep me in place, ensuring that
this book would finish on time.

xvi
Introduction
This book is a comprehensive gui– Wait a minute. This seems so strange.
Have I read this before? Oh, silly me. I must have mistaken this for all the
other thousands of “comprehensive guides” out there. Seems that this
phrase is becoming too familiar.
This book is probably not going to end up being a comprehensive
guide; it was written in an effort to help web designers and people who
work in the “Internet business” (is that even a thing?) of any level or
experience understand (myself included) if what we do in our designs
matters, in terms of accessibility and usability, and how much. It was also
written in a non-pretentious, light-hearted way that hopefully puts some
fun back into this job as I try to stay away as much as possible from long,
incomprehensive lingo that might frighten new web or digital designers.
“Container? It’s just a box, mate.”
It is primarily addressed to the poor professionals mentioned before,
but hopefully anyone within the digital industry, whether a manager,
a web developer, or a business owner with a web presence can find
something helpful within these pages. Lastly, it was also written to provide
a more layman’s approach to terms like web accessibility, user-centric
design, ARIA (Accessible Rich Internet Applications) practices, markup
language, CSS, XML, FMCSJRB and TOISBCE (no, these don’t exist,
luckily), and other terms and acronyms that we know or don’t know or
don’t want to know. There’s an abundance of information out there about
web accessibility, usability, and so many other beautiful and somewhat
incomprehensible terms that it’s very easy to get lost thinking, “What on
Earth am I even doing?” Through many, many, many pages, we will try to
create some order from the chaos (mainly for web accessibility) having
everything in one place, so the next time we go about our business to

xvii
Introduction

design a beautiful website, we can be sure that it will also be accessible,


and usable, in the best possible way for the goals that we have set for our
audience.
You don’t have to be an expert to follow this book. I don’t claim to be
one, and my purpose is not to dictate what you should be doing. You need
to figure that out for yourself. In fact, your level of experience doesn’t even
matter. If you’re just starting your career in web or digital design, maybe
you can expand on a thing or two, or maybe reading through this book will
make you think differently on how you approach your designs and your
quest for client feedback. If you’re an experienced web/UI/UX/
insert-appropriate-title-here designer, this content might make you see
things differently and might spark a healthy debate with your fellow
coworkers. Or I could be completely wrong in everything, and it can spark
a joke or two. Regardless, as long as it makes you feel, learn, or experience
anything, I will consider it successful. Like a wise man once said: “Failure is
always an option” (bonus points if you know who it was). Even if this book
is a total flop, I will have gained the knowledge of what not to do next time.
In any case, through my years as a professional designer of all things
pretty (that sometimes might miraculously work), I’ve seen and done
too many designs to count, and often, through feedback or personal
curiosity, I’ve wondered, what am I doing, or what’s the reason for doing
this? Is it really that important? Is my client bonkers? Or maybe they know
something I don’t. The frustration is real.
Especially with web accessibility, as it is a huge matter, and for the
right reasons since everyone deserves access to the same information in
the same way. However, in many cases, we usually design websites that
are going to be used by very specific people. So, for the websites and the
audiences that we cater and design for, I’m also posing the question:
Does accessibility really matter, or do accessibility features add anything
to the user’s experience if they’re not needed? Are there any areas of web
accessibility that we can fail to comply with or don’t need to use? And how
would that affect usability? Would it make the world stop?

xviii
Introduction

In other words, how much does following web accessibility and


usability guidelines and rules around digital and web design (written
or unwritten, proven or nonproven) matter for our success, a website’s
success, and the overall product’s success? Does it even matter at all?
Don’t get me wrong. I’m not against developing accessible websites and
digital applications nor following design fundamentals and guidelines,
rather the actual opposite. In fact, in some countries accessible websites
are required by law. Aside from that though, it’s also ethical to make sure
that every user is able to use a product that interests them or get access to
information in the same way. Still, putting legislation purposes to the side,
if we know that our audience will not be people with disabilities and we
specifically know that our users won’t be using any assistive technologies
or have any other cognitive, motor, or visual impairments (assuming we’ve
done correct market and audience research), should we be obsessed with
accessibility, and would it add anything to user experience?
Well, yes and no, it depends. That’s usually the answer in any design-­
related question, and that seems like an easy one, but in order to get to
that conclusion, we need to go through some definitions and over several
points in each area – primarily accessibility, usability, and user-centric
design, among others. Because if we don’t know what we’re talking about,
then, what are we even discussing?
If you manage to reach the end of the book and think “well, d’oh! Yes,
Sherlock, all this is pretty darn obvious, so this was a waste of time” you’d
be right surprised as to how easy it is to not use our common sense, even
in everyday tasks, or how easy it is to ignore the obvious, just because
it didn’t fit our way of thinking at some particular time. Our brains are
pretty smart, but quite oblivious at the same time. Finally, the content that
follows would be more beneficial to a web or digital designer rather than a
developer, although there are a few bits of web development wisdom here
and there that some amazing people have come up with (not me).

xix
Introduction

If you’re wondering why I chose this job if it brings me to a point I want


to pull my hair out one by one, I didn’t. It just happened. And I love it.
Or do I…?

How to Use This Book


Who needs instructions when it comes to reading a book, you ask? No
one, I’d answer. This awkwardly small “subsection” of this book is entirely
dedicated to my stepdaughter who, once, when I got her a book for her
birthday (don’t remember the exact age but still teenage years), asked me
with no hesitation whatsoever, “How do I use it?” To you, my beloved child,
and to anyone out there that might have the same question in their head,
the answer is simple. You pick it up, flip the pages, and read through them.
I am really sorry if this seems condescending; that was my intention.
But this is not addressed to you, dear reader. If my stepdaughter is by some
miracle reading this, this is only a joke (although she’s made great progress
since then).

xx
CHAPTER 1

When the Amazon


Was Nothing
but a River
April 22nd, 1962 (date totally random)
“Aah, today’s paper, right on time as every morning. Thanks, Johnny!”
What a lovely kid, thought Fred while sitting on his withered wooden
chair in his front garden, enjoying his fresh breakfast (Frosties) and a cup
of coffee (if you lived in the 1960s and didn’t have cereal and coffee for
breakfast, don’t really know what to tell you; you were missing out). The
newspaper was the way for Fred to learn about what had happened in
the world, the country, and his local community the day before (or many
days before) and what might happen in the days ahead. That was actually
The People newspaper’s slogan back then: “The paper that looks ahead.”
Newspapers were one of the few ways people were able to get access to
information (along the TV, the radio, or Suzie and Frank, the next-door
neighbors who liked to stick their noses into other people’s business), be it
news, gossip, sports, science, and so on.
All these different mediums weren’t that inclusive. The content of a
newspaper was only accessible to people who could, firstly, buy one and
then, to the ones that could hold it, see what was on it and read it. Contents
of a TV were (and pretty much still are) only accessible to people who could
see what’s on the screen or hear the sounds coming out of the device.

© Dimitris Georgakas 2023 1


D. Georgakas, A11Y Unraveled, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9085-9_1
Chapter 1 When the Amazon Was Nothing but a River

But then, if someone couldn’t hear or see, they would only get half
the information at any given time. Similarly, the contents of the radio
were only accessible to people who could hear. All in all, there was no one
medium that had information accessible to everybody. That is, until the
Internet and the World Wide Web came along.
The first functional and programmable computer that kind of
resembles the ones we know today (very loosely though) was invented in
the mid- to late 1930s, and by the 1960s much progress had been made in
this new computer science field along with a small progress in the size of
computers, since the first ones occupied pretty much entire rooms, so they
weren’t very convenient to use or carry around like today’s laptops. It was
around that time that the idea of the Internet was just starting to emerge.
Fred was in for a big change in his life.
A member of the Internet hall of fame, American psychologist and
computer scientist (what a strange combination) Joseph Carl Robnett
Licklider (simply known as J.C.R.) was the first to talk about the idea of an
“intergalactic computer network.” Not sure why he chose that name, but
it’s a really cool one. There’s no doubt about that. He popularized the idea
that computers could be devices that communicated with each other and
that we could use them to transfer information. Up until that time, such
devices were only used for mathematical problems, in a way to speed up
computations. But how would computers communicate? Well, with packet
switching.
I had no idea what packet switching was. But thanks to the Internet,
I can now look it up and come up with the answer in less than a minute,
which is far less than the time it took me to write this information down.
Packet switching is a method to group electronic data and transmit them
through a digital network as small chunks of data or “packets.” The first
paper about packet switching was published in 1961 by Leonard Kleinrock,
and after a few experiments and lots of trial and error, DARPA (Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency) funded the creation of ARPANET
(Advanced Research Projects Agency Network), which used this method

2
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The botanist's
repository for new and rare plants; vol. 06 [of 10]
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The botanist's repository for new and rare plants; vol. 06 [of 10]

Author: active 1799-1828 Henry Cranke Andrews

Release date: April 8, 2024 [eBook #73363]

Language: English

Original publication: London: The author, 1797

Credits: Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at


https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
generously made available by Biodiversity Heritage Library.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE


BOTANIST'S REPOSITORY FOR NEW AND RARE PLANTS; VOL.
06 [OF 10] ***
INDEX
TO THE PLANTS CONTAINED IN VOL. VI.
ERRATA ET CORRIGENDA IN VOL. VI.
Vol. VI.
of the
Botanist’s Repository
Comprising
Colour’d Engravings

of

New and Rare Plants

ONLY

With Botanical Descriptions &c.

——in——

Latin and English,

after the

Linnæan System.

by

H. Andrews

Botanical Painter Engraver, &c.


PLATE CCCLXI.

SANSEVIERA CARNEA.
Flesh-coloured Sanseviera.
CLASS VI. ORDER I.

HEXANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Six Chives. One Pointal.


ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Corolla infera monopetala, tubo filiformi, limbo, 6-partito, revoluto.
Stamina limbo inserta. Bacca 1-sperma.
Corolla beneath of one petal, with a thread-shaped tube, and 6-parted
revolute limb. Threads inserted into the limb. Berry one seeded.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER, &C.

Sanseviera. Foliis distichis, lanceolato-ensiformibus, carinatis, floribus


solitariis sessilibus.
Sanseviera. With leaves two-ranked, lance-sword shaped, keeled, flowers
solitary, sessile.
Descriptio. Herba perennis, habitu Hemerocallidis. Radix subcarnosus,
fibris longissimis subsimplicibus. Folia radicalia, subdisticha, effusa,
lanceolato-ensiformia, fere pedalia, trinervia, (nervo medio carinæformi)
basin imbricata et profunde caniliculata, marginibus apices versus
asperiusculis. Scapus radicalis, et quasi lateralis, palmaris, suberectus,
angulatus, superne carneus. Flores spicati, ascendentes, sessiles, alterni,
carnei, intus pallidiores. Bracteæ ovato-acuminatæ, concavæ, carneæ, flores
amplectentes. Corolla 6-partita, tubo angulato longitudine bractearum;
laciniis revolutis sublanceolatis, tubo aliquo longioribus, supremâ paulo
majore. Filamenta 6 æqualia, alba, basi laciniarum inserta, laciniis aliquo
brevioribus. Antheræ erectæ, utrinque emarginatæ, sulphureæ. Stylus
carneus, paulo declinatus, antheris vix superans. Stigma obtusum album,
obsoletissime trilobatum.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. A floral leaf.
2.The flower cut open, with one of the tips magnified.
3. The Pointal and Seed-bud, and the summit magnified
This new species, of Thunberg’s new genus Sanseviera, which is a branch of
the Linnæan genus Aletris; was introduced into this country from China, by
T. Evans, Esq. of Stepney; in the year 1792: but is still very rare. Our
drawing was made from a fine plant in the collection of J. Vere, Esq. of
Kensington Gore, in the month of March[A]. Mr. Anderson, his botanic
gardener, informs us, he has treated it as a hothouse plant; but it will
probably be found to succeed better in the greenhouse, like other Chinese
plants. It is propagated by parting the roots. In habit it resembles
Hemerocallis more than Sanseviera, but agrees with the generical characters
of Sanseviera zeylanica. With Aletris fragrans it also agrees in many
particulars; but with Aletris farinosa is quite at variance.
[A] A root of it, (lately parted from the individual here figured,) flowered
at Messrs. Grimwood and Wykes’s, in February.
PLATE CCCLXII.

CROCUS BIFLORUS.
Yellow-bottomed White Crocus.
CLASS III. ORDER I.

TRIANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Three Chives. One Pointal.


ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Corolla, supera, 6-partita, subæqualis, erecto-patula, tubo longissimo
subterraneo.
Corolla, above, 6-parted, nearly equal, erect-expanding, with a very
long subterraneous tube.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER, &C.
Crocus, foliis angustissimis effusis floribus semper longe superantibus.
Crocus, with very narrow diffused leaves, which are always much higher
than the flowers.
Descriptio. Radix tunicis glabris cochleariformibus. Folia, tempore
florendi, longissima omnium, magisque effusa. Spathæ sæpe 2-floræ, ut in
plurimis. Flores vernales, albæ, magnæ; fundo intus sordide flavo, extus
aliquo olivaceo; tubo pergracili, depilato; petalis 3 exterioribus, extus
tincturâ flavedinis, et purpureo elegantissime plumoso-striatis. Filamenta
antheræque erectæ, luteæ. Stylus percroceus. Stigmata itidem percrocea,
antheris vix superantia. Haworth’s Crocus inedit.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. The outer sheath of the flower.
2.The inner.
3. The flower cut open
This beautiful Crocus is unquestionably distinct as a species, and has never
been noticed by any systematic writer except Miller; who has described it
accurately under the name of biflorus, in the 8th edition of his celebrated
Dictionary. It is very hardy, flowers early in February, and may be readily
distinguished from other Crocuses by its leaves being much longer than the
flowers, at the time of flowering. When the sun shines strong, the flowers
have a just perceptible fragrant scent; a circumstance very unusual in this
genus; all the other species, (one we call fragrans excepted) having more or
less of an unpleasant smell. It seldom produces seeds in this country, or
varies in colour; but increases by the root.
PLATE CCCLXIII.

P O LY G A L A S T I P U L A C E A .
Stipuled Milkwort.
CLASS XVII. ORDER III.

D I A D E L P H I A O C TA N D R I A . Tw o B r o t h e r h o o d s . E i g h t
Chives.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Calyx 5-phyllus: foliolis duobus alæformibus, coloratis. Legumen
obcordatura, biloculare.
Cup 5-leaved, with two of the leaves like wings, coloured. Pod inverse
heart-shaped, two-celled.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER, &C.
Polygala. Floribus imberbibus lateralibus, caule suffruticoso, foliis ternis
linearibus acutis. Willd. Sp. pl. 892.
Polygala. With beardless lateral flowers, a shrubby stem, and ternate,
linear, acute leaves.
Descriptio. Suffrutex, ramulis subdivaricatis, filiformibus, elongatis,
pubescentibus. Folia fasciculata, linearia, obsolete mucronata, 3-6 in singulo
fasciculo; infimo latiore, breviore, stipuliforme. Flores P. Heisteriæ, at
minores, axillares, solitarii, vel subinde binati; sessiles.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. The Empalement.
2.The same magnified.
3.The Keel magnified.
4.One of the wings.
5.The same magnified.
6.The Chives.
7.The same magnified.
8. The Pointal magnified
A rare Cape species recently introduced to the Hibbertian Collection, where
our drawing was taken last summer. It is a greenhouse shrub of the more
delicate kind; and is propagated, but not very readily, by cuttings.
In the structure of the flowers this species agrees exactly with the
common Polygala Heisteria, which Linnæus originally made a distinct genus
from Polygala; but afterwards united them. In keeping them distinct we think
he did right; but wrong in uniting them. Our readers will have an opportunity
of judging for themselves in our next number, in which will be figured a true
Polygala, and another of the Heisteria family; with proper dissections of
each.
Heisteria was named by Linnæus in honour of the celebrated German
surgeon Heister.
PLATE CCCLXIV.

I R I S PAV O N I A .
The Peacock-Iris.
CLASS III. ORDER I.

TRIANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Three Chives. One Pointal.


ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Corolla 6-partita: laciniis alternis reflexis. Stigmata petaliformia.
Corolla 6-parted: with the alternate segments reflexed. The stigmas
petal-shaped.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER, &C.
Iris. Imberbis, folio lineari glabro, scapo sub-unifloro.
Iris. Beardless, with a linear smooth leaf, and a usually one-flowered
stem.
Iris Pavonia Willd. Sp. Pl. I. 238.
Jacq. Coll. Sup. p. 8, Descriptione optimâ.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. The outer Sheath of the Flower.
2.The inner one.
3. The Seed-bud, Chives and Pointal as they stand in the Flower.
4.The Chives spread open.
5. The Pointal
This splendid but fugitive plant, is strikingly emblematic of the short
duration of superior beauty: its flower is but the transient object of a day;
and its whole life in Europe seldom exceeds a single year!
The Peacock-Iris, notwithstanding its attractions, is but imperfectly
understood by the Botanists and Horticulturists of this country; for while the
latter have been unsuccessful in cultivating it: some of the former have
privately considered it as a new Genus: some have referred it to Iris, Morea,
or Ferraria; others with more propriety to De la Roche’s Genus Vieusseuxia;
and the usually accurate Curtis mistook and figured the widely-different Iris
tricuspis for it.
The English Gardens have several times possessed this charming species,
but we are afraid it is at present entirely lost to them. Our figure therefore,
taken from the Hibbertian collection some time since, cannot fail to be
highly acceptable to all lovers of plants.
In root Iris Pavonia resembles other Cape Irides; but the varying lustres
of its brilliant flowers are seldom equalled; and not much excelled by any
plant we ever saw. It is a native of the Cape, flowers early in Spring; and
must be treated like the other bulbous species from that country.
PLATE CCCLXV.

SCILLA SIBERICA.
Siberian Squill.
CLASS VI. ORDER I.

HEXANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Six Chives. One Pointal.


ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Corolla 6-petala, patens, decidua. Filamenta filiformia.
Corolla 6 petaled, expanding, deciduous. Filaments thread-shaped.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER, &C.
Scilla, tetraphylla, scapis plurimis semiteretibus, striatis, bifloris, post
florescentiam decumbentibus.
Scilla, four-leaved, with many semicylindrical, scored, two-flowered
stalks, which after flowering are decumbent.
Descriptio. Radix bulbosus, magnus pro ratione magnitudinis plantæ.
Folia in bulbis senectis, sæpius 4, latiuscula, aliquo striatula, parum
recurvata, apice obcuneata et subinvoluta. Scapi 3-5: 1-2, vel rarissime 3-
flori, inæquales, semicylindrici, valde striati, lucidi, vix palmares, superne
atro-cærulescentes. Pedunculi alterni, remoti, difformes, 1-6 lineares, basi
bibracteati, erecti, apice nutantes, vel cernui, uniflori, atro-cærulescentes.
Bracteæ difformes, parvulæ, inferne purpurascentes, superne albæ et
membranaceæ. Corolla hexapetala, nutans, vel cernua, campanulata. Petala
sublanceolata, obtusa, concavo-incurva, lætissime cærulea; intus pallidiora,
basi albicantia, costâ utrinque saturatiore. Filamenta 6, filiformia,
compressa, alba, superne profunde cærulea, petalis duplo breviora. Antheræ
majusculæ æruginosa. Germen pallidum, subrotundum, 6-sulcatum, sulcis
alternis profundioribus. Stylus antheris superans, decumbens, basi albus,
superne azureus. Stigma obsoletissimum.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. The Flower spread open, with one Chive magnified.
2. The Pointal and Seed-bud, the Summit magnified

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