Landis Dan Bhawuk Dharm p Eds the Cambridge Handbook of Inte

The Cambridge Handbook of Intercultural Training
Fourth Edition
With the number of international migrants globally reaching an estimated

272 million (United Nations report, September 2019), the need for intercul-
tural training is stronger than ever.
Since its first edition, this handbook has evaluated methodologies and
suggested best practice for the development of effective programs aimed at
facilitating cross-cultural dialogue and boosting the economic development of
countries most affected by migration.
This handbook builds and expands on the previous editions by presenting
the rational and scientific foundations of intercultural training and focuses on
unique approaches, theories, and areas of the world. In doing so, it gives
students, managers, and other professionals undertaking international assign-
ments a theoretical foundation and practical suggestions for improving inter-
cultural training programs.
d a n l a nd i s is Affiliate Professor of Psychology, University of Hawaii, USA,

and is Founding President and Fellow of the International Academy for
Intercultural Research.
d h ar m bh a w u k is Professor of Management, Culture, and Communication
Psychology, University of Hawaii, USA, and is also Founding Fellow of
International Academy of Intercultural Research.
Published online by Cambridge University Press

“It truly is a key springboard for training and research in the current age of identity. It comprehensively
presents two crucial elements: what we know about effective intercultural training theoretically,
methodologically, and empirically, and what we don’t know. This is an essential reference for
practitioners, teachers, and researchers.”
Cindy Gallois, Emeritus Professor of Psychology,
University of Queensland, Australia
“This long-awaited volume achieves a leviathan task: it bridges theory and practice, details intercultural
training methods that are culture-general and culture-specific, and clarifies intercultural training’s past
and present while forging a cohesive vision for future development and growth. This is, quite simply,
essential reading for intercultural researchers and practitioners.”
Adam Komisarof, Professor of Intercultural Communication and Acculturation,
Keio University, Japan, and President-Elect, International Academy for Intercultural Research
“This handbook is both a classic and contemporary highlight in intercultural training research and
practice. The editors have set a cornerstone for the field by bringing internationally recognized scholars
together. This volume is a must for every professional in the field.”
Claude-Hélène Mayer, Professor in Industrial and Organisational Psychology,
University of Johannesburg, South Africa
“Since its first edition, this book has been an indispensable resource for scholars, practitioners, and
students who study or develop training methods to enhance intercultural competence. This edition
preserves its legacy: high quality analysis and sound guidance for practice or future research.”
Mark E. Mendenhall, J. Burton Frierson Chair of Business Leadership,
University of Tennessee, USA
“Here is an essential update for interculturalists seeking synergy and human community in an age of
invasive technology, ideological divides, ecological disasters, and corrosive us-versus-them political
populism. The authors force us to ask how we will rewire our brains to live together in a way that
promises a synergistic future.”
George F. Simons, creator of diversophy

The Cambridge Handbook
of Intercultural Training
Fourth Edition
Edited by
Dan Landis
University of Hawaii, Hilo
Dharm P. S. Bhawuk
University of Hawaii, Manoa

University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025, India
79 Anson Road, #06–04/06, Singapore 079906
Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108490566
DOI: 10.1017/9781108854184
Fourth Edition © Cambridge University Press 2020
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published by Pergamon Press 1983
Second edition Sage 1996
Third edition Sage 2004
Fourth edition Cambridge University Press 2020
Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd, Padstow Cornwall
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Landis, Dan, editor. | Bhawuk, Dharm P. S., editor
Title: Handbook of intercultural training / Dan Landis, Dharm P. S. Bhawuk.
Other titles: Intercultural training
Description: 4th Edition. | New York : Cambridge University Press, 2020. | Series: Cambridge handbooks
in psychology | Revised edition of Handbook of intercultural training, c2004. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019060028 (print) | LCCN 2019060029 (ebook) | ISBN 9781108490566 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781108795906 (paperback) | ISBN 9781108854184 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Intercultural communication. | Culture conflict. | Adjustment (Psychology) |
Multicultural education.
Classification: LCC GN496 .H36 2020 (print) | LCC GN496 (ebook) | DDC 303.48/2–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019060028
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019060029
ISBN 978-1-108-49056-6 Hardback
ISBN 978-1-108-79590-6 Paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.

Fourth Edition




Fourth Edition
Edited by
Dan Landis
Dharm P. S. Bhawuk


www.cambridge.org
DOI: 10.1017/9781108854184
ISBN 978-1-108-49056-6 Hardback

Fourth Edition




Fourth Edition
Edited by
Dan Landis
Dharm P. S. Bhawuk


www.cambridge.org
DOI: 10.1017/9781108854184
ISBN 978-1-108-49056-6 Hardback

Fourth Edition




Fourth Edition
Edited by
Dan Landis
Dharm P. S. Bhawuk


www.cambridge.org
DOI: 10.1017/9781108854184
ISBN 978-1-108-49056-6 Hardback

We dedicate this book to our mentor, teacher, guide, and friend:
Professor Harry C. Triandis. We are grateful for all he gave us and the
field of cross- and intercultural research and practice. And to Pola
Triandis who supported him and generously shared him with us and
the world.
We also dedicate the book to our wives: Rae Landis and Poonam
Bhawuk. Their support during the gestation of the book made it
possible.

In Memoriam: Harry Charalambos Triandis
1926–2019

Contents
List of Figures page xii

List of Tables xiii
List of Contributors xiv
Foreword by James M. Jones xxx
Preface xxxv
1 Introduction and Theoretical Framework

dan landis and dharm p. s. bhawuk 1
Part I Theoretical Foundations of Intercultural Training

2 Harry Triandis’s Contributions to Intercultural Training as a
Field of Research: A Bibliometric Analysis
dharm p. s. bhawuk and atma p. bhawuk 39
3 Interdisciplinary History of Intercultural Communication Studies:
From Roots to Research and Praxis
steve j. kulich, liping weng, rongtian tong, and greg dubois 60
4 Culture Theories and Intercultural Training
dharm p. s. bhawuk 164
5 An Analysis of Methods for Intercultural Training
sandra m. fowler and masahisa yamaguchi 192
6 Intercultural Simulations: Theory and Practice
michael b. salzman 258
7 Toward a Social Network Theory of Reentry
ruobing chi and judith n. martin 281
8 Intractable Conflict, Delegitimization, and Intercultural Training
meytal nasie and daniel bar-tal 306
9 Evaluation of Cross-Cultural Training: A Review
anna kallschmidt, jessica mesmer-magnus,
chockalingam viswesvaran, and satish p. deshpande 334

x Contents
Part II Practice of Intercultural Training

10 International Initiatives in K–12 and Higher Education:
Learning from and Moving Beyond Disciplinary History
jennifer mahon and kenneth cushner 357
11 The Triad Training Model in Counseling, Cultural Diversity, and
Intercultural Training
tomoko yoshida 377
12 Multicultural Counseling Training and Intercultural Training:
A Synthesis
ben c. h. kuo 407
13 Training for Cross-Cultural Competence in the United States Military
sharon glazer 440
14 Developing Intercultural Competency Training in Global
Organizations: An Examination of the Cadre of Global Managers
miriam moeller and michael harvey 475
Part III Indigenous Psychology and Intercultural Training

15 Brazilian Cultural Patterns and Intercultural Training
cláudio v. torres, maria cristina ferreira, and laura novaes
andrade 497
16 Russian Cultural Patterns and Intercultural Training
valerie alexandra and olga kovbasyuk 523
17 Indian Psychology and Intercultural Training
dharm p. s. bhawuk 540
18 Culture-Inclusive Theories for Intercultural Training in Confucian
Societies: An In-Depth Analysis of Face Dynamism
rong chen and kwang-kuo hwang 564
19 Japanese Psychology and Intercultural Training: Presenting Wa
in a Nomological Network
david dalsky and jueyun su 584
Part IV New Interdisciplinary Approaches to Intercultural Training

20 Cultural Neuroscience Basis of Intercultural Training and Education
shihui han and ilari erik mäkelä 601
21 Perceptual Representation: An Etic Observational Category for
Guiding Intercultural Communication Adaptation
milton j. bennett 617

Contents xi
22 Emotional Contagion, Intimate Intercultural Relationships,

and Intercultural Training
elaine hatfield, shari paige, and richard l. rapson 640
23 Dialogue and Culture: Reflections on the Parameters of
Cultural Dialogue
sthaneshwar timalsina 658
24 Optimizing Globalization through “Intelligent Swarming”:
Suggested Activities for Training
gary fontaine 680
Part V Summing Up
25 Intercultural Training for the New Global Village: Future
Research Directions
dharm p. s. bhawuk and dan landis 703
Index 722

Figures
1.1 Multilevel framework for developing intercultural training programs. page 14

1.2 A model of cross-cultural expertise development. 16
1.3 Disconfirmed expectation and learning how to learn. 21
1.4 Organizationally relevant cultural performance. 25
3.1 Intellectual history since the Enlightenment on culture, comparisons, and
plurality of cultures. 65
4.1 Individualism and collectivism: The four defining attributes. 181
4.2 Independent and interdependent concepts of self. 182
5.1 Kolb’s learning preference cycle. 195
5.2 Factors affecting training method selection. 206
7.1 An illustrative graph for reentry network. 293
11.1 Three conversations during a counseling session. 380
11.2 The intrapersonal cultural grid for describing within-group or -person
variables. 381
11.3 A pictorial representation of the Triad Training Model. 386
11.4 Results of student reactions and feedback. 396
17.1 Indian concept of self. 550
17.2 Spirituality: Balancing inward focus with outward living. 553
18.1 The psychosociogram of man. 567
18.2 A theoretical model of face and favor in Chinese society. 568
18.3 Confucian ethical system of benevolence-righteousness-propriety for
ordinary people. 571
19.1 A nomological net for wa. 594
20.1 Examples of two navon-type stimuli. 603
20.2 Illustration of cultural differences in brain activity involved in self-reflection. 607
20.3 Illustration of the CBB loop model of human development. 611
21.1 A continuum of perceptual processing. 622
21.2 Some perceptual representation differences and implications. 636

Tables
2.1 Most cited authors page 40

2.2a Fiedler, F. E., Mitchell, T. R., & Triandis, H. C., 1971, (1971–1985) 43
2.2b Fiedler, F. E., Mitchell, T. R., & Triandis, H. C., 1971, (1985–2000) 44
2.3a Triandis, H. C., 1975, (1975–1984) 46
2.3b Triandis, H. C., 1975, (1986–2000) 47
2.4 Triandis, H. C., 1977, (1986–2000) 49
2.5 Triandis, H. C., 1984, (1987–2001) 50
2.6 Triandis, H. C., Brislin, R. W., & Hui, C. H., 1988, (1991–2001) 51
2.7 Triandis, H. C., Kurowski, L. L., & Gefland, M. J., 1994, (1996–1999) 52
3.1 1839–1919: Milestones in the early formative history of intercultural
communications 95
3.2 1920–1945: Milestones in the formative history of intercultural
communications 99
3.3 1945–1972: Post–WWII milestones leading up to founding the field
of intercultural communications 107
3.4 Parallel chronological history of the founding of IC associations 120
3.5 Chronological history for establishing cross- and intercultural journals 129
3.6 Chronological development of published IC theory summaries 137
3.7 Historical sequence and themes noted in specified intercultural
theory volumes 138
3.8 Main topics currently focused on by IC scholars and practitioners
(Kim, 2017) 140
5.1 Typology of intercultural training 194
5.2 Desired training outcomes, suggested methods, and evaluation activities 202
5.3 Quick reference to methods and considerations for use 248
7.1 Aligning intercultural training design with the integrated network
theory of reentry 297
13.1 Culture-related training and education programs in the US DoD and
affiliated organizations 458
14.1 International asignee/assignment characteristics 480
14.2 A framework differentiating assignees on the basis of intercultural
competency needs 480
15.1 Brazilian scores on the four values dimensions of Hofstede’s study 503
15.2 Brazilian scores on the nine values and practices dimensions of the
GLOBE study 504

Editors and Contributors
Editors
dan landis (PhD General-Theoretical Psychology, 1963, Wayne State University)
has held several academic and research positions. He is currently Affiliate Professor
of Psychology at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, Professor Emeritus of Psych-
ology, and Dean Emeritus of the College of Liberal Arts, University of Mississippi.
He is a past Chair of the Department of Psychology at Indiana-Purdue Universality
at Indianapolis, Research Psychologist at Educational Testing Service, Senior
Research Psychologist at the Franklin Institute, and Visiting Research Professor at
the East–West Center, Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute
(DEOMI), University of Illinois, Victoria University in Wellington, NZ, and the
Primate Laboratory at the University of Wisconsin. Landis is the author/coauthor/
editor/coeditor of over 100 books, book chapters, articles, and technical reports as
well as presentations in such areas as the measurement of equal opportunities in
military and civilian organization, racial and gender discrimination, perception,
statistics, sexual behavior and attitudes, and cross-cultural psychology and training.
He is the founding Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Intercultural
Relations (1977–2011), the founding President of the International Academy for
Intercultural Research, the coeditor/author of Ethnic Conflict, 1985, the coeditor
or/author of the three editions (1986, 1996, 2004) of the Handbook of Intercultural
Training, the author/coeditor of the Handbook of Ethnic Conflict (2012) , and co-
editor/author of Neuroscience in Intercultural Contexts (2015). A Mandarin transla-
tion of the 2004 Training Handbook was published by Peking University Press in
2010. Dr. Landis is an elected Fellow of several organizations: American Psycho-
logical Association, Association for Psychological Science, Society for the Psycho-
logical Study of Social Issues, the Division of International Psychology of APA, and
the International Academy for Intercultural Research. He is listed in Who’s Who
and other biographical compendiums. In 1987, Dr. Landis, together with Dr.
Mickey Dansby and Dr. Gloria Fisher, developed the Military Equal Opportunity
Climate Survey, which in various versions is in wide use throughout military and
civilian organizations. During 1994–96, Dr. Landis was appointed the first Shirley
J. Bach Visiting Professor at the Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute
(DEOMI). While at DEOMI, he conducted studies of equal opportunity climate in
the US Armed Forces as well as investigated racial disparities in the military justice
system. In 2007, he was given a Lifetime Achievement Award by the International

Editors and Contributors xv
Academy for Intercultural Research, and, in 2012, he was honored by the American
Psychological Association with its award for Distinguished Contributions to the
Internationalization of Psychology.
dharm p. s. bhawuk is Professor of Management and Culture and Community
Psychology at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, USA. His research interests
include indigenous psychology and management (focus on India and Nepal),
cross-cultural training, individualism and collectivism, intercultural sensitivity,
diversity in the workplace, culture and quality, culture and entrepreneurship, and
political behavior in the workplace. Bhawuk is a citizen of the USA and was born
and raised in Nepal. He received his early education at the Laboratory School,
Kathmandu. He has BTech (Hons) in mechanical engineering from IIT Kharagpur
(1979), an MBA from the University of Hawaii at Manoa (1989), and a PhD from
the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (1995). He is the author of the book
Indian Psychology: Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita (2011) and coeditor of the
book Asian Contributions to Cross-Cultural Psychology (1996). He has published
more than eighty papers and book chapters, and made over 250 presentations
internationally. He has taught in many countries as Visiting Professor – at Shanghai
International Studies University (SISU), Shanghai, China from 2015–19; at Thun-
derbird Global School of Management, Glendale, Arizona (Summer 2007); at
Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand (July–October 2002); and at Kath-
mandu College of Management, Kathmandu University, Nepal (December 2002).
He worked for Royal Nepal Airlines as a trainer and training manager for ten years,
and was the head of Airlines Training Center before leaving the organization. He has
conducted cross-cultural training programs for organizations like the American
Peace Corps, German Volunteer Program, Danish International Development
Agency (DANIDA), and so forth. He has consulted with international organizations
like the World Bank, United Nations Development Program, and the German
Technical Cooperation (GTZ). He has also taught workshops for professionals at
the Summer Intercultural Institute in Portland on Theory-Based Intercultural
Training Tools. He is a Founding Fellow of International Academy of Intercultural
Research (IAIR). He was H. Smith Richardson, Jr. Visiting Fellow, Center for
Creative Leadership, Greensboro, North Carolina (2009–2010). He has received
many awards and honors including Distinguished Scholar Award, Management
Department, College of Business Administration (2000), the Best Paper Award from
the Academy of Management (1996 and 2009), the Distinguished Service Award
from the East–West Center (1989), and the Lum Yip Kee Outstanding MBA
Student Award from the College of Business Administration, University of
Hawaii (1990).
Contributors
dr. valerie alexandra is an Assistant Professor in the Management Department
at San Diego State University in California, USA. She teaches and conducts

xvi Editors and Contributors
research in the areas of international management, cross-cultural training and

competency development, cross-cultural organizational behavior, and cross-cultural
business ethics. Her research has been published in the Journal of Business Ethics,
Academy of Management Learning and Education Journal, Journal of Cross-Cultural
Psychology, Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, and Academy of
Management Best Paper Proceedings. Her research was nominated for and received
best paper awards at the Academy of Management Meetings. She was also a finalist
for the Society of Business Ethics Best Dissertation Award. Prior to earning her PhD
at the University of Hawaii in Manoa, Dr. Alexandra worked as a consultant at
Accenture, was a part of a technology startup in Silicon Valley, and founded and
operated a number of businesses.
laura n. andrade has a degree in Psychology from the University of Brasília
(2015), and a Master’s of Science degree in Social and Work Psychology from the
same University (2018). In her thesis, she focused on the meaning of retirement for
active workers in Brazil. Currently, she is a PhD candidate in Social Psychology at
the University of Brasília, and an active researcher affiliated with the Laboratory of
Cross-Cultural Psychology. She has experience in Social, Organizational and Work
Psychology, giving lectures and advising undergraduate students and researches.
Nowadays, she develops projects with emphases on race, gender and sexual orienta-
tion, and cultural diversity, and works as a consultant in organizational psychology
projects.
daniel bar-tal is Professor Emeritus at the School of Education, Tel Aviv
University. His research interest is in political and social psychology, studying
socio-psychological foundations of intractable conflicts and peace building, as well
as development of political understanding among children and peace education. He
has published over twenty books and over 200 articles and chapters in major social
and political psychological journals, books, and encyclopedias. He served as a
President of the International Society of Political Psychology and received various
awards for his work, including the Alexander George Award of the International
Society of Political Psychology for the best book in Political Psychology. In 2006, he
also received the Peace Scholar Award of the Peace and Justice Studies Association
for great scholarship and hard work in studying conflicts and peacemaking. In 1991,
and again in 2009, he was awarded the Otto Klineberg Intercultural and Inter-
national Relations Prize of SPSSI. Then he received the Lasswell Award and the
Nevitt Sanford Award of the International Society of Political Psychology and the
Morton Deutsch Conflict Resolution Award of the Society for the Study of Peace,
Conflict, and Violence (Div. 48 of APA). In 2017, he was elected as a foreign
member of the Polish Academy of Sciences. He retired in 2015 and decided to devote
his second career to political activism.
dr. milton j. bennett is the Founder and Director of the Intercultural Develop-
ment Research Institute (IDRInstitute) co-located in Washington State, USA, and
Milan, Italy. He was a Founding Director of the Intercultural Communication

Editors and Contributors xvii
Institute in Portland, Oregon, and is a Founding Fellow of the International Acad-

emy of Intercultural Research (IAIR). His academic training is in communication
theory and linguistics, with a PhD in intercultural communication and sociology. He
was an Associate Professor at Portland State University where he conducted their
graduate program in intercultural communication, and he is now an Adjunct Pro-
fessor at the University of Milano Bicocca in their graduate program of Social
Service Management and Political Policy.
In addition to his academic work, Dr. Bennett consults with corporate and
academic organizations in Europe, Asia, and the US on topics of multicultural
diversity, intercultural competence, and global leadership. He has been on the
executive training faculty of Dartmouth’s Tuck School of Business, Smith College,
Boeing Leadership Center, Motorola University, the Stockholm School of Econom-
ics, and Eni University, and he currently is associated with the Global Leadership
Program located in the US, France, and India.
Dr. Bennett is known for originating the Developmental Model of Intercul-
tural Sensitivity and he is the coauthor (with Ed Stewart) of American Cultural
Pattern: A Cross-Cultural Approach, author and editor of Basic Concepts of
Intercultural Communication: Paradigms, Principles, & Practices (published in Eng-
lish, Italian, and Chinese), and a contributing coeditor of the Handbook of Inter-
cultural Training, 3rd Edition (also translated into Chinese).
atma p. bhawuk (BS in Bio-Engineering and MS in Mechanical Engineering from
University of Hawaii at Manoa) is a licensed Professional Engineer working in
Honolulu, who specializes in design and erection of mechanical systems like air-
conditioning, drinking water, drainage and sewage system, and firefighting. He has
experience with fabrication works for ducts, dampers and controllers, thermal/cold
insulation works, and erection of machines such as chiller unit, air handling units,
grills, and diffusers. He grew up in Kathmandu, Urbana-Champaign, and Honolulu,
and is a natural interculturalist.
dr. rong chen obtained her PhD degree in Social and Personality Psychology from
National Taiwan University. She also holds an MA degree in International Affairs
from the George Washington University. Her research interests encompass social
psychology, cultural psychology, and political psychology.
ruobing chi is Associate Professor in the Intercultural Institute at Shanghai
International Studies University. Her work focuses specifically on interpersonal
and intergroup relations in multicultural contexts and she has published articles
and chapters in both English and Chinese in communication journals and other
interdisciplinary ones. Her monograph Toward a network theory of acculturation was
published recently in China.
dr. kenneth cushner is an Emeritus Professor of International and Intercultural
Teacher Education at Kent State University (1987–2015). Prior to his university
appointment he taught in schools in Switzerland, Australia, and the United States,

xviii Editors and Contributors
and completed his doctoral studies at the University of Hawaii, at Manoa, while a
degree scholar at the East–West Center. Dr. Cushner is a Founding Fellow and Past-
President of the International Academy for Intercultural Research, and has been a
Fulbright Scholar to Sweden (2008) and Poland (2016), and a visiting professor at
Shanghai International Studies University, the College of the Bahamas, University
of Newcastle (Australia), and the University of Nis (Serbia). He has twice served as
director of COST – the Consortium for Overseas Student Teaching. He is author or
editor of several books and articles in the field of intercultural education, including
Human Diversity in Education: An Intercultural Approach (9th ed., 2019), Teacher as
Traveler: Enhancing the Intercultural Competence of Teachers and Students (2018),
and Intercultural Interactions: A Practical Guide (2nd ed., 1996). He has traveled
with young people and teachers on all seven continents. Since retiring from Kent
State University, Dr. Cushner has consulted with such organizations as ECIS, a
network of 400+ international schools in 90 countries, and NAFSA: Association of
Intercultural Educators. He has instituted a professional development program for
teachers in a Massai community school in northern Tanzania, and has served as
Intercultural Specialist on the Fall 2017 and Spring 2019 voyages with Semester
at Sea.
david dalsky, (PhD, Social Psychology), is an Associate Professor and a founding
member of the International Academic Research and Resource Center for Language
Education (i-ARRC) at Kyoto University, where he has been on the faculty for more
than ten years. He publishes internationally in both cross-(cultural) psychology and
applied linguistics. His current research and practice integrate these fields through
indigenous psychology-based online intercultural exchanges using English for Aca-
demic Purposes between Chinese, Indonesian, German, and Japanese students and
faculty.
satish p. deshpande is the Dean of the Haworth College of Business at Western
Michigan University. He is also the G. W. Haworth Professor of Business Adminis-
tration. Deshpande has taught graduate and undergraduate courses in Human
Resources Management. His research includes managerial decision-making,
health-care management, and applied psychology in human resource issues. He
has had over eighty refereed articles published in various journals and books
including the Academy of Management Journal, Organizational Behavior and
Human Decision Processes, Journal of Business Ethics, Journal of Labor Research,
Human Relations, Journal of Small Business Management, Compensation and Bene-
fits Review, Health Care Management Review, and Journal of Psychology. He has
been quoted on TV, radio, and in various newspapers including the Wall Street
Journal and USA Today.
greg dubois (MA, Shanghai International Studies University), currently a lecturer
of English and Intercultural Communication at Shanghai International Studies
University, has been living, teaching, and studying in China since moving to Ningxia
as an English language instructor in 2013. Upon receiving his master’s degree

Editors and Contributors xix
(awarded Honors) in Intercultural Communication, he has returned to focusing on

applying intercultural communication theory to the language learning classroom.
His main research interests include (1) cultural change in China (he has presented
findings on emerging post-90s Chinese values at the 2017 CAFIC Conference in
Ningbo, China) and (2) intercultural education and training (he has published on the
USA-based Intercultural Education Movement of the 1930–50s in the 2016 Chinese
Intercultural Communication Annual, Vol. 2). He has also been involved in contrib-
uting to the documentation process of the complex, multi-faceted, and multi-
paradigmatic past of the field of IC, both internationally and in China.
maria christina ferreira is a full Professor at the Graduate School of Psych-
ology, Salgado de Oliveira University, Brazil. She has developed a sabbatical project
in Cross-Cultural Research at the Center of Applied Cross-Cultural Research,
Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. Her main research interests focus
on cross-cultural psychology, indigenous psychology, and positive organizational
behavior.
gary fontaine is an Emeritus Professor in the School of Communications at the
University of Hawaii. His primary professional interests center on persons, teams,
and organizations as they encounter the adjustment, performance, and motivation
challenges of “strange lands” – novel and rapidly changing ecologies characterized
by new people, places, cultures, and technologies. He is particularly interested in the
experiences these challenges produce, the strategies developed to deal with them, and
the communication and other skills required to implement the strategies effectively.
Over the years he has applied this focus to global assignments in business and
government, our diverse, rapidly changing workplaces and communities at home,
geographically dispersed teams, distance learning, knowledge creation and transfer,
criminal justice, and service delivery. Most recently his emphases have been on
coaching teams, managers, and leaders to deal with intercultural and global diversity
effectively and on self-organization and swarm optimization models of globalization
in multinational enterprises.
sandra m. fowler has served the intercultural field in a variety of ways since the
1960s. Her career began with a research project for the National Bureau of Stand-
ards on the induction process for the US Peace Corps, followed by research for the
US Navy in San Diego on selection procedures for overseas duty, which led her to
Garry Shirts and BaFá BaFá. Her work with the Navy continued as Head of the
Overseas Duty Support Program for the Naval Personnel Command in Washington,
DC, where she became active in SIETAR International. As president of SI from
1986 to 1988 and currently president of SIETAR USA, she applied her organiza-
tional psychology degree skills to making SIETAR more structured and efficient.
Along the way, she has had intercultural articles and chapters published, and edited
the two volumes of the Intercultural Sourcebook: Cross-Cultural Training Methods.
For the past two decades, she has been the Art Editor for the American Psychologist,
the flagship journal of the American Psychological Association.

xx Editors and Contributors
dr. sharon glazer earned her Ph.D. in Industrial and Organizational (IO)
Psychology from Central Michigan University (1999) and M.S. in Applied IO
Psychology from the University of Baltimore. She also had a postdoctoral fellow-
ship at the National Institute of Occupational Safety & Health. Currently, Sharon is
Professor and Chair of the Division of Applied Behavioral Sciences at the Univer-
sity of Baltimore and is President of Healthy Organization, Inc. She has over
25 years of teaching, consulting, and research experience, with expertise in cross-
cultural issues in occupational, organizational, and worker stress and organizational
development. Her research has been supported by several external and internal
grants, most notably Fulbright, Erasmus Mundus, and NASA. She has taught and
conducted research through her visiting professorships to Rene Descartes Univer-
sity in Paris, France, University of Pau-Bayonnes and University of Bordeaux in
France, University of Bologna, Italy, University of Barcelona and University
of Valencia in Spain, University of Coimbra, Portugal, and Western Maryland
College (now McDaniel College) in Budapest, Hungary. From 2007 until 2017,
Sharon was the Treasurer for the International Association for Cross-Cultural
Psychology and from 2010-2015 Sharon served as Editor of the International
Journal of Stress Management. She is a Fellow of the Society for Industrial and
Organizational Psychology, the International Academy for Intercultural Research,
and the International Association of Applied Psychology. Sharon is currently a
co-editor of a monograph series on Culture, Organizations, and Work and a book
series, Emerging Cultural Perspectives in Work, Organizational, and Personnel
Studies, published by Springer.
dr. shihui han is a Professor at the Department of Psychology and a principal
investigator at PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking Univer-
sity, PRC. Dr. Han received a PhD in neuroscience from the University of Science
and Technology of China. He has held an appointment as a full Professor of
Psychology at Peking University since 2001. He is the founding Chief Editor of
Culture and Brain, published by Springer, and Associate Editor of a Social Cognitive
and Affective Neuroscience. He is a Fellow of the Association for Psychological
Science. He was the recipient of an Outstanding Young Researcher award from the
National Science Foundation of China in 2003 and a China Youth Science and
Technology award in 2004. His research aims to clarify social and biological factors
that modulate the neural substrates of human social cognition. He has published
over 150 empirical papers as well as review articles in high-profile neuroscience and
psychology journals.
the late michael harvey, a dedicated scholar who published more than
130 papers during his career, many with his former students and colleagues. His
major works focused on the human resource issues of managers' international
assignments. Many of these works have been considered seminal by others in the
field. He always encouraged others to publish their ideas in a myriad of outlets, such
as the Journal of World Business, Journal of International Business Studies, Organiza-
tional Dynamics, among others. Because of this strategy, his work has been cited

Editors and Contributors xxi
over 9,000 times. When Moeller was appointed coeditor of the Journal of World
Business, her first appointment as a Senior Editor was Harvey because she knew that
he would constructively review the submitted article and get back in a timely fashion.
He was instrumental in shaping the editorial strategy of JWB, even though this
meant a decision to stop publishing articles in marketing.
Straight forward, honest, and opinionated might be words to describe him.
Underneath his “tough” exterior was a caring, thoughtful, considerate, and delight-
ful man. He really cared about people and tried to help them advance their careers.
Many scholars always enjoyed working/publishing with Mike because they always
knew exactly where he stood.
dr. elaine hatfield is professor of Psychology at the University of Hawaii and
past-president of the Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality (SSSS). In 2012, the
Association for Psychological Science (APS) gave Hatfield the William James award
for a Lifetime of Scientific Achievement. In recent years she has received Distin-
guished Scientist Awards (for a lifetime of scientific achievement) from the Society of
Experimental Social Psychology (SESP), the Society for the Scientific Study of Sex
(SSSS), and the University of Hawaii, and the Alfred Kinsey Award from the
Western Region of SSSS. The SPSP (Society for Personality and Social Psychology)
Methodological Innovator Award. Two of her books have won the American
Psychological Association's National Media Award.
Since the 1990s, Drs. Hatfield and Richard L. Rapson (her husband) have
collaborated on four scholarly books: Love, Sex, and Intimacy: Their Psychology,
Biology, and History (HarperCollins), Emotional Contagion (Cambridge University
Press), Love and Sex: Cross-Cultural Perspectives (Allyn & Bacon), and What’s Next
in Love and Sex: Psychological and Cultural Perspectives (Oxford University Press).
dr. kwang-kuo hwang obtained his PhD in Social Psychology from the Univer-
sity of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii. He retired from National Taiwan University, and
is currently National Chair Professor, awarded by the Ministry of Education,
Republic of China. Professor Hwang has endeavored to promote the indigenization
movement in psychology and the social sciences in Chinese society since the early
1980s. He has published more than 150 articles on related issues in both Chinese and
English in addition to eight books including Foundations of Chinese Psychology:
Confucian Social Relations (English) and Inner Sageliness and Outer Kingliness: The
accomplishment and Unfolding of Confucianism (Chinese). He is past President of
the Asian Association of Indigenous and Cultural Psychology (2010–2014), and the
Asian Association of Social Psychology (2003–2005), and was the Principal Investi-
gator of the research project “In Search of Excellence for Indigenous Psychology,”
sponsored by the Ministry of Education, Republic of China (2000–2008).
dr. james m. jones is Trustees Distinguished Professor of Psychological and Brain
Sciences and Director of the Center for the Study of Diversity at the Universality of
Delaware, and former Executive Director for Public Interest and Director of the
Minority Fellowship Program at the American Psychological Association. Dr. Jones

xxii Editors and Contributors
earned a BA from Oberlin College, an MA from Temple University, and a PhD in

Social Psychology from Yale University. He was been on the faculty of the Psych-
ology and Social Relations Department at Harvard University, and has taught in the
Psychology Department at Howard University. He published the first edition of
Prejudice and Racism in 1972, and the second edition in 1997. His most recent book,
The Psychology of Diversity: Beyond Prejudice and Racism, with Jack Dovidio and
Deborah Vietze, was published in 2014. In 1973, Dr. Jones spent a year in Trinidad
and Tobago on a John Simon Guggenheim Fellowship studying Calypso humor.
This work led to the development of the TRIOS model of the Psychology of African
American culture. Dr. Jones is a social psychologist and is past-President of the
Society of Experimental Social Psychology and the Society for the Psychological
Study of Social Issues. He has received numerous awards including the Lifetime
Achievement Award from the Society for the Psychological Study of Culture,
Ethnicity, and Race; the Kurt Lewin Award and Distinguished Service Award from
the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues; the Distinguished Psycholo-
gist Award by the Association of Black Psychologists; the 2011 Lifetime Contribu-
tion to Psychology award from the American Psychological Association; the Gold
Medal Award for Life Contributions to Psychology in the Public Interest from the
American Psychological Foundation; and the 2018 Morton Deutsch Award for
Distinguished Contributions to Social Justice.
anna kallschmidt, MS, is a PhD student in Florida International University's
Industrial/Organizational Psychology program, as well as a graduate of their Master
of Science curriculum. She uses both qualitative and quantitative methodology to
answer questions regarding social class as a culture and how it influences workplace
decisions, both nationally and internationally. Currently, her research is investigat-
ing social mobility opportunities, national and institutional ideologies regarding
social mobility, and how class perceptions of employee motivation and work ethic
drive workplace preferences. Her goal is to merge her passion for social justice and
social mobility with her applied experience by designing and implementing organiza-
tional trainings and policies that promote equal and fair workplaces regardless of
social class or cultural background. Her work has been published in the Journal of
Vocational Behavior, as well as featured at national conferences such as the Annual
Conference for the Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychologists and the
Society of the Psychological Study of Social Issues. Anna is employed as a public
policy researcher, and her projects have included transportation and gender equity
research. In addition to her employment and PhD program, Anna is the creator and
current author of Project GLOW’s blog on how organizational science can eradicate
poverty internationally.
olga kovbasyuk is an Associate Professor of Intercultural Communication at
I. Kant Baltic Federal University in Kaliningrad, Russia. She has been teaching
intercultural communication in a wide range of academic institutions. Dr. Kovba-
syuk has presented papers on intercultural communication at a great number of

Editors and Contributors xxiii
international conferences in Russia, Poland, Japan, Germany, Greece, France, and

the USA. She has over seventy publications, including thirty-five peer-reviewed
articles and chapters in books and professional journals. Her work has been recog-
nized through numerous awards and prizes, including a national medal “For Excel-
lence in Work,” Teachers Excellence Award from the State Department, USA,
Fulbright and DAAD institutional fellowship.
steve j. kulich (PhD, Humboldt University of Berlin), at Shanghai International
Studies University (SISU) since 1993, is a Distinguished Professor, Founder, and
Director of the SISU Intercultural Institute (SII), Fellow, Board Member, and
President (2019–2021) of the International Academy of Intercultural Research
(IAIR), Life-time contribution awardee and honorary advisor of the Chinese Asso-
ciation for Intercultural Communication (CAFIC), and two-time recipient (Silver
and Gold) of the Magnolia Award from the Shanghai Municipal Government. He
continues as the Chief Editor of the Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press
Intercultural Research series, was invited as International Journal of Intercultural
Research (IJIR) Special Issue Co-Editor (with Michael Prosser) on “Early Pioneers
of IC,” and has published many chapters and articles in varied journals, encyclo-
pedias, and handbooks. With forty years’ working in Asia, and as an early contribu-
tor to both the study and teaching of Intercultural Communications (IC) in China,
he focuses on researching the development of intercultural theories, the disciplinary
history and status of IC, changes in Chinese values and identity, as well as IC
competence cultivation in language and culture learning and teaching.
dr. ben c. h. kuo’s research focuses on the interface between culture and mental
health among culturally diverse populations. His research extends internationally
with cross-cultural studies involving multiple countries and regions (e.g., multi-
national, cross-national research) as well as indigenous studies (e.g., counselling/
psychotherapy) carried out in Asia and elsewhere. While primarily a quantitative
researcher, Dr. Kuo has published works with both quantitative and qualitative
methods. He investigates how culturally diverse individuals and groups respond to
various stressors and cope with psychological and mental health consequences that
may arise from these stressful circumstances. He has published research on cultural
coping responses and processes, cultural adaptation (acculturation) and cultural
identity of ethnic minorities, immigrants, international students, and refugees in
Canada and the USA, mental health well-being and trauma recovery of refugee
survivors, multicultural clinical/counselling competency training, and psychological
treatment-seeking behaviors and attitudes of culturally diverse populations. Dr. Kuo
is also a licensed and practicing psychologist in Ontario, Canada, and he regularly
teaches and supervises clinical students in multicultural psychotherapy practicum. In
2017, Dr. Kuo received two prominent awards in recognition of his contributions
and excellence in research, teaching, and student supervision/mentorship: (1) the
University of Windsor’s Award for Outstanding Research: Established Researcher/
Scholar Category and (2) the Dr. Kathleen E. McCrone Teaching Award of the

xxiv Editors and Contributors
Faculty of Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences. Dr. Kuo has travelled, lectured,
and provided workshop training and teaching extensively as a visiting professor in
Taiwan, China, Thailand, New Zealand, Russia, Brazil, Poland, UK, USA, and
Canada.
jennifer mahon, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Secondary Education at the
University of Nevada, Reno. Her work focuses on the internationalization and
interculturalization of teachers and the teaching profession. She is coauthor, along
with Kenneth Cushner, of the Inventory of Cross-Cultural Sensitivity (ICCS-R). She
is a Fellow and Board Member of the International Academy for Intercultural
Research, and the Ozman Institute for International Studies. Since 2011 she has
served as UNR’s Principal Investigator of the Fulbright Teaching Excellence
Achievement Program funded by the Education and Cultural Affairs Bureau of
the US Department of State and administered by IREX.
ilari erik mäkelä received his BA in Psychology and Philosophy from the
University of Oxford. He is currently reading for an MPhil in China Studies at the
Yenching Academy of Peking University majoring in Chinese Philosophy. He is also
a contributor to the Culture and Social Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory at the
School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences at the Peking University. He has
previously worked as a digital marketing entrepreneur and a school teacher in
Helsinki, Finland.
judith n. martin is Professor Emerita in the School of Human Communication at
Arizona State University. Her principle research interests include intercultural com-
munication competence, the cultural adaptation and reentry of sojourners, as well as
interethnic and interracial communication and the role of culture in online commu-
nication. She has published numerous research articles in Communication journals
as well as other disciplinary journals and has coauthored three textbooks in inter-
cultural communication with Thomas K. Nakayama. She also coedited (with Paul-
ine Cheong and Leah Macfadyen) New Media and Intercultural Communication:
Identity Community and Politics.
jessica mesmer-magnus, PhD, is a Professor of Management in the Cameron
School of Business at the University of North Carolina Wilmington, and currently
serves as a Senior Consortium Faculty Fellow for the US Army Research Institute.
Her research interests include team cognition and behavior, workplace humor, and
work/family conflict. Dr. Mesmer-Magnus’s research has been supported through
extramural grants from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and
the National Science Foundation, and has been published over forty times in peer-
reviewed journals, including Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Management,
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Journal of Business Ethics,
Human Performance, Human Resource Management Review, and Journal of
Vocational Behavior. Dr. Mesmer-Magnus has earned several commendations for
outstanding teaching, including the Chancellor’s Teaching Excellence Award.

Editors and Contributors xxv
She earned her PhD in Industrial/Organizational Psychology from Florida Inter-

national University in 2005, and is certified as a Senior Human Resource Profes-
sional (SPHR) and Society for Human Resource Management’s Senior Certified
Professional (SHRM-SCP).
miriam moeller (PhD, University of Mississippi) is a Senior Lecturer in
International Business and an Associate Professor of Secondary Education at the
University of Nevada, Reno. Her work focuses on the internationalization and inter-
culturalization of teachers and the teaching profession. She is coauthor, along with
Kenneth Cushner, of the Inventory of Cross-Cultural Sensitivity (ICCS-R). She is a
Fellow and Board Member of the International Academy for Intercultural Research,
and the Ozman Institute for International Studies. Since 2011 she has served as UNR’s
Principal Investigator of the Fulbright Teaching Excellence Achievement Program
funded by the Education & Cultural Affairs Bureau of the US Department of State and
administered by IREX at the University of Queensland’s Business School. Her work
has been published in the Journal of International Business Studies, International
Journal of Human Resource Management, Journal of World Business, among others.
meytal nasie is a lecturer at the School of Education, Tel Aviv University, starting
in July 2020. Her current research focuses on the development of social categoriza-
tion in young children and its effects on intergroup attitudes. Specifically, she is
interested in exploring educational interventions to reduce social biases and improve
intergroup attitudes among children. She earned her PhD at Tel-Aviv University
under the supervision of Daniel Bar-Tal and Eran Halperin, working on projects
exploring various aspects of intractable inter-group conflicts, particularly focusing
on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. She was a post-doctoral fellow at the MOFET
Institute, conducting her research at the language and cognitive development lab at
Bar-Ilan University, directed by Gil Diesendruck. Her work has been published in
journals in social and developmental psychology.
dr. shari paige earned her doctorate and master’s degrees at the University of
Hawaii, Manoa. Her expertise is in the areas of social identity, acculturation, and
social distance. Shari previously taught courses in Psychology and Ethnic Studies at
California State University, Fullerton, Chapman University, and at the University
of Hawaii, Manoa. More recently, she has applied her skills in the fields of
Marketing and Advertising where she works toward increasing cultural diffusion
in cross-cultural settings.
dr. richard l. rapson (BA, Amherst; PhD, Columbia) is Professor of History at
the University of Hawaii. He came to Hawaii in 1966 after teaching for many years
at Amherst and at Stanford University. He has written more than a dozen books,
most of which focus on the psychological side of American life, past and present. Dr.
Rapson’s most recent books are Amazed by Life: Confessions of a Non-religious
Believer (2004) and Magical Thinking and the Decline of America (2007). He has
been a TV moderator for a PBS series, Dean of New College, and, among many

xxvi Editors and Contributors
honors, been named by the Danforth Foundation as one of the nation’s best
teachers. He was a therapist for fifteen years, beginning in 1982.
Since the 1990s, Rapson and Dr. Elaine Hatfield (his wife) have collaborated on
four scholarly books: Love, Sex, and Intimacy: Their Psychology, Biology, and
History (HarperCollins), Emotional Contagion (Cambridge University Press), Love
and Sex: Cross-Cultural Perspectives (Allyn & Bacon), and What’s Next in Love and
Sex: Psychological and Cultural Perspectives (Oxford University Press).
Together with Professor Hatfield, Rapson has published a collection of short
stories (Dangerous Characters), four serious novels (Rosie, Recovered Memories,
Darwin’s Law, and Hijacked!), and five detective stories – two Kate MacKinnon
murder mysteries (Deadly Wager and Vengeance is Mine), two Firefly mysteries (The
Adventures of Firefly: The World’s Tiniest Detective and Take Up Serpents), and The
G-string Murders.
michael b. salzman is an Emeritus Professor recently retired as the Chair of the
Department of Educational Psychology at the University of Hawaii at Manoa. He is
a licensed psychologist and has published in the areas of intercultural conflict and
cooperation, the psychology of colonization and decolonization, intercultural sensi-
tivity training, multicultural counseling and cultural trauma and recovery among
indigenous peoples, and the effects of globalization on culture and anxiety. He has
worked with diverse populations as a teacher in an inner city Brooklyn community, a
clinician in a Community Mental Health Center in South Tucson, a researcher and
school counselor in the Navajo Nation, a coordinator of a model rural mental health
program serving Native Alaska, and an advisor in a Native Hawaiian Leadership
project in Hawaii. Michael has been at the University of Hawaii at Manoa since
1997, first as a counselor educator and then as the Chair of the Department of
Educational Psychology. He contributed a chapter entitled “Ethnocultural Conflict
and Cooperation in Hawai‘i” to the Handbook of Ethnic Conflict: International
Perspectives and a chapter in the published book titled Internalized Oppression:
The Psychology of Marginalized Groups. Michael had a book recently published in
2018 by Springer entitled A Psychology of Culture which explores how cultures
address core human needs and the existential realities of the human condition. He
enjoys exercise, the café life, good company, and conversation. He hopes that his
teaching, research, and service contribute to the construction of a better world
through the promotion of social justice, respect, equality, and understanding among
people.
jueyun su is a graduate student at Kyoto University in Japan.
dr. sthaneshwar timalsina, Professor of Religious Studies, San Diego State
University, received his PhD from Martin Luther University in Halle, Germany
(2005), with a focus on the history of the philosophy of Advaita. His dissertation is
published under the title, Seeing and Appearance (Shaker Verlag, 2006). Before
joining San Diego State University in 2005, Timalsina taught at the University of
California, Santa Barbara, and Washington University in St. Louis. He received

Editors and Contributors xxvii
a Master’s degree in 1991 from Sampurnananda University in Varanasi, India, and

taught for several years at Nepal Sanskrit University, Kathmandu, before migrating
to the United States of America. His areas of research include classical Hindu,
Buddhist, and Jain literature and philosophies with a specific focus on consciousness
studies. His book, Consciousness in Indian Philosophy (Routledge, 2008) is a com-
parative study of Advaita and Buddhist understandings of the self and conscious-
ness. He also works in the area of Tantric studies and his recent publications, Tantric
Visual Culture: A Cognitive Approach (Routledge, 2015), and Language of Images:
Visualization and Meaning in Tantras (Peter Lang, 2015), explore the cognitive and
cultural domains of Tantric visualization. He has published over forty articles, book
chapters, and review essays on religion, culture, literature, aesthetics, and philoso-
phy. He teaches courses on Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain religious, philosophical, and
literary traditions, and his teaching interests include “Religion and Science” as well
as “Yoga Philosophy and Practice.” He is working on theories of mind, with a
particular focus on the cognitive aspects of recognition, memory, imagination, and
emotion.
rongtian tong (BA, Washington State University) is currently a Research and
Teaching Assistant under the supervision of Dr. Steve J. Kulich at Shanghai Inter-
national Studies University. Before returning to his native China, he completed his
undergraduate studies at Washington State, majoring in International Business
while minoring in Sociology (graduating with Honors and belonging to multiple
Honor Societies). He has also previously worked at law and government related
sectors. Due to his complex background, Rongtian has developed a variety of
interests with culture at the epicenter. He plans to pursue his doctoral sometime in
the near future.
cláudio v. torres has been a Professor at the Institute of Psychology of the
University of Brasilia, Brazil, since 1992. Has developed sabbatical projects in
Marketing at Griffith University, Australia (2004), in Cross-cultural Research at
the University of Sussex, England (2009), and in Cross-cultural Psychology and
Human Values at Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel (2013) and at the Univer-
sity of Haifa, Israel (2018). His main research interests include cross-cultural psych-
ology, consumer psychology, cultural diversity, and inclusion.
professor chockalingam (vish) viswesvaran (PhD, University of Iowa)
joined Florida International University in 1993. His research focuses on personnel
selection, job performance assessments, and personality testing. He has served on
several editorial boards including those of Journal of Applied Psychology, Personnel
Psychology, Journal of Personnel Psychology, and Journal of Organizational Behav-
ior. He was the Associate Editor of the International Journal of Selection and
Assessment from 2001 to 2006 and served as its Editor for ten years (2007–2017).
He is a fellow of (1) SIOP, (2) Divisions 14 (I/O) and 5 (Evaluation, Measurement,
and Statistics) of the American Psychological Association, and (3) the Association
for Psychological Science (APS). He has coedited a special issue of the International

xxviii Editors and Contributors
Journal of Selection and Assessment on the role of technology on staffing, and a

special issue of the Journal of Human Performance on the use of cognitive ability
tests in Personnel Selection. He has served on the awards and fellowship committees
of SIOP and on the APA Committee on Psychological Tests and Assessments. He
has published over 170 journal articles and six edited books, and has made 250 con-
ference presentations.
liping weng (PhD, Shanghai International Studies University) is an Associate
Professor in the Shanghai International Studies University (SISU) Intercultural
Institute. His major research interests include values and culture change in the
context of language and intercultural communication, specifically how values are
reflected in cultural products, and the dynamic interplay of indigenous insights and
values shifts in globalization. His publications have appeared in International Jour-
nal of Psychology, International Journal of Intercultural Relations, Language and
Intercultural Communication, Intercultural Communication Studies, China Media
Research, and the Sage Encyclopedia of Intercultural Competence. He authored the
book Toward a Cultural Process Model in Intercultural Communication and coedited
Value Frameworks at the Theoretical Crossroads of Culture and Value Dimensions
and their Contextual Dynamics Across Cultures (the Institute’s thematic series Inter-
cultural Research, Volumes 4 and 5).
masahisa yamaguchi is an Assistant Professor at the California State University–
East Bay. He received his undergraduate degree from the Olin School of Business,
Washington University in St. Louis, and his MBA and PhD from the Shidler College
of Business, University of Hawaii at Manoa. His area of research is cross-cultural
management and business ethics.. His interest in intercultural research stems from
his experience growing up and working in the US and Japan for organizations such
as Sony and Japan Airlines. He is currently involved in developing an International-
focused Human Resource certification program designing courses that enriches
cultural intelligences while fulfilling credit requirements necessary for the Human
Resource Management Certified Professional Exam.
tomoko yoshida (PhD, Professor, Faculty of Business & Commerce, Keio Uni-
versity) was born and raised in an international community in the Philippines and
lived there until she was eighteen. While growing up, her family moved to New
Zealand for one year when she was five and the United States for one year when she
was eleven. She obtained a bachelor’s degree from the International Christian
University in Tokyo where she studied under Dr. Edward Stewart. For her master’s
degree, she studied under Dr. Paul Pedersen at Syracuse University; her PhD is from
the University of Hawaii at Manoa. Tomoko has been teaching and training in the
field of Intercultural Communication for close to thirty years. Prior to her current
position, she was Training Director at ITT Sheraton Hotels in Hawaii and Project
Fellow at the East–West Center in Hawaii, where she worked with Dr. Richard
Brislin. She has numerous publications including Intercultural Communication
Training: An Introduction (1994, Sage Publications), Improving Intercultural

Editors and Contributors xxix
Interactions (1994, Sage Publications), Ibunka Training (2009, Sanshusha Publica-

tions), and Academic Writing (2018, Keio Publishing). She has published many
articles on various topics such as returnee adjustment, biethnic identity, and raising
multicultural children in Japan. She has served as the Editor of the Journal of
Intercultural Communication, is a Fellow of the International Academy of Intercul-
tural Relations, and is Vice-President of SIETAR Japan.

Foreword
Difference is the dynamic that drives, for better or worse, all human interaction. The
similarity–difference continuum, which seems logical, may not be a continuum at all,
but two separable functional psychologies that determine how we perceive, interact
with, value, and understand others. This volume and those that precede it, establish
that culture is not only a meaningful dimension of difference, but that we can make
difference a benefit to the well-being of people, nations, and societies. I like to think
of these now four volumes of the Handbook of Intercultural Training (ICT) as a
scholarly and practical franchise, each sequel of which updates our knowledge,
refines our understanding, and improves our ability to produce the positive out-
comes of intercultural contact.
Intercultural relations burgeoned as a global issue post World War II. The
Marshall Plan was crafted to help rebuild countries ravaged by war, US businesses
sought out new global markets, and humanitarian and social enterprises expanded to
countries and cultures around the globe. The creation of the Peace Corps in 1961,
generated a focus on training, both pre-service and in-country, designed to prepare
and increase intercultural competency of volunteers. All of these post–WWII
changes provide important foundations for the development and utilization of
Intercultural Training.
The emergence of a theory-driven approach further contributed to ICT by empha-
sizing cultural knowledge, understanding, and variation. Notable pioneers in this
theoretical and scientific advance are properly discussed in Pusch (in chapter 3 of
Volume 3), and Kulich and Processer, Chapter 2 in this volume). The convergence of
academic theorists and researchers, and international practitioners provided a rich
nexus for expansion of intercultural training.
I find the connection, or at times lack thereof, between intercultural training and
diversity training a significant bridge between the ICT global approach and US
focused interest in multiculturalism. Diversity is relatively new in the annals of
academic focus on discourse. In part the differences are a matter of language –
diversity has come to represent many aspects of intergroup relationships (interper-
sonal, intergroup, and intercultural biases) – and embed analyses of racism in a
broader, more encompassing framework. This trend is reflected in the recurring
question, “what is diversity?” Nearly every attempt to introduce diversity policies
and training in any setting requires answering this question. The Peace Corp training
approach distinguishes diversity training from intercultural training, although the
partial overlap is acknowledged. This is significant because the intercultural training
focus has been operating for over half a century, while, for the most part, diversity
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108854184.001 Published online by Cambridge University Press

Foreword xxxi
research training and interventions, often labeled diversity science, only gained
traction around the turn of the twenty-first century.
I have written extensively about racism. In 1972, I argued that cultural racism was
the overarching problem in race relations. The specifics of race, and place, should
not be marginalized by subsuming it under an umbrella concept like diversity. This
volume does an excellent job of offering broad conceptual ideas about ICT, but
particularizes the approaches in different cultural contexts (e.g., Brazil, Russia,
India, and China). So, in my judgment, ICT has much to offer those diversity
scholars and practitioners, and with a more formal intersection, both enterprises
would benefit greatly.
My approach to this ICT enterprise comes from a diversity-in-the-USA perspec-
tive – how can we reap the benefits of diversity in relationships, institutions, and
societies, and minimize the adverse consequence that can accompany it? The chal-
lenges are quite similar to those of ICT. In a recent book on the psychology of
diversity, with Jack Dovidio and Deborah Vietze, we defined diversity in terms of
attitudes, psychological responses, and difference: “[B]asic psychological processes
that are triggered when we encounter people who are different from us in significant
and salient ways, or experience being treated differently by others because of our
social status” (p. 10). We propose that encountering human differences triggers basic
psychological processes that often work against the ability to function effectively and
positively in a diversity context. Given these basic psychological tendencies, we ask
how we increase the chances that interactions across boundaries of significant
differences do not disrupt reaching our goals, but enhance those likelihoods? The
diversity challenge, as with ICT, is to guide the development of competencies that
mitigate the adverse effects, and enhance the capacities that are beneficial to effective
functioning in diverse environments. In a recent journal article, Dovidio and I offer a
framework – a diversity paradigm – that builds our understanding of these basic
human differences and proposes ways to retreat from the value-laden, either/or
approaches to difference.
An important point of convergence between the intercultural training and diver-
sity paradigms is the idea of competence. Training builds relevant competencies at
an individual level, but also points out ways in which organizations and even
societies can enable and embrace these competencies. Most of the chapters in Part
II offer training models for intercultural competence. We approach diversity compe-
tency at the individual level as characterized by six interconnected facets: diversity
self-awareness, perspective taking, Cultural literacy, Personal and Social Responsi-
bility, Global Understanding and Diversity Knowledge Application – DC6®. The
DC6® can also be applied to organizations in relationship to their mission, work-
force, and strategic objectives. One may ask of an organization: ✓are you aware of
your fit with the diversity of your community/culture; ✓can/do you look at your
actions from the viewpoint of others; are you literate in the cultures of your
employees and consumers; ✓do you take responsibility for the well-being of every-
one who falls under your umbrella; ✓are you knowledgeable about the global

xxxii Foreword
climates that affect others in addition to your organization; ✓do you apply your
diversity knowledge to achieving the benefits of an integrated diversity strategy. The
DC6® concept applies to all levels of the ICT model proposed by Landis and
Bhawuk (chapter 19, Volume III) and updated in this volume.
At the University of Delaware we have created a psychometric scale to assess one’s
level of diversity competence. The DC6® has the requisite psychometric properties
and yields results you might expect. Persons higher on DC6® tend to be more
empathic, are more prone to perspective taking, adopt a pluralistic orientation, seek
out cross-racial interactions, are more likely to have had a roommate of a different
race or ethnicity, have had more in-class interactions with a person of a different
race, and have fewer same-race close friends. We also arranged for two people with
differing views on a major topic (free speech vs. hate speech – “People have a right to
free speech even if that speech is hateful to other people.”), but who shared either a
high or low degree of diversity competency, to discuss this issue and arrive at a joint
statement that summarized their views. We were interested in the nature of their
interaction and any evidence of their competence in navigating these diverse view-
points. We found that high DC6® participants listened more, exchanged ideas more,
saw and acknowledged the viewpoint of the other person, and incorporated these
perspectives in their final point on the issue. Finally, we have also found that
students who take a required multicultural course significantly increase their DC6®
level. This research program offers promising evidence that psychological character-
istics related to diversity competence can be measured, have important antecedents
and measurable consequences, and can be influenced by education and training.
However, in my experience – principally in university settings – training is often
thought of as one of the following: an accusation of incompetence, a context for
pushing an agenda to change people toward a specific valued-point of view, a
panacea for ridding people of unwanted behaviors and replacing them with those
the trainers or their sponsors desire, or, in the most crass version, brainwashing! It is
clearly a highly charged issue that can only be successfully pursued with the kind of
underlying foundation the work in this “franchise” offers.
Peter Salovey, President of Yale University, describes as emotional intelligence
what we refer to as intercultural or diversity competence, evidence for which comes
from what a person has accomplished in a variety of leadership roles or diversity
settings. Has a person: Aligned people with many different points of view and
backgrounds around common goals? Resolved conflicts? Turned conflicts into a
creative opportunity rather than a destructive one? Harnessed passion, both their
own and their colleagues’, in the service of some larger, superordinate goal?
Living in a global, multicultural, diverse world requires both compassion and
competence (what Susan Fiske labels warmth and competence). With regard to
human difference, neither comes automatically and, in fact, we are generally wired
in an opposite way. Intercultural or diversity training is not going to soften the lines
of demarcation between blood enemies, but for the modal many, learning how to
look at the world of difference differently, and acquiring a point of view or

Foreword xxxiii
perspective, and corresponding capacities and skills to be and act “intelligently” in

those circumstances, is what we need now more than ever.
We are fortunate that this ICT work has continued for decades, and continues to
drive us to know more, and be and do better. This volume provides tools, concepts,
examples, and inspiration for how to train people for the challenge of diversity in a
multicultural and global world. This volume and its three predecessors are rich and
valuable assets for improving the ways in which people from different circumstances
might interact, cooperate, pursue mutual goals, and improve their own and the lives
of others.
James M. Jones
University of Delaware

Preface
It has been a decade and half since the last edition of this Handbook was published.
During that time the field of intercultural relations has matured into a respectable
academic and research field, though there are still issues to be resolved. Many of the
successes and stumbles are catalogued in this edition, as are the solutions developed
patiently in the field and laboratory. For that we give thanks to the many scholars
and trainers who have been drawn to this most important domain. The young ones
have taken up the challenge given to them by the field’s veterans. Both groups have
given generously of their time and talent to make this edition possible.
Many years ago (1982 to be exact), Harry Triandis encouraged Landis to pursue
doing the first edition. He rightly perceived that the disparate field, spread over many
disciplines, needed a work that would bring the many threads together. And so the
series was birthed. Harry more than any other was its godfather. Though Harry did
not live to see this latest iteration, we are sure he would have been pleased.
We are also grateful to Janka Romero and Emily Watton of Cambridge Univer-
sity Press for their support as we labored to bring this book to fruition. It would not
have been possible without their encouragement.
Finally, we thank our wives, Rae Landis and Poonam Bhawuk whose patient
support allowed us the time to write and, when necessary, chase down authors from
the far corners of the earth – sometimes due to the vagaries of time zones that
required us to be up at strange hours of the day. Thanks to all who had faith that this
Handbook was worth the wait.
Dan Landis and Dharm P. S. Bhawuk
University of Hawaii, Hilo and Honolulu, Hawaii
July, 2019
Postscript
When we had essentially completed this book, the pandemic which has ravaged the
world had yet to occur. As we write this postscript (May 12, 2020), 4 ¼ million cases
of the coronavirus have been reported worldwide with almost 300,000 deaths.
Within the United States alone the numbers are 1,353,000 cases, of which over
81,000 people have died. These figures, depressing as they are, will not be the end
of the story. The virus is knowing no boundaries, no socioeconomic status, or ethnic
group. This pandemic and those that will come over the next years will certainly
affect many cultural behaviors. They are also likely to affect how people move
around the world, whether as migrants (either voluntary or not) or ex-pats, or just

xxxvi Preface
day-to-day interactions between people of different cultural backgrounds. It will

certainly affect the development and nature of programs to facilitate such inter-
actions. Whether the cultural changes result in increasing conflict or not will be a
challenge to political and social institutions as well as social science research. How
we view those interactions and how we train for understanding them will become
clear over the next years. As cross-cultural researchers, it will be incumbent on us
and those who follow us to not only track the changes but also develop the research
methodologies that can result in programs of mitigation and change and to lay the
scientific foundation for avoiding destructive conflict. Unfortunately, it is too late to
consider those issues in this volume but rest assured that the writers who are part of
the present volume will be at the forefront of such research and development.

1 Introduction and Theoretical Framework
Dan Landis and Dharm P. S. Bhawuk
Introduction and Theoretical

contribute 40 percent of the remittance money
Framework
received by banks in Nepal. It has been
In 2017, the United Nations estimated that the reported that about 3,000 Nepali workers have
number of migrants living outside of their birth died in Malaysia in the last twelve years, most
country was 258 million. Over the past decade, of them from what is called Sudden Unex-
this figure has been increasing by about 2 per- pected Death Syndrome (SUDS), many of
cent a year. Though this might seem like a heart attacks. Such deaths of Nepali workers
relatively small increase in total numbers given have also been reported in Gulf countries like
the world population, it is still a significant Qatar and Saudi Arabia. Since it is culturally
population movement. Many, if not most, of inappropriate to perform autopsy in Nepal,
the migrants leave their birth countries to earn and people accept death as karma, the cause
money and send it home to support families. of death is often not known. People from the
The 2017 estimate of these remittances is about mountain regions of Nepal may not be able
US 500 million dollars. It is surely much higher to adapt to the hot and humid climate of
now. Also, many migrants come from low Malaysia, and this gets compounded with
income countries, and the remittances are often intercultural, work-related, and social issues
a significant fraction of the GNP of these coun- that aggravate stress levels. The growing
tries, often providing a tax base sufficient to migration-related work and health issues can
support not only their families but also the be addressed to some degree by research and
elites. Between 50 and 60 percent of the intercultural training, which is completely
migrants go to high-income countries. lacking for the most part.
A particularly poignant example is the story Beyond the issues faced by economic
of Nepali workers in Malaysia (Awale, 2016). migrants such as the Nepalese, there are
This reporter described the plight of Nepali intra-country migrants. In China over 200 mil-
workers in Malaysia and other Gulf countries. lion each year make the trek from their villages
About 20 percent of the 28 million people of and farms to the large cities for jobs and back
Nepal work outside Nepal, in India, Malaysia, again. Some do it each week, while others
and the Gulf countries. The 5.6 million spend longer periods of time at their jobs in
migrant workers of Nepal contribute 25 per- the cities. These migrants do not appear in any
cent of Nepal’s Gross Domestic Product migratory database, yet they face many of the
(GDP) through remittance. same issues as those who do appear (Landis,
In Malaysia alone there are 700,000 2011; Xu & Palmer, 2011).
Nepalese, which is the second largest migrant In addition to the large number of inter-
population there after Indonesia. They national migrants, approximately 71 million

2 dan landis and dharm p. s. bhawuk
have been forcibly displaced from their homes today offers ample evidence that, if anything,
and wound up as refugees. Of the 71 million, a human kind loves diversity. So we need to
little over 41 million were internally displaced, prepare ourselves to have a meaningful dia-
26 million became refugees outside of their logue with people from different cultures to
country of origin, and about 3.5 million sought help each other solve our problems and also
asylum. Of the displaced individuals, 57 per- to learn from each other. Intercultural training
cent came from just three countries: Syria, as a field of research has become all the more
Afghanistan, and South Sudan. Of the refu- relevant in today’s shrinking world.
gees, at least half of them are under the age Just as we are all lay social psychologists, all
of eighteen. In most cases, asylum seekers pre- of us interculturalists – those who have spent
sented themselves as intact families. But in at some time away from home in a foreign cul-
least one case the families were split apart ture – are also lay intercultural trainers; we can
while their petitions for asylum were teach what we have learned just like any other
considered. knowledge or skill. However, since intercul-
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Develop- tural training has developed a rich literature
ment has a commitment to leave nobody as an academic discipline, which is grounded
behind. The Agenda calls our attention to the in theory, it offers an opportunity to research-
impact of migration, whether voluntary or ers and professionals to provide a systematic
forced, on both countries of origin and settle- approach to developing, implementing, and
ment. This impact is not only economic but evaluating intercultural training programs.
also includes social, physiological, and psycho- This chapter intends to contribute to the extant
logical aspects. All of these aspects require literature by providing a theoretical frame-
careful and unique attention to intercultural work for the systematic development of inter-
training approaches. Such is the overriding cultural training programs, which can be used
goal of this book. both in professional training and in academic
Next, we will summarize theories of courses.
intercultural training. These will include the Four major reviews of the field of intercul-
contributions of Triandis, Berry, Gudykunst, tural training (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000; Bha-
Milton Bennett, as well as the present editors. wuk, Landis, & Lo, 2006; Landis & Bhawuk,
After that, we will outline the structure of the 2004; Warnick & Landis, 2015) have helped
handbook by noting highlights from each of synthesize and extend the field of intercultural
the chapters. training in the new millennium. Bhawuk and
Globalization has led to increased intercon- Brislin (2000) provided a historical perspective
nectedness among nations and we are much tracing the evolution of the field, and con-
more interdependent than we were in the past cluded that the field has always been theory
(Landis, 2008). This interdependence requires driven (Fiedler, Mitchell, & Triandis, 1971;
us to work with people from different cultures, Hall, 1959, 1966; Triandis, 1975). They noted
and it also requires many of us to live in cul- that in recent times it had become more
tures far away and quite different from our so with the integration of culture theories
own. Despite the similarities offered by tech- (Bhawuk, 1998, 2001; Bhawuk & Brislin,
nology and urban centers, differences persist, 1992; Brislin & Yoshida, 1994a, 1994b; Cush-
and the vision of a homogeneous world is quite ner & Brislin, 1997; Triandis, Brislin, & Hui,
unlikely and perhaps flawed. The variety of 1988). Landis and Bhawuk (2004) presented
religions and languages present in the world a number of nested models leading to a

Introduction and Theoretical Framework 3
comprehensive theoretical framework, such presented the seminal books on intercultural

that through a program of research the frame- training (Brislin & Pedersen, 1976; Brislin,
work could be evaluated by testing each of 1981), helping the crystallization of the field,
these models. Bhawuk, Landis, and Lo (2006) but also coedited the first handbook (Landis &
synthesized the fields of acculturation and Brislin, 1983), the first cultural general assimi-
intercultural training, breaking new theoretical lator (Brislin, Cushner, Cherrie, & Yong,
grounds for the development of various inter- 1986; Cushner & Brislin, 1996), and two
cultural training strategies, and also presented volumes of exercises in which each exercise
its applicability for training military personnel, was grounded in a theory (Brislin & Yoshida,
which followed on the work of Landis and 1994a, 1994b; Cushner & Brislin, 1997).
colleagues at the Defense Equal Opportunity Landis founded the International Journal of
Management Institute and the Army Research Intercultural Relations in 1977 and continued
Institute (Dansby & Landis, 1996; Landis & to edit it until 2011. This journal is dedicated
Bhawuk, 2005; Landis, Day, McGrew, to building international understanding
Miller, & Thomas, 1976). This chapter notes through intercultural training, which meets
the major contributions of these reviews, and high standards of scientific rigor. Landis also
further builds on them by synthesizing various developed many specialized culture assimila-
theoretical ideas to propose an approach to tors including ones for use in the US military
intercultural training that is grounded in (Landis & Bhagat, 1996; Landis, Day,
theory and can be utilized by business and McGrew, Miller, & Thomas, 1976), coedited
government or non-government organizations. three editions of the Handbook of Intercultural
Training (Landis, Bennett, & Bennett, 2004;
Landis & Bhagat, 1996; Landis & Brislin,
Theory Building in Intercultural
1983), convened a committee to create the
Training
International Academy of Intercultural
A review of the field of intercultural training Research in 1997, and served as its Founding
shows that it has been led by stalwarts like President. Gudykunst contributed by develop-
Edward Hall, Harry Triandis, Richard Brislin, ing theories of intercultural communication
Dan Landis, and Bill Gudykunst, who helped and applying them to the field of intercultural
the field grow with an emphasis on theory training (Gudykunst, 2005), and also organ-
building from its earliest days. It is notable ized the first conference of the Academy in
that Hall (1959, 1966) presented both a theory 1999. Of course, other researchers (e.g., John
of culture and how it could be applied to train Berry and Milton Bennett) and practitioners
people to be effective while working abroad. (e.g., Sandra Mumford Fowler, George Ren-
Triandis along with his colleagues not only wick, Janet Bennett) have also contributed to
invented the culture assimilator (sometimes the field significantly in many other ways, but
called the intercultural sensitizer), but pre- the contribution of these researchers especially
sented many theoretical frameworks to pro- deserves to be noted for their theoretical
vide the foundation of intercultural training contribution.
as well as to develop and evaluate culture Bhawuk and Brislin (2000) reviewed the lit-
assimilators and other training programs erature and traced the historical evolution of
(Triandis, 1972, 1975, 1977, 1994, 1995a, the field over the past fifty years. They noted
1995b; Triandis, Brislin, & Hui, 1988; Fiedler, that the culture assimilators were still being
Mitchell, & Triandis, 1971). Brislin not only used and researched (Albert, 1983; Cushner

& Landis, 1996) – whereas, though simulation Triandis (1995a) noted that, in general, field
programs continue to be developed and used studies (which normally do not have control
for intercultural training, they are not subgroups), but not the laboratory studies, have
jected as much to evaluation – and that there shown positive effects of cross-cultural assimi-
were many more tools, like the Intercultural lator training on most of the above mentioned
Sensitivity Inventory and the Category Width, variables. However, in a recent laboratory
available for the evaluation of intercultural study comparing three types of culture assimi-
training programs. They noted two measure lators with a control group, Bhawuk (1998)
evaluation reviews, one by Black and Menden- found that a theory-based Individualism and
hall (1990) and the other by Deshpande and Collectivism Assimilator (ICA) had significant
Viswesvaran (1992), which showed that inter- effects on a number of criterion measures
cultural training programs do have positive such as Intercultural Sensitivity Inventory,
outcomes for the trainees, but that long-term Category Width measure (Detweiler, 1975,
effectiveness has yet to be established. Black 1978, 1980), attribution making, and satisfac-
and Mendenhall (1990) reviewed 29 studies tion with training compared to a culture-
that had evaluated the effectiveness of various specific assimilator for Japan, a culture-
training programs, and concluded that, general assimilator (Brislin et al., 1986), and
because of cross-cultural training provided to a control group. It must be noted that few
participants, there were positive feelings about studies have used behavioral measures over
the training they received, improvements in and above paper and pencil type dependent
their interpersonal relationships, changes in variables (Landis, Brislin, & Hulgus, 1985,
their perception of host nationals, reduction and Weldon, et al., 1975, are the exceptions),
in “culture shock” (even though this is a phe- thus raising questions about the impact of cul-
nomenon that has yet to be firmly established ture assimilators on the actual behaviors of
Oberg, 1960; Ward, 2004) experienced by trainees outside of the training environment.
them, and improvements in their performance Bhawuk and Brislin (2000) noted that
on the job, establishing the general effective- behavior modification training was one of the
ness of intercultural training programs. These new developments in the field. Behavior modi-
findings were further supported in a meta- fication training is necessary for habitual
analysis of twenty-one studies in which the behaviors that people are not usually aware
effect of cross-cultural training was examined of, especially behaviors that are acceptable,
on five variables of interest: self-development even desirable, in one’s own culture, but which
of trainees, perception of trainees, relationship may be offensive in another culture. For
with host nationals, adjustment during example, in Latin American cultures, people
sojourn, and performance on the job (Desh- give an abrazo or an embrace to friends, but
pande & Viswesvaran, 1992). Thus, the effect- this is not an acceptable form of behavior in
iveness of intercultural programs has stood the United States; or, in Greece, when people
various independent evaluations (see also show an open palm, called moutza, they are
meta-analysis by Morris & Robie, 2001). showing utmost contempt, and not simply
However, Mendenhall, et al. (2004) presented waving or saying hello (Triandis, 1994).
evidence that tempered the positive findings of A moutza needs to be avoided, whereas an
the earlier studies and indeed pointed to the abrazo needs to be acquired. There are many
relatively moderate amounts of variance examples of such behaviors, and the only way
accounted by the training. to learn them is through behavior modeling,

by observing a model do the behavior and then during a cross-cultural interaction. He carried
practicing the behavior many times. Despite its out a multimethod evaluation of cross-cultural
theoretical rigor and practical significance, this training tools to test the model (Bhawuk, 1998),
method has not been used much in cross- and found that trainees who received the
cultural training programs because it is expen- theory-based Individualism and Collectivism
sive, requiring a trainer who constantly works Assimilator (ICA), compared to a culture-
on one behavior at a time. The work of Ren- specific assimilator for Japan, a culture-general
wick (2004) and other trainers exemplifies a assimilator (Brislin et al., 1986), and a control
similar approach. group, were found to be significantly more
Harrison (1992) examined the effectiveness interculturally sensitive, had larger category
of different types of training programs by com- width, made better attribution on given difficult
paring groups that received culture assimilator critical incidents, and were more satisfied with
training (i.e., Japanese Culture Assimilator), the training package. The findings of this study
behavioral modeling training, a combined show promise for using over-arching theories
training (i.e., behavioral modeling and culture like individualism and collectivism in cross-
assimilator), and no training (i.e., control cultural training. They concluded that the
group). He found that people who received development of the field of cross-cultural
the combined training scored significantly training over the past fifty years showed an
higher on a measure of learning than those encouraging sign of evolution of more theoret-
who were given other types of training or no ically meaningful training methods and tools. It
training. This group performed better on the could be expected that more theory-based
role-play task compared to the control group training methods and material are likely to be
only, but not to the other two groups. This developed in the future. In this chapter, a
study provides further evidence for the impact framework is presented for the development of
of assimilators on behavioral tasks. intercultural training programs that includes
Bhawuk and Brislin (2000) noted another not only culture theories but also other theoret-
development that deals with the role of culture ical ideas thus extending the field.
theory in cross-cultural training (Bhawuk, Landis and Bhawuk (2004) proposed a
1998; Bhawuk & Triandis, 1996a), and the nested framework of testable models of inter-
development of a theory-based culture assimi- cultural training and learning. The models
lator, which is based on the four defining attri- were based on a structure first proposed by
butes and the vertical and horizontal typology Landis, Brislin, and Brandt (1983). The first
of individualism and collectivism (Triandis, building block of their framework included
1995b; Bhawuk, 1995, 1996, 2001). Bhawuk such variables as intention to learn new cul-
and Triandis (1996a) proposed that culture tural behavior, social support, host reinforce-
theory could be used effectively in cross- ment, and spouse and family support to the
cultural training. Bhawuk (1998) further sojourner. They posited that behavioral
refined this model by integrating the literature rehearsal would often be needed in the inter-
on cognition and stages of learning, and pre- cultural context, because people are learning
sented a model of stages of intercultural new behaviors while living in another culture,
expertise development and suggested that a and acquisition of such behaviors would
theory-based assimilator using fewer categor- necessarily follow the social learning theory
ies is likely to be more effective because it does (Bandura, 1977). The acquisition of these
not add to the cognitive load experienced new cultural behaviors would be moderated

by social support as well as host reinforcement. culture. For example, in some cultures emo-
If spouse and other family members as well as tion is not to be expressed publicly, whereas in
the expatriate community support the target others it is not honest to hide one’s emotion.
person to acquire these new behaviors, the Of the two other models that Landis and
person is likely to do a better job of learning Bhawuk (2004) presented in their framework,
these behaviors. Similarly, if the host nationals one linked intercultural sensitivity, social cat-
the sojourner is working with support the egorization, behavioral disposition, and inter-
acquisition of the new behaviors, and encour- cultural behaviors, whereas the other posited
age the sojourner, then the learning process is that intercultural behavior would be a function
likely to be more effective. And building on the of perceived differences in subjective culture
psychological literature, they posited that (Triandis, 1972), the greater the cultural dis-
behavioral intention would be the best pre- tance (an important variable in Gudykunst’s
dictor of intercultural behaviors. This model theoretical model), the stronger the affective
could be tested for a number of intercultural reaction. They suggested that individuals
behaviors like learning foreign languages, would seek information only up to the point
learning gestures and body language, and where more stress becomes a deterrent for
so forth. information seeking. They proposed that
Landis and Bhawuk (2004) presented other testing each of the models would require many
models as the antecedents to the above model. experiments, and each of the studies could be
For example, intercultural effectiveness is viewed as a crucial experiment (Platt, 1964)
often evaluated based on how well the tasks needed to build a theory of intercultural
get done, and so they argued that in most behavior. Integrating these five models, a gen-
intercultural interactions tasks take central eral model of intercultural behavior process
stage, and centrality of goal is likely to have with its many antecedents is derived. Thus,
direct impact on behavioral intentions and they presented models testable through
ultimately intercultural behaviors. Interest- smaller studies, and also in its totality
ingly, the role of task completion in the inter- through a program of research. By testing
cultural context has not been tested in the these five models, and linking them together,
literature, and thus does provide an opportun- the larger framework could be tested. In
ity to build and test theory. Another antece- 2015 Warnick & Landis suggested that each
dent of intercultural behavioral intention model could have specific neural substrates
would be affect (Landis & Bhawuk, 2004). that are activated by memories and current
Affect, it will be recalled, plays an important external environments. If validated by careful
role in Triandis’s model of social behavior. experiments, these suggestions could provide
Affect could vary along two dimensions. First, an explanation as to why some individuals
people could be different on their predispos- seem completely impervious to changing
ition to change emotionally; some are ready to behaviors, attitudes, and cognitions in an
change versus others needing much more con- intercultural setting.
vincing or cajoling. Second, some people are Landis and Bhawuk (2004) noted that inter-
more apt to express their emotions than others. cultural training researchers have been con-
Both of these affect-related aspects have impli- cerned with the development of the best
cations for overseas adjustment, and people training approach for most of the past fifty
need to become self-aware, and then learn to years, as much as they have been concerned
adapt their style to be effective in another about the evaluation of the effectiveness of

intercultural training programs. They recom- detail below. Prior to that development we will
mended that the discipline needed to boldly describe in more detail the major theoretical
start building bridges between associated frameworks that have been used, starting with
research disciplines. Following their recom- Triandis’s two equations predicting social
mendation, Bhawuk, Landis, and Lo (2006) behavior.
took the first step toward such a theoretical Triandis (1977) presented two equations
bridge-building, and attempted to synthesize that specified the relations between a number
the literature on intercultural training and of variables and the probability of a behavior
acculturation. They attempted to integrate occurring. The first regression equation pre-
Berry's (1990) four-part typology into a theor- dicted the probability the behavior would
etical framework developed by Landis and occur as an additive function of the level of
Bhawuk (2004), which seemed to open new habitually performing the behavior plus the
avenues toward synthesizing these two discip- intention to do the behavior multiplied by
lines. They also explored how different facilitating conditions. Both habit and inten-
training tools could be used effectively to train tions are multiplied by regression weights that
people who are using different acculturating are individually determined and indicate how
strategies. For example, they noted that it is important that variable is to the person.
reasonable to treat those who are using the Both habit and facilitating conditions are
integration strategy differently from those theoretically observable, but intentions are
who are using the marginalization, separation, not and are usually obtained by some sort of
or assimilation strategies. This approach self-report on a questionnaire or survey. So
should also serve to bridge intercultural Triandis (1977) then developed the second
training and other research disciplines like equation, which, like the first, was regression
sojourner adaptation, stress management tech- in construction. Here intention was seen to be
niques, and learning theories. an additive function of the affect (feeling)
Bhawuk, Landis, and Lo (2006) also noted response to the persons who are the target of
various applications of individualism and col- the behavior, the social appropriateness of the
lectivism in intercultural training, and sug- behavior (the norms and roles of the actor’s
gested that perhaps acculturation literature society), and, lastly, the perceived conse-
should also take advantage of this theory more quences of the behavior. Triandis attached
rigorously, which would further help bridge individual difference regression weights to
the two disciplines through a common each component. These weights reflect the
theoretical foundation. They also attempted importance of each component to the actor
to synthesize intercultural sensitivity and for that specific behavior.
acculturation literature by showing common- Triandis (1977) then, in an adaptation of
ality between Bhawuk and Brislin’s (1992) attribution theory, reasoned that the task of a
approach to intercultural sensitivity, and Ben- person interacting with an individual from
nett’s (1986) Developmental Model of Inter- another culture was to develop a set of beliefs
cultural Sensitivity (see also Hammer, Bennett, that came to be called “isomorphic attribu-
& Wiseman, 2003). In this chapter, some of tions.” In other words, the attributions of the
these ideas are further explored in the context actor about the “other” should mirror those
of developing the content of intercultural that the “other” would make about them-
training programs. To do this a theoretical selves. Put another way, the two equations
framework is developed, which is discussed in from person 1 should essentially be the same

as those from person 2. Any training, based on the AUM model can be tested with the rigor
the above formulations, must then encourage that would be desired.
the trainee to assess the other’s intention, Berry (1980, 1989, 1997, 2005) developed a
affect, their culture’s norms and roles with model that has found favor as a picture of the
respect to the interaction, and the likely out- process of acculturation. It could be argued
comes (positive or negative) of the interaction. that well-developed training approaches can
For that, Triandis and his colleagues came up only enhance the ability of migrants to thrive
with the idea of the culture assimilator. The within their country of settlement and thus it is
concept of the simulator was explicitly based appropriate to discuss this model. Ten years
on the two equations that are described above. ago, Ward (2008) found that over 800 studies
A more-fine-grained discussion is provided in had cited Berry’s work, most of them posi-
Chapter 2. tively. There have been, to be sure, writers
While Triandis came from a background in who have been critical (e.g., Boski, 2008;
experimental and social psychology, Gudy- Chirkov, 2009; Rudmin, 2009). But, as War-
kunst’s perspective was that of a scholar of nick and Landis (2015) noted, its robustness
communication behavior. He posits two ante- has been such that many empirical studies
cedent variables to intercultural adaptation: have been spawned from it.
anxiety and uncertainty reduction (Gudy- Berry suggested that a migrant desiring to
kunst, 1985). And these variables are in turn settle in a new culture faces two major deci-
affected by three other groups: social contact, sions: how much to retain of their origin cul-
perceived similarity, and cultural knowledge. ture and, at the same time, how much of the
In such a structure, it is possible to generate settlement culture to accept and retain. If we
hypotheses about any number of relations. In segregate each decision into two parts, we have
fact, there were at least fifty such predictions four “acculturation strategies”: integration
(Gao & Gudykunst, 1990; Gudykunst & Sud- when both the origin and settlement cultures
weeks, 1992). And most of the predictors are retain (i.e., neither is rejected), separation
turned out to have significant positive weights. when the settlement culture is rejected in favor
It should be obvious that Gudykunst’s model of the heritage culture, assimilation when the
is at a level of abstraction above that of Trian- heritage culture is rejected in favor of the
dis, although it does adopt some of the latter’s settlement culture, and marginalization, with
terminology. The use of anxiety (or intercul- both cultures being rejected. An interesting
tural anxiety) came from the affect variable in fallout from Berry’s four-cell model of migrant
Triandis, while uncertainty reduction came individual decision-making was to link it to
from Hofstede’s five factor description of cul- governmental actions. Thus, integration is
ture dimensions. All of the variables were linked to multiculturalism, separation to seg-
measured using self-report paper and pencil regation, assimilation to melting pot, and mar-
surveys. In his chapter in the 2nd Edition of ginalization to exclusion.
this Handbook (Gudykunst, Guzley, & The nested models of Landis and Bhawuk
Hammer, 1996), he outlined a training design alluded to earlier are too extensive to go into
that more or less followed the AUM model, now. But, in an attempt to suggest neural sub-
but which focused heavily on individualism strates for each model, Warnick and Landis
and collectivism, another one of the Hofstede (2015) suggested brain areas that could under-
dimensions. A reasonable person could con- lay each function. Thus, the Caudate region
clude that the case has yet to be made that has been found to be associated with

behavioral rehearsal. Behavior intention seems adaptation processes, the typology is enriched,
to be related to activity in the Dorsal anterior and provides a framework for evaluating inter-
cingulate cortex, the Dorslateral prefrontal cultural training programs.
cortex, and so on. Their attempt, of course, This framework includes three types of
remains theoretical and must wait upon future culture-specific knowledge: (1) national
empirical studies. But we see the relationship culture-related material, (2) industry-specific
of intercultural interactions and neural knowledge, and (3) organizational culture,
functioning to be an important and critical strategies, and structures. These three are the
pathway for future research. This follows from outer layers of the knowledge needed by
the traditional levels of micro, meso, and sojourners to interact effectively in the host
macro theory, where most social psychology culture. There are four types of culture-general
approaches (and intercultural interaction fits knowledge that constitute the core of the
here) reside somewhere in the meso level framework: (1) personal safety-related know-
(Triandis is clearly, like Hull, at the micro ledge, (2) basic principles of intercultural
level). In order to encompass the direction learning, (3) culture theories (see Chapter 4 in
suggested by Warnick and Landis, a new this volume), and (4) socio-political and eco-
category reflecting neural functioning has to nomic frameworks that help understand
be created. We suggest the label “nano” level. systems across countries. These four elements
However, except in Chapter 20, this interesting constitute the foundational knowledge neces-
approach is not deeply explored in this book. sary to be effective in international assign-
ments, and as they are grounded in theory
they constitute associative rather than declara-
A Theoretical Framework for the
tive knowledge. Every sojourner needs to learn
Development of Intercultural
these to be effective.
Training Programs
The basic argument forwarded by the frame-
It is possible to synthesize various elements of work is that, when we enter a culture, we face
the intercultural training literature in a theor- culture-specific issues in our daily lives. The
etical framework that highlights the tension knowledge of general principles and theories
between culture-specific and culture-general and the mission of the organization guide us
training programs, yet shows the value in inte- in the daily interactions that take place in the
grating them to effectively train sojourners for ecology of a particular culture. The culture-
international assignments (Bhawuk, 2009, specific and culture-general areas presented in
2018c). This framework builds on a typology the framework represent areas of research,
of intercultural training that focuses on three theory, and practice from which the content
dimensions: degree of involvement of trainees, of intercultural training can be derived.
role of instructor, and the content of training – There is much culture-specific information
culture-specific or culture-general (Bhawuk, that expatriates need to operate effectively in a
1998). For example, experiential training pro- particular culture. These include norms of the
grams are student centered, whereas lectures target culture related to various kinds of
are instructor led, and each has its own merits behavioral settings for both public and private
and disadvantages. When crossed with domains. Adaptation to greetings, eating dif-
whether the training is culture specific, focus- ferent foods and drinks, modes of transporta-
ing on a particular culture, or culture general, tion, climate, living conditions, schools for
focusing on general principles of intercultural children, grocery and other shopping, health,

social amenities, media, entertainment, and so routines and procedures. However, there are
forth exacts much personal and psychological nuances of the organization in the target cul-
resource from the sojourner. And adjustment ture that are different from those in the host
to work-related issues bring their own stress. nation. The mission and goals of the organiza-
Adapting to host culture requires more than tion represent higher-level outcomes that the
cognitive knowledge, and entails behavior organization desires to achieve in its oper-
modification as well as emotional adjustment. ations abroad, and these put intercultural
Sojourners need much support from the host demands on the expatriates. Clearly, effective
nationals and their organizations in order to accomplishment of organizational objectives
integrate effectively into the local community. will require more-complex and adept intercul-
Next to the specific culture in which a tural skills.
sojourner will be working is the industry in Researchers and practitioners alike, in their
which the sojourner is likely to have some zeal of preparing people to be effective in their
experience – and which has its own unique sojourn, often neglect the basic issues of sur-
culture. For example, nurses and doctors are vival, or assume that the sojourners will take
in the health industry, teachers and students care of such issues themselves (Leki, 2008).
are in the education industry, and managers This is a mistake, and all training programs
work in various industries (e.g., information must stress the need for self-preservation,
technology, manufacturing, petroleum, con- which not only is unique to an individual,
struction, airlines, service, and so forth). Each but also has some cultural underpinnings
industry is different, not only because the depending on who the sojourner is and where
external environment presents differently to he or she is going to live. For example, there
it, but also because each industry develops its are likely gender differences that need to be
own symbols and rituals since it serves differ- addressed, as women have to deal with many
ent clientele with different products and ser- more issues when moving from one culture to
vices. For example, the airline industry works another than men have to do. Clearly, there
differently from the petroleum industry Each are many aspects of survival that expatriates
of these industry has its own culture that has need to worry about, and without taking care
some common features across national cul- of these issues they simply cannot be effective
tures, but still sojourners have to adapt to in their work or social interactions. This has
some differences between national and indus- become a particularly important issue in view
try cultures. of the increased terrorist activities that the
There are specific intercultural skills that the world has seen since 2001.
expatriates must acquire and use in the behav- When we live in our own culture, we know
ioral settings pertinent to their industry and how to go about doing various activities, and
organization. Organizational cultures are we also know where not to go and when. This
nested in the industrial culture but are also is not obvious when we live in another culture.
shaped by their national cultures, especially For example, taking a taxi from the airport to
in human processes and the management of the city may be a simple task in one culture,
human resources. It is often assumed that but not so safe in another culture. Most big
sojourners understand the culture of the airports in India provide a prepaid taxi service
organization, and if they are going from the to ensure the safety of passengers. I know of a
headquarters of the organization they may returning young Indian who got robbed by a
even be viewed as experts on organizational taxi driver simply because he had ignored the

safety procedure and taken a non-registered settings, then it is important to become aware
taxi. Often local people know which activities of one’s own discomfort, and to learn to per-
should not be undertaken or which parts of the form one’s tasks despite the nagging feeling of
city should be avoided at certain times of the insecurity. It should be noted that it is harder
day or night. Sojourners need to acquire this for military personnel not to stick out when
information and pay special attention to avoid they are abroad because they are not only a
difficult situations. foreigner, but also a person in military uni-
Sometimes sojourners get carried away form, distinct from the locals. And if they are
when they have lived in a new culture and feel in a hostile environment, say US soldiers and
comfortable. This may sound like being over civilians in Iraq or Afghanistan, then safety
cautious, but it is better to be over cautious must not be taken for granted, and all precau-
while living abroad. For example, having trav- tions must be observed.
eled to the USA many times, and having lived When we live in our own culture, we also
there for two years, early in my sojourn have our emotional support group that is often
Bhawuk found myself in a precarious situation take for granted because the members of this
waiting for a bus in down town Los Angeles at group are there for us when we need them.
1:00 am while returning from Disneyland with When we are in another culture, we have no
my wife and two little children. It was a scary access to this support group, and thus we need
situation with a police patrol car going around to develop one. It is difficult to talk about life
every few minutes and many shady-looking circumstances that are personal in nature and
people sauntering along the street. Bhawuk cause stress. For example, an illness or death
called my cultural informant, who was in the family, our own or a family member’s
alarmed to learn my situation but was not able marital problems, and so forth take a lot of
to come and fetch us because he lived too far energy, and, when we are away from home,
away from there. He calmly gave directions thinking about these matters can be quite
about how to go to a safer street where a five debilitating.
star hotel was located. I had unwittingly put Most often we are not prepared to deal with
myself and my family in a difficult situation, our own death or the death of close family
which could easily have been avoided. members. Talking about these matters is hard,
When we are living abroad, we are often so yet accidents do happen, and people die unex-
different that we do not quite fit into the social pectedly. When we are in our own culture, we
settings. People recognize us as a foreigner, deal with them as they arise. However, when
and we become self-conscious. Also, when we we are abroad, distance separates us from
are in a completely new setting, we have to family, and we may regret not knowing what
learn about the place and people, and it is a dear one had wished for us to do. Before
normal to experience cognitive load in such going abroad for a long assignment, it is neces-
situations as we experience much ambiguity. sary to talk about these matters with one’s
This is enough to trigger a sense of insecurity, family and close friends and relatives, and pre-
and people often complain about experiencing pare them to some degree for the unforeseen
moderate levels of anxiety. It is not unusual to circumstances. Leaving instructions about
feel that people of the host culture are staring how one should be cremated or dealt with if
at us. One does get over it slowly over time, if incapacitated is necessary. Having a will and
things go right. But if the assignment is only leaving a power of attorney for somebody to
for a short duration, and one has to be in social take care of our financial and other personal

matters is also helpful. Preparing for these issues. Individuals from economically
emotional issues provides extra energy because advanced countries generally enjoy greater
one has fewer things to worry about when levels of cosmopolitanism and participation
living abroad. in the global economy, whereas those from
It is also important to think about the economically developing countries tend to
future, and the implications for oneself and have a life concerned with more immediate
other family members, should one decide to issues of survival. Thus, globalization has dif-
marry someone from another culture while ferent meanings for economically developed
living abroad. It is not unusual for people to and developing countries. By categorizing
fall in love and develop a serious relationship countries as either developed or developing
with someone while living abroad, and it is nations, it is possible to identify the distinct
good to think about such matters before they approaches people use to make decisions in
arise. Doing so helps with preparedness by these societies. This framework is useful in
reducing the stress arising from personal, emo- understanding differences resulting from vari-
tional, and existential self-preservation. ations in economic systems between developed
Safety and survival issues have not received and developing countries over and above their
much attention in intercultural research cultural dissimilarities. A discussion of such
beyond examining the nature of culture shock economic differences allows for building
and its consequences. Expatriates are expected synergy across cultural differences, since dif-
to learn about safety matters themselves, and ferences emerging from economic factors are
not much time is spent in counseling them to presumed to be workable, and less likely to be
prepare for the target culture. For example, the source of value-based conflicts (Bhawuk,
We personally know of people who took inter- 2009b).
national assignments thinking that their Governments base their business policies on
troubled marriage would heal in an exotic the overall economic condition of the country.
place. Unfortunately, the new place adds more National policies for stimulating economic
stress and invariably makes things worse, often development are grounded in the tenets of
leading to a break-up of the marriage. We development economics. As nations progress
cannot make progress unless organizations through the various stages of economic devel-
start providing training on this topic. Some opment, national strategies, priorities, and
guidance is available about how to prepare values shift to meet the demands of a more
people on matters of personal safety, and an affluent population. Policies and beliefs sur-
inventory is available that people can use to rounding macroeconomic issues such as com-
learn about their own safety needs while plan- parative advantages, role of government, and
ning to travel abroad. This material and prac- role of business in society change with growing
tical tips on how to prepare for personal safety national wealth. Expectations of businesses
when living abroad has been found to be useful also evolve as an economy develops, and
in the training programs provided by the US change often occurs across both business and
State Department (Leki, 2008). social categories.
Economic circumstances have profound Businesses within a market compete against
effects on the work and social life of people, each other through competitive advantages,
and personal income constrains an individual’s but countries compete against each other
choice of activities. Personal wealth also through comparative advantages. Production
affects a person’s perspectives on many social capabilities compare differently across borders,

as each country has a different mix of talents open to progressive social change, but a better
and costs associated with its production factors statement is that economic development leads
of labor, raw materials, and infrastructure. to inevitable conflicts between a society’s trad-
Developing countries tend to specialize in itional values and introduced beliefs of the
low-cost labor, while developed countries tend international community.
to specialize in capital-intensive production. Economic forces also shape the intrinsic
International managers must recognize the spe- motivation of people. Financial incentives are
cific strengths and weaknesses of each country found to be more important in the developing
and adjust their decisions appropriately. economies than economically more advanced
Businesses in different countries also share economies. Similarly, happiness or subjective
different relationships with their governments. well-being is a function of income in the
Developing economies often follow more- developing countries but not in the economic-
centralized planning, allowing a greater role ally developed countries. Further, developed
for governments in shaping business policies. countries are found to be post materialist in
During the initial stages of economic develop- that people expect their national governments
ment, guidance from the government has his- to focus on providing more opportunity for
torically led to greater economic growth, as individual participation in government deci-
seen in the success of Japan, Korea, Singapore, sions and defending freedom of speech. On
and Taiwan. Organizations operating in for- the other hand, the developing countries are
eign countries must recognize the political found to be materialist in that people in these
imperatives of each nation and adequately countries expected their national government
address them in their business strategies. Often to focus on keeping order within the country
political imperatives may encourage govern- and keeping prices at minimum (see Chapter 4
ments to actively intervene to protect local in this volume).
firms against foreign competition. Rigidly An individual’s awareness and acceptance
adhering to an inappropriate strategy under of the global community is also influenced by
such conditions would invariably lead to the economic circumstances. Workers from
failure of a multinational company. nations with minimal exposure to globaliza-
As businesses commit more resources to a tion are likely to view convergence of business
specific country, they inevitably establish practices with contempt or suspicion.
stronger ties to the community. Gaining Expatriates imposing their home countries’
acceptance from the local community can be approaches on local communities may be
considered a benchmark for business success, viewed against the historical backdrop of col-
but the nature of the relationship must con- onization. The recent activism against global-
stantly be evaluated against the expectations ization is a symptom of this mistrust. Support
for businesses’ role in society. Social and cul- for the World Trade Organization can often be
tural expectations strongly guide expected cor- divided between developing and developed
porate responsibilities, but economic factors countries. Few governments from developed
also play a considerable role. Literature on countries take active stances against globaliza-
cultural complexity shows that developed tion, but the majority of government that
countries tend to be more complex than the openly dissent with globalization initiatives
developing countries and exhibit more indi- are from developing countries.
vidualistic tendencies. Some may argue that The economic framework captures some
developed countries are more democratic and aspects that are important for sojourners in

their adaptation to the host culture, which are of culture-specific and culture-general training
not covered by culture theories like individual- programs enhances the effectiveness of inter-
ism and collectivism, and thus offers to be cultural learning. Once sojourners have
valuable for intercultural training. This frame- obtained the foundational knowledge and
work can be further enriched by adding polit- awareness, they are then able to synthesize
ical and social dimensions so that differences the specific skills that support the overall
resulting from religion, form of government, objectives of the organizations in the industry
and other socio-political institutions and prac- in which they operate. With this preparation,
tices can also be captured. By using developing they are finally able to deeply appreciate spe-
and developed countries as prototypes, cific information about the culture in which
socio-political-economic differences can be they work. By first learning the foundational
effectively discussed in cross-cultural training knowledge and culture-general skills, expatri-
programs (Bhawuk, 2009b). ates will be better able to assimilate cultural-
Traditionally, intercultural training pro- specific training when it occurs, and much of it
grams have been more focused on the is likely to occur on site while living in another
culture-specific training with the objective of culture (see Figure 1.1).
orienting people to the target culture. For this The debate between educators as to which
reason many intercultural training programs format, culture specific or culture general,
remain at the level of dos and don’ts, neither should be used for intercultural training has
of which facilitates acquisition of meta- been going on for more than fifty years. Some
cognition or learning-how-to-learn. A balance researchers support culture-general training,
Figure 1.1 Multilevel framework for developing intercultural training programs.

arguing that individuals learn to see the have no idea about which behaviors are
differing value structures that may be found rewarded and which warrant punishment in
in different cultures when they receive insight the host culture. As for the culture-specific
into their own culture. The idea is that self- training, the generalizations given during
awareness of their own culture may result in training can leave the trainee with precon-
greater understanding of other cultures’ ceived notions that may not be accurate. The
values. Other researchers have argued for list of dos and don’ts are easy to forget when
culture-specific training suggesting that cross- the trainee does not understand the other cul-
cultural training must not only fulfill the ture. Comparison of culture-specific and
trainee’s needs for fact and language, but also culture-general training material has shown
influence the affective behavior of the trainee that each type of training is more effective than
so that effective communication can take place the other on some criteria, suggesting that
in the target culture. using a combination of training may be a
There are many topics that are relevant for better strategy – which has also been sup-
effectiveness in cross-cultural interactions that ported in research.
are not specific to any culture. For example,
“people are ethnocentric in every culture” and
“attributions made by hosts are usually differ- Basic Processes of Intercultural
ent” are two generalizations that work across Learning
culture. Sojourners need to see a positive
A Model of Cross-Cultural Expertise
aspect in every situation, find new recreational
Development
activities in the host culture, avoid over-
dependence on the expatriate community, Building on the notion that theories have a
and so forth: such insights are found to work role in the development of expertise, Bhawuk
for most sojourners irrespective of their loca- (1998) proposed a model of intercultural
tion. Other general skills include: Learn to expertise development (see Figure1.2). A “lay
differentiate what is personal from what is person” is defined as one who has no know-
national (e.g., an Australian may have to take ledge of another culture, an ideal type for all
the brunt of criticism for the national policy of practical purposes, considering that even the
Australia), take the lead in starting a conver- Sherpas in the remote Nepalese mountains or
sation with hosts to learn more about their the pygmies in Africa have been exposed to
culture, live with ambiguity and suspend judg- people from other cultures. There is some evi-
ment, and transcend differences in attitudes dence that people who have spent two or more
and values. Since these are skills that are years in another culture develop cross-cultural
needed to be effective in many cross-cultural sensitivity through their intercultural inter-
situations, they could be called meta-skills of actions, even in the absence of any formal
cross-cultural interactions. Such meta-skills training (Bhawuk & Brislin, 1992). It is pro-
also constitute aspects of culture-general posed that people with extended intercultural
training. experience, or those who have gone through a
There are problems when using either the formal intercultural training program (e.g., a
culture-general or the culture-specific training culture-specific orientation) that discusses dif-
exclusively. Culture-general training requires ferences between two cultures, will develop
more time because it involves increasing the some degree of intercultural expertise and are
awareness of the trainees. Also, the trainees labeled “novices.” In other words, “novices”

Figure 1.2 A model of cross-cultural expertise development. Adapted from Bhawuk (1998, 2009).
are people with some intercultural skills or arrive at this stage by going through a theory-
expertise, usually for a culture other than based intercultural training program.
their own. These are people who are still in “Advanced experts” are experts who not only
the first stage of learning (e.g., the cognitive have the knowledge of the theory, but also have
or declarative stage, Anderson, 2000). These had the amount of practice needed to perform
people are likely to explain a cultural differ- the relevant tasks automatically. These are the
ence in terms of behavioral observations such people who are at the third stage of learning
as “One does not say ‘No’ directly in Japan,” (i.e., the autonomous stage, Anderson, 2000).
“Nepalese men do not do household chores,” Since behavior modification training allows
and so forth, which often leads to a dos and people to learn new behaviors by observing
don’ts list. models and then practicing the target behaviors,
“Experts” are novices who have acquired the a behavior modeling training following a
knowledge of culture theories that are relevant theory-based training, will enable “experts” to
to a large number of behaviors so that they can become “advanced experts.” Thus, the model of
organize cognitions about cultural differences intercultural expertise development posits that
more meaningfully around a theory (e.g., the intercultural training using culture theory will
way experts use Newton’s second law of motion make a person an expert, whereas training that
to classify physics problems). These are the does not use theory will only result in novices.
people who are at the second stage of learning And to be an advanced expert one needs to
(e.g., the associative or proceduralization stage, go through behavioral training to practice dif-
Anderson, 2000). It is proposed that people can ferent behaviors so that the behaviors become

habitual. Figure 1.2 is a diagrammatic represen- communicates with understanding. The person
tation of this model, and it also shows the link- understands why something works or does not
ages between stages of learning and stages of work (i.e., he understands the covert principles
intercultural expertise development. and theories behind overt behaviors). A person
at this level of competence is called an
“expert” in the model.
Levels of Competence
It is suggested that level two in the compe-
Extending the work of Howell (1982) to cross- tency hierarchy is mechanical-analytical in
cultural communication and training, Bhawuk that a behavior that is less effective than
(1995, 1998) suggested that there are four another is dropped, whereas level three is
levels of cross-cultural competence: uncon- thoughtful-analytical in that not only is an
scious incompetence, conscious incompetence, effective behavior selected but also an explan-
conscious competence, and unconscious com- ation of why a behavior is effective or ineffect-
petence. Unconscious incompetence refers to ive becomes available (Howell, 1982). In the
the situation when one misinterprets other cross-cultural setting, at this level a sojourner
people’s behavior but is not even aware of it; is still not naturally proficient in his or her
this is the situation when a sojourner is making interactions with the hosts and has to make an
incorrect attributions, usually based on his or effort to behave in the culturally appropriate
her own cultural framework. When a person is way. For example, people who do not use
at this level of competence, things do not work “please” or “thank you” in their own culture,
out the way one expects and one is not sure and are at the third level of competence, have to
why things are not working. This characterizes remind themselves and make a conscious effort
the situation when a sojourner is experiencing to use these words in social interactions in a
culture shock or culture fatigue (Oberg, 1960). culture where they are expected to use them.
A person at this level of competence is a “lay When a person receives enough practice then
person” in the model presented earlier (see a behavior becomes part of one’s habit struc-
Figure 1.2). ture and one does not need to make an effort to
Conscious incompetence refers to the situ- behave in a culturally appropriate way; one has
ation when the sojourner has become aware become so acculturated that one can almost
of his or her failure to behave correctly, but is pass as a native. This is the fourth and the
unable to make correct attributions since he or highest stage of competence, unconscious com-
she lacks the right knowledge. The sojourner is petence, and corresponds to the “advanced
learning by trial and error. This level of com- expert” in the model. At this level, although
petence is exemplified by a tennis player who the person fully understands the reasons for
tries to improve his game without coaching or behaving in a certain way in another culture,
study, by simply playing more. The sojourner neither mechanical nor thoughtful analysis is
who is trying to figure out cultural differences required and a person responds “correctly”
through direct experience, or non-theory based automatically (i.e., the response is habitual).
training programs, fits the description of this
level of competence and is called a “novice” in
Cognitive Stages of Expertise
the model.
Development
Conscious competence is the third level and
the crucial difference between this and the pre- Anderson (2000) described how people
vious level is that the person at this level develop expertise. According to him, skill

learning occurs in three steps. The first step is a or rehearse the fact that the Japanese do not
cognitive stage, in which a description of the say “No” directly. The manager will be able to
procedure is learned. In this stage, the names smoothly get into the discussion, find a suit-
and definitions of concepts and key entities are able excuse to disagree, and use a proper
committed to memory. Therefore, knowledge expression of negation so that the worker does
is “declarative,” and people have to make an not lose his or her face. Thus, in this stage
effort to recall and apply what they have people learn the steps of performing a task,
learned. Typically, learners rehearse the facts and while performing it follow each step in
in first performing the task. For example, an the proper sequence. This is referred to as
individualist (e.g., an American manager) who “proceduralization.”
is new in a collectivist culture (e.g., Japan) and It is suggested that sometimes the two forms
faces an interpersonal situation in which he or of knowledge, declarative and procedural, can
she wants to disagree or reject an offer, idea, or coexist; for example, a person speaking a for-
solution would recall the fact that people in eign language fluently can also remember
Japan prefer not to be direct and forthright. many rules of grammar. In the context of
but instead use many euphemisms for saying intercultural interaction, it is likely that both
“No.” The knowledge of this information is declarative and procedural knowledge will
declarative and in this situation the manager coexist since the sojourner needs to constantly
would rehearse this fact as he or she interacts keep the rules of the host culture in mind to
with the Japanese. A natural feeling at the end contrast it with proper behavior in his or her
of the interaction may be “Boy, that was own culture. Only in the extreme case of a
difficult,” “That was not bad,” “I hope it is person going “native” (i.e., a person assimilat-
easier the next time,” and so forth, depending ing completely in the host culture) is it likely
on one’s feeling of success or failure with the that there will be a singular presence of pro-
interaction. In this stage of learning, the cedural knowledge. Complete assimilation is
person is aware of the entire process of reflected in the sojourner’s inability to explain
recalling knowledge and applying it to the why the hosts (or the person himself or herself )
situation behave in a certain way, and the person is
The second stage is called the associative likely to say “That is the way to do it.”
stage, in which people convert their declarative The third stage, in which the skill becomes
knowledge of a domain into a more efficient more and more habitual and automatic,
procedural representation. Starting with the develops through practice and is called the
cognitive stage, learners begin to detect many “autonomous stage.” People know the task
of their mistakes in performing a task or skill, so well that they can perform it very quickly
and eliminate some of these mistakes. Further, without following each and every step. Speed
with practice they remember the elements of and accuracy are the two characteristics of this
the procedure and their sequence. As learners stage; people perform the skills quickly and
get into the associative stage, they no longer with few or no errors. In the scenario discussed
have to rehearse the knowledge before they earlier, when he or she is in this stage of expert-
can apply it, and they follow a procedure that ise development, the American manager in
they know leads to a successful result. In the Japan would be able to convey an equivalent
cross-cultural context described above, the of saying “No” very quickly and without
American manager would interact with making an error to upset the host. A Japanese
the Japanese worker without a need to recall worker is likely to think of this person as

“so much like us,” “extremely polite,” and so starting by writing the formula to compute
forth. People who are in this stage are sophis- the unknown (the velocity), then writing the
ticated users of knowledge in a particular formula for another unknown in the first for-
domain (a particular culture in the case of mula (acceleration), and so on, and then
intercultural interactions) and use broad prin- moving forward, computing each of the
ciples to categorize and solve the problems of unknowns, until the solution is found (Ander-
the domain. son, 2000). On the other hand, experts solved
It is suggested that there is no major differ- the same problem in the opposite order, by
ence between the associative and the autono- using theories (e.g., Newton’s second law of
mous stages, and that the autonomous stage motion) and computing directly what could
can be considered an extension of the associa- be computed, and then moving on to finally
tive stage. In this stage, usually skills improve solve the problem. The backward-reasoning
gradually, and since verbal mediation does not method followed by the novices loads the
exist learners may be unable to verbalize working memory and can result in errors,
knowledge completely. In effect, the autono- whereas the forward-reasoning method
mous stage refers to behaviors that have followed by experts is superior in that it is
become habitual through extended practice. more accurate as it does not load the working
This stage is especially relevant to intercultural memory. To be able to use the forward-
interactions since sojourners are driven by reasoning method, the user must be conversant
habits acquired in their own culture, and with all the possible forward solutions and
acquire behaviors suitable for the host culture then be able to decide which one will be rele-
slowly, stage by stage, from the cognitive to vant to the problem at hand, and this requires
the associative to the autonomous stage. Often a good deal of expertise.
these new behaviors are opposite of the behav- In cross-cultural interactions, the forward-
iors learned in one’s own culture. For example, reasoning method is likely to be followed by
the American manager in the example above experts, since it is possible to predict human
has to stop being direct and forthright, some- behavior given the setting and other charac-
thing valued in the United States, and start teristics of the situation. In fact, a central
being indirect and vague, something valued in premise of social learning theory (Bandura,
Japan. As mentioned earlier, if the sojourners 1977) is that people anticipate actions and
do not want to go “native” (i.e., become just their consequences (i.e., people can decide
like the host culture nationals), they would how they would behave in a situation based
need to be proficient in interactions with the on their past observation and experience). In
hosts, but at the same time also be able to a cross-cultural situation, for example, know-
verbalize knowledge about behaviors in the ing that collectivists are sensitive to the needs
host culture so that they retain their home of their ingroups, to motivate the employees
culture’s identity. an expert may use the strategy of creating
The development of expertise is reflected in incentives that are useful to their ingroups.
how people (experts versus novices) solve More research is needed to understand the
problems. When experts and novices are asked differences in the strategies adopted by
to solve physics problems, specifically to find experts and novices. It makes intuitive sense
out the velocity of the freely sliding block at to think that experts would use theories to
the end of an inclined plane, it is found that guide their interactions in intercultural
novices worked backward, step by step, situation.

Disconfirmed Expectation and the practicing behaviors that we already know,

Processes of Learning How-to-Learn and such situations lead to mastery of such
behaviors to the level of automaticity,
Disconfirmed expectation refers to situations
allowing such behaviors to become habitual.
where sojourners expect a certain behavior
But when we face a disconfirmed expectation,
from the host nationals, but experience a dif-
we have a choice of ignoring it as an aberra-
ferent one. Simply stated, one’s expectations
tion, similar to a poor service situation, or
are not met or confirmed. Intercultural com-
reflecting on the situation to see if there is
munication effectiveness can be enhanced if we
something to be learned. In intercultural set-
prepare ourselves not to come to a hurried
tings, there is often a cultural behavior to be
conclusion about the cause of hosts’ behavior
learned when we face a disconfirmed expect-
when the hosts do not meet our expectations,
ation. But unlike the motivated self-learner,
since such a conclusion can lead to a negative
others find this opportunity frustrating. Thus,
stereotype. A negative stereotype may preju-
to the motivated sojourner or expatriate dis-
dice future interactions with hosts resulting in
confirmed expectations offer what Vygotsky
interpersonal problems. Disconfirmed expect-
(1978) called zone of proximal development
ancies underlie many situations where differ-
where meaningful new learning takes place
ences in work ethics, roles, learning styles, use
beyond the previous ability level of the learner.
of time and space, and so forth occur.
Below, disconfirmed expectation is synthesized
Frustrations associated with disconfirmed
in the learning-how-to-learn model (Hughes-
expectation are a part of a basic psychological
Weiner, 1986; Kolb, 1976).
process that is also found in primates. For
Building on Kolb’s (1976) learning styles
example, in an experiment a monkey is shown
model, Hughes-Weiner (1986) presented a learn-
spinach in a box a number of times, and is thus
ing-how-to-learn model applicable to the field of
socialized to expect spinach in the box. Later
intercultural communication and training. The
when spinach is replaced by another item
basic idea presented by Hughes-Weiner is that,
unknown to the monkey, the monkey is found
starting with concrete experience, a learner can
to show frustration and anger when it opens
move to reflective observation, abstract concep-
the box and does not find the spinach, which it
tualization, and active experimentation. Here
expected to see (Overmier, 2006). Thus, it is
Kolb and Hugh-Weiner’s ideas are further
not surprising that we humans too are frus-
developed, synthesizing the concepts of discon-
trated by disconfirmed expectations. Often ser-
firmed expectation, emic (culture specific know-
vice quality is compared to what we expect,
ledge), and etic (culture general or universal
and thus often a poor quality is nothing but an
knowledge) (see Figure 1.3). In an intercultural
expression of a disconfirmed expectation. Of
setting, we can stop at a concrete experience
course, intercultural interactions are likely to
in which we do not understand the behavior
be full of disconfirmed expectations, and if we
of the host, and we can make an attribution
are not to be shocked out of our wits, which is
that the actor is not a nice person (or even
what culture shock (Ward, Bochner, & Furn-
worse that he is a jerk or she is mean) or that
ham, 2001) is, we have to learn to deal with
the host culture is not a good culture (or even
disconfirmed expectations.
worse that this is a backward culture), and
It is posited here that disconfirmed expect-
continue to act in the future the same way
ations offer an opportunity for us to learn. In
that we acted in such situations in the past.
fact, when our expectations are met, we are
In other words, we happily move on, even if

Figure 1.3 Disconfirmed expectation and learning how to learn.

Adapted from Kolb (1976) and Bhawuk (2009).
the hosts are not feeling good. Our behavior may end up into one learning many dos and
would support the notion that we are all don’ts about a particular culture. If we go
ethnocentric (Triandis, 1990), and we would beyond reflective observation, and develop
continue to be ethnocentric. This state fits abstract conceptualization, we acquire theoret-
with the intercultural development model ical insights, which help us organize many
(Bennett, 1986), and the person is clearly not experiences coherently into one category, and
only ethnocentric but also uninterested in self we can learn many such theoretical ideas. This
growth. leads to culture general understanding, and is a
If we do reflective observation, we learn clear advancement from the earlier stage. We
about cultural differences, and often some develop an understanding of etics, or univer-
emic aspect of the host culture emerges. We sals, and understand emics as cultural repre-
also learn about our own culture, especially if sentations of those etics. This helps us
the other cultural practices are drastically dif- understand our own culture better in that we
ferent from our own, which is mediated by know why we do what we do. Also, it helps us
cultural distance. Therefore, stopping at internalize that our own cultural practices are
reflective observation leads to some personal not universals but emic reflections of some
intercultural growth. However, stopping here etics. Such internalization would weaken our

natural ethnocentric cocoon and help us pro- for work he or she may perceive that missing
gress toward cultural relativism. In this phase, the bus was the cause of lateness, whereas his
learning is supplemented by understanding. or her supervisor may perceive laziness as the
However, if we stop at this phase, we may have cause of lateness. Making non-isomorphic
insights but our behavior may not show our attributions (Triandis, 1975) means that the
understanding. same behavior is seen as having very different
Active experimentation completes the cycle meaning. Isomorphic attribution refers to a
in that the learner is now testing theories and sojourner making approximately the same
ideas learned. One is not only a “nice-talk- judgment about the cause of a behavior as do
interculturalist” but an interculturalist who people in the host culture (Triandis, 1975).
goes in the field, and tries out his or her learn- When people make isomorphic attributions,
ing. It is also plausible that people living in they do not impose their own cultural perspec-
another culture for a long time move from tive in deciding about the cause of a particular
reflective observation to active experimenta- behavior. Instead, they use the perspective of
tion, simply bypassing the abstract conceptual- the host culture in analyzing the behavior. It
ization phase (see Figure 1.3). This is similar to should be noted here that isomorphic attribu-
behavioral modification training, except that tion can be made at the emic level following a
the person is learning the behavior on the job disconfirmed expectation using reflective
and does not have much choice but to learn the observation, or at the etic level with a deeper
behavior to be effective while he or she is living understanding of their emic representations by
abroad. The pressures of adapting to a new developing abstract conceptualization as dis-
environment and culture combined with the cussed earlier. In other words, isomorphic
desire to be effective can lead one to master attribution made by novices and experts are
various behaviors in a new culture as a not the same. Researchers and practitioners
sojourner, without much abstract conceptual- should both find this new insight useful, as
ization. Thus, it is plausible that one can theory clearly has a role in intercultural expert-
become an effective biculturalist (see ise development.
Figure 1.3). However, due to the lack of There is some evidence that we all suffer
abstract conceptualization, one may continue from the fundamental error of attribution. In
to cultivate some bitterness resulting from the the attribution process, we often make trait
frustration from the external pressure requir- attribution for other people’s behavior if they
ing one to adapt. Thus, we see that discon- perform poorly (i.e., the other person is incap-
firmed expectation and learning how to learn able of doing the task, is not smart, etc.),
are meta-skills that intercultural training can whereas we make contextual attribution for
impart to be effective in intercultural ourselves (i.e., the reason for poor perform-
communication. ance is lack of resource, lack of support from
the supervisor, poor team building, etc.). This
process is reversed in that when others are
Isomorphic Attribution and Fundamental
successful we attribute it to external factors
Attribution Error
(i.e., they got lucky, they were spoon fed, we
A major source of misunderstandings in supported them all along, etc.), but when we
human relationships is that two individuals are ourselves successful we attribute it to our
do not perceive similar causes for a specific trait (i.e., we are smart, we work hard, etc.)
behavior. For example, if an employee is late (Ross, 1977).

Fundamental error of attribution is further from experts and advanced experts, beyond
enhanced across cultures, and, since we are all the early stages of intercultural skill acquisi-
ethnocentric (Triandis, 1990), it makes sense to tion characterize by lay people and novices.
make trait attributions for our successes and Skill acquisition leads people to grow from
blame other external factors for our failures, being lay people to novices, to early experts,
and to reverse it for others. There are also to experts, to advanced experts. Lay people are
cultural differences in how people make attri- new to the field of intercultural interactions.
bution. For example, collectivists, as they are They are used to a single frame of reference,
driven by modesty, tend to attribute external the one from their own culture, and are often
causes for their success more so than do indi- puzzled when interacting with people from
vidualists, who are driven by the idea that one other cultures. They tend to justify their behav-
should tout one’s own horn. Thus, individual- ior as appropriate universally for the accom-
ists make the fundamental attribution error plishment of the organizational objectives. For
more frequently than collectivists. Morris and example, we are likely to hear an expatriate
Peng (1994) argued that this is caused by the development worker or business person say,
cultural worldview that people implicitly “If you want to get things done, there is no
acquire through socialization, and demon- other way of going about it.” They often are
strated in a multiple experiment study that not able to appreciate that their behaviors and
Chinese are less subject to the fundamental actions should reflect intercultural sensitivity
attribution error than Americans, supporting for the organization to succeed in the host
the notion that this process varies across country in the long run.
cultures. Novices are people who start to see another
Often, collectivists attribute the help of frame of reference that is present in the host
others as the cause of their success, whereas culture, but are struggling both emotionally
individualists attribute it to their ability. On and cognitively. Novice sojourners are often
the other hand, collectivists attribute failure to overwhelmed by the actions of the host nation-
lack of effort, whereas individualists attribute als since these go against the values of their
it to factors external to themselves like task organization and home country, and draw
difficulty and so forth. For collectivists, the strong emotional response from them. They
attribution process varies across ingroup and are also learning the dos and don’ts, and they
outgroup members, whereas individualists do experience cognitive overload from time to
not differentiate between ingroups and out- time as they are learning how the hosts act in
groups in making attributions (Triandis, given situations that is different from the way
1995b). This will be discussed further in the it is done in the organization in their home
later section on individualism and collectivism. culture. They are able to acquire simple com-
munication skills and begin to understand
simple cultural contexts as they are slowly able
Cross-Cultural Expertise Development
to build rapport with host nationals.
and Organizationally Relevant Skills
Early experts are sojourners who act with-
This model builds on the model presented out creating cultural faux pas that are a hurdle
earlier (Bhawuk, 1998) and discussed above in creating an interculturally sensitive work
in Figure 1.2. It synthesizes the relevance of environment. Their actions are not damaging
organizational skills with stages of expertise to the host cultural context, yet they are able to
development, and differentiates early experts perform toward organizational goals. Put it

another way, they are able to employ organ- walking into some of the most difficult
izationally relevant skills that may stretch the international situations and who achieve satis-
cultural context of the host nation. This is factory outcomes be it diplomatic, develop-
possible since over time they have already mental, or business related. They are likely to
acquired simple communication skills, some be considered “our own” by both the host
simple understanding of cultural context, and nationals and people in the home culture.
have engaged in building rapport with host Figure 1.4 schematically presents the synthesis
nationals. Early experts have clearly moved of intercultural expertise development and
beyond rapport building and can make some organizationally relevant skills.
difficult decisions without damaging the cul-
tural environment and creating intercultural
Cultural Theories Relevant
stress for all involved.
to Intercultural Training
Experts are able to engage in complex cul-
tural contexts and communicate effectively. Cultural value dimensions are constructs
These skills are developed over a longer period created by researchers to understand and pre-
of time. They have moved from simple to dict human behavior in the cultural context
complex communication skills, and are able and to compare human behaviors across two
to understand cultural complexities of the host or more cultures. Interest in identifying cul-
culture. They are cognitively complex and tural patterns goes back a hundred years, and
manage their emotional reactions without the the interest continues to grow with the discov-
hosts getting wind of it. They may have to eries of new dimensions by using values,
pause and reflect from time to time, but are beliefs, social exchange, and other aspects of
on the way to becoming a bicultural person subjective human culture. The value dimen-
who can switch cultural frames of references sions found are abstractions, and are useful
and lead the organization effectively toward its as a starting point in intercultural communi-
vision in the host country. cation and training. However, if a person from
Advanced experts are sojourners who have a certain culture does not fit the dimension, it
often spent a considerable amount of time in is best not to try to fit the person in the cultural
the host nation, and are likely to be fluent in dimension. Cultural value dimensions is dis-
the language and culture of the host nation. cussed Chapter 4, and the reader should refer
They are able to act appropriately in most to that chapter.
situations, and when they make a mistake even
natives may consider it an idiosyncratic differ-
Summary
ence rather than a cultural difference in under-
standing of the situation. They can engage in The field of intercultural training has evolved
the most difficult of negotiations and create a significantly in the last fifty years, and despite
solution that is acceptable to the host nationals its theoretically rigorous foundations, there
without sacrificing the objectives of the organ- has not been a clear direction about how
ization. They may be stressed, but that is intercultural training programs should be
because of the difficulty of the situation faced developed. This could be attributed to the nat-
by all involved. These are often seasoned prac- ural course of development of the field in
titioners with years of experience in a region – which various individuals have contributed
and hence an established network of associates from narrow theoretical perspectives. This
from many cultures – who are comfortable was reflected in the early discussion of whether

Figure 1.4 Organizationally relevant cultural performance.
intercultural training should follow the univer- isomorphic attribution are two basic concepts
sity model of classroom lectures or use the that are important to understand and can help
experiential training method (Harrison and in the process of skill acquisition. A clear
Hopkins, 1967). Another discussion in the litera- understanding of the cognitive process of skill
ture has been about the culture-specific versus acquisition similarly provides the much needed
culture-general approaches to training (Bha- cognitive framework for skill acquisition. The
wuk, 1990). Clearly, there is much need for a theoretical framework of individualism and
theoretical framework for the development of collectivism helps organize the intercultural
intercultural training programs that synthesizes expertise at the abstract level much like what
various theoretical perspectives and addresses cognitive psychologists refer to as a Theoret-
many of the issues raised in the literature. This ical Organizing Package, or TOP.
chapter is a small step in that direction. The economic framework presented in this
This chapter synthesizes many of the theor- chapter, at the core, helps to go beyond cul-
etical concepts discussed in the intercultural tural theories that are psychological or socio-
training literature to present a framework that logical in nature. This is presented as a first
can be used to develop intercultural training step, and clearly there is a need for developing
programs. It is argued here that for people to frameworks that would capture other socio-
develop intercultural competence they need to political perspectives. Such additions in the
understand the process of skill acquisition, and future would make the framework more com-
learn how to learn so that they can continue to prehensive, and aid people in their intercul-
learn beyond a formal training program while tural skill acquisition. An idea implicit in the
living abroad. Disconfirmed expectation and framework is that intercultural skill is

multidimensional, and thus there is a need to analyses. It could be argued that people
attain its acquisition by following a multi- working in the information technology indus-
method approach. This has been an idea hith- try are going to need to adapt to different
erto neglected in the literature. circumstances than people working in the oil
The addition of the need for self- exploration industry, the environment protec-
preservation at the core of intercultural tion area, the financial industry, or the health-
training programs is another contribution of care industry. Similarly, people working for a
the chapter, and a topic that has been hitherto large multinational like IBM, or Bank of
neglected in intercultural training literature. America, or NGOs like the UNICEF, or The
Researchers and practitioners alike in their zeal World Bank will need to adapt to different
of preparing people to be effective in their contexts and histories. Thus, preparing people
sojourn often neglect the basic issues of sur- associated with different industries and organ-
vival, or assume that the sojourners will take izations, who are going to different cultures,
care of such issues themselves. This is a mis- will necessarily require a multilevel training
take, and all training programs must stress the program that will build on the core that was
need for self-preservation, which not only is developed in some detail in this chapter. This
unique to us individually, but also has some model can also be used to organize college
cultural underpinnings depending on who the courses in intercultural training or communi-
sojourners are and where they are going to live. cation, so that students are able to organize
For example, there are likely gender differences their personal intercultural skill development
that need to be addressed, as women have to in a systematic way.
deal with many more issues when moving from
one culture to another than men have to do,
An Overview of the Handbook
and this issue needs to be further researched.
Chapters
Clearly, there are many aspects of survival that
we all need to worry about, and without taking Following on from this introductory chapter,
care of these issues we simply cannot be effect- we have organized the book into five parts:
ive in our work or social interactions. This has Theoretical Foundations of Intercultural
become a particularly important issue in view Training (Chapters 2–9); Practice of Intercul-
of the increased terrorist activities that the tural Training (Chapters 10–14); Indigenous
world has seen in the last few years, but Psychology and Intercultural Training (Chap-
We would like to note that this has always been ters 15–19); New Interdisciplinary Approaches
a critical factor, and one that has not been to Intercultural Training (Chapters 20–24);
given much attention in the literature. and Summing Up (Chapter 25).
The outer circles of the model deal with
organizational, industry, and culture-specific
Part I: Theoretical Foundations
level issues, and were noted to make the model
complete. Unfortunately, they could not be
developed fully, and are important future
Chapter 2 – Harry Triandis’s Contributions to
research topics. Intercultural training litera-
Intercultural Training as a Field of Research:
ture has been theoretically grounded in the
A Bibliometric Analysis
individual differences perspective, and there is
a need to develop multilevel models, including Although there were certainly important
organizational and industrial levels of contributions to intercultural training in the

immediate aftermath of World War II, they interaction of, in particular, short- and long-
tended to be focused on technique with little term sojourners. This chapter by Fowler and
theoretical or empirical underpinning. Beginning Yamaguchi, both experienced trainers,
with his seminal book, Analysis of Subjective describes in details the most common tech-
Culture in 1972, Triandis began the task of pro- niques and the history of each. In addition,
viding that foundation. Though Triandis passed they give some indication of the likely effect-
away while this book and this chapter were iveness of each technique.
being prepared, his influence permeates all of
the pages. Hence, the relevance of this chapter.
Chapter 6 – Intercultural Simulations:
Theory and Practice
Chapter 3 – Interdisciplinary History of
Simulating a culture gained particular favor
Intercultural Communication Studies:
due to the rise of the Peace Corps in the middle
1960s. In some cases, the simulation took place
Intercultural communication as a term and a in a setting close to the ecology that the
discipline has a long history going back as trainees would be experiencing. For example,
early as Emmanuel Kant and other philoso- Peace Corp personnel destined to the islands in
phers such as Edmund Husserl. Early scholars the Pacific often found themselves living on a
based their work on the philosophers and remote part of Molekai’I in the Hawaiian
created not only the discipline of communica- Islands, where they had no radio, and had to
tion (which grew out of the study of rhetoric) dig their own latrines, and learn to catch fish
but the sub-discipline of intercultural commu- from the ocean for food. Other simulations
nication. This chapter by Professor Steve consisted of board games and so were not
Kulich and colleagues at the Shanghai PRC stressful as full immersion. More modern
International Studies University explores this simulations use computer animation much like
history in considerable detail. the simulations available for aircraft (e.g.,
Flight Simulator). In this chapter, Salzman
analyzes the most common types of simula-
Chapter 4 – Culture Theories and Intercultural
tions and also their likely effectiveness.
Training
As mentioned earlier, Intercultural training
Chapter 7 – Toward a Social Network
existed for many years as a purely practice
Theory of Reentry
endeavor. However, the lack of a theory ham-
strung it from being able to empirically say It makes common sense that the success of a
what training is effective for whom and when. sojourner depends on the person developing an
That is the function of theory which Bhawuk effective network, but this idea has not found
addresses in this chapter, drawing on his space in intercultural training literature. In this
foundational work. chapter Chi and Martin fill this gap. They
introduce social network analysis (SNA) and
propose the Integrated Network Theory of
Chapter 5 – An Analysis of Methods
Reentry, which is a novel theory of reentry
for Intercultural Training
that can be used to guide design and imple-
Over the years, many techniques have been mentation of reentry training program. It
developed to enhance the intercultural focuses on nodes (returnee’s social attributes

and structural attributes), relational ties Part II: Practice of Intercultural Training
(strong and weak ties), and network structures
(overall network configuration), which makes Chapter 10 – International Initiatives in K-12
it necessarily a multilevel theory. This chapter and Higher Education: Learning from
allows us to shift the focus to the network of and Moving beyond Disciplinary History
relations that an individual develops, which
Programs that fly under the rubric of intercul-
can also be measured using SNA. They also
tural and/or multicultural have dominated,
present some guidance for future research
these authors posit, K-12 education for at least
including some testable propositions.
six decades. Previously, these programs were
not well integrated into the curriculum (e.g.,
Chapter 8 – Intractable Conflict, having a Black History Day); however, more
Delegitimization, and Intercultural Training recently a global perspective has gradually been
gaining favor. This chapter describes not only
Most intercultural training takes places in rela-
the characteristics of such programs but how
tively serene settings when the possibility of
they can be, if not dominant, implemented in a
violence is remote. Yet the authors of this
significant number of schools. They argue for
chapter argue that it is precisely when intense
seeing all education as cultural or ETIC.
conflict is raging that intercultural training is
most needed. However, this is the time when
the conflicting sides are least receptive because Chapter 11 – The Triad Training Model
their attention is on physically defeating the in Counseling, Cultural Diversity,
other and delegitimizing their total existence. and Intercultural Training
But, like all conflicts, there comes lulls in the Triad Training is a technique developed by
fighting when the participants might be accept- Paul Pedersen for counselor training over four
able of information about the other side that decades ago. This chapter argues, however,
stresses the humanness of the protagonists. that the technique can have significant appli-
Nasie and Bar-Tal analyze the ways in which cations in intercultural training and diversity
this could be done. Living as they both do in education. The technique is a simulation of the
one of the most conflict-ridden parts of the internal conversation that a counselor has with
world, their discussion is most timely. him/herself during a session. While the tech-
nique has been successful in training counsel-
Chapter 9 – Evaluation of Cross-Cultural ors, its holistic nature makes it applicable to
Training: A Review many other situations where cultural know-
ledge and behavior is being imparted.
Evaluating training is a most critical part of
the intercultural training enterprise. In this
Chapter 12 – Multicultural Counseling Training
view the authors attempt to review what is
and Intercultural Training: A Synthesis
not a “vast” literature on the effectiveness of
ICT. Their review suggests large lacunae exist As the previous chapter suggests there is a
between the need for best evaluations and potential nexus between one type of counseling
good empirical research. In addition, there and intercultural training. This chapter takes a
are organizational constraints that often somewhat broader view and examines the rela-
prevent optimal evaluations from being tionships between multicultural counseling
implemented. generally and intercultural training. The

chapter posits that there are significant paral- inpatriates. When these groups are present
lels in the development of each discipline and and used, they can facilitate the development
even more interesting divergences. The chapter of what they call a “global mindset.” This
examines these issues and argues for a tighter mindset, they argue, will increase the effective-
handshake between the operations. ness of the overseas managers.
Chapter 13 – Training for Cross-Cultural

Part III: Indigenous Psychology
Competence in the United States Military
The US Military is one of the most integrated
organizations in society. It is diverse along Chapter 15 – Brazilian Cultural Patterns
racial, cultural, gender and sexual orientation, and Intercultural Training
religion, and national origin. Previous Hand-
In the 2nd edition of this Handbook, Rosita
book editions have covered portions of pro-
Albert, who grew up in Brazil, wrote a chapter
grams to enhance diversity in not only the
on Latin American culture and intercultural
American setting but also militaries in selected
training. In the past two decades much has
other countries. The integration of the services
changed in that region, particularly in Brazil.
began during the Truman administration and
The present authors focus on the fact that
gained significant strength in the early 70s due
Brazil consists of many regions and cultures
to racial conflicts that developed in the Viet-
which makes facile descriptions problematic.
nam war. It was recognized by planners that
As they note, their writing is influenced by
having troops culturally ignorant was a cost in
indigenous studies that allow the various cul-
lives that the nation could ill afford. But, the
tural patterns to be described and the impact
course of implementation has not always been
on the training of expatriates to be assessed.
smooth as funds for serious evaluation were
often not to be had. This chapter describes the
techniques that have been developed in the
Chapter 16 – Russian Cultural Patterns
various organizations responsible of their cre-
ation and the fate of those approaches.
Alexandra and Kovbasyuk’ s chapter provides
us insights into the indigenous Russian culture.
Chapter 14 – Developing Intercultural
They present three metaphors – the Russian
Competency Training in Global Organizations:
Matryoshka doll, the Russian bear, and the
An Examination of the Cadre of Global
Russian ballet – that have been employed by
Managers
various researchers to capture some aspects of
The authors of this chapter argue that the pool Russian culture. The Russian Matryoshka or
of talent for overseas managers has been dom- nesting doll symbolizes both complexity and
inated by the “in and” talent pool. They argue collectivist nature of Russian culture. It is not
that such an approach is counterproductive in unusual in Russia for people to say, “I don’t
that it eliminates a large reservoir of intercul- have a hundred roubles, but have a hundred
tural expertise, as well as a pool of locals who friends” (Ne imei sto rublei, a imei sto druzei).
could make excellent managers. The authors It is no surprise that in Russia there is a system
speak of a global family that consists not only of informal networks, used for exchange of
of expatriates but also of flexpatriates and favors, that is referred to as svyazi or blat.

The Russian bear stands for power, unpre- constructs like lajjA, lokasaMgraha, niSkAma
dictability, and reclusiveness, whereas the karma, to name a few, since they can help
Russian ballet captures how people in Russia explain social behavior beyond what western
can perform individually as well as in a group, constructs can help to do.
being idyllic and simple, and yet sophisticated
and elegant. The complexity of Russia
Chapter 18 – Cultural-Inclusive Theories for
becomes clear in the popular saying “One
Intercultural Training in Confucian Societies:
cannot understand Russia by reason” (Umom
An In-Depth Analysis of Face Dynamism
Rossiyu ne ponyat), considering that people
from Russia (and Soviet Union) have domin- In the chapter on China, Chen and Hwang
ated the game of chess in the second half of the present many indigenous models that intercul-
twentieth century. The authors synthesize indi- tural researchers can readily employ in their
genous or emic aspects of Russia with three of research and for developing intercultural
the etic factors of Hofstede: collectivism, training material. They discuss models that
power distance, and uncertainty avoidance. help understand face at multiple levels. For
The synthesis of emic and etic and the two example, face at the national level helps in
critical incidents presented at the end of the the understanding Chinese foreign relations,
chapter make the chapter especially useful for and face in leadership helps in the understand
intercultural researchers and trainers inter- of managerial behavior in organizations.
ested in Russia. A deep understanding of face is crucial to be
effective in intercultural interactions with Chi-
nese people. The authors present multiple
Chapter 17 – Indian Psychology
models that are couched in the Chinese world-
view that we are a part of both intimate and
In the chapter on India, Bhawuk points to the distant elements of the social world as much as
publication of National Geographic, which our own layers of consciousness.
presents an anthropological literature that The multi-layered interaction leads to self-
can enrich the training curriculum for India, identification and social-identification, and
presenting insight in understanding the culture many aspects and forms of face emerge that
of India to sojourners living there. This source are denoted by indigenous constructs like ziji-
should be examined by intercultural trainers zen (自己人) and waizen (外人), lian (臉) and
and researchers when developing intercultural mianzi (面子), junzi (君子), Ren (人) including
training programs. He also directs the atten- jiaren (家人), shuren (熟人), and shengren
tion of researchers to the body of literature (生人), lian (臉), lizi (裡子 substances) versus
available on India in influential journals of mianzi (面子 face), shi (實 reality), ming (名
psychology and other disciplines that cover title), li (禮), li-yii (禮儀) (li – propriety – and
aspects of Indian culture. Such sources could yii – ceremony), yi (義 righteousness), shi li
provide some foundation for intercultural (失禮), and duibuchi (對不起). Many face
training material. His chapter summarizes the related constructs like gei mianzi (給面子
growing literature on Indian indigenous psych- giving face), mei mianzi (沒面子 without face),
ology, beyond the cross-cultural literature, zeng mianzi (爭面子) or gaining face, sun
which provides insight into the Indian mindset mianzi (傷面子) or damaging face, jie mianzi
and social behavior. Intercultural training (借面子) or borrowing face, kan mianzi (看面
researchers need to pay attention to unique 子) or taking into account another’s face, gu

mianzi (顧面子) or protecting face, and bu gu that, because findings showing that cognition
mianzi (不顧面子) or not protecting face are and emotion have, from brain imaging studies,
discussed. Face is also related to debt of favor clear neurological underpinnings, similar
(renqingzai 人情債), zijiren (自己人ingroup), effects are likely to be found during intercul-
and wairen (外人 outgroup). Other face- tural training and education. They propose a
related concepts include, da jia you mianzi (大 theoretical analysis that uses the culture-
家有面子 everybody has face), supo lian (撕破 behavior-brain loop to understand those
臉 turn against one another), da jia mei mianzi effects. At some point, analysis such as that
(大家沒面子 everyone has no face), liu mianzi found in this chapter will be fundament to
(留面子 save face), and fu yian mianzi (敷衍面 understanding and developing effective inter-
子 putting off face). The value of indigenous cultural training programs.
models like the Mandala Model of Self and
Hsu’s psychosociogram becomes clear in
Chapter 21 – Perceptual Representation:
trying to understand the complexities of face
An Etic Observational Category for Guiding
presented at the end of the chapter. This
Intercultural Communication Adaptation
chapter is especially useful for intercultural
researchers and trainers interested in China. Bennett espouses a constructivist approach
where people construct an understanding of
the world around them to engage in intercul-
Chapter 19 – Japanese Psychology and
tural interactions. He presents perceptual
Intercultural Training: Presenting Wa in a
representations as a construct that captures
Nomological Network
the dynamic of how people construct meaning
For these authors keywords are the key to from what they perceive is happening around
understanding Japanese culture and training them. These representations guide intercul-
can provide that pathway. They argue that a tural interactions. He organizes these represen-
key word is wa (和) (harmony) which sits within tations on a continuum from relatively
a nomological net consisting of, for example, unprocessed to highly processed percepts, and
amae (presumed indulgence), aimai (ambigu- presents four etic categories that capture Asian
ity), giri and on (obligation and duty), honne cultures (concrete description), North America
and tatemae (true feelings and over behavior), (procedural model), North European (abstract
and shūdan-ishiki (group consciousness). In this theory), and South European and South
chapter they show how the net operates American cultures (theory in relational con-
between native speakers and expatriates, and text). This offers a useful guide to practitioners
outline how an intercultural training program on how to design training programs for people
focused on the meaning of wa can be used. going from one part of the world to another.
Part IV: New Interdisciplinary Chapter 22 – Emotional Contagion, Intimate

Approaches to Intercultural Training Intercultural Relationships, and Intercultural
Training
Chapter 20 – Cultural Neuroscience Basis of
Emotional contagion is becoming a major
Intercultural Training and Education
investigative area by scholars in a variety of
In this intriguing chapter Han and Makela use disciplines. Primitive contagion is believed to
a cultural neuroscience perspective to suggest a basic building block of human interaction.

It is implicated in people being able to under- “intelligent swarming.” These can lead to a
stand other people’s thinking, sharing their fuller realization of solutions to difficult group
emotions, as well as other aspects of inter- functions and a more accurate evaluation of
actions. In many ways it is similar to the iso- outcomes to problems. He discusses the condi-
morphic attribution concept promulgated by tions that support “intelligent swarming” and
Triandis, which is discussed earlier in this presents two activities that have proven to be
introductory chapter. useful in a variety of organizational settings:
“World Café” and “Smart Swarming.”
Chapter 23 – Dialogue and Culture: Reflections

on the Parameters of Cultural Dialogue Part V: Summing Up
Much effort is spent in having interfaith dia- Chapter 25 – Conclusion: Intercultural Training
logue globally. In this chapte, Timalsina for the New Global Village
directs our attention to the dynamics of
internal tension that is present in most cul- This chapter integrates the threads presented
tures, and how it is bridged. This serves as a in the previous chapters and also identifies
reminder that intercultural dialogue should issues and future research directions for the
not be viewed as an impossibility. Drawing field of intercultural training. The chapter is
on dialogues in classical texts from India, he intended to be a stimulant rather than a defini-
also discusses ten conditions or characteristics tive piece, and it is hoped that it will draw in
of dialogue, some of them provocative (e.g., researchers who are new to the field and chal-
dialogue is a set of concurrent monologues; lenge those who have been in the field for
dialogue sustains differences; dialogue is the many years. It is intended to start a dialogue
essence of human existence), that can facilitate rather than conclude the ongoing debate in the
intercultural dialogue. He reminds us that field of intercultural training.
sometimes the outcome of dialogue is a space
for interpretation and further dialogue, i.e., References
dialogue is just for the sake of dialogue. He Albert, R. D. (1983). The intercultural sensitizer or
demonstrates that opposite ideas can emerge culture assimilator: A cognitive approach. In D.
from dialogues, and so we should be open to Landis & R. W. Brislin (Eds.), Handbook of
all possibilities when engaging in a dialogue intercultural training: Issues in training
methodology (Vol. 2, pp. 186–217). New York,
NY: Pergamon.
Chapter 24 – Optimizing Globalization through Anderson, J. R. (2000). Cognitive psychology and its
“Intelligent Swarming”: Suggested Activities implications (5th ed.). New York, NY: Worth
for Training Publishing.
Awale, S. (2016). A Nepali a day dies working in
Swarming is seen as an evolutionary phenom-
Malaysia. Retrieved from https://m.malaysiakini.
ena that is performance rather than rational
com/news/327999 on July 27, 2019.
based. Fontaine reviews recent research on
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory.
swarming as it relates to globalization and Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
building minimal structures in multinational Bennett, M. J. (1986). A developmental approach to
enterprises. He suggests that by combining training for intercultural sensitivity.
the idea of globalized swarming and micro- International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
structures the result might be somewhat more 10, 179–195.

Berry, J. W. (1980). Acculturation as varieties of theoretical explorations. In Rabi S. Bhagat & R.

adaptation. In A. M. Padilla (Ed.), Steers (Eds.), Handbook of culture, organization,
Acculturation: Theory, models, and some new and work (pp. 462–488). Cambridge, UK:
findings (pp. 9–25). Boulder, CO: Westview. Cambridge University Press.
Berry J. W. (1989). Psychology of acculturation. Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2009b). Intercultural
Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. 37, communication in a dynamic environment:
pp. 201–234). University of Nebraska Press Preparing managers of developing and
Lincoln. developed countries using cultural standards.
Berry, J. W. (1990). Psychology of acculturation: Psychology and Developing Societies, 21(2),
Understanding individuals moving between 161–181.
cultures. In R. W. Brislin (Ed.), Applied cross- Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Brislin, R. W. (1992). The
cultural psychology (pp. 232–253). Newbury measurement of intercultural sensitivity using
Park, CA: Sage. the concepts of individualism and collectivism.
Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
and adaptation. Applied Psychology: An 16, 413–436.
International Review, 46, 5–34. Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Brislin, R. W. (2000). Cross-
Berry, J. W. (2005). Acculturation: Living cultural training: A review. Applied
successfully in two cultures. International Psychology: An International Review, 49(1),
Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29(6), 162–191.
697–712. Bhawuk, D. P. S., Landis, D., & Lo, K. (2006).
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1990). Cross-cultural orientation Intercultural training. In. David L. Sam & John
programs. In R. W. Brislin (Ed.), Applied cross- W. Berry (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of
cultural psychology (pp. 325–346). Newbury acculturation psychology (pp. 504–524).
Park, CA: Sage Publications. Cambridge.
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1995). The role of culture theory Black, J. S., & Mendenhall, M. (1990). Cross-
in cross-cultural training: A comparative cultural training effectiveness: A review and
evaluation of culture-specific, culture general, and theoretical framework for future research.
theory-based assimilators. [Unpublished doctoral American Management Review, 15, 113–136.
dissertation]. University of Illinois at Urbana- Boski, P. (2008). Five meanings of integration in
Champaign. acculturation research. International Journal of
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1996). Development of a culture Intercultural Relations, 32(2), 142–153.
theory-based assimilator: Applications of Brislin, R. W. (1981). Cross-cultural encounters:
individualism and collectivism in cross-cultural Face to face interaction. New York, NY:
training. Best Paper Proceedings (pp. 147–150) Pergamon.
Academy of Management Annual Meeting, Brislin, R. W., Cushner, K., Cherrie, C., & Yong,
Cincinnati. M. (1986). Intercultural interactions: A practical
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1998). The role of culture theory guide. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
in cross-cultural training: A multimethod study Brislin, R. W., Landis, D., & Brandt, M. (1983).
of culture-specific, culture-general, and culture Conceptualizations of intercultural behavior and
theory-based assimilators. Journal of Cross- training. In D. Landis & R. W. Brislin (Eds.),
Cultural Psychology 29(5), 630–655. Handbook of intercultural training (Vol. 1,
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2001). Evolution of culture pp. 1–35). Elmsford, NY: Pergamon.
assimilators: Toward theory-based assimilators. Brislin, R. W., & Pedersen, P. (1976). Cross-cultural
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, orientation programs. New York, NY: Gardner.
25(2), 141–163. Brislin, R. W., & Yoshida, T. (1994a). Intercultural
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2009a). Intercultural training for communication training: An introduction.
the global workplace: Review, synthesis, and Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Brislin, R. W., & Yoshida, T. (Eds.) (1994b). Gudykunst, W. B. (1985). A model of uncertainty
Improving intercultural interactions: Models for reduction in intercultural encounters. Journal of
cross-cultural training programs. Thousand Language and Social Psychology, 4(2), 79–98.
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Gudykunst, W. B. (Ed.) (2005). Theorizing about
Chirkov, V. (2009). Critical psychology of intercultural communication. Thousand Oaks,
acculturation: What do we study and how do we CA: Sage.
study it, when we investigate acculturation? Gudykunst, W. B., Guzley, R., & Hammer, M.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, (1996). Designing intercultural training. In D.
33(2), 94–105. Landis & R. Bhagat (Eds.) Handbook of
Cushner, K., & Brislin, R. W. (1996). Intercultural intercultural training (2nd ed., pp. 61–80).
interactions: A practical guide (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Gudykunst, W. B., & Sudweeks, S. (1992). Applying
Cushner, K., & Brislin, R. W. (Eds.) (1997). a theory of intercultural adaptation. In W. B.
Improving intercultural interactions: Models for Gudykunst & Y. Y. Kim (Eds.), Readings on
cross-cultural training programs (Vol. 2). communicating with strangers (pp. 358–368).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Cushner, K., & Landis, D. (1996). The intercultural Hall, E. T. (1959). The silent language. New York,
sensitizer. In D. Landis & R. Bhagat (Eds.), NY: Doubleday and Company.
Handbook of intercultural training (2nd ed., Hall, E. T. (1966). The hidden dimension. New York,
pp. 185–202). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. NY: Doubleday and Company.
Dansby, M., & Landis, D. (1996). Intercultural Hammer, M., Bennett, M., & Wiseman, R. (2003).
training in the US military. In D. Landis & R. Measuring intercultural sensitivity: The
Bhagat (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural training intercultural development inventory.
(2nd ed., pp. 203–215). Thousand Oaks, CA: International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
Sage. 27, 421–444.
Deshpande, S. P., & Viswesvaran, C. (1992). Is Harrison, J. K. (1992). Individual and combined
cross-cultural training of expatriate managers effects of behavior modeling and the culture
effective: A meta analysis. International Journal assimilator in cross-cultural management
of Intercultural Relations, 16, 295–310. training. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77,
Detweiler, R. (1975). On inferring the intentions of a 952–962.
person from another culture. Journal of Harrison, R., & Hopkins, R. L., (1967). The design
Personality, 43, 591–611. of cross-cultural training: An alternative to the
Detweiler, R. (1978). Culture, category width, and university model. Journal of Applied Behavioral
attributions: A model building approach to the Science, 3, 431–460.
reasons for cultural effects. Journal of Cross- Howell, W. S. (1982). The empathic communicator.
Cultural Psychology, 9, 259–284. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Detweiler, R. (1980). Intercultural interaction and Hughes-Weiner, G. (1986). The “learning how to
the categorization process: A conceptual analysis learn” approach to cross-cultural orientation.
and behavioral outcome. International Journal of International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
Intercultural Relations, 4, 275–295. 10, 485–505.
Fiedler, F. E., Mitchell, T. R., & Triandis, H.C. Kolb, D. A. (1976). Management and the learning
(1971). The culture assimilator: An approach to process. California Management Review, 18(3),
cross-cultural training. Journal of Applied 21–31.
Psychology, 55, 95–102. Landis, D. (2008). Globalization, migration into
Gao, G., & Gudykunst, W. (1990). Uncertainty, urban centers, and intercultural training.
anxiety, and adaptation. International Journal of International Journal of Intercultural Relations.
Intercultural Relations, 14, 301–317. 32, 337–348.

Landis, D. (2011). Migration, immigration, and social and physical events. Journal of Personality
community: A commentary. Psychosocial and Social Psychology, 67, 949–971.
Intervention, 20(3), 333–338. Oberg, K. (1960). Culture shock: Adjustment to new
Landis, D., Bennett, M., & Bennett, J. (2004). cultural environments. Practical Anthropology,
Handbook of intercultural training (3rd ed.). 7, 177–182.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Overmier, J. B. (2006). Keynote address given to the
Landis, D., & Bhagat, R. (1996). Handbook of 16th Annual Conference of Psychology,
Intercultural Training (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, National Academy of Psychology, Mumbai,
CA: Sage. India, December 14–16, 2006.
Landis, D., & Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2004). Synthesizing Platt, J. R. (1964). Strong inference: Certain
theory building and practice in intercultural systematic methods of scientific thinking may
training. In Dan Landis, Milton Bennett, & produce much more rapid progress than others.
Janet Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural Science, 146(3642), 347–353.
training (3rd ed., pp. 451–466). Thousand Oaks, Renwick, G. (2004). Afterword: Reflections on the
CA: Sage. future of training. In D. Landis, J. Bennett, &
Landis, D., & Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2005). Equal M. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of Intercultural
Opportunity Training in the Military: Toward a Training (3rd ed.). (pp. 437–452). Thousand
Synthesis of Theory and Practice. Proceedings of Oaks, CA: Sage.
the 5th Biennial EO/EEO Research Symposium Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his
organized by the Defense Equal Opportunity shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution
Management Institute (DEOMI), February process. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in
17–18, 2005, Cocoa Beach, Florida. experimental social psychology (Vol. 10,
Landis, D., & Brislin, R. (1983). Handbook of pp. 173–220). New York, NY: Academic
intercultural training (3 Vols). Elmsford, NY: Press.
Pergamon Press. Rudmin, F. (2009). Constructs, measurements and
Landis, D., Brislin, R. W., & Hulgus, J. (1985). models of acculturation and acculturative stress.
Attribution training versus contact in International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
acculturative training: A laboratory study. Journal 33(2), 106–123.
of Applied Social Psychology, 15, 466–482. Triandis, H. C. (1972). The analysis of subjective
Landis, D., Day, H., McGrew, P., Miller, A., & culture. New York, NY: Wiley.
Thomas, J. (1976). Can a Black cultural Triandis, H. C. (1975). Culture training, cognitive
assimilator increase racial understanding? complexity, and interpersonal attitudes. In
Journal of Social Issues, 32, 169–183. R. W. Brislin, S. Bochner, & W. Lonner (Eds.),
Mendenhall, M. E., Ehnert, I., Kühlmann, T. M., Cross-cultural perspectives on learning (pp.
Oddou, G., Osland, J. S., & Stahl G. K. (2004). 39–77). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
Evaluation studies of cross-cultural training Triandis, H. C. (1977). Theoretical framework for
programs: A review of literature from evaluation of cross-cultural training
1988–2000. In D. Landis & J. Bennett (Eds.), effectiveness. International Journal of
The handbook of intercultural training (pp. Intercultural Relations, 1, 19–45.
129–144). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Triandis, H. C. (1990). Theoretical concepts of use
Morris, M. A., & Robie, C. (2001). A meta-analysis to practitioners. In R. W. Brislin (Ed.), Applied
of the effects of cross-cultural training on cross-cultural psychology (pp. 34–55). Thousand
expatriate performance and adjustment. Oaks, CA: Sage.
International Journal of Training and Triandis, H. C. (1994). Culture and social behavior.
Development, 5, 112–125. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Morris, M. W., & Peng, K. (1994). Culture and Triandis, H. C. (1995a). Culture specific
cause: American and Chinese attributions for assimilators. In S. Fowler & M. Mumford

(Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook (Vol. 1). Ward, C. (2008). Thinking inside the Berry boxes:
Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. New perspectives on identity, acculturation, and
Triandis, H. C. (1995b). Individualism and intercultural relations. International Journal of
collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Intercultural Relations, 32(2), 105–114.
Press. Ward, C., Bochner, S., & Furnham, A. (2001). The
Triandis, H., Brislin, H., & Hui, C. (1988). Cross- psychology of culture shock. London, UK:
cultural training across the individualism- Routledge.
collectivism divide. International Journal of Warnick, J., & Landis, D. (2015). Neuroscience in
Intercultural Relations, 12, 269–289. intercultural contexts. New York, NY: Springer.
Vygotsky, L. (1978) Mind in society: The Weldon, D. E., Carlston, D. E., Rissman, A. K.,
development of higher psychological processes. Slobodin, L., & Triandis, H. C. (1975).
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University A laboratory test of effects of culture assimilator
Press. training. Journal of Personality and Social
Ward, C. (2004). Psychological theories of culture Psychology, 32, 300–310.
contact and their implications for intercultural Xu, Q., & Palmer, N. A. (2011). Migrant workers’
training and intervention. In D. Landis, J. community in China: Relationships among
Bennett, & M. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of social networks, life satisfaction and political
intercultural training (3rd ed., pp. 185–216). participation. Psychosocial Intervention, 20(3),
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 281–294.

Part I
Theoretical Foundations

2 Harry Triandis’s Contributions to
Intercultural Training as a Field
of Research
A Bibliometric Analysis
Dharm P. S. Bhawuk and Atma P. Bhawuk
Tracing the historical development of a field of (see Table 2.1). Triandis has contributed to the
research is important since it provides an creation of a large field of research, which we
anchor to the field in the stream of time by call cross-cultural psychology, and his contri-
allowing a comparison of how the field butions go beyond psychology, to all areas of
evolved along with other related disciplines. cross-cultural research. The objective of this
Such a documentation also serves as a tool of paper is to analyze his influence specifically
socialization for the researchers who are new on the field of cross-cultural training. Influence
to the field. And, finally, it allows us to recog- is measured quantitatively by the number of
nize people who have contributed to the cre- citations in the SSCI that each of his papers on
ation of the field. Since Rogers contributed to cross-cultural training has received since their
this venture by presenting the contributions of publication. This quantitative analysis is sup-
Edward T. Hall (see Rogers & Hart, 1998), in plemented by a qualitative analysis, identify-
this paper we document the contribution of ing patterns of growth in the field that can be
another distinguished scholar, Harry C. Trian- attributed to his works.
dis, who has shaped the field of cross-cultural
training by dedicating a good part of his forty-
year scholarly career to it.
Method
Professor Harry C. Triandis was a faculty The first author used his judgment to decide
member at the University of Illinois at what might be Triandis’s most influential art-
Urbana-Champaign from 1958 to 1998, and icles in the field of cross-cultural training, and
remained an active researcher as an Emeritus identified six articles and book chapters, three
Professor there until his passing in June 2019. of which (Triandis, 1977; Triandis, 1984; and
He was recognized as the second most influen- Triandis, Brislin, & Hui, 1988) were published
tial scholar in the field of Intercultural Rela- in the International Journal of Intercultural
tions in a citation analysis of articles published Relations(edited at the time by Landis). These
in the International Journal of Intercultural six publications are: (1) The culture assimila-
Relations between 1983 and 1996 (Hart, tor: An approach to cross-cultural training
1999). When we look at the Social Science (Fiedler, Mitchell, & Triandis, 1971), which
Citation Index (SSCI), which covers many was published in the Journal of Applied Psych-
more social science publications, we find that ology; (2) Culture training, cognitive complex-
Triandis’s citation index was second only to ity, and interpersonal attitudes (Triandis,
Hofstede, who was ranked fifth in Hart’s 1975), which was published in the book
study, even after two years of his retirement Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Learning

40 dharm p. s. bhawuk and atma p. bhawuk
Table 2.1 Most cited authors
Authors/Year 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Gudykunst, W. 76 51 52 59 70
Triandis, H. 248 296 315 314 352
Brislin, R. 91 102 130 118 145
Ruben, B. 4 7 4 1 10
Hall, E. T. 73 98 86 97 92
Hofstede, G. 265 329 333 362 416
Kim, Y. Y. 14 14 8 17 17
Hammer, M. R. 5 6 6 11 12
Furnham, A. 199 208 182 244 53
Landis, D. 11 10 14 11 245
Berry, J. W. 115 145 125 152 172
Bond, M. H. 67 89 108 97 93
Bochner, S. 33 23 30 28 30
Adler, N. 31 39 43 33 204
Albert, R. D. 3 2 3 7 7
(Brislin, Bochner, &. Lonner, 1975); (3) the annual volumes are available for the period
Theoretical framework for the evaluation of before that, which made the research quite
cross-cultural training effectiveness (Triandis, time consuming, and was done painstakingly
1977); (4) A theoretical framework for the more by the second author. We used the year
efficient construction of culture assimilators 2000 as the cutoff year since Professor Triandis
(Triandis, 1984); (5) Cross-cultural training retired in 1998. We supplement the analyses by
across the individualism and collectivism divide presenting citations from Google Scholar at
(Triandis, Brislin, & Hui, 1988); and (6) Work- the end, which shows the growing impact of
place diversity (Triandis, Kurowski, & Gelfand, the contributions of Professor Triandis.
1994), which was published in the fourth
volume of the second edition of the Handbook
Triandis’s Contribution to the Field
of Industrial and Organizational Psychology
of Cross-Cultural Training
(Triandis, Dunnette, & Hough, 1994). The first
five clearly have cross-cultural training (culture Quantitative analysis tells us how often the
assimilator in the fourth one) in their title, and article has been cited, in what type of journals,
the sixth one deals with diversity in the work- and gives us some idea about what kind of
place, which is a major human resource man- research program might have used this work.
agement and training issue globally. Thus, there In other words, quantitative analysis shows the
is face validity for selecting these articles as the influence of the paper by tracing continuity of
ones that Triandis has contributed directly to in citation over the years as well as the breadth of
the field of cross-cultural training. impact. We need to use qualitative analyses to
Next, like Hart (1999), we did a SSCI analy- recognize the patterns of development in the
sis to quantitatively examine the influence of field, which help us recognize the impact of an
these articles. The SSCI is available on CD- article on diverse fields. In this paper, an
ROM from 1986, and only paper editions of attempt is made to recognize Triandis’s

Harry Triandis’s Intercultural Training as a Research 41
contribution to the field of cross-cultural people. At the end of the critical incident, a
training by evaluating the impact of each of question is posed that asks the reader to reflect
the six articles. The SSCI provided the quanti- on the scenario and think about the source of
tative measure of influence, whereas judgment misunderstanding. The question is followed by
was used to analyze the influence of these art- four or five alternatives that are plausible
icles in the growth of the field. Thus, both behavioral choices for a person facing such a
quantitative and qualitative methods were social situation. In effect, the reader is asked to
used to analyze Traindis’s influence on the make attributions and then to compare his or
field of cross-cultural training. The influence her attributions with the ones provided at the
of these six articles is examined below. end of the incident. One of these alternatives
represents a view from the host culture and a
second one captures the view of the sojourner’s
The Creation of Culture Assimilators
home culture. The rest of the alternatives try to
Culture assimilators did not exist before the capture a range of individual differences present
University of Illinois team spent about a decade in either of the cultures, but are usually less
in the sixties and seventies developing and appropriate or desirable. Thus, one would be
testing this tool for preparing people to live in behaving correctly in his or her own culture if
other cultures. The projects were generously the sojourner selected one particular alterna-
funded by the United States army and navy. tive, but another alternative would have to be
Fiedler was the principal investigator of some selected for the sojourner to behave appropri-
of the grants, and Fiedler and Triandis were the ately in the host culture. For each of the alter-
principal investigators of a grant from the navy. natives, an explanation is offered, usually on a
Fiedler, Triandis, and Mitchell (1971) give credit separate page. The explanation gives the ration-
to L. M. Stolurow for originating the concept of ale why a particular behavior (or alternative) is
culture assimilator, and it seems that he moved not appropriate in the given situation (Albert,
on to other research ideas, because there is only 1983; Cushner and Landis, 1996).
one publication dealing with culture assimilator Culture assimilators were the earliest struc-
attributed to Stolurow (Chemers, Lekhyananda, tured training materials in the field of intercul-
Fiedler, & Stolurow, 1966), the very first publi- tural training, which fall in the broad category
cation from the Illinois group. We will see that of programmed instruction (Pressey, 1932;
though Triandis did not conceive the idea of Skinner, 1954). Programmed instruction had
culture assimilator, he nurtured and developed become popular by 1962 (Skinner, 1986), and
the concept over a long period of time through a made its way into the field of intercultural
systematic research plan. training. Trainees are given the package of
The culture assimilator is a cross-cultural training material to study at their own pace.
training tool that consists of a number of real- This makes the assimilator a convenient self-
life scenarios describing puzzling cross-cultural learning tool. Since different people are at dif-
interactions and an explanation for avoiding ferent levels of cultural sensitivity, this method
the emerging misunderstandings. These scen- is particularly useful as a cross-cultural
arios or vignettes are called critical incidents training tool. If we analyze the process that
(Flanagan, 1954), which describe intercultural trainees go through, we find that they follow
interactions between a sojourner and a host the learning-how-to-learn cycle presented by
country national depicting a misunderstanding Hughes-Weiner (1986). The reading of the
because of cultural differences between the two incident is akin to experiencing an

intercultural interaction, albeit vicariously. when sojourners interact with people from the
Thinking about what may be the cause of the host culture. Triandis (1994) also suggested that
misunderstanding and making an attribution behavioral setting is one of the most powerful
deals with reflective thinking. Discovering the predictors of behavior, and that culture shapes
correct response and the explanation for the these settings. He provided a host of behavior
behavior is similar to abstract conceptualiza- settings (e.g., beauty parlor, cocktail lounge,
tion. And, finally, reading another critical inci- hospital, gymnasium, bus, classroom, and so
dent is like active experimentation. Thus, when forth) that should be the focus of critical inci-
trainees go through a package of critical incidents (Bhawuk, 2001a).
dents they experience the learning-how-to- Empirical data supporting the effectiveness of
learn cycle every time they go from one critical culture assimilators used to prepare Americans
incident to the next. This is clearly not the to live in Arab countries, Thailand, Honduras,
experience one has in reading an ethnograph- and Greece were reported by Fiedler, Mitchell,
ical text about a culture, which simply and Triandis (1971). There has been a consider-
describes various aspects of the culture. The able amount of research regarding the use of the
culture assimilator provides a more intense culture assimilator as a culture training tech-
ego-involving learning experience in the con- nique since the publication of this article, and
text of problem solving opportunities. many journal articles have reported the effect-
Culture assimilators are designed to provide iveness of this method in various contexts
various emphases: (1) interpersonal attitudes (Landis, Day, McGrew, Miller, & Thomas,
that address a contrast between the home cul- 1976). Table 2.2 lists the journals and the year
ture and the target culture; (2) the customs of in which this article has been cited. An examin-
the other culture; (3) the contrasting values of ation of Table 2.2 shows that this is the most
the two cultures; and (4) the various social situ- cited article in the field of cross-cultural
ations that may be encountered at work, home training, and its impact has been significant.
life, etc. (Fiedler, Mitchell, & Triandis, 1971). A review of Table 2.2 shows that this article
The importance of the incidents in the daily life has been cited in more than forty journals,
of the sojourners is what makes it critical and covering various fields such as psychology,
hence important to be covered in the cross- management, human resource management,
cultural training program. These characteristics marketing, language, counseling, education,
provide completeness and clarity to the critical agricultural administration, and service man-
incidents, which were identified as criteria for agement, and covering many international
critical incident selection by Flanagan (1954). journals. The article is cited in influential jour-
Triandis (1994, 1995a) provided some more nals, such as the Journal of Applied Psych-
advice on how to develop culture assimilators. ology, Journal of Personality and Social
He suggested asking questions like “Can you Psychology, Annual Review of Psychology,
think of an incident that changed the way you Academy of Management Review, Administra-
perceived relations between the two cultures tive Science Quarterly, and so forth, which
(American-Japanese, American-Russian, etc.)?” have significant research impact. It can also
or “What did you find most difficult to under- be seen that this article has been cited every
stand when you first arrived in this culture?” year since its publication, and sometimes more
These types of questions help surface important than once in the same year. Clearly, this article
incidents that are humorous, disconcerting, or has had a significant impact in the field of
confusing, and lead to some misunderstanding cross-cultural training, and has drawn the

Table 2.2a Fiedler, F. E., Mitchell, T. R., & Triandis, H. C., 1971, (1971–1985)
International Journal of Psychology 1971

Journal of Applied Social Psychology 1971 (2)
Administratively Science Quarterly 1972
Human Relations 1972
Annual Review of Psychology 1973
Journal of Applied Psychology 1973
Journal of Applied Social Psychology 1974
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1975
AGR ADMIN 1976
Journal of Social Issue 1976
Annual NY Academy 1977
Annual NY Academy 1977
PERS SOC PS 1977
Community Education 1977
SIMULAT GAM 1978
BK #10480 1979
Journal of Market C 1979
Journal of Cross Culture 1979
Foreign Language E 1979
BK #15143 1980
BK #17042 1981
Columb JW 1981
Psychology B R 1982
Child Welfare 1982
REV INTERAM 1982
PERS GUID J 1983
Environmental Behavior 1984
American Psychologist 1984
International Journal of Intercultural Relations 1984
B BR PSYCHO 1985
Academy of Management Review 1985
PSYCHOL B R 1985
interest of scholars from other areas of research 1996). Many culture assimilators (e.g., Tolbert,
to the concepts of culture assimilator in particu- 1990; Vink, 1989) have been developed since,
lar, and cross-cultural training in general. and Albert (1983) provided a list of culture
The Fiedler, Mitchell, and Triandis (1971) assimilators that were available by the early
publication led culture assimilators to become 1980s from different sources. Also, the effect-
the most researched training tool (Albert, 1983; iveness of these assimilators has been examined
Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000; Cushner and Landis, in various contexts. In a nut shell, studies

Table 2.2b Fiedler, F. E., Mitchell, T. R., & Triandis, H. C., 1971, (1986–2001)
International Journal of Intercultural Relations 1986 (4)

Counseling Psychologist 1987
Foreign Language Annals 1988
Annual Review of Psychology 1988
Psychologische Beitrage (German) 1989
Academy Management Review 1990
Journal of Counseling and Development 1991
Academy Management Review 1991
Journal of Counseling Psychology 1994
Service Industries Journal 1995
Human Resource Management Review 1996
Modern Language Journal 1997
Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 1997
Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 1998 (2)
Studia Psychologica 1998
European Review of Applied Psychology 1998
International Journal of Computer Integrated Manufacturing 1999
Applied Psychology-An International Review 2000
Academy of Management Executive 2000
conducted with the culture-specific assimilators a moderately effective training tool when com-
have found them to be effective in many varied pared with other techniques on the cognitive
situations: Differing target cultures, varying level, and it also has some positive impact on
lengths of training, types of measures used, some behavioral and affective criteria though
types of studies conducted (field studies and the direction of the effect is unclear (Bhawuk &
laboratory research), comparisons between Brislin, 2000; Landis, Brislin, & Hulgus, 1985).
groups (cultural assimilator trained compared Now we turn to how research in culture assimi-
to control group, culture assimilator trained lators led to the development of other types of
compared to another form of training, and culture assimilators, like the culture general
combination training), content and context of assimilator (Brislin, Cushner, Cherrie, & Yong,
training, and population (from teenagers to 1986) and the theory-based individualism and
professionals abroad). Overall, the research collectivism assimilator (Bhawuk, 1995, 1996,
tends to indicate that the culture assimilator is 1997, 1998, 2001a).

The development of the culture general uses the four defining attributes and the verti-
assimilator (Brislin, Cushner, Cherrie, & cal and horizontal typology of individualism
Yong, 1986; Cushner & Brislin, 1996) was a and collectivism (Bhawuk, 2001a; Triandis,
significant extension of Triandis and his col- 1995b). A strength of the theory-based assimi-
leagues’ work on culture specific assimilator, lator is that it uses fewer categories than the
and it was built on the foundation laid by their eighteen themes that the culture general
work. The Brislin, et al. culture-general assimi- assimilator (Brislin et al., 1986) employs and
lator broadly consists of 100 critical incidents is likely to avoid the cognitive load (remem-
that cover eighteen themes that are important bering eighteen categories versus remembering
to international assignees. These themes are five inter-related concepts of individualism and
organized around three broad headings: collectivism) experienced by trainees during
People's Intense Feelings, Knowledge Areas, a cross-cultural interaction. A multimethod
and Bases of Cultural Differences (Brislin evaluation of cross-cultural training tools
et al., 1986). In a number of studies, research- showed that trainees who received the theory-
ers have found support for the effectiveness of based Individualism and Collectivism Assimi-
the culture-general assimilator (Bonner, 1987; lator (ICA), compared to a culture-specific
Broaddus, 1986; Cushner, 1989; McIlveen- assimilator for Japan, a culture-general assimi-
Yarbro, 1988). The culture-general assimilator lator (Brislin et al., 1986) and a control group,
retains the general format of a culture specific were significantly more interculturally sensi-
assimilator, i.e., critical incident, four or five tive, had larger category width, made better
alternative behavioral choices, and explan- attribution on given difficult critical incidents,
ation for each of the alternate behaviors. and were more satisfied with the training pack-
However, it is not like the culture-specific age (Bhawuk, 1998) shortly after training. The
assimilator in that it is not designed for a pair findings of this study show promise for using
of countries. This assimilator is designed to over-arching theories like individualism and
train people to live in any country, regardless collectivism in cross-cultural training. It
of what the origin or destination is. It is par- should be noted that the individualism and
ticularly useful for the globetrotting business collectivism assimilator was developed by
people, diplomats, and others. The culture- Bhawuk (1995) as a part of his doctoral disser-
general assimilator, thus, expanded the hori- tation work under the supervision of Professor
zon of culture assimilators, yet it perhaps Triandis, and the influence of Triandis in this
could not have been developed had the two area hardly needs to be elaborated.
decades of research on culture-specific assimi- Bhawuk and colleagues have also developed
lators not existed. Another progenitor was, of a multimedia-based individualism and collect-
course, the many studies on stimulus general- ivism assimilator (Lim, Bhawuk, Copeland,
ization beginning in the 1930s. Thus, we see White, Yoshida, 1999), which is finally begin-
that Triandis and colleagues had provided a ning to take the concept that Triandis and
very fertile research bed in culture assimilators. colleagues had envisioned in the sixties to its
Another significant extension of Triandis’s fruition, and culture assimilators can be now
work on the culture assimilator is the develop- computer-based and fully interactive pro-
ment of theory-based culture assimilators, grammed instruction tools. Again, these works
which was founded on the concepts of indi- could not have been even imagined had the
vidualism and collectivism (Bhawuk, 1995, solid foundation of culture-specific and
1996, 1998, 2001a). This culture assimilator culture-general assimilators not existed.

It is expected that in future, research would use the framework of the other cultures to
focus on using other such overarching theories interpret the behavior in the same way as do
for the purpose of developing culture assimila- members of the other culture. The concept of
tors. Hofstede’s (1980) other five dimensions of isomorphic attribution has become one of the
culture, i.e., Uncertainty Avoidance, Mascu- basic constructs in cross-cultural training as
linity (versus Femininity), power distance, well as intercultural communication. Its
long-term (versus short-term) orientation, and impact on the field can be seen in Table 2.3
indulgence (versus restraint); Schwartz’s (1992, by the diversity of fields in which this article
1994) universal structure of values; Parson’s has been cited over the years.
(1951; also, Trompenaars, 1993) dimensions
of Universalism versus Particularism, Achieve-
ment versus Ascription, and Specificity versus Table 2.3a Triandis, H. C., 1975, (1975–1984)
Diffuseness; and Fiske’s (1990) four types of
socialities – market pricing, authority ranking, Journal of Social Issues 1975
equality matching, and communal sharing – Journal of Personality and Social 1975
would be candidates for such ventures. Also, Psychology
Journal for Theory of Social Behavior 1975
a comparative evaluation of assimilators based
on these different theories may allow the
evaluation of the effectiveness of each of these
TRAIN DEV J 1976
theories in providing cross-cultural training. European Journal of Social Psychology 1977
Thus, we can see that Triandis’s pioneering Journal of Social Issues 1977
work on culture assimilators has provided a Journal of Social Psychology 1977
strong and fertile foundation from which the CONT ED PSY 1977
field of cross-cultural training is likely to blos- ANN NY ACAD 1977
som further in the twenty-first century. PERS SOC PS 1977
CAN PSYCH R 1978
PERS SOC PS 1978
Isomorphic Attribution: Journal of Social Psychology 1978
A Fundamental Concept Education Leader 1979
BK #07311 1979
When trainees go through a culture assimilator
International Review of Applied 1980
they learn to identify behaviors that are appro-
Psychology
priate in their own culture but not appropriate Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 1980
in another culture, and they learn to make International Journal of Psychology 1981
attributions that are similar to those made by Social Science M 1981
people in the host culture. If the sojourner BK# 20620 1981
makes the correct attribution about the behav- PSYCOL B R 1982
ior of host nationals, then he or she is making, Academy of Management Journal 1982
what Triandis (1975) called an “isomorphic BK #27486 1982
attribution.” Cross-cultural training in gen- REV INTERAM 1982
eral, and culture assimilators in particular, INT J ADV C 1983
strongly emphasize preparing people for
Environmental Behavior 1983
making isomorphic attributions. When people
INT J ADV C 1984
make isomorphic attributions they do not use
their own cultural framework alone; they also

Table 2.3b Triandis, H. C., 1975, (1986–2000)

Journal of Organizational Behavior 1988
International Journal for the Advancement of Counseling 1989
Psychologische Beitrage (German) 1989
Journal of Counseling and Development 1991
Journal of Organizational Behavior 1992
Adult Education Quarterly 1994
Leadership Quarterly 1996
Tesol Quarterly 1999
A review of Table 2.3 shows that this article cross-cultural training programs, i.e., the
has been cited in more than thirty journals expected behavioral change in the trainees that
covering various fields such as psychology, can be measured at the end of the training
management, counseling, language, and edu- program, should be to enable trainees to (1)
cation, and covering many international jour- learn how to learn, (2) make isomorphic attri-
nals. The article is cited in many journals, such butions, and (3) handle disconfirmed expect-
as the Journal of Personality and Social Psych- ations. Thus, making isomorphic attributions
ology, Academy of Management Journal, provides a criterion measure for evaluating
American Psychologist, and so forth, which cross-cultural training programs, especially
have significant research impact. It can also because it can be measured by using critical
be seen that this article has been cited quite incidents. Many researchers (Bhawuk, 1998;
regularly since its publication. Clearly, the cit- Cushner, 1989) have used critical incidents as
ation record of this article is quite remarkable a dependent measure to measure trainees' abil-
considering that it is not a journal article, and ities to make isomorphic attribution in inter-
is published as a book chapter. cultural interactions.
Examining the influence of this article quali- Brislin and Bhawuk (1999) suggested that
tatively, we find that the construct of iso- the relationship between disconfirmed expect-
morphic attribution continues to stimulate ation and isomorphic attribution needs to be
many research ideas. Brislin and colleagues explored in future research. In many situations
used this construct as one of the eighteen it is likely that a sojourner would first encoun-
themes in their cultural general assimilator ter a behavior, often very well-meaning on
(Brislin et al., 1986). Bhawuk (1990) argued part of the host, that is unexpected, and then
that isomorphic attribution was a common make an incorrect attribution, i.e., discon-
theme in most of the critical incidents used in firmed expectation precedes the attribution-
the culture-general assimilator, as well as other making process. For example, a western man
culture-specific assimilators. Bhawuk (1995, may shake the hands of a eastern woman to
1990) suggested that the proximal goals of warmly greet her, and the eastern woman may

make an incorrect attribution, e.g., the man is their perspective. When people are able to take
rude or that he is making sexual advances, the perspective as would be taken by many
about this behavior. However, it is also pos- host nationals, then they are said to have high
sible that people would make incorrect attribu- quality of perspective differentiation. Thus, we
tions in situations where the behavior is not at see that isomorphic attribution has become a
all unexpected, thus making future inter- criterion in defining perspective-taking ability,
actions problematic. For example, a customs intercultural sensitivity (Bhawuk & Brislin,
officer may request a sojourner to open his or 1992; Hammer, Bennett, & Wiseman, 2003),
her bag, a very common occurrence at the cultural intelligence (Earley & Ang, 2003;
airport, but the visitor may attribute this Thomas, 2006), global mindset (Javidan,
behavior to mistrust on the part of the officer1, Hough, & Bullough, 2010), global-mindedness
for no apparent reason, simply because this (Kehl & Morris, 2008), and so forth, which are
person may never have experienced such a new areas of research in cross-cultural
behavior in the past. The visitor may say training. Thus, the construct of isomorphic
something impolite, the customs officer may attribution is finding many new applications
do something unkind, and the situation may and stimulating the growth of the field.
flare up into a nasty incident. Thus, the causal
link between disconfirmed expectancies and
Evaluation of Cross-Cultural Training
non-isomorphic attribution is not quite clear.
Bhawuk and Layes (2002) examined the rela- Brislin and Pedersen (1976) in their seminal
tionship between these variables, and proposed book, Cross-Cultural Orientation Programs,
a typology that includes cognitive, affective, discussed issues related to evaluation of cross-
and conative processes that enter into consid- cultural training, and focused on such critical
eration in intercultural interactions. Some issues as internal and external validity. Triandis
people are cognitively oriented, whereas others (1977) extended their work further by
are affective or conative. reviewing the field of evaluation research as
Strehlein (2000) proposed the concept of well as the independent and dependent vari-
intercultural perspective-taking. Following ables that are associated with cross-cultural
the development psychological paradigm, he training. He emphatically recommended a mul-
argued that perspective-taking in a monocul- timethod measurement strategy for evaluating
tural setting is at best fully developed to make cross-cultural training. He argued that each
one ethnocentric. He operationalized the measure usually has its own specific biases,
measurement of perspective-taking by using and so using multiple criteria helps avoid this
the concept of isomorphic attribution. In inter- problem. He suggested measuring the expect-
cultural settings, when people make attribu- ations and behavioral intentions of host nation-
tions different from those made in their own als and sojourners, visitors’ adjustment during
culture, they are using perspective differenti- the sojourn, perception of the sojourner about
ation. They may not be making isomorphic the interaction with the host nationals, and so
attribution, but they are attempting to modify forth. To put it simply, he recommended, “One
is to ask more questions in many more forms”
(Triandis, 1977, p. 40). The influence of this
1
If the visitor appears to be of a cultural or
article on the field can be seen in Table 2.4.
physiological group different from the officer, the
visitor may attribute the behavior to racial or cultural The article by Triandis (1977) was the first
animus. journal article addressing the need of

Table 2.4 Triandis, H. C., 1977, (1986–2000)

Counseling Psychologist 1991
Irish Journal of Psychology 1991*
Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 1998
evaluation of cross-cultural training programs. training has generally suffered from lack of
Thus far, it remains the only journal article evaluations, despite Campbell’s influential art-
published on the topic, and the only other icle about the role of evaluation in creating a
discussion of the topic is found in the Hand- scientific society (Campbell, 1969). Thus, the
book of Intercultural Training (Landis & Bha- slow growth of evaluation of cross-cultural
gat, 1996), or the earlier edition of the training is not such an unusual finding.
Handbook (Landis & Brislin, 1983). Many
researchers have followed the recommenda-
Theoretical Framework to Develop
tion of Triandis in evaluating cross-cultural
Culture Assimilators
training programs. Bhawuk (1998) used the
multimethod approach and included multiple Triandis (1984) proposed a theoretical frame-
measures like intercultural sensitivity (Bhawuk work, which consisted of twenty-one dimen-
& Brislin, 1992), Category width (Detweiler, sions of cultural differences in social behavior,
1975), attribution making, reaction measure, for the development of culture assimilators. He
recall measure, and behavioral measure. Har- presented evidence that showed that by using
rison (1992) used a reaction measure, a learn- the framework researchers could develop cul-
ing measure, and a role play (behavioral) ture assimilators in a shorter time, and he
measure, to evaluate cross-cultural training argued that this framework, compared to the
programs. Cushner (1989) used intercultural traditional method, could be used to develop
sensitivity, attribution-making ability, and culture assimilators more efficiently in that an
ability to apply concepts learned in training assimilator could be developed in about one-
programs to intercultural interaction scenarios third of the time taken by the traditional
as dependent measures in evaluating cross- method. The influence of this article on the
cultural training programs. Thus, we see that, field can be seen in Table 2.5. An examination
although evaluation of training has not of Table 2.5 shows that this article has been
become a popular topic of research following cited in eleven different journals covering vari-
the publication of Triandis’ article, there is a ous fields, such as psychology, management,
definite acceptance of his recommendations in language, and creative behavior, and covering
the field of cross-cultural training. We should many international journals. It can also be seen
also note that program evaluation is not a that this article has been cited quite regularly
particularly popular activity, and the field of since its publication.

Table 2.5 Triandis, H. C., 1984, (1987–2001) practitioners to use theory in shorter cross-
cultural training programs (Bhawuk, 2001a),
Australian Journal of Psychology 1987* and thus provided a way to escape from dos
International Journal of Intercultural 1988
and don’ts training (Bhawuk, 1990). The influ-
Relations
ence of this article on the field can be seen in
Psychologische Beitrage 1989
Table 2.6. An examination of Table 2.6 shows
Management International Review 1990*
International Journal of Psychology 1991 that this article has been cited in twenty differ-
Revista InterAmericana de Psicologia 1991* ent journals covering various fields, such as
Journal of International Business 1993* psychology, communication, management,
Studies language, education, and counseling, and
Topics in Language Disorders 1995* covering many international journals. It can
Journal of Creative Behavior 1996* also be seen that this article has been cited
Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 1998 quite regularly since its publication.
Studia Psychologica 1998 Bhawuk and Brislin (1992) found further
International Journal of Intercultural 2001 application of individualism and collectivism
Relations
in developing an intercultural sensitivity
Journal of Business Ethics 2001
instrument, which can be used for selection as
well as training. Brislin (1994) adapted this
Brislin et al., (1986) might have profited from instrument to develop a training module, fur-
this framework that they developed a culture ther stimulating interest in theory-based
general assimilator following a similar frame- training modules. Bhawuk (2001a) argued that
work, except that they included eighteen themes the Triandis, Brislin, and Hui (1988) approach
or dimensions (Brislin, 1986).2 This article was was a broad-brush approach, and presented a
also influential in developing the culture blueprint for the development of a theory-
assimilator for Japan (Iwao & Triandis, based culture assimilator using the four defin-
1986), which has been used in many research ing attributes and the vertical and horizontal
studies (Bhawuk, 1998; Harrison, 1992). typology of individualism and collectivism
presented by Triandis (1995a) which was dis-
cussed earlier. Special care was taken to avoid
Application of Individualism and explaining everything by using individualism
Collectivism in Cross-Cultural Training and collectivism. Instead, it was suggested that
a particular attribute of individualism and col-
In this article, Triandis, Brislin, and Hui (1988)
lectivism would explain a certain phenomenon
gave twenty-two pieces of advice based on
or cultural difference. Instead of explaining
individualism and collectivism to international
forty-four different behaviors by using indi-
travelers. This was the first attempt to use
vidualism and collectivism (a broad-brush
theoretical concepts directly in cross-cultural
approach), the four defining attributes and
training. This paper also stimulated
the vertical and horizontal typology were used
to explain them. Thus, we see that Bhawuk
2
Brislin, Cushner, Cherrie, and Yong (1986) do not (2001a) profited from the earlier work of Tri-
cite Triandis (1984) in their book. Also, this article is andis in applying individualism and collectiv-
not cited in the article on culture general assimilator
ism to cross-cultural training.
(Brislin, 1986). Since Brislin was the associate editor
of IJIR in 1984, it is quite likely that he saw Triandis’s Brislin and colleagues have contributed to
article, at least on publication. the theory-based training arena by presenting

Table 2.6 Triandis, H. C., Brislin, R. W., & Hui, C. H., 1988, (1991–2001)
Communication Education 1991

Journal of Management 1993
Psychological Review 1994
Journal of International Business Studies 1994
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 1994
Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 1995 (2)
Journal of Employment Counseling 1995
Career Development Quarterly 1996
Organization Studies 1996
International Journal of Public Opinion Research 1997
Management Learning 1997
Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences 1997
Psychological Reports 1997
Families in Society-The Journal of Contemp. Human Services 1998
Psychological Reports 1998
Child Abuse and Neglect 1999
Journal of Management 2000
Political Psychology 2000
Social Indicators Research 2000
Journal of Pediatric Psychology 2000
two volumes (Brislin & Yoshida, 1994; Cushner generation of training material, to the develop-
& Brislin, 1997) of training modules, where ment of theory-based training modules.
each module is based on an established concept
or theory. In these volumes we find many
A Framework of Culture Shock
modules that have applied the concepts of indi-
and Diversity
vidualism and collectivism (e.g., Bhawuk, 1997;
Brislin, 1994). Thus, we see that Triandis again Triandis, Kurowski, and Gelfand (1994) pre-
led the field of cross-cultural training to the next sented a theoretical framework for understanding

how culture shock is experienced. According Table 2.7 Triandis, H. C., Kurowski, L. L., &
to this theory, there are many factors that lead Gefland, M. J., 1994, (1996–1999)
the sojourner to experience culture shock while
Journal of Employment Counseling 1996
interacting with people in the host culture. If
there is a history of conflict between the two
cultures, if cultural distance between the two
cultures is large, if neither the host nor the Group & Organization Management 1998
sojourner know about each other’s cultures, Research in Organizational Behavior 1998
and if the second language competence of the Organizational Behavior and Human 1999
sojourner or the host is weak, then they per- Decision Processes
ceive each other to be very different, and their Personnel Psychology 1999
interactions lead to culture shock. On the con- Journal of Psychology 1999
trary, if there is not a history of conflict, if the Human Relations 1999
cultural distance is small, the sojourner knows International Journal of Selection and 1999
about the host culture, and his or her second Assessment
Journal of Business and Psychology 1999
language competence is excellent, then the he
American Journal of Community 1999
or she is likely to perceive the other as similar
Psychology
to himself or herself, and is not likely to experi-
ence culture shock3. Other factors that add to
reducing perception of difference are network
overlap, equal status contact, and superordin- Behavior and Human Decision Process, Person-
ate goals. When interaction between people nel Psychology, and so forth, which have sig-
who are from different cultures is rewarded, nificant research impact.
they interact more, their networks overlap Bhawuk and Brislin (2000) reviewed the
more, and they make more isomorphic attri- impact of the concept of culture shock on the
butions, thus leading to reduction or elimin- field of cross-cultural training, and found that
ation of culture shock. culture shock led to the development of
The influence of this article on the field can sojourner adjustment as a field of study
be seen in Table 2.7. An examination of (Church, 1982), which has been approached
Table 2.7 shows that this article has been cited from both the acculturation perspective
in fourteen different journals covering various (Ward, 1996), and the cross-cultural manage-
fields, such as psychology, management, per- ment perspective (Thomas, 1999). They con-
sonnel or human resource management, ethics, cluded that culture shock had proven to be a
and counseling. It can also be seen that this fertile research bed, and Triandis’s contribu-
article has been cited quite regularly, and mul- tion is likely to stimulate further research in
tiple times in a year since its publication. The this area.
article is cited in many journals, such as the Goto (1997) tested elements of this model
Journal of Applied Psychology, Research in presented by Triandis et al. (1994) in the con-
Organizational Behavior, Organizational text of a diverse workplace, and found pre-
dictive validity for the model. The article by
Triandis and colleagues also provided the
3
foundation for examining the diversity activ-
These conditions are strikingly similar to those listed
by Allport (1954) as the basis for the development of ities of large American multinationals, and
prejudice. Bhawuk and Triandis (1996) identified

emerging corporate strategies in dealing with

Discussion
diversity. They were able to show how differ-
ent organizations start with training pro- Bibliometrics deals with counting and analyz-
grams that are useful in developing ing different aspects of written communication
intercultural sensitivity, and then slowly build to study the influence of a scholar, a book, or a
integrated strategies to deal with various journal on a field of study (Pritchard, 1969,
issues of diverse workplace. Bhawuk (2000) p. 348). Borgman (1990) argued that citation
further refined the model to present a theoret- analysis is the best known form of biblio-
ical framework for the study of diversity, metrics (Lievrouw, 1989) or the method of
which bridges practitioners’ framework and estimating and measuring the influence of a
existing cross-cultural theories. Building fur- scholar on a field of study. The SSCI provides
ther on this framework, Bhawuk (2001b) pre- information on how many times a paper has
sented a model of “World Peace through been cited in the literature, and it is a well-
Intercultural Understanding,” thus offering established source. The advantage of using
further applications of the model. In short, SSCI is that it provides an unobtrusive meas-
the theoretical framework provided by Trian- ure (Borgman, 1990). SSCI also reflects how
dis and colleagues has provided stimulation over the years the significance of a research
not only for research on culture shock, but work, a researcher, or even a journal changes.
also on many other related areas of cross- For example, the Journal of Abnormal and
culture training like diversity training, hate Social Psychology, which was one of the most
crime prevention training, and so forth. Con- influential journals up to the 1960s, is no
sidering the importance of diversity in the longer published as a single journal, but rather
global workplace, this article is likely to con- as two publications. Thus, to some degree the
tinue to influence the field of cross-cultural SSCI can be construed as a source of an
training for many decades in future. impartial and stable measurement of people’s
A search using Google Scholar shows that influence on a field. Unobtrusiveness and
Fiedler, Mitchell, and Triandis (1971) has impartiality make SSCI a reliable quantitative
been cited 590 times; Triandis (1975) has been measure of the influence of a scholar on a field.
cited 333 times; Triandis (1977) has been cited Though some question the validity of SSCI, it
114 times; Triandis (1984) has been cited 153 does provide strong validity in that the citation
times; Triandis, Brislin, and Hui (1988) has index for a person is built slowly and it also
been cited 518 times; and Triandis, Kurowski, diminishes slowly. We do find from Tables 1
and Gelfand (1994) has been cited 465 times. through 7, which have been culled from the
The total citation of these six articles count to SSCI, that these six articles by Triandis and
2,173, which is a small number considering colleagues have had a lasting influence on the
that the book on individualism and collectiv- field of cross-cultural training, as they have
ism (Triandis 1995b) alone is cited over been cited continuously over the years. We
12,000 times. All these six papers are cited in also find that they have been cited in a variety
diverse fields, as noted earlier, and continue of field of research, and in many influential
to have an influence beyond intercultural journals that have significant impact on
training. Thus, the contributions of Triandis shaping a research field, thus suggesting a
to the field of intercultural training continues wide-based influence of these articles.
to grow and is also shaping other areas of The qualitative analyses of the evolution of
research. the field of cross-cultural training also shows

that Triandis’s work on the development and assimilator to train people for effective race
testing of culture assimilators (Fiedler, Mitch- relations (Landis et al., 1976; Landis, Brislin,
ell, & Triandis, 1971) and his theoretical & Hulgus, 1985), it has not been used exten-
framework for the development of culture sively by practitioners, which could have
assimilators (Triandis, 1984) have led to the helped ameliorate some of our race-relations
development of the culture-general assimila- problems. We could not fault Triandis for this,
tor, the theory-based culture assimilator, and though, since he did offer it freely to practi-
multimedia-based culture assimilators. His tioners through an article in the Chicago
contribution of the construct of isomorphic Tribune (Crews, 1973).
attribution has provided a criterion measure Despite the foundational contributions of
for evaluating training programs, and has Triandis, he would be the first to acknowledge
stimulated theorizing how disconfirmed that there are serious shortcomings in the
expectation and isomorphic attribution work, research paradigms that are employed in pro-
and how perspective-taking can be operation- gram evaluation. For example, although there
alized. Though the impact of Triandis’s work are many studies that show significant shifts in
on evaluation of training has not been so sig- a number of cognitive functions shortly after
nificant, his contribution to training evaluation training, the death of longitudinal researches
has led many researchers to use multimethod lead one to wonder about the stability (and the
approach to the evaluation of training, which importance) of those effects. Second, there are
is quite encouraging. His work on individual- only two studies which reached, as a methodo-
ism and collectivism has led to the develop- logical issue, beyond paper and pencil self-
ment of a huge literature on this topic, so much report data on effectiveness. Those two studies
so that some called the 1980s and 1990s the (Landis, Brislin, & Hulgus, 1985; Weldon,
decades of individualism and collectivism Carlston, Rissman, Slobedin, & Triandis,
(Kâğitçibaşi, 1994, 1997). Though not to the 1975) both used a double-blind procedure to
same degree, his application of these concepts assess behavior change in white participants
to cross-cultural training has also greatly after training on an assimilator.
influenced the development of theory-based Most studies of training effectiveness tend to
training modules and culture assimilators. test only the null hypothesis of no effect. In
And, finally, Triandis’s article on diversity other words, the impact of the training is com-
has generated renewed research interest in pared with no training. If there is an effect
culture shock, and has also directed research found, it is impossible to tell if some other
effort toward applying cross-cultural research training might be more effective. Would, for
knowledge to diversity management, hate- example, mere contact, under the Allportian
crime prevention, diversity training, and conditions be much more potent in changing
world peace. behaviors than a critical incident-based assimi-
Ray and Bhawuk (2002) evaluated the lator? Where in the hierarchy of effects does
impact of culture assimilators on the world of the assimilator lie? In terms of cost-effective
practice, and suggested that the work of Tri- decision-making, such information is import-
andis could have made a much bigger impact ant. We are convinced that Triandis would
had some champion taken his ideas and find- have agreed that comparative studies should
ings and commercialized it, especially for be a priority.
training people for harmonious inter-race rela- In 1983, Landis, Brislin, and Brandt pre-
tions. It is sad that though there exists a culture sented a model of intercultural behavior that

was heavily influenced by the 1972 Analysis of field of cross-cultural psychology and cross-
Subjective Culture book. The variables in that cultural training. Indeed, Triandis’s scholarly
model could not be operationalized except by contributions will shape the field of cross-
the various measures presented by Triandis cultural training for a long time, through both
and his colleagues (e.g., the behavioral differ- the literature and the people he has trained, or
ential). In 2004, Landis and Bhawuk, seg- otherwise influenced, for many decades in the
mented the model into five submodels and present century. This paper is gratefully
argued that each could be tested and the offered on behalf of all of us who work in the
results would become inputs to the next model area of intercultural training as a token of our
in the chain. Finally, in 2015, Warnick and gratitude to him. Though he left the world
Landis, suggested particular brain functions physically on June 1, 2019, he will live in our
that may underly each variable. Therefore, memory and the annals of scholarship for a
because Triandis formulated ways to measure long time.
subjective culture, researchers and theorists
have subsequently been able to find those Acknowledgments
neurological functions that may explain inter-
and intra-behavioral differences in intercul- This paper is dedicated to Professor Harry C.
tural behavior, and this has opened up entirely Triandis for his life-time commitment to the
new ways of looking at this phenomenon (see field of cross-cultural training, which is likely
Chapter 20 by Han and Makela in this to become, thanks to his contributions, one of
Handbook). the most important fields of research and prac-
Something that is not so apparent from the tice to help us create a harmonious global
tables and the discussion above is the role that village. The authors graciously acknowledge
Triandis has played in shaping the field by financial support for this research from the
training graduate students over the last forty Vielberth Foundation through the University
years, many of whom (i.e., Rabi Bhagat, of Regensburg. Professor Triandis passed
Kwok Leung, Harry Hui, Yoshi Kashima, away on June 1, 2019, as this chapter was in
Michele Gelfand, Arzoo Wasti, and the first preparation and, thus, had no opportunity to
author of this chapter, to name just a few) are comment. We hope that he would have been
now established scholars in their own right. pleased.
Except for Fiedler and Brislin, all the other
coauthors of these six articles (Mitchell, Hui, References
Kurowski, and Gelfand) have been students
who worked with Triandis. The first author Albert, R. D. (1983). The intercultural sensitizer
of this article was also a student of Triandis, or culture assimilator: A cognitive approach.
and owes much intellectual debt to him. Col- In D. Landis & R. W. Brislin (Eds.), Handbook
of intercultural training: Issues in training
leagues who have worked with Triandis have
methodology (Vol. 2, pp. 186–217). New York:
always complimented his collegiality and
Pergamon.
social grace, and one of them commented that
Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading,
“Harry is not only a world-class scholar but MA: Addison-Wesley.
also a fine human being (Malpass, personal Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1990). Cross-cultural orientation
communication, 1992).” It is not a surprise programs. In R. W. Brislin (Ed.), Applied cross-
that Triandis has always worked with intercultural psychology (pp. 325–346). Newbury
national scholars in creating and shaping the Park, CA: Sage.

Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2001a). Evolution of culture Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Layes, G. (2002). A synthesis
assimilators: Toward theory-based assimilators. of social expectancy theory, action theory, and
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, learning theories in cross-cultural training:
25(2), 141–163. Toward a theory of disconfirmed expectations.
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2001b). World Peace through Paper presented at the Academy of Management
Intercultural Understanding. Paper presented at Meeting, 2002, Denver, CO.
the 2nd International Conference of the Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Triandis, H. C. (1996).
International Academy of Intercultural Research Diversity in work place: Emerging corporate
on, International Perspectives on Race, Ethnicity, strategies. In G. R. Ferris & M. R. Buckley
and Intercultural Relations, April 19–22, 2001, (Eds.), Human resource management:
University of Mississippi, Oxford. Perspectives, context, functions, and outcomes
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1995). The role of culture theory (3rd ed., pp. 84–96). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
in cross-cultural training: A comparative Prentice-Hall.
evaluation of culture-specific, culture-general, and Bonner, G. (1987). A theoretical analysis and
theory-based assimilators. [Unpublished doctoral development of the intercultural sensitizer as a
dissertation]. University of Illinois at Urbana- tool for teacher education from a multicultural
Champaign. education perspective. [Unpublished doctoral
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1996) Development of a culture dissertation]. University of Houston.
theory-based assimilator: Applications of Borgman, C. (1990). Editors introduction. In C. L.
individualism and collectivism in cross-cultural Borgman (Ed.), Scholarly communication and
training. Best Paper Proceedings (pp. 147–150) bibliometrics (pp. 10–27). Newbury Park, CA:
Academy of Management Annual conference, Sage.
Cincinnati. Brislin, R. W. (1986). A culture general assimilator:
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1997). Leadership through Preparation for various types of sojourners.
Relationship Management: Using the Theory of International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
Individualism and Collectivism. In R. W. Brislin 10, 215–234.
& K. Cushner (Eds.), Improving intercultural Brislin, R. W. (1994). Individualism and collectivism
interactions: Modules for cross-cultural training as the source of many specific cultural differences.
programs, (Vol. 2). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. In R. W. Brislin & T. Yoshida (Eds.), Improving
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1998). The role of culture theory intercultural interactions: Modules for cross-
in cross-cultural training: A multimethod study cultural training programs (pp. 71–90). Thousand
of culture-specific, culture-general, and culture Oaks, CA: Sage.
theory-based assimilators. Journal of Cross- Brislin, R. W., & Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1999). Cross-
Cultural Psychology, 29(5), 630–655. cultural training: Research and innovations. In
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2000). Integrating research and J. Adamopolous & Y. Kashima (Eds.), Social
practice: A framework for the study of diversity psychology and cultural context: Contributions of
management. Paper presented at the Academy Harry Triandis to cross-cultural psychology
of Management Annual Conference, August (pp. 205–216). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
4–9, 2000, Toronto. Brislin, R. W., Cushner, K., Cherrie, C., & Yong,
Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Brislin, R. W. (1992). The M. (1986). Intercultural interactions: A practical
measurement of intercultural sensitivity using guide. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
the concepts of individualism and collectivism. Brislin, R. W., & Pedersen, P. (1976). Cross-cultural
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, orientation programs. New York, NY: Gardner.
16, 413–436. Brislin, R. W., & Yoshida, T. (1994). Improving
Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Brislin, R. W. (2000). Cross- intercultural interactions: Modules for cross-
cultural training: A review. Applied Psychology: cultural training programs. Thousand Oaks, CA:
An International Review, 49(1), 162–191. Sage.

Broaddus, D. L. (1986). Use of the culture-general In C. S. Granrose & S. Oskamp (Eds.), Cross-
assimilator in intercultural training. cultural work groups. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
[Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. The School Hammer, M. R., Bennett, M. J., & Wiseman, R.
of Graduate Studies, Indiana State University. (2003). Measuring intercultural sensitivity: The
Campbell, D. T. (1969). Reforms as experiments. intercultural development inventory.
American Psychologist, 24(4), 409–429. International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
Chemers, M. M., Lekhyananda, D., Fiedler, F. E., & 27(4), 421–443.
Stolurow, L. M. (1966). Some effects of cultural Harrison, J. K. (1992). Individual and combined
training on leadership in heterocultural task effects of behavior modeling and the culture
groups. International Journal of Psychology, 1, assimilator in cross-cultural management
301–314. training. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77,
Church, A. T. (1982). Sojourner adjustment. 952–962.
Psychological Bulletin, 91(3), 540–572. Hart, W. B. (1999). Interdisciplinary influences in
Crews, S. (1973) “Cultural naivete cited as cause the study of intercultural relations: A citation
of racial conflicts,” Chicago Tribune, June 24, analysis. International Journal of Intercultural
p. 41. Relations, 23(4), 575–589.
Cushner, K. (1989). Assessing the impact of a Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequence. Beverly
culture-general assimilator. International Journal Hills, CA: Sage.
of Intercultural Relations, 13, 125–146. Hughes-Weiner, G. (1986). The “learning how to
Cushner, K., & Brislin, R. W. (1996). Intercultural learn” approach to cross-cultural orientation.
interactions: A practical guide (2nd ed.). International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 10, 485–505.
Cushner, K., & Brislin, R. W. (Eds.). (1997). Iwao, K., & Triandis, H. C. (1986). Culture
Improving intercultural interactions: Models for assimilator for Japanese visiting the United
cross-cultural training programs, (Vol. 2). States. Illinois: Department of Psychology,
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. University of Illinois.
Cushner, K., & Landis, D. (1966), The intercultural Javidan, M., Hough, L., & Bullough, A. (2010).
sensitizer. In D. Landis & R. Bhagat (Eds.), Conceptualizing and measuring global
Handbook of intercultural training (2nd ed., mindset®: Development of the global mindset
pp. 185–202) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. inventory. Glendale, AZ: Thunderbird School of
Detweiler, R. (1975). On inferring the intentions of a Global Management.
person from another culture. Journal of Kâğitçibaşi, Ç. (1994). A critical appraisal of
Personality, 43, 591–611. individualism and collectivism: Toward a new
Earley, P. C., & Ang, S. (2003). Cultural formulation. In U. E. Kim, H. C. Triandis, Ç. E.
intelligence: Individual interactions across Kâğitçibaşi, S. C. E. Choi, & G. E. Yoon
cultures. Stanford University Press. Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method,
Fiedler, F. E., Mitchell, T. R., & Triandis, H. C. and applications (pp. 52–65). Orange County,
(1971). The culture assimilator: An approach to CA: Sage.
cross-cultural training. Journal of Applied Kâğitçibaşi, Ç. (1997). Individualism and
Psychology, 55, 95–102. collectivism. In J. W. Berry, M. H. Segall, &
Fiske, A. P. (1990). Structures of social life: The four Ç. Kâğitçibaşi (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural
elementary forms of human relations. New York, psychology: Social behavior and applications
NY: Free Press. (Vol. 3, pp. 1–49). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn
Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. & Bacon.
Psychological Bulletin, 51, 327–358. Kehl, K., & Morris, J. (2008). Differences in global-
Goto, S. G. (1997). Majority and minority mindedness between short-term and semester-
perspectives on cross-cultural interactions. long study abroad participants at selected

private universities. Frontiers: The Rogers, E. M., & Hart, W. B. (1998). Edward T.
Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 15, Hall and the origins of the field of intercultural
67–79. communication. National Communication
Landis, D., & Bhagat, R. (Eds.) (1996). Handbook Association, International and Intercultural
of intercultural training (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, Communication Division, New York.
CA: Sage. Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content
Landis, D., & Brislin, R. (1983). Handbook of and structure of values: Theoretical advances
intercultural training (3 Vols.). Elmsford, NY: and empirical tests in 20 countries. In M. Zanna
Pergamon Press. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social
Landis, D., Brislin, R. W., & Hulgus, J. (1985). psychology (Vol. 25, pp. 1–66). New York, NY:
Attribution training versus contact in Academic Press.
acculturative learning: A laboratory study 1. Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Beyond individualism and
Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 15(7), collectivism: New cultural dimensions of values.
466–482. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi,
Landis, D., Day, H. R., McGrew, P. L, Miller, A. S. Choi, G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and
B., & Thomas, J. A. (1976). Can a Black “culture collectivism: Theory, method, and applications.
assimilator” increase racial understanding? Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Journal of Social Issues, 32,169–184. Skinner, B. F. (1954). The science of learning and
Lievrouw, L. A. (1989). The invisible college the art of teaching. Harvard Educational Review,
reconsidered: Bibliometrics and the development 24, 86–97.
of scientific communication theory. Skinner, B. F. (1986). Programmed instruction
Communication Research, 16: 615–628. revisited. The Phi Delta Kappan, 68(2), 103–110.
Lim, K., Bhawuk, D. P. S., Copeland, J, White, B., Strehlein, C. (2000). Perspective taking in
& Yoshida, W. (1999). Multimedia intercultural interactions: Development and
individualism and collectivism assimilator [CD- initial empirical evaluation of a model.
ROM]. Honolulu, HI: CIBER, University of Diplomarbeit als Teil der Diplomprufung fur
Hawaii at Manoa. Psychologen [Diploma thesis as part of the
McIlveen-Yarbro, C. L. (1988). An assessment of diploma exam for Psychology]. University of
the ability of the culture-general assimilator to Regensburg, Germany.
create sensitivity to multiculturalism in an Thomas, D. C. (1999). The expatriate experience:
educational setting. [Unpublished doctoral A critical review and synthesis. Advances in
dissertation]. University of Houston. International Comparative Management, 12,
Parsons, T., Shils, E., & Smelser, N. (1951). 237–273.
Towards a general theory of action: Theoretical Thomas, D. C. (2006). Domain and development of
foundations for the social sciences. New York, cultural intelligence: The importance of
NY: Harper Torchbooks. mindfulness. Group & Organization
Pressey, S. L. (1932). A third and fourth Management, 31(1), 78–99.
contribution toward the coming “Industrial Tolbert, A. S. S. (1990). Venezuelan culture
Revolution” in education. School and Society, assimilator: Incidents designed for training US
36, 934. professionals conducting business in Venezuela.
Pritchard, A. (1969). Statistical bibliography or [Unpublished doctoral thesis]. University of
bibliometrics. Journal of Documentation, 25(4), Minnesota.
348–349. Triandis, H. C. (1975). Culture training, cognitive
Ray, C., & Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2002). From ideas to complexity, and interpersonal attitudes. In
market application: Dynamics of knowledge R. W. Brislin, S. Bochner, & W. Lonner (Eds.),
transfer and the role of champions. Journal of Cross-cultural perspectives on learning
Environmental Engineering and Policy. (pp. 39–77). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Triandis, H. C. (1977). Theoretical framework for Triandis, H. C., Kurowski, L. L., & Gelfand, M. J.
evaluation of cross-cultural training (1994). Workplace diversity. In H. C. Triandis,
effectiveness. International Journal of M. D. Dunnette, & L. M. Hough (Eds.),
Intercultural Relations, 1, 19–45. Handbook of industrial and organizational
Triandis, H. C. (1984). A theoretical framework for psychology (2nd ed., Vol. 4, pp. 769–827). Palo
the more efficient construction of culture Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
assimilators. International Journal of Trompenaars, F. (1993). Riding the waves of culture.
Intercultural Relations, 8, 301–330. London, UK: Brealey.
Triandis, H. C. (1994). Culture and social behavior. Vink, C. D. (1989). Development of an intercultural
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. sensitizer training program for Americans going
Triandis, H. C. (1995a). Culture specific to China. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation].
assimilators. In S. Fowler, & M. Mumford Temple University.
(eds.), Intercultural sourcebook, (Vol. 1). Ward, C. (1996). Acculturation. In D. Landis &
Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. R. Bhagat (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural
Triandis, H. C. (1995b). Individualism and training (pp. 124–147). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Weldon, D., Carston, D., Rissman, A., Slobodin,
Triandis, H. C., Brislin, R. W., & Hui, C. H. (1988). L., & Triandis, H. (1975). A laboratory test of
Cross-cultural training across the individualism the effects of culture assimilator training. Journal
and collectivism divide. International Journal of of Personality and Social Psychology, 32,
Intercultural Relations, 12, 269–289. 300–310.

3 Interdisciplinary History of Intercultural
Communication Studies
Steve J. Kulich, Liping Weng, Rongtian Tong, and Greg DuBois
Introduction and Overview: Nakayama, 2010; Pusch, 2004; Rogers &

A Rationale for Re-examination Steinfatt, 1999; Sorrells, 2012).
(2) Intercultural education largely arose out of
What is the use of a disciplinary and
the need to educate students from different
organizational history? . . . history . . .
can illuminate the past as well as the
cultural backgrounds in the same class-
present . . . it often becomes possible to room in the USA (e.g., Hoopes, 1971,
understand assumptions and patterns 1980; Renwick, 1994), whereas intercul-
invisible to those who made the history. tural training mostly arose out of the need
(Gehrke & Keith, 2014, p. 1) to train government officers who needed to
be effective in other countries for short-
Intercultural Communication (IC) refers to a
term sojourners (e.g., Edward T. Hall and
broad range of complex, inter-related, academic
the Foreign Service Institute [FSI]).
and application-oriented streams (e.g., “murky
(3) Much of the content and methods for cul-
waters,” Baldwin, 2016; Leeds-Hurwitz, 2010).
tivating intercultural awareness grew from
While these streams or branches (González,
and relied on the contributions of cultural
2010) have diverged, many intercultural
anthropologists (e.g., Benedict, 1934; C.
scholars, educators, and practitioners, diversity
Kluckhohn, 1954, 1962; F. Kluckhohn &
consultants and facilitators, and cross-cultural
Strodtbeck, 1961) and related approaches
researchers, trainers, mediators, and counselors
to cultural comparison (Parsons & Shils,
still acknowledge origins based on these
1951) later adding educational, cross-
narratives:
cultural psychology, communication
(1) The intercultural focus and field is attrib- studies, and international relations per-
uted to be an outgrowth of post–WWII spectives (Harman & Briggs, 1991; Hart,
contexts in the USA, e.g., academic con- 1999; Landis & Wasilewski, 1999; Pusch,
sultants employed by the military to both 2004, 2004).
understand the contexts of war and then (4) Early conceptualizing, theorizing, and
“win the peace” after it ended, the large efforts toward systematic intercultural
influx of international students to Ameri- training was integrated through pioneering
can universities, international volunteer initiatives by Hall and FSI colleagues in
work through agencies like the Peace the 1950s (Leeds-Hurwitz, 1990; Rogers &
Corps, the expansion of multinational cor- Steinfatt, 1999) and focused on communi-
porations around the globe, and domestic cation between individuals from different
progress toward inclusion and diversity in national cultures (Croucher, Sommier, &
ethnic and race relations (cf. Martin & Rhamani, 2015).

Interdisciplinary History of Intercultural Studiess 61
Additionally, the field’s scope and content evaluating concrete encounters with other
(Bhawuk, 2000, 2009a; Bhawuk & Brislin, cultures (e.g., the D-I-E tool, Bennett
2000; Pusch, 2004) include and primarily et al., 1977; or its D-A-E version, Nam
focus on: & Condon, 2010; Nam, 2012) to expose
attributions and learn from disconfirmed
(5) Comparing or contrasting cultures at
expectations (Bhawuk, 2009a).
macro levels associated with geopolitical
nation-states and their socio-political- Though Hall no doubt formulated and popu-
economic culture-level traits vs. larized “IC” as a term, analytical approach,
individual-level data, where differences and process (Hall, 1959, pp. ix, 10), recent
such as collectivism and individualism research suggests that multiple sets of influences
(e.g., Bhawuk, 2009a; Hofstede, 1980; have shaped and perhaps still carry the inter-
Triandis, 1991) or high- and low-context cultural field(s) forward (e.g., Martin,
cultures (Hall, 1959, 1966) are considered Nakayama, & Carbaugh, 2012; Prosser &
to have high explanatory value. Kulich, 2012, IJIR Special Issue). From today’s
(6) Highlighting the homogenous “national vantage point, some of the previous assump-
character” or observable mainstream tions inherent in the above “single-story”
traits and trends of national cultures (Adiche, 2009) have come under critique.
(contrasting statistical means or general- Examples include Martin and Nakayama
ized features of Culture A vs. Culture B), (1999) identifying leading paradigms and
noting the cross-cultural differences of advocating a dialectic approach; Sorrells
how peoples communicate, (M. S. Kim, (2012) raising issues on how intercultural
2010). training can better enhance global engage-
(7) Developing and integrating universal ment; Nam, Choi, and Lee (2013) noting simi-
cross-cultural theories for use by educa- lar issues for human resources and further
tional, business, government, or non- advocating a “West meets East” perspective
government organizations toward (Nam, Choi, & Lee, 2014); M. S. Kim (2010)
developing higher levels of competence suggesting, however, that over-generalized cul-
or expertise (e.g., Bhawuk, 2009a; ture-level analyses tend to paint all “Asians”
Leeds-Hurwitz, 1990; Pusch, 2004) for with the same collectivistic and high-context
receiving or sending sojourners (Ady, brush, perpetuate power relations between
1995). West and non-West, and oversimplify the
(8) Providing insightful cognitive, affective, complexity of the “rest of the world.” Beyond
and behavioral information, via teaching these, Ogay and Edelmann (2016) addressed
or experience, on both culture-general unclear and insufficiently complex conceptual-
universals (etics) and culture-specific pat- izations of “culture” (cf. Moon, 1996) or con-
terns (emics). text (Lefringhausen, Spencer-Oatey, &
(9) Considering and refining culture learning Debray, 2019). Ting-Toomey and Dorjee
models, processes, and methods that can (2019) recently provided critiques of weak-
be systematically applied to various edu- nesses in the above approaches, and also noted
cation or training needs (Bhawuk, 2009a; strengths to build on.
Clarke, 2008; Clark & Takeshiro, 2014). Critical IC scholarship challenges the
(10) Taking learners through process-oriented “single story” (e.g, Piller, 2017), pointing
sequences of describing, interpreting, and out that the field’s tendencies toward

62 steve j. kulich, liping weng, rongtian tong, and greg dubois
essentialization, reification, and over- This chapter offers a response to these cri-
generalization are telling examples of power tiques by encouraging interculturalists to
and privilege of the “mainstream” (cf. Moon, understand the diverse lines of our history in
1996, 2010) or just our “good intentions” an intercultural way. Unreported or under-
(Gorski, 2008) to the point that some consider emphasized histories deserve to be considered,
much of intercultural training to simply be a and the related interdisciplinary, interjective,
process of supplementing old stereotypes with and interactive sources of our work need to
new ones based on oversimplified binary con- be noted, whether these are overlapping or
structs and dimensions (e.g., Houghton, 2009; conflicting. Therefore, the guiding, framing,
Lebedko, 2010; Lehtonen, 1994; Scollon, Scol- and criterion question for this chapter is, “Out-
lon, & Jones, 2012, p. 271). For example, side of the mainstream narrative, what are the
authors in Asante, Miike, and Yin’s (2008) historical contexts, events, people, places, the-
reader apply critical and non-Western ories, concepts, processes, and impacts that we
approaches to global intercultural contexts. cannot afford to forget as a field?” This
Authors in Nakayama and Halualani’s (2010) acknowledges that the “fields of inquiry,
handbook advance varied critical and unequal authors, and histories” drawn on have major
power perspectives. Noteworthy is González’s implications on how one both approaches and
(2010) call for “enlarging conceptual boundar- applies the study of culture and communica-
ies” beyond privileged Anglo-masculine analy- tion (Baldwin, 2016, p. 20).
sis to feminist and gendered approaches, Continuing a Bordieuan “sociology of
moving from communication “about” others knowledge” approach (outlined in Bourdieu,
to “with” them, and proposing new critical 1998; Kulich & Zhang, 2012) and genealogical
interdisciplinary work to address varying investigation (Foucault, 1972; cf. Moon, 1996,
aspects of economic, class, ethnicity, gender, 2010; Piller, 2017), the following sections will
religion, or other aspects of diversity “intercul- introduce several of these “other” develop-
turality” (cf. Dervin, 2016). Other scholars like mental trajectories and their contributions
Holliday (2011) argue for including power and within three general periods:
ideology in the analysis of all intercultural
interactions; Jebsen (1999) considers how such 1. Early historical thinking (pre-1900s, pri-
practices affect professional practitioners in marily European) on culture and social
multiethnic societies, and Sorrells (2013) relations, which provided inspirations for
extends these to intercultural issues related to comparative, universal/relativist, structural-
globalization, social justice, and agency (cf. functional and nuanced contextual consider-
Moon, 2010); and Croucher et al. (2015) ations of cultural groups in interaction.
review, assess, and reposition the field to 2. Early American initiatives (pre-Hall and
address increasingly diverse conceptualiza- pre-1970s), through which updated concep-
tions and personal/cultural expressions of tualizations, operationalizations, and cri-
identity, varied needs for, contexts of, and tiques of social and cultural theory laid the
approaches to intercultural competence, and foundations for the emerging field(s).
increasingly challenging adaptation contexts, 3. Formalization of the IC and cross-cultural
also urging increased IC applications to medi- communication (CC) fields in the 1970s,
cine/health care, social media, lesser studied wherein multiple disciplinary and paradig-
cultures, and more communibiological, crit- matic approaches, associations, theories,
ical, and contextual approaches. and journals were developed that continue

to cross-fertilize and evolve to meet the intellectual evolution would overlook rich his-
realities and needs of cultural contexts torical strands of comparative thought. There
faced today. was a time where prevailing western assump-
An additional, but unrealized, goal was to tions concluded that societies advanced from
comparatively profile the development of IC primitive to modern through imperialistic,
fields in different nations and divergent modernizing assistance (Boas, 1911; Tylor,
development histories. Though sizeable 1871). However, ideas fostering intercultural
sections have already been written for Japan, thinking or practice existed much earlier than
Germany, and China (juxtaposing the paral- noted in most published accounts. Exploring
lel and contrasting trajectories in locations these will allow us to see that Hall’s work is
where intercultural studies are both best understood as an important catalyst for
developed and diverse), there proved to be what became a set of formalized fields in the
inadequate space to map these important 1970s.
histories in this chapter. Until those notes To begin, the term intercultural predates
can be published elsewhere, the best multi- Hall. Among its early conceptualizations was
national and multi-perspective overview Edmund Husserl’s first German usage of inter-
appears in Martin, Nakayama, and Car- kulturell as an adjective (1931/1974, p. 234) in
baugh’s history (2012, 2020). his work on intersubjectivity and phenomen-
ology. Husserl’s student William Ernest
Reflecting constructively on our past will not
Hocking later investigated what he called
only help to explain our diversified roots, but
“intercultural contacts” between different
also offer new ways to understand how our
faiths in a special issue of The Journal of Reli-
degrees of commonality or diversity can move
gion (1934) and a chapter on “World-Religions
us toward future development. This chapter
and Intercultural Contacts” (in Haydon,
does what interculturalists generally seek to do
1934). When Y. P. Mei wrote comparatively
in research, teaching, training, or consulting: to
on Zoroastrianism (cited in Elberfeld, 2008b,
check, compare, and contrast our un-reflected
p. 11), Archibald Baker (1927) called it
assumptions about the tradition(s) and complex
“another contribution toward intercultural
contexts of scholarship or applications from
appreciation,” and in a later article asked:
which we came, on which we build, and for
“How successfully do the ideals and the ethics
which we move forward. It is important that
of each [religion] measure up to the require-
we examine the history of intercultural studies
ments of that newer idealism and world con-
and training in an intercultural manner.
science which is actually in a process of
formation as an inevitable result of the inter-
cultural relationships of the modern world?”
Early European Applications and (Baker, 1929, both cited in Elberfeld, 2008b).
Conceptualizations (pre-1900s) of However, even long before the twentieth
Interculture, Culture, and Cultural century, intercultural thinking was exhibited
Comparison by thinkers concerned about localized thinking
or limited perspectives. Socrates noted that
Intercultural Awareness Is Not
“Humans must rise above the Earth . . . to the
as New as We Think
top of the atmosphere and beyond. For only
To argue that mankind’s ability to engage thus will we understand the world in which we
in “intercultural thinking” is a product of live” (Plato, 1925/1966, Phaedo). Though this

quote has been used to demonstrate the Throughout the seventeenth century, efforts
importance of gaining and viewing the world to understand languages in context were made
from new vantage points, Socrates himself or by the “father of modern education,” Czech
his approach to learning is rarely discussed in Moravian John Comenius (Jan Amos-
relation to intercultural concepts. The same Komenský). Comenius lived what we could call
can be said about historical quotes emphasiz- an intercultural life – after studying didactics
ing the value of languages, such as Frankish and theology in Germany, he was persecuted in
Emperor Charlemagne’s (c. 800) “To have his Bohemian homeland and crisscrossed
another language is to possess a second soul,” Europe like other itinerant teacher-thinkers of
and German poet and playwright Goethe’s (in that period. Pointing to a need for age-
Maxims and Reflections, c. 1833) “Those who appropriate logical thinking and wisdom-based
know nothing of foreign languages know noth- teaching, he developed pictorial language and
ing of their own.” culture learning texts (1631/1636). He later for-
Many other itinerant medieval missionaries, malized The Great Didactic (Comenius, 1633–
poets, and thinkers across Europe also helped 1638), which provided a pattern for life-long
shape an awareness of how little country and learning (inspiring Piaget and other educators).
culture borders matter, of whom we can only His Schola Pansophica (1651) proposed educa-
introduce a few. Ibn Khaldûn (1377/1968), the tional opportunities for all classes, genders, and
Arab historian whose works would influence cultures (cf. Comenius, Via lucis, 1641/1668),
the modern social sciences, challenged prevail- which encouraged both universal education
ing narratives of other peoples and noted varied with regional variations and scientific know-
reasons for cultural differences, including their ledge aligned with theology.
mentality, education, social and political behav- These examples illustrate that across the
ior, and architecture (Hofstede, 2001). ages some thinkers became aware of the value
Whether based on academic assessments or of relativizing one’s own culture by seriously
traveler’s observations (e.g., Marco Polo), considering others. Further evidence can be
philosopher Michel Eyquem de Montaigne found in diverse literary traditions. Already
addressed a need for understanding other cul- in the middle ages, Le livre de Jean de Mande-
tures during the French Renaissance in the ville (c. 1370) urged people not to look down
mid-sixteenth century (1533–1592). In his on non-European cultures, but instead study
work Essays (1580), Montaigne argued that them carefully; St. Thomas More (1516) ficti-
humans are naturally inclined toward the tiously described a non-Christian country
belief that one’s own culture is superior superior to Europe; and in the early eighteenth
(labeled much later by Sumner, 1906, as ethno- century, Jonathan Swift's (1726) satire Gulli-
centrism). While skeptical of the benefits of ver's Travels inverted all received perspectives
simply knowing about other cultures, Mon- on Europe and suggested that the world of
taigne did record customs foreign to Europe horses far surpassed “enlightened” England.
to allow people to compare and judge the Beyond these comparative or counter-
“shortcomings” of their own culture. The perspectival ideas in the humanities, the sci-
danger of provincialism was also addressed in ence of Copernicus, Galileo, and those who
Pascal’s (c. 1670/1966) Pensées (Thoughts): followed challenged assumptions of their time
“There are truths on this side of the Pyrenees about the world itself.
that are falsehoods on the other” (Hofstede Though most works highlighted in the next
translation, 2001, flyleaf). section illustrate Western thinking regarding

person or group in society or culture, there are The Enlightenment and the Path
ample examples of desired exposure to other to Conceptualizing Culture
cultures. Voltaire’s interest in Chinese culture
To understand inter-cultural, we must first
is noted below, which was reflective of the mid-
understand culture and the manifold defin-
seventeenth-century European interest in Chi-
itions and perspectives it perpetuates (e.g.,
nese decorative arts and ideas, like Catholic
Baldwin et al., 2006; Kroeber & Kluckhohn,
friar Domingo Fernández Navarrete’s Tratados
1952). We begin with several early representa-
(1676) providing representations of and adap-
tives of the Enlightenment, for it was largely
tation to cultural others like the Chinese (Ellis,
their contributions that formed the ideological
2006), and also Leibniz’s Letters from China
underpinnings necessary for successive phil-
(Novissima Sinica, 1697). Such records of
osophers, sociologists, and anthropologists
observations on, experiences in, and dialogues
to identify and examine cultures (see
between other civilizations should be further
Figure 3.1).
explored to expand a global intercultural his-
The Enlightenment was a period marked by
tory. “Tradition is not simply a permanent pre-
intellectual pursuit and advancement. Though
condition; rather we produce it ourselves
difficult to pinpoint an exact point of origin or
inasmuch as we understand, participate in the
complete cast of characters, it might be pru-
evolution of tradition and hence further deter-
dent to start with John Locke. In An Essay
mine it ourselves” (Gadamer, 1960, p. 293).
Concerning Human Understanding (1690),
Though the thinkers selected here are limited
Locke maintained that the human mind, when
by space, we encourage intercultural scholars
born, is a blank slate (tabula rasa). As an
and practitioners to reconsider differing ver-
empiricist, Locke (1690) argued that ideas are
sions of the past, with an eye for how these
not innate, but instead are derived from
can contribute to understanding and working
experiences (either sensory or reflective), and
in today’s complex contexts.
Figure 3.1 Intellectual history since the Enlightenment on culture, comparisons, and plurality of cultures
(Arrows indicate lines of influence).

that all humans have the ability to freely Meanwhile, philosopher Jean-Jacques Rous-
receive and reflect on those experiences. seau expressed a more dystopic view in his book
This significant divergence from nativism, Discourse on Inequality (1755). Similar to the
which traces back to Plato and through Des- Earl of Shaftesbury’s earlier conceptualization
cartes, sought to repudiate the belief that some of “noble savage” (1699), Rousseau suggests
ideas are pre-ordained and therefore people humans are born in a natural state (free, per-
are born “unequal.” Furthermore, Locke’s fectible, savage), but become chained and
(1690) rejection of innate ideas led to his dis- restricted through contact with and competition
missal of universal agreement, whereby he in civil society. Furthermore, Rousseau
argued people have different moral rules believed that citizens should be able to choose
guided by a motivation of hedonism. This out- the types of laws they abide by (1762) and that
look had certain parallels with Jewish-Dutch laws should be dictated by the “general will”
philosopher Baruch Spinoza’s (1677) earlier (volonté générale) of the people (cf. Sieyès,
claim on the subjectivity of good and evil, as Lafayette, & Jefferson, 1789).
well as Scottish philosopher David Hume’s The philosopher Voltaire used the phrase
(1751) later claim that morality is based on esprit des nations to refer to the characteristic
sentiment rather than reason. Moral and cul- quality of nations (though loosely defined) in
tural relativism grew out of such streams. his Essay on the Manners and Spirit of Nations
In France, many Enlightenment (Siècle des (1756). In the same work, he praised aspects of
Lumières) thinkers focused their attention on Chinese and Indian cultures, specifically Con-
criticisms of government, religion, and soci- fucianism and Hinduism (though denouncing
ety due to Roman Catholic dogmatism and Buddhism) and condemned Judaism as bar-
monarchical despotism. In his seminal work baric (and later Christianity for its intolerant
The Spirit of the Laws (1748), judge Charles- stance towards heresy).
Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède de In the German Enlightenment (Aufklär-
Montesquieu examined societal unity ung), Immanuel Kant (1781) would revolu-
through the lens of political systems (e.g., tionize philosophy in his attempt to reconcile
noting the requisite “principles” and motiv- rationalism (knowledge through reason) with
ations of citizens within different political empiricism (knowledge through senses)
systems), and in addition, proposed that geo- through transcendental idealism. While tran-
graphic and climatic conditions impact scendental idealism was “criticized” by many,
people’s behavior (in line with contemporary including his student Johann Gottfried von
acculturation studies). Herder, it was nevertheless the impetus for
Similarly, naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc German idealism, which shaped epistemology,
(Comte de Buffon) rejected the Linnaean taxo- metaphysics, and research in the social sci-
nomic system in Volume I of his expansive ences. Certain aspects of Kant’s philosophy
encyclopedic work Histoire naturelle (1749– run counter to the rising notion of moral rela-
1804). He asserted that while “species” can be tivism (see section on the Columbia University
differentiated by anatomical structures, the scholars in “From Stereotypes and Prejudice
division of species into categories based on to Intergroup Contact Theory”) as Kantian
those structures was artificial. Instead, individ- ethics assumed that some maxims apply
ual beings are characterized by their inter- universally.
actions with nature (the roots of a Furthermore, Kant racially categorized the
constructivist approach). human species through hereditary differences

resulting from migration or “crossbreeding,” Herder’s concept of Volk (a people group)

and provided four orientations (White, Negro, and Völker (different peoples, related, yet dif-
Hunnish, and Hinduish), demarcated by phys- ferentiated by the thought communities of
ical features (Mikkelsen, 2013). Though Kant their languages) further opened the door for
(1785/1793) treated such categorizations as the concept of “cultural relativity.” His cri-
speculative, he rejected a polygenic theory of tique of social evolutionist perspectives
race. In his later years he also denounced the implied that all cultures deserve equal respect,
“injustice” of European nations toward native providing a basis for understanding the cul-
Americans and the so-called “Negro” races, tural other, cultural hermeneutics, and valuing
even suggesting that a union of peoples was diversity, each of which are themes later
intended by nature, though he remained emphasized in IC. Herder declared that we
opposed to crossbreeding. This reflects how should not expect or require people of one
some scholars in this formative period culture adapt to the demands of a culture alien
developed, reconceptualized or applied their to them. While the National Socialists (Nazis)
ideas differentially, such as Kant’s later shift unfortunately later abused his ideas for their
from races to nations. own ends, his original thoughts on culture(s)
In line with several earlier Enlightenment positively influenced several generations of
thinkers (e.g., Montesquieu), Kant also scholars, including those who continued his
asserted that physical geography not only legacy at the University of Berlin, like Adolf
shaped physical differences, but customs and Bastian and Bastian’s student Franz Boas,
ways of thinking as well (Kant, 1775/1968). who brought them to the USA.
This theory was first presented in his anthro-
pology lectures at Königsberg (1770s) and
Post-Enlightenment European Academic
later adapted into Anthropology from a Prag-
Contributions to Comparative Culture
matic Point of View (1798). While not an
Explorations
anthropologist by modern standards, it should
be noted Kant was one of the first to lecture on While Herder conceptualized the phrase Geist
the subject (with an emphasis on biological des Volkes, it was Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
anthropology, unlike Herder’s cultural Hegel (1807) who later coined Volksgeist to
anthropology). define the “spirit of the people.” This concept
Near the end of the Enlightenment, it was (cf. Smith, 2019) led to a new focus on com-
Herder (e.g., 1784–1791) who first applied the parisons between cultures, such as the pioneer-
biological term culture (Kultur) to human soci- ing work of Wilhelm Wundt, father of
eties. He noted that culture embodied a par- experimental psychology, in developing Völk-
ticular way of life, extending to and influenced erpsychologie (1911–1920) (psychology of
by geographical characteristics (cf. Inglis, peoples), which aimed to examine psycho-
2004). Herder posited that each culture (not logical characteristics prevalent among
“nation,” as the modern concept of geopolit- members of a culture. This laid empirical foun-
ical nation-states had not yet been established) dations for the comparative psychological
possessed a Geist des Volkes (1784–1791) analysis of attitudes or behaviors in different
[ethnic/cultural spirit/mind]. This moved beyond cultural contexts (cf. Hofstede, 2001,
Montesquieu’s esprit générale to emphasize the pp. 13–15).
cultural aspects of a people rather than their Hegel further noted the integral influence of
collective political representation. the Volksgeist on the nation-state, and his

philosophy of history revolves around the dia- Klemm (1843–1852) “traced human develop-
lectical relationship between the two – where ment from savagery through domestication to
contradictions lead to the unfolding of the freedom” in his General Cultural History of
Absolute and eventually, through transitions Mankind (cf. Williams, 1983, p. 90). This trad-
and transformations, to a unified Weltgeist ition continued with French philosopher
(1837). Yet this Weltgeist is mobile – it will Auguste Comte (1853), who asserted that
allow a particular people to fulfill its own human societies evolved linearly through three
potential perfectly only once, since any Volks- cultural stages: theological (supernatural),
geist is always limited, whereupon the people metaphysical (abstract), and positive (scien-
must make way for the Weltgeist to empower a tific), a precursor to various development,
different people to fulfill its own concept. modernization, and secularization theories.
However, like most European intellectuals However, unlike Hegel, Comte believed
before and of his time, Hegel was Eurocentric objective knowledge is obtainable from obser-
in his purview of history (though Habib, 2017, vation, and formally founded positivism. He
argues his philosophy actually undermined his also believed human behavior followed
Eurocentric approaches). Hegel (1837) charac- axioms, just like the natural world. The
terized oriental civilizations, especially Africa, modern social sciences, in particular sociolo-
as largely primitive and ahistorical, while sim- gie, originate from this new trajectory.
ultaneously acknowledging, for instance, that Following Comte, early French sociologist
Alexandria in Egypt became a point of union Émile Durkheim sought to identify both
between East and West. “social facts” (social ways of acting, thinking
Borrowing from and critiquing Hegel’s dia- or feeling that influence individuals) and “col-
lectics, Karl Marx (1843, 1859) developed the lective representations” (ideas, beliefs, and
idea of historical materialism, that history is values held collectively as a kind of völkerge-
contingent both on production and control danken noted above). He examined social
over the means of production, exemplified by mechanisms for maintaining cohesiveness
recurring struggles between the ruling and sub- and posited a comparative frame between
dued classes. Culture and religion were criti- mechanical (traditional) and organic
cized as vehicles of control utilized by the (modern) solidarity (Durkheim, 1893). Dur-
bourgeoisie in capitalist society (Marx, 1843). kheim coined the term collective consciousness
The idea of false consciousness, (in later work to define a set of public beliefs and sentiments
with Engels, 1893) refers to ideology that is shared by members of a society, typically
consciously enacted without knowledge of the manifested through religion, and noted its
driving forces behind it (foreshadowing later importance within mechanical solidarity.
conceptualizations of “subjective culture”). However, through simple division of labor,
While widely regarded for his philosophic, his- interdependence would allow for the rise of
torical, and economic views, Marx also individualism and recession of the collective
“founded” the conflict paradigm of sociology consciousness, resulting in organic solidarity
and critical cultural approaches (see section (cf. Durkheim, 1894).
“From Stereotypes and Prejudice to Inter- Shortly after Durkheim, William Sumner
group Contact Theory”). (1906/1940), used the term “Folkways” to refer
During this period, culture was commonly to the unconscious habits and routines of indi-
assumed to develop through stages (e.g., viduals within a social group. He noted that
Hegel). Cultural historian Gustav Friedrich “mores” are folkways that developed or

evolved into group level ethical standards (and society, such as economics. In his seminal
coined the term “ethnocentrism”). Disobedi- work The Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capit-
ence towards mores may lead to harsh penal- alism, Weber (1904/1976) argued that Calvin-
ties, whereas infractions against folkways have ism, specifically the proof of election, drove
little to no repercussions. capitalist society. Furthermore, with available
In Germany, the three founders of the descriptive summaries of contrasting cultures
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Sociologie (DGS), like Alfred Smith’s Chinese Characteristics
Ferdinand Tönnies, Georg Simmel, and Max (1890) or Ku Hung-Ming’s Spirit of the
Weber, contributed extensively to the history Chinese People (1915 first written German),
of comparative cultural studies. Tönnies (1887/ Weber engaged in comparisons of Western
1957), sought to link philosophy with applied Protestantism and Eastern Confucianism,
field studies, leading him to propose the noting Confucianism impeded China’s ability
Gemeinschaft vs. Gesellschaft (“community” to become capitalistic. Through these observa-
vs. “association”) frame for comparing social tions, Weber concluded individuals act
structures (Tönnies, 1887). Though Tönnies’ depending on their interpretation of society.
work moved more toward societies than cul- Weber’s theories, alongside those of Simmel,
tures, this dichotomy is later applied in eventually led to the formulation of the sym-
Edmund Glenn’s early comparative language bolic interactionism paradigm of sociology.
and “intercultural” studies (1957, 1966) and in Roots for conceptualizing plurality might
Patricia Greenfield’s theory of culture originate with Friedrich Nietzsche (about
change (2009). 1871). After attending Jacob Burckhardt’s lec-
Meanwhile, Simmel conceptualized the idea tures in 1868, he proposed Kultur der Begeg-
of the “Stranger” (1908) through his examin- nung der Kulturen (the culture of meeting/
ations of migration and ethnic mixing in grow- contact with “culture+s,” in the plural).
ing major metropolitan centers such as Berlin. Nietzsche promoted the potential for compari-
Simmel also highlighted differences in object- sons, interactions, and dialogic plurality (see
ive and subjective culture. Simmel’s writings Elberfeld, 2008a; cf. Kulich, 2017, pp. 38–39).
influenced the research approach of the In 1876–1877, Nietzsche suggested that a com-
“Chicago school” of sociology, particularly petent person gains maturity by experiencing a
Robert Park (1916) and his colleagues (who variety of cultures (“verschiedene Culturen dur-
translated Simmel’s work, Park & Burgess, chlebt”), each of which must be comprehended
1921). Adopting ethnographic participant- (Nachlass). His philosophy of “perspectivism”
observer methods, they focused their research advocated comparisons as a way to move
attention on studying ethnic communities and toward a more objective plurality, “so that
marginalized subcultures in urban contexts one knows how to make precisely the differ-
(Park, 1916, 1926), coining the phrase “mar- ence in perspectives and affective interpret-
ginal man” which in turn influenced intercul- ations in the service of knowledge . . . [T]he
tural scholars (see section on “Comparative more affects we allow to speak about a matter,
Sociologists: Socio-Cultural and Intercultural the more eyes, different eyes . . . that much
Explorations [The 1920s on]”). more complete will be our ‘concept’ of this
Lastly, Weber expanded on Marx’s ideas thing, our ‘objectivity’ be” (Nietzsche, 1887).
with his three-component theory of stratifica- Returning to the Herder stream above,
tion (Klassen, Stände, Partie, 1922) and further Bastian followed the Herder-Humboldt trad-
noted the influence of culture on other facets of ition (Kulich, 2011, pp. 15–20) in addition to

Rudolf Virchow’s “ethnology.” Traveling as a collaborators at Columbia University, provid-

ship doctor in the 1850s, Bastian took exten- ing a base for comparative and intercultural
sive notes on his journeys, produced an aca- studies (see Inglis, 2004; Leeds-Hurwitz,
demic work (Man in History, 1860), published 2010a). A chronological overview of these
travel notes in 1866–1871 (six volumes on The formative intellectual developments from
Peoples of East Asia), and his field-founding 1784–1919 is provided in Table 3.1 in
ethnoanthropological textbook in 1884. Appendix A.
While Kenneth Pike (1966) is often credited
with applying linguistic suffixes (from phonet-
ics and phonemes) to coin terms for culture- Early American Initiatives (Pre-Hall
general (etic) and cultural-specific (emic) through the 1960s)
approaches, Bastian had already postulated
Cultural Anthropology and Comparative
that a “psychic unity of mankind” links people
Studies (the 1920s–1940s)
across cultures (Ethnische Elementargedanken,
1895) yet each cultural group also has “ethnic Only a few narratives have traced the origins
ideas” in situated settings (Der Völkergedanke, of the intercultural field to the first half of the
folk idea, Bastian, 1881, cf. Kulich, 2011, twentieth century, when a variety of scholars
pp. 20–23). His naturalistic empiricism and were grappling with how to compare and con-
proposed “psychic unity” with regional vari- trast cultures meaningfully (Hart, 1999; Leeds-
ations influenced Carl Jung’s formulation of Hurwitz, 2010a). Table 3.2 (Appendix A)
“collective unconsciousness” and his theory provides a chronological listing of the many
of archetypes, in addition to strains of struc- initiatives focusing on cross- or intercultural
turalism and comparatism (later seen in the thinking or praxis, suggesting that pre-World
work of Franz Boas and Joseph Campbell). War II foundations may have been more
Although Bastian’s pioneering anthropo- important than is widely recognized for pro-
logical work and his influence on Boas are viding readiness to meet the conditions that
seldom noted, cross-cultural psychologist allowed intercultural work to flourish after
Rohmer (1984) has previously pointed out the war.
how Bastian clarified conceptions of culture. There is now ample evidence that the net-
The significant works of Bastian (1866, work of cultural anthropologists trained or
1881, 1884) and Tönnies (1887/1957) shaped influenced by Boaz and colleagues at Colum-
anthropological and sociological field work. bia University continued to collaborate and
Similar conceptualizations appear in the work influence a generation of culture-oriented
of Edward Tylor (1871) and other British scholars through various visionary initiatives.
scholars, from Matthew Arnold’s (1976) Boas’ works on culture (1928, 1940), Margaret
aristocratic views of primitive cultures to Mead’s Coming of Age in Samoa (1928), Ruth
Bronislaw Malinowski’s (1922) pioneering Benedict’s Patterns of Culture (1934) and The
ethnological fieldwork, scientific theory of cul- Chrysanthemum and the Sword (1946), Mead
ture (Malinowski, 1944) and his influential and Rhoda Metraux’s The Study of Culture
students, including Chinese social observers from a Distance (1953), and the works of
Xiaotong Fei (1939, 1945) and Francis L. K. others from this Columbia/New York network
Hsu (e.g., 1953, Americans and Chinese). provided indelible inspirations for making
Eventually, the academic field of cultural sense of the cultural puzzle both before and
anthropology was formalized by Boas and during the war (e.g., Leeds-Hurwitz, 2010a).

Additionally, Neo-Freudian psychoanalysts Birdwhistell (1954) focused on differences in

including Erich Fromm (at Columbia at that non-verbal communication patterns between
time) and Harry Stack Sullivan (also in New cultures, an area which remains strong in IC
York City, cf. Rogers, Hart, & Miike, 2002) research, teaching, and training. Birdwhistell
provided contributions that strongly influ- published extensively with the Columbia circle
enced Hall, especially regarding conscious of anthropologists, coauthoring with Gregory
and unconscious culture learning processes Bateson, Margaret Mead, and later Irving
(harkening back to Marx’s, Durkheim’s, Goffman and Dell Hymes, and adopted a rela-
Jung’s, and Sumner’s works above). tivistic culture-specific approach. This was
Other comparative-culture studies focused on later formalized as the “ethnographic
mapping value orientations and socio-cultural approach” (Hymes, 1974), or the study of lan-
patterns, often in collaboration with scholars guage in social interaction (LSI), on which
from other disciplines. The husband and wife Gerry Philipsen (1992) and his colleagues
Kluckhohn team designed and carried out the expanded (see end of section on “Initiating
Harvard Values Project and also regularly Cross-Cultural Language and Rhetoric
collaborated with others on documentation Studies”).
or research projects (e.g., Kroeber &
C. Kluckhohn, 1952; F. Kluckhohn & Strodt-
From Stereotypes and Prejudice to
beck, 1961). The cohort of scholars who served
Intergroup Contact Theory: Awareness
together in the Foreign Morale Analysis Div-
of Embedded Racial and Ethnic Biases
ision (FMAD) of the Office of War Informa-
tion (OWI) during WWII (see Kulich, 2011, There are noted differences between European
p. 91) also provided support for cultural and US American approaches to issues of eth-
engagement during war times. nicity, race, and social inequities. Both on the
After the war, several “national character” European continent and in Britain, philosoph-
studies (Benedict, 1946; Gorer, 1948; Mead, ical approaches were applied to the study of
1942, 1951) were published, which are still power, social structure, media, and repressed
referred to today for their emic, culture- groups (e.g., Foucault, 1972, 1980), resulting
specific insights. These lines of research in sharp critiques on culture and intercultural
focused on the process of making distinctions relations, such as cultural hegemony (Bour-
between “self” and “other” – i.e., ways of dieu, 1993; Gramsci, 1992/2011), industrial-
categorizing differences – which are still utilized and mass culture, and media studies by
ized in training programs today. Collectively, members of the Frankfurt school (Adorno &
their work provided conceptualizations, con- Horkheimer, 1944/2007; Benjamin, 1936;
structs, and approaches (see Hart, 1999) which Habermas, 1981; Marcuse, 1964).
became fertile ground for the later emergence Simultaneously, the Centre for Contempor-
of an “IC” field and its formalized foundations ary Cultural Studies at the University of
in 1970 (see Kulich, 2012; Prosser, 2012, on Birmingham, founded in 1964 by Richard
Sitaram’s “founding the field”). Hoggart, applied critical cultural identity and
Scholars from language-related disciplines, representation studies to social, media, and
including linguistics and later speech commu- language issues. Rooted in neo-Marxist
nication, rhetoric, and discourse studies, also theories and Foucauldian critical cultural
began conducting comparative studies on approaches, their analyses of literary and
the influence of culture. At the FSI, Ray media treatment and language and policy

practices toward disenfranchised groups con- Americans’ toned to “code-switch” between

tinue to provide stimulus for critical intercul- their identities in white and black American
tural scholars today. Notable works include contexts (reflected later in intercultural work
The Uses of Literacy (Hoggart, 1957), Culture by Blubaugh & Pennington, 1976; Kochman,
and Society (Williams, 1958), “The Analysis of 1983; Rich, 1974; Smith [Asante], 1973). These
Culture” (Williams, 1961), “Encoding and descriptive concepts are strikingly similar to
Decoding in Televising Discourse” (S. Hall, recent attempts in acculturation research to
1973), Subculture (Hebdige, 1979), Race, Cul- explain the experience of sojourners’ identity
ture, and Communications (Hall, 1992), and as “other” in their host countries.
their collected works in The Empire Strikes Walter Lippman (1922), a journalist, was the
Back (Centre for Contemporary Cultural first to use the term “stereotype” to refer to
Studies, 1992). descriptions of the “other” as psychological dis-
In the USA, Gordon Allport is highly cited positions, rather than mere rational or cognitive
for his pioneering work, The Nature of Preju- categorizations, especially in international, geo-
dice (1954). However, this was pre-dated by his political issues. Others like Daniel Katz and
research on the relationship of persons and Kenneth Braly (1935) examined how stereotyp-
groups in the 1920s. Allport opened the first ing leads to inter-ethnic and racial prejudice
course on personality at Harvard in 1924 and when people link emotion, ascription, and
studied identity as a process of becoming and evaluation to assumed characteristics (a work
how distinct individual motivations are occasionally cited by interculturalists).
developed. Though Allport had met Freud, Bruno Lasker’s (1929) studies on racial
he rejected the reductionist approach of psy- attitudes in children exposed how parents and
choanalysis in favor of empirical research. To communities fostered prejudice through con-
understand personality, he explored traits, scious/direct teaching or unconscious/attend-
conscious preferences and values (genotypes = ant learning processes (applying Freud and
internal cognition), and personal influences Watson). Lasker’s work especially inspired
on social behavior in context (phenotypes = school teachers who were concerned about
external forces). intensifying inter-ethnic prejudice in urban
Allport’s interest in how identity is acted out American classrooms to develop ways to lead
among groups led to his decades-long focus on cultural groups into contact and dialogue with
prejudice. His work synthesized many other each other (e.g., Davis-DuBois, 1928, 1943).
scholars of his time. One of the first of these Parents’ Magazine (founded in 1926) sought to
is W. E. B. DuBois, who began writing about be a key vehicle for parent education and
the African-American experience as early as maintained a strong anti-prejudice message
1903. In The Souls of Black Folk (1903), (Selig, 2008, p. 53), publishing reviews of Las-
DuBois puts forward the powerfully prescient ker and a “Tolerance Test” to help “teach your
concepts of a veil and double-consciousness. child tolerance” (Davis-Dubois, 1934, p. 15).
The symbolic veil refers to the struggle of black From 1942 to 1954, the Bureau for Intercul-
Americans to see, or understand, themselves tural Education (BIE, see the section on
outside of the discriminatory framework pre- “Early Intercultural Education Initiatives
scribed by white Americans. It is the awareness [The 1920s–1940s]”) continued this line of
both of otherness and of the inferiority caused research, publishing a ten-volume series
by otherness. The veil then creates the need for entitled Problems of Race and Culture in
double-consciousness, which refers to African- America (edited by W. Vickery and S. Cole).

The first volume introduced intercultural edu- volume on Social Psychology was among those
cation for schools (Vickery & Cole, 1943), the that advanced research on cross-cultural com-
second probed prejudice (Powdermaker, parisons. Out of this growing focus came sev-
1944), and the third engaged students (They eral international conferences, several journals
See for Themselves) through a documentary (e.g. IJP, JCCP, CCP) and associations
approach (S. Brown, 1945), followed by other (IACCP, SCCR, etc.) (see the section
volumes related to minority issues (Bramfeld, “Expanding on the Contributions of E. T. Hall
1946) and race relations (I. Brown, 1949). The and his FSI colleagues”).
series continued to discuss methods for inte- As ethnic awareness emerged, research on
grating prejudice reformation with citizenship inter-group comparisons followed. World War
education in the context of a democracy. II migrant Kurt Lewin focused on systematiz-
This inter-ethnic focus was pursued and ing research on social-psychological differ-
published alongside parallel research projects ences between groups (Lewin, 1936) and the
which focused exclusively on African- processes and practices of group dynamics
American culture and identity. After Dollard (Lewin, 1947a, 1947b). He was particularly
(1939) studied ethnic frustration and aggres- concerned with the “lifespace” that affects
sion, the American Council of Education pub- behavior, the field of motivation and know-
lished a Personality Series especially dealing ledge needed to understand why people do
with “negro youth” in the “black belt” (e.g., what they do (Schram, 1997, p. 69). He studied
Davis & Dollard, 1940, and three other titles). individuals with a variety of focuses, including
General research on culture and racial iden- children’s development, changing food habits,
tity was also pursued by anthropologists at and how/why people communicate, group pro-
Columbia (e.g., Benedict, Race, Science, and cesses or social networks, and the influence of
Politics, 1945; Boas, Race, Language, and Cul- group “gatekeepers.”
ture, 1940). Another Columbia-based scholar, Lewin also examined authoritarian, demo-
social psychologist Otto Klineberg, began his cratic, and laissez-faire leadership styles with
career comparing psychological differences an eye towards resolving social conflicts
between Native and African-Americans (Kli- (Lewin, 1948), and developed a predictive field
neberg, 1944). While deeply controversial, his theory (1951), both of which influenced later
findings established him as one of several pion- intercultural theorists such as William Gudy-
eers, alongside Ashley Montagu (Man’s Most kunst and Young Yun Kim. As his diverse
Dangerous Myth, 1945; The Concept of Race, research contributions grew and spread
1964; UNESCO’s Statement on Race, 1972), through time spent at the Universities of
arguing that there was no scientific basis for Berlin, Iowa, and Michigan, as well as Massa-
racial superiority. chusetts Institute of Technology, practitioners
Working with Boas, anthropologist Melville sought to integrate Lewin’s ideas and findings
Herskovits pioneered acculturation studies into educational designs (e.g. Davis-DuBois,
and helped found the first program in African see the section “Early Intercultural Education
American studies in the 1940s. He also pub- Initiatives [the 1920s–1940s]”), some of which
lished The Myth of the Negro Past (1941), still exist today in intercultural education and
which treated African-Americans as a distinct, training praxis.
historically and geographically rooted culture. Lewin’s investigative Quasselstrippe (theor-
Among many scholars giving new attention to etical drawing) sessions at each of the univer-
cultures in this period, Klineberg’s (1940) sities he taught influenced many, like Wilbur

Schramm, then at the University of Iowa, who (e.g., Landis & Wasilewski, 1999), and others
helped found international communication as have built on Allport’s contact hypothesis to
a field of study and established important further explain how variables like nationality,
research centers at Iowa, Stanford, and the ethnicity, personality, and gender factor affect
University of Hawaii (the East–West Center), communication outcomes, intergroup stereo-
each of which promoted interdisciplinary typing (Stephan & Rosenfield, 1982), and soci-
national-level research on culture and etal mental structures (Foa & Foa, 1974).
communication. Ongoing work has outlined at least eight con-
It was in this climate that Allport expanded ditions needed to improve attitudes and facili-
his early work on personality, drives, and atti- tate or enhance intergroup interactions (see
tudes to consider how values pattered motiv- Martin & Nakayama, 2010, pp. 149–152; Ste-
ation and social contact. His Study of Values phan & Stephan, 1992), ways of dealing with
(SOV) scale (Allport & Vernon, 1931) and anxiety based on perceptions of threat, and
updated test (Allport, Vernon, & Lindzey, ways of improving intergroup relations (Ste-
1960) provided one of the best early measures phan & Stephan, 1985, 1996).
of basic interests and motivation patterns
(1961), organized around six preference areas:
Early Intercultural Education Initiatives
theoretical, economic, aesthetic, social, polit-
(the 1920s–1940s)
ical, and religious. These informed the later
values lists developed by both Rokeach Unlike Columbia’s well-recognized anthropo-
(1973) and Schwartz (1992). logical research hub, a similar seeding ground
Allport also examined how “normal” cogni- at New York University (NYU), focused on
tive categorization and generalization can lead intercultural education, has gone almost
to stereotypes, influence perception, and ultim- entirely unrecognized. In a 1939 article, Fran-
ately become intergroup prejudice (1954). His cis J. Brown (1939), then editor of the Ameri-
“contact hypothesis” (e.g., Allport, 1955) pro- can Sociological Review and Dean of NYU’s
posed that under certain conditions, contact School of Education described programs
among groups could decrease stereotypes, started in his department. He notes a series of
prejudice, and discrimination. This provided national radio broadcasts (Americans All,
motivation for a wide range or interventions Immigrants All) on the cultures and contribu-
used in intercultural, diversity, and integration tions of specific ethnic groups in America, a set
training. Allport’s students played important of courses (starting in 1935) on ethnic contri-
roles in cross-cultural psychology (e.g., Jerome butions and intercultural relations, an exten-
Brunner, the first President of IACCP; sive compilation of teacher resource books
M. Brewster Smith on values). His student (Brown & Roucek, 1937), and a campus club
Thomas Pettigrew further identified “personal- (started in 1932) with an annual student-led
ity and sociocultural factors in intergroup atti- “Cultural Mosaics” program for cultural
tudes” (1958), issues in ethnicity (1978), exposure. Unfortunately, his reports did not
attribution errors (1979), “cognitive styles acknowledge the person primarily behind
and social behavior” (1982) and then recon- these programs, a doctoral graduate of Colum-
sidered the positive and negative conditions of bia’s Teacher’s College and instructor at
the “intergroup contact hypothesis” (1986). NYU, Rachel Davis-DuBois.
In more recent years, psychologists includ- Davis-DuBois began her career at a Wood-
ing Richard Brislin (1993/2000), Dan Landis bury, NJ high school in 1924, where she

developed a series of assignments directing stu- Interior, Office of Education, Works Progress
dents to conduct interviews with members of Administration, and the Progressive Educa-
ethnic groups besides their own and then write, tion Association to produce the afore-
design, and perform dramatized presentations mentioned “Americans All, Immigrants All”
on the other group’s roots, identities, and radio broadcast program (Davis-DuBois,
unique contributions to American life (pub- 1938–1939, the program Brown noted). The
lished as A Program for Education in World SBIE’s guide, or manifesto, was finally pub-
Mindedness, Davis-Dubois, 1928). This pro- lished in 1939 under the title, Out of the Many,
gram created a context for open, curious, and One: A Plan for Intercultural Education.
celebratory interactions between previously During her tenure as director of the SBIE
estranged groups. It was so successful at atti- (pre-1941), Davis-DuBois also began work on
tude re-formation that Davis-DuBois was later what later became known as the “Group Con-
recruited to adapt her curriculum in several versation Method” (Davis-DuBois, 1946,
New York City schools. This method remained 1963). This shifted her focus from schools to
popular through World War II (Brown, 1945). neighborhoods, working with whole families
These efforts led to an invitation to develop living in ethnically diverse communities.
courses in intercultural education for teachers Allport attended one of her group conversa-
in 1932 (applying the “Woodbury Plan,” tions, later praising its method and effective-
pp. 64–65), a course in the Department of ness, crediting her for inspirations on his work
Citizenship Education at Boston University on prejudice and the contact hypothesis
in 1933, another at NYU from 1935–1941, (1954), and writing the introduction to her
and an Intercultural Education course at UC manual The Art of Group Conversation
Berkeley the summer of 1935 (after which (Davis-DuBois & Li, 1963).
schools in San Francisco adopted the Wood- As the US entered the war, a group of pri-
bury plan). She first formally used the term marily male board members and donors
“intercultural education” in 1935 in a presen- departed from Davis-DuBois’s affirmation of
tation in Mexico City entitled “Problems on unique “cultural gifts” in a “cultural democ-
Intercultural Education in the United States” racy” and asked her to resign from the SBIE
(published as Davis-Dubois, 1936; cf. Davis- (noting that a woman might not be best for
Dubois & Okoradudu, 1984, p. 74). leading the Bureau, though her Quaker paci-
In 1934, Davis-DuBois founded the “Service fism, progressive orientation, and inter-racial
Bureau for Education in Human Relations,” marriage may have played a role). Despite
which was renamed the “Service Bureau for being pushed out of the movement she started,
Intercultural Education” (SBIE) by 1938. she went on to:
Important inter- and cross-cultural pioneers
served on her board, including Ruth Benedict, • establish a second organization, the Intercul-
or as consultants (Boas, M. Mead, and tural Education Workshop (1941), later
Lewin). The SBIE functioned primarily as a named the Workshop for Cultural Democ-
resource center for high schools in the Tri- racy in 1946 (Davis-DuBois, 1950),
Borough area, specializing in teacher training • travel to Germany after the war, under the
and curriculum development for increasing employ of the US State Department, to use
intercultural understanding among youth. To the Group Conversation Method to help
benefit a larger national audience, the SBIE rehabilitate thousands of re-patriated
was commissioned by the Department of the Germans,

• work alongside W. E. B. DuBois (no rela- representative on the West Coast into the
tion) and Martin Luther King Jr. during the 1950s) and helped establish the Pacific Coast
Civil Rights movement through 1958, Council on Intercultural Education (PCCIE)
• and finally, use the Group Conversation in 1945 (cf. Johnson & Pak, 2019). He also
Method with aboriginals in New Zealand worked closely with the Stanford University
and Australia who had undergone systemic, School of Education to research attitude forma-
aggressive displacement. tion in youth, lead teacher training workshops,
and apply UNESCO peace-building ideals
Meanwhile, the SBIE was renamed the to create high school curricula focused on
“Bureau for Intercultural Education” (BIE) developing intercultural sensitivity and compe-
and led by Stewart Cole (1940–1944) and tence (Cole, 1946). The PCCIE’s pioneering
Harry Giles (1944–1948), who shifted the programs were considered some of the best in
vision and practice of the BIE to: the country (e.g., Pak, 2002, on San Diego’s
program 1946–1949: “Is there a better intercul-
• Αlign with Dewey’s philosophy of education
and society and refocus intercultural educa- tural plan in any school system?”) and became
tion on socializing immigrant youth as templates for other post–WWII urban intercul-
American citizens (Cole, 1943). tural programs (like those in Los Angeles and
San Francisco) that increasingly focused on
• Emphasize publications that both formu-
lated approaches to intergroup relations “intergroup” relations and integrative democ-
and prejudice and then applied and system- racy/citizenship education. San Diego City
atically tested them to identify best practices Schools (SDCS) superintendent Will Crawford
(particularly in the primary and secondary outlined a three-year (1946–1949), districtwide
school environment). reform plan and funded teacher-training plan
(Crawford, 1956) aimed at:
Interestingly, both Klineberg (Board of Dir-
1. [gaining] a more adequate understanding of
ectors) and Lewin (Committee of Educational
the diverse backgrounds of the pupils with
Consultants, as under Davis-DuBois) con-
whom we deal,
tinued in Cole’s BIE, but M. Mead, Benedict,
2. [assimilating] this understanding as a part
and many women advisors also left. The BIE
of our personal emotional make-up,
brought in Deweyist proponents, including
3. [expressing] it in the kind of classroom and
William Kirkpatrick, Hilda Taba, and Wil-
school atmosphere which we provide,
liam Van Til, who went on to host workshops
4. [ensuring] that all educational possibilities
at key universities, develop and assess intercul-
for promoting better intergroup relations
tural teacher training programs, and facilitate
are utilized. (SDCS, 1947, p. vi, cited in
the expansion of high school curricula across
Pak, 2002)
America (Taba, 1953). Taba and Van Til also
conducted a nation-wide survey in 1945 on all Though differently implemented by Davis-
intercultural education high school curricula Dubois and later BIE leaders, these goals antici-
for National Council of Social Studies report pate the aims of many intercultural education
(Taba & Van Til, 1945). and training programs today which seek to cul-
After ethnic rioting in Los Angeles in 1943, tivate intercultural awareness and competence
LA schools requested the BIE for assistance, (e.g., Byram, 1997; Deardorff, 2008, 2009).
and Cole was asked to spend a year trying to Even though Davis-DuBois’s name nearly
setup a program there. Cole stayed on (as a BIE disappeared after Cole took over, recent

historical assessments of multicultural educa- inclusion – were conceptualized, initiated,

tion have rediscovered her. Banks (2006, 2012) and part of Davis-DuBois’s praxis thirty years
assesses multicultural origins and treats Davis- before Hall’s groundbreaking FSI work
DuBois’s and Cole’s groups as similar in emerged.
fostering cultural awareness between various
ethnic groups in the American public. How-
ever, others (Lal, 2004; Montalto, 1982; Selig, Comparative Sociologists: Socio-Cultural
2008) claim that Davis-DuBois held a unique and Intercultural Explorations
but overlooked position in the “Intergroup (the 1920s on)
Education Movement” (Banks, 2006) or
“Intercultural Education Movement” (Mon- From the 1920s on, there is evidence of
talto, 1982). Both Montalto (1982) and Olneck increasing interculturally related sociological
(1990) note that there was conflict between research from the Chicago school and others.
“cultural integrationists” (e.g., Davis-DuBois), The Polish Peasant in Europe and America
who affirmed every aspect of cultural diversity, (Thomas & Znaniecki, 1918–1920) was a
and “assimilationists” (those after Cole), who seminal study integrating the values, cultural
acknowledged diversity, but in practice muted identity, and interactions of a specific cultural
its affirmation and consequences (Montalto, group dealing with plural contexts. Sociolo-
1982, p. 148; DuBois, Potts, & Kulich, 2017). gists in the 1930s were also studying aspects
Elberfeld (2008b) further notes how education of intercultural relations, like the series of stud-
science extensively used the term “intercul- ies on “intercultural contacts” among world
tural” in the 1930s (not multicultural) to deal religions noted above starting from 1927
with the “problem” of living together in demo- (cf. Elberfeld, 2008a). Educational sociologists
cratic societies (debating “melting pot” vs. cul- like Brown (1939) were already referring to the
tural pluralism perspectives). study of “intercultural relations” and noted
While these differences should not be dimin- themes normally attributed to work after Hall:
ished, each group did consider and integrate
The study of cultural differences has been one of
new concepts of culture (at non-national the major areas of sociological research. In fact,
levels), intergroup relations, and prejudice to social or cultural anthropology was one of the
create curricula for the development of inter- first fields of descriptive analysis [and discusses
cultural awareness, sensitivity, and communi- how] the major social processes emphasized in
cative competence – first in educative discussions of culture patterns were “isolation,”
environments, and later (in Davis-DuBois’s “conflict” and “assimilation” . . . folkways,
case) in multi-ethnic communities and race mores, and institutions as divisive factors which
relations before the war in the 1930s and 40s. developed a sense of cultural ethnocentrism . . .
It is also instructive to realize that many noted [and] the study of causes and forms of conflict
between these plurality patterns of behavior
critiques of our field – e.g., focusing on
(p. 328) [and] intercultural differences [seen in]
national-level cultural comparisons, reverting
the recent emphasis upon “stereotypes.”
to simplistic generalizations of differences,
(p. 329) . . . [which] termed this newer emphasis
describing mainstream trends instead of “cultural pluralism.” This implies both the
nuanced variations, overlooking “critical” perpetuation of the folk culture of the many
power relations between or among groups, racial and national groups in American life and
under-appreciating deeper issues in diversity the growing appreciation by every group of the
or the sensitivities needed for meaningful contributions which each has made to the

kaleidoscopic culture of America (p. 330), . . . a structures, internalized preferences, and

“Cultural Mosaic . . .” and practical objectified vision that gives meaning and
demonstration of the feasibility of “cultural guides practices) in his theories related to
pluralism” (p. 331). social reality and social action.
George Herbert Mead, at the Chicago Similar issues in the sociology of knowledge
school, also developed a line of research and communication were addressed by two
focused on symbolic interactionism (1934), Austrian-Americans, Peter Berger and
which has since been used to investigate con- Thomas Luckman with their theory on the
nections between language, identity, and social construction of reality (1966/1971). Mil-
meaning in cultural encounters (Barnett ton Bennett (2013, p. 7) notes how intercultur-
Pearce, 2005; Erving Goffman, 1959; Gerry alists commonly apply this theory, distinguish
Philipsen, 1992; Herbert Blumer, 1969). These between objective culture (what he calls Big-C
and other extensions from Simmel later had culture) and subjective culture (little-c) (the
great influence on the development of IC as a deeper internalized social reality as in the ice-
field, particularly on William Gudykunst and berg model), the later often being the world-
Young Yun Kim’s seminal text Communicat- view of individuals in a specific group,
ing with Strangers (1984 and all subsequent embedded in a context. Berger and Luckman’s
editions), on visible/overt and hidden/covert work suggests that as cocreators of culture, we
aspects of cultures in communication, and in can also engage in seeking to compare and
the subjective communicative construction of understand others.
meaning (e.g., Rogers, 1999).
In non-US contexts, the constructive study
Strategic Studies of Culture: Advancing
of meaning was being investigated by Lev
Comparative Foundations (the 1940s
Vygotsky (1934), who studied the language
and 1950s)
and culture learning patterns and the socio-
cultural development of children. He theorized Though the above highlights other important
how individuals from childhood seek to make origins, intercultural scholars and practitioners
sense of their world and internalize the sym- have more typically noted the field’s roots in
bolic operations of culture, noting both intercultural anthropology (Hart, 1999; Kulich,
and intra-psychological categories. Serge Mos- 2012, pp. 48–52; Kulich, 2012, p. 750) and
covici (1961) also discussed these dynamics collaborations linked to Columbia University
whereby “social representations” (Bauer & (Rogers, Hart, & Miike, 2002). In particular,
Gaskell, 1999, 2008) serve two functions: to the intercultural education and training contri-
establish an orienting order by which individ- butions of M. Mead have been documented in
uals seek to understand and master their social IC field histories (e.g., Leeds-Hurwitz, 2010a).
world, and also provide socially constructed However, there is more to this story: In 1940,
naming and classifying codes that enable com- M. Mead, Metraux, Benedict, and others sug-
munication, social exchange, and an under- gested the formation of a Council of Intercul-
standing of one’s group in historical and tural Relations and then established the
current context. Pierre Bourdieu (1977) in Institute for Intercultural Studies (IIS) in
France developed conceptualizations of Field 1941 (Leeds-Hurwitz, 2010a).
(imposing forces imposed on agents engaged in The prominence of this circle brought
a field of struggles or confrontations) and many members into government service, espe-
Habitus (an acquired system of cognitive cially after the USA entered the war (1941).

Hall and Trager noted that, “The pressure for The growing interest in cultural variability
an increased knowledge of cultures was a con- also fueled the interdisciplinary program that
comitant of the global character of World War George P. Murdock developed, starting with
II, and it was at the time that anthropologists his 1937 Cross-cultural Survey. This classified
and linguists were employed to an unpreced- “the subject matter of culture” through com-
ented scale to equip us to better deal with piling ethnographic materials from ninety cul-
cultures alien to our own . . . Lives depended tures and was first published as an Outline of
on the degree to which they were able to inter- Cultural Materials (Murdock, 1938; Murdock
pret correctly the relationships between cul- & Whiting, 1945) by the Institute of Human
tures (1953, p. 1). Alexander Leighton, Relations at Yale. The wartime cross-
director of the Office of War, Foreign Morale disciplinary efforts morphed into the non-
Analysis Division (FMAD), commissioned profit Human Relations Area Files (HRAF)
scholars including Clyde Kluckhohn, Doro- in 1949 (with a regularly updated Outline,
thea Leighton, Morris Opler, Edward Spicer, Murdock, 1954, 1975). Founding member
and Elizabeth Colson (cf. Weaver 2001; institutes included Yale, Harvard, and the
Leighton, 2000) to devise ways to apply Universities of Oklahoma and Washington,
cultural understanding to the training of gov- who were later joined by the Universities of
ernment staff and military officers on how North Carolina, Chicago, and Southern
to win the war and preserve the peace (further California.
evidence of intercultural scholarship and The HRAF’s ever-expanding catalogue of
engagement before the end of the war). cross-indexed ethnographic data continues to
These researchers influenced both war- and be a rich resource for cross-cultural studies and
peace-time strategies, and post-war training, training. This has been a rich source for many
counselling, and policy. Hall was also employed publications in the Sage journal of Cross-
for a time to study attitudes toward an African- Cultural Research, which was established in
American corp. The monumental study “The 1996, first as Behavior Science Research. It is
American Soldier” (Stouffer et al., 1949) was now sponsored by the Society for Cross-
one of the first to show that units could be Cultural Research (SCCR), an association
racially mixed without any decrease in unit formed in 1971–1972 of cross-cultural anthro-
effectiveness. These studies played an important pologists inspired by Murdock.
role in undergirding President Truman’s Execu- Other US government-level initiatives
tive Order (1948) that mandated racial integra- (Pusch, 2004, pp. 14–15) included the Institute
tion in the Unites States Armed Forces. of International Education, established in
Scholars like Leighton (1984) continued 1932, which later managed the Fulbright pro-
careers based on these experiences: He gram (established 1946). J. William Fulbright
addressed the problem of intercultural vari- (1974) declared that, “the essence of intercul-
ability in individual forms and responses. tural education is the acquisition of empathy –
Based on a common core of human striving, the ability to see the world as others see it, and
he uniquely noted the specific cultural influ- to allow for the possibility that others may see
ences that affected intracultural or individual something we have failed to see, or may see it
variability (p. 191). The US Government more accurately.”
funded further projects for cross-cultural The Experiment for International Living –
research on race relations and intercultural now “World Learning” – also launched several
training (documented in Pusch, 2004). international study-abroad programs in 1936.

In 1964, they founded the School for Inter- Communication Division (ICD) in 1965 at an
national Graduate Training Institute, now the Association for Education in Journalism
SIT Graduate Institute, as the training center (AEJ, since 1982, AEJMC) meeting in Syra-
for Peace Corps volunteers (see Batchelder & cuse University and its newsletter/journal,
Warner, 1977; Gochenour, 1995; Storti & International Communication Bulletin, ICB
Bennhold-Samaan, 1998, 1999; Wight & (1966). James Markham, John Merrill, and
Hammons, 1970a, 1970b). The Peace Corps Ralph Lowenstein hosted the “Wingspread
and the SIT Graduate Institute both continue Conference” (1966) for this new field and Ger-
to model intercultural training and provide hard Maletzke organized the first scientific
materials for benefitting from intercultural symposium on "International and Intercultural
experiences. Communication between Developed and
Developing Countries" (at the German Devel-
opment Institute, Berlin, 1966). James Mark-
Initiating Cross-Cultural Language
ham, John Merrill, and Ralph Lowenstein
and Rhetoric Studies
hosted the “Wingspread Conference” (1968)
As noted above, one stream of the early com- for this new field, and the volume of those
parative work that led to intercultural explor- proceedings was entitled International Commu-
ations came through language scholars. This is nication as a Field of Study (Markham, 1969)
still seen in contemporary international associ- and contained three chapters related to IC by
ations like the International Association for Godwin Chu, Gerhard Maletzke, and Hamid
Language and Intercultural Communication Mowlana (Kulich, 2017). Working with
(IALIC, founded in 2000, but came from con- Merrill, Heinz-Dietrich Fischer of the Univer-
ferences held at Leeds Metropolitan University sity of Bochum, Germany (Fischer & Merrill,
in 1996–1999), the International Association 1976) published the second edition, adding
for Intercultural Communication Studies IC to the volume name, International & Inter-
(IAICS, founded 1991, continuing from a series cultural Communication, and including a dedi-
of Asian-American conferences initiated by cated IC section adding new contributions by
John Koo in Arizona, Alaska, and later Seoul, Michael Prosser, John Martin, and a second
Korea, 1985), and the World Communication chapter by Mowlana. From an international
Association (WCA, history below). and mass communication perspective, Everett
Language has long been understood both as Rogers (1962) and his associates applied his
a vehicle and highway for culture. For innovation theory and examined effects in
example, Henry Lee Smith, Jr.’s (e.g., Smith, many cross-cultural contexts, analyzed the
1946) language studies and applications for history and paradigms of the field, and sup-
language training was later adapted by Hall ported a wide range of IC-related initiatives
while they were colleagues at the FSI to (see Hart, 2005).
develop language and culture training/learning Cross-Atlantic collaborations were also seen
approaches. Arthur Campa (1951) addressed among speech communication scholars. At a
“Language Barriers and Intercultural Rela- 1967 Speech Association of America (SAA,
tions” in the first volume of the Journal of later SCA then NCA) Committee for Cooper-
Communication (JOC). ation with Foreign Universities meeting in
Mass communication scholars grappled Memphis, Fred Casmir and Prosser discussed
with “culture and communication” as Wilbur the idea of a German-American symposium to
Schramm and others formed the International be held at the Pepperdine Haus in Heidelberg

Germany. This was coorganized in 1968 with cultural influences on paralinguistics (Trager,
Helmut Geissner on “Issues of Speech and 1958; cf. Leeds-Hurwitz, 1990).
Culture” and led to an biennial conference An increasing number of comparative
series alternating between the USA and other scholars were also seeking to make sense of
overseas locations, beginning with 1976 in the language, thought, and patterns of civiliza-
Tampa, Florida, which again specifically tions. After Hajime Nakamura (1964) wrote
focused on “IC” and eventually became the his classic Ways of Thinking of Eastern People,
ongoing “The International Colloquium on Francis L. K. Hsu (1963) developed psycho-
Communication” (cf. Kulich, 2012; Kulich & logical anthropology to compare the patterns
Zhang, 2012; Peterson, 2009) with regular IC of China, India, and the USA in his Clan,
topics or themes. Caste and Club. This was followed by The
Linguist Edmund Glenn, Chief of the Inter- Study of Literate Civilizations (Hsu, 1969).
pretation Branch of the US Department of Robert Oliver (1971) focused his comparisons
State in the 1950s, was already doing work on on Communication and Culture in Ancient
topics such as “semantic difficulties in inter- India and China (1971). Oliver’s approach to
national communication” (1954) and “lan- rhetoric studies, including his in-depth per-
guages and patterns of thought” (1956; cf. sonal and political experience with communi-
Pribham, 1949) over a decade before semantic cation between the US and Korea inspired a
research was quantified by scholars such as generation of speech communication scholars
Osgood would quantify semantic research. He focused on comparing cultural patterns of dis-
also organized the first journal special-issue course (cf. Berquist, 1990; Fritz, 2010; Shuter,
(Glenn, 1957–1958) around the topic “interpret- 2011). Michael Prosser, Fred Casmir, and
ation and intercultural communication,” using Wenshan Jia are among the many that were
the compound IC term earlier than Hall (1959). inspired by and have built on Oliver’s lan-
As a high-level interpreter fluent in French and guage and culture work.
German, Glenn also addressed cross-cultural Behavioral psychologist Osgood established
issues related to meaning and behavior (Glenn, the scientific study of meaning related to lan-
1966) and proposed a model of how universal- guage and identified three universal domains
ism, case-particulars, and relationals affect that influence its perception and communica-
communication in contexts. He worked regu- tion (e.g., Osgood, May, & Miron, 1975). This
larly with Edward Stewart in assisting various seminal work also developed one of the first
Pittsburgh circle initiatives; they taught together widespread cross-cultural analysis methods
at the University of Delaware in the late 1960s still in use – the “semantic differential tech-
and later at Rhode Island (they had met while nique” (Osgood, 1964). Tzeng, Landis, and
working at the FSI, cf. Weaver, 2014). Tzeng (2012, pp. 822–823) document Osgood’s
Structural linguist George Trager (who contributions in six significant areas: (1) theor-
predated Hall at the FSI, 1948–1953) applied etical foundations in human behavioral and
his functional training toward the develop- communication processes, (2) semantic tech-
ment of a universal “grammar” and structure niques and applications, (3) cross-cultural
of culture. Together with Hall they developed measurements of affective meanings, (4) psy-
a complex 10x10-domain culture-general cholinguistic research in human verbal behav-
framework as an analysis grid for comparing iors, (5) inter-ethnic and inter-national conflict
cultures (see Hall & Trager, 1953 below). Tra- resolution and peace, and (6) contributions to
ger also expanded his work to consider intercultural training.

Intercultural scholars from language educa- “IC” (credit Glenn, 1957–1958), Hall did note
tion, speech communication, or those working “intercultural tensions” and “intercultural
with specific linguistic communities have con- problems” (Hall, 1950; see Leeds-Hurwitz
tinued to explore intersections of language and 1990, p. 275 footnote 1) before his oft-noted
culture (e.g. Asuncion-Lande, 1983). The lan- usage of “IC” (1959, though only twice, on
guage and social interaction (LSI) approach pp. iv, 10).
focuses on how people communicate in specific While Hall’s skillset and motivation for
cultural contexts (cf. Leeds-Hurwitz, 2010b). linking culture and communication afforded
Building on Dell Hymes’s ethnographic him unique positions, opportunities, and visi-
approach to linguistics, Gerald Philipsen’s stu- bility as one “founder of the field” (Bluedorn,
dents and scholars at the University of Wash- 1998; Rogers, Hart, & Miike, 2002; Sorrells,
ington apply these approaches interculturally 1998), we are equally indebted to the collab-
(including Charles Braithwaite, Donal Car- orative work of the stellar team assembled by
baugh, Tamar Katriel, Bradford “J” Hall, FSI (Foreign Service Institute) director Frank
Michaela Winchatz, Mary Fong, Saskia Wit- Hopkins during those fruitful years (1951–1955)
teborn, and others). They have examined (Leeds-Hurwitz, 1990). These included
aspects of Speaking Culturally (Philipsen, scholars like Smith (1946, noted above for
1992), Cultures in Conversation (Carbaugh, language studies and training), Edward Ken-
2005) and functions related to identity, con- nard (1948), whose area studies helped
flict, and facework (e.g., Ting-Toomey, 1988, enhance the culture-specific approach to inter-
2005a, 2005b), silence (Braithwaite, 1990), and cultural training (ICT), Birdwhistell (1952a,
other components related to language use in 1952b, 1954), who created Kenesics, the sys-
“contexts” (e.g., Katriel, 1995; see a broader tematic study of body language, paralanguage,
history in Martin, Nakayama, & Carbaugh, and non-verbal patterns, and Trager (1958),
2012; and IC linguistic/pragmatic approaches whose structural linguistic work helped Hall
in Spencer-Oatey, 2000). to develop a universal grammar of culture.
These cultural patterns are noted in “The
Anthropology of Manners,” (Hall, 1955) but
Toward the Formalization of best articulated in The Analysis of Culture
Multiple Intercultural and Cross- (Hall & Trager, 1953) where “the basic units
Cultural Fields or building blocks of culture” are identified
and put into a frame of reference (pp. 1–2).
Expanding on Contributions of E. T. Hall
Unknown to many, it was this draft that was
and His FSI Colleagues
expanded with anecdotes and explanations as
Hall and his contemporaries framed the com- the influential Silent Language (Hall, 1959).
parative study of culture in systematic, scien- Hall’s framework for linking “culture and
tific, and theoretically applied ways, providing communication” in intercultural contexts was
foundations for the emergence of a more aca- articulated in Hall and Whyte (1960). Though
demic and professional field. Though we now few have applied the complex biological com-
know he did not coin the term “intercultural” munication systems framework (Hall, 1959),
(credit Crider, 1922 on “intercultural prac- his later taxonomies for high and low context,
tices” in biology, Baker, 1927 on “intercultural chronemics (polychronic and monochronic
contacts/relations” among religions, Husserl time), proxemics (space relations) (Hall,
in German, 1931/1974) or the combined 1976) provided both comparative tools by

which “behavior across culture boundaries equating nations as culture (though the FSI
could be equated” (Hall & Trager, 1953, p. 2) may have to train diplomats). Hall consistently
and training techniques to introduce learners viewed culture as based on smaller cultural
to explanatory domains of cultural difference. units, whether in his ethnic/racial cultural
Who influenced whom is hard to establish, group studies of Navajo/Pueblo/Anglo rela-
but others in related fields were also exploring tions in the 1930s, Black/White racial issues
inter- or cross-cultural issues at about the same in Denver in the 1940s, or military relations
time. In his “general theory of interaction,” on the island of Truk (Hall, 1950).
Parsons (with Shils, 1951) suggested that there Though this post–WWII period is often
were five “pattern variables” across societies, mentioned as a time of ferment for intercul-
each associated with different kinds of prefer- tural conceptualizing, Table 3.3 (Appendix A)
ences and interactions (which provided a presents a chronological overview of some of
frame for Hofstede’s inquiry). Using mid- the burgeoning events and ideas. By the 1960s,
1950s data with ninety-four variables from new conceptions of culture in social psych-
eighty-two nations, Rummel (1966) identified ology and opportunities in international edu-
dimensions affecting the foreign behavior of cation and initiatives in training allowed a host
nations (in the macro-economic, political, of “theory-into-practice” researchers to engage
and power position realms). in and help form what became the intercultural
As noted above, Osgood (1964) isolated and cross-cultural fields in the late 1960s and
three domains for multi-national comparison 1970s discussed in the next section.
of affective meaning (evaluation, potency,
activity). About the same time that Clifford
Into the 1970s: The Parallel Founding
Geertz (1973) was developing his anthropo-
of Intercultural Associations
logical approach to the Interpretation of Cul-
tures, Triandis was focusing on ways of Continuing the analysis begun in the IJIR
identifying and analyzing psychological elem- coedited “Special Issue” on intercultural
ents of culture in the 1960s (cf. Adamopolis & pioneers, this section highlights how import-
Kashima, 2000; Bhawuk, 2000; Triandis, ant the 1970s were for founding and
1995, 2008), culminating in his groundbreak- expanding the field (Kulich, 2012). Previous
ing Analysis of Subjective Culture (Triandis, histories have only marginally noted some of
1972). Hofstede (1980) later analyzed exten- the lines of intercultural work that not only
sive multinational corporate data to identify coexisted but coalesced into several parallel
his first four statistically confirmed cross- and often inter-connected fields. These are
cultural dimensions affecting Culture’s Conse- represented by streams focused on: (1) “inter-
quences. From these important foundations, cultural education, research, and training”
salient cross-cultural constructs or dimensions (the ICW, SIETAR, IJIR, Summer Institute
continue to be identified, tested in cross- SIIC, ICI, and IAIR), (2) cross-cultural
cultural research, and applied to IC education psychology (journals like IJP and JCCP and
or training. IACCP), (3) culture learning and training
Though Hall never set out to “found” or (primarily partners with the East-West Center
“initiate” a field (Sorrells, personal corres- CLI), (4) speech/mass communication associ-
pondence, May 3, 2015), his work inspired ations/divisions that founded the IC field
many to pursue these concepts or applications. (See Table 3.4), and (5) other associations and
Hall should, however, not be accused of journals (See Table 3.5).

Establishing IC Education: The University of scholars. It later moved to Portland, Oregon, as

Pittsburgh RCIE, ICW, SIETAR, IJIR, SIIC, and ICI part of the newly founded IC Institute (ICI),
under the leadership of Janet Bennett and Mil-
Not long after the closing of the BIE in the
ton Bennett, where the SIIC (now the Summer
1950s, other “intercultural education” pro-
Institute) and other programs continue.
grams began to be formed. However, these pro-
To link this growing group of intercultural
grams were initially intended to meet the needs
scholar-practitioners, the first issue of Commu-
of international students, rather than solve
nique was launched in 1971, the first volumes
intergroup conflict among American citizens.
of Readings in ICs (1970–1976) were published
One of the first initiatives was begun in 1959
from 1970 to 1976, and the ICs Network
at the University of Pittsburgh when Shepherd
(1972) was launched, eventually leading to
Witman set up the International Regional
the founding of Intercultural Press, with
Council for International Education (RCIE).
“Peggy” Pusch and Tobi Frank as long-term
David Hoopes established RCIE’s Center for
associates.
International Students (an outcome of funding
As the RCIE coordinator for the Intercultural
from the Ford Foundation for both the 1960
Network, Hoopes later gathered thirteen aca-
Morrill “Committee on the University and
demics and thirteen practitioners in Pittsburgh,
World Affairs” and 1962 Education and
PA (date unconfirmed, 1971–1973), with the
World Affairs projects) (Hoopes et al., 1971).
goal of transforming Al Wight’s SITAR into
He became RCIE Vice President in 1964 and
the Society for Intercultural Education,
invited the leaders of foreign student programs
Training, and Research (SIETAR), adding the
at over thirty-five colleges in several eastern
“E” for Education to its mission. (Wight, 2008).
states to collaborate.
At the first 1974 SIETAR Congress in Gaithers-
These efforts were complemented and fur-
burg, Maryland, Molefi Asante became the first
thered by developing and implementing the IC
president. SIETAR inspired and involved many
Workshop (ICW) training program, which
influential interculturalists over the years until
started in 1966 at the University of Pittsburg,
the international organization closed doors
Cornell University, and the University of Cin-
in 1999 and international networks of regional
cinnati, and later continued in the Midwest at
SIETARs carried on the mission (meeting
the University of Minnesota (Clifford Clarke
together occasionally like at the 2008 SIETAR
with Paul Pederson, Robert Moran) and on
Global Conference in Grenada, Spain). In and
the West Coast by LeRay Barna at the Port-
beyond SIETAR are a long list of scholar-
land University. The original goal of the ICW
trainer practitioners like L. Robert Kohls (see
was to provide international students with
Zhang & Kulich, 2012), Clarke (2008), and
adequate intercultural orientation for life in
many affiliated with the IC Workshop (ICW)
the USA. The ICW modules were compiled
and its more recent manifestations in other ICT
in 1970 and then published as a collection
applications (cf. Clarke & Takashiro, 2014).
(Hoopes, 1971) by the Intercultural Network
Academically, Dan Landis began negotiat-
(Vol. 1) and republished for SIETAR in 1975.
ing with Hoopes in 1976 to launch journal and
When funding for the ICW ended in 1976,
in 1977 published the first issue of International
Clarke (with Hoopes’ involvement) went on
Journal of Intercultural Relations. Access to
to establish the Stanford Institute for IC
IJIR was tied to SIETAR membership until
(SIIC), which continued for ten years with
1997, when Landis met with scholars in Port-
King Ming Young involving many leading IC
land to launch a scholarly academy. IJIR then

was linked to the newly formed International became the first President. These origins, and
Academy of Intercultural Research (IAIR, developments in cross-cultural psychology are
1998) with its inaugural meeting in Fullerton, well documented periodically in JCCP (review
California. The IAIR has met biannually on articles by Lonner) and in the updated versions
odd-numbered years since. of “Online Readings in Psychology and
Culture” on the IACCP website (see https://
scholarworks.gvsu.edu/orpc/).
Cross-cultural Psychology: launching
the journals IJP and JCCP and founding
IACCP
Psychology of Culture Learning/Training:
In the 1960s, social psychologists were increas-
East–West Center Culture Learning
ingly concerned that western psychological
Institute, Hawaii
studies were likely not addressing psychology
across the range of cultures around the world. Previous histories (e.g., Pusch, 2004) have
Some sought to address this by launching the barely touched on an important line of
International Journal of Psychology (IJP, research on culture learning at the East-West
1966), while others adjusted their research Center (EWC) and its important contributions
design to focus on cultural-psychological com- to non-western perspectives. In cooperation
parison. In 1967, John Berry surveyed 150 indi- with the University of Hawaii, the EWC and
viduals involved in this endeavor and published its Culture Learning Center were both estab-
the first “Directory of Cross-Cultural Psycho- lished in 1960. In 1971, the culture mission was
logical Research” in IJP (Berry, 1968, 1969). upgraded with the founding of the Culture
Concurrently, following a 1967 conference Learning Institute (CLI) (guided over the years
highlighting the study of culture in social by Verner Bickley, Greg Trifonovitch, and
psychology in Ibadan, Nigeria, Triandis Mary Bitterman). The Institute identified four
(1968) published the first Newsletter, which areas of interest: (1) Cultures in Contact, (2)
today is known as the Cross-Cultural Psych- Language in Culture, (3) Cultural Identity,
ology Bulletin. and (4) Thought and Expression in Culture
Additionally, Walter Lonner helped estab- Learning, each recruiting both scholars and
lish the Western Washington University students.
Center for Cross-Cultural Research, and in Richard Brislin was hired to help apply
1970 launched the Journal of Cross-Cultural psychology to culture learning and training
Psychology (JCCP). The previous lists of and published at least five annual issues of a
researchers and their research areas were new journal Topics in Culture Learning. This
updated and published (Berry & Lonner, publication served as a source for many books,
1970; Berry, Lonner, & Leroux, 1973). training guides, and handbooks, as well as
Another global conference in Istanbul, Turkey designing a series of intercultural training pro-
in 1971 provided an opportunity for many of grams led by Brislin and colleagues (e.g., with
these scholars interested in cross-cultural work Landis in 1983; Cushner, 1983–1985; Petersen
to meet. Eventually this growing network and Bhawuk, 1987, Gary Fontaine, Muneo
formed the International Association for Yoshikawa, Tomoko W. Yoshida and others),
Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP) in producing important guides for intercultural
1972 at a conference organized by John Daw- training (e.g., Brislin & Yoshida, 1994a), and
son in Hong Kong, where Jerry Bruner applications to a wide variety of Intercultural

Interactions (Brislin & Cushner, 1997; Brislin & etc.) to increase their skills in cross-cultural
Yoshida, 1994b). interaction. From 1976 to 1978, he received a
Through the EWC-based programs of the grant to advance “Cross-cultural Research for
CLI, Brislin developed projects and pulled Behavioral and Social Scientists” and run
together leading cross-cultural psychologists three years of programs (also four months
focused on culture learning, training, and each) for about fifteen scholars to increase
research. To move the field and its applications their orientation and skills in cross-cultural
forward, Brislin, Lonner, and Thorndike’s research. Brislin and his network also collabor-
(1973) book Cross-cultural Research Methods ated on several other solid foundational
was an important milestone, as well as his academic milestones, namely his contribution
edited volume on how to approach Translation to Vol. 5 of the Handbook of Cross-cultural
(1976) in careful cross-cultural research. Psychology (Triandis & Brislin, 1980), and
Another EWC–CLI conference organized by the edited volume on Research in Culture
Brislin in 1973 produced Cross-cultural Per- Learning (Hamnett & Brislin, 1980).
spectives on Learning (Brislin, Bochner, & A hallmark that the field had come of age
Lonner, 1975, an early volume in Bochner was the seminal publication of the three-
and Lonner’s Sage “Cross-cultural Research volume Handbook of Intercultural Training
and Methodology Series”) and a later update (Landis & Brislin, 1983). The specific volumes
on Culture Learning (Brislin, 1977). focused on “Issues in theory and design”
These theoretical and scholarly volumes (Vol. 1), “Issues in training methodology”
were constantly in a process of development (Vol. 2), and “Area studies and international
and application through innovative training education” (Vol. 3). This volume marks the
programs. Fiedler, Mitchell, and Triandis fourth edition of this benchmark resource.
(1971) explained culture assimilators as a Many of those who have contributed to these
training tool and inspired further development handbooks have also been active in the many
in Intercultural Interactions (Brislin, Cushner, programs of the Intercultural Communication
Cherrie, & Yong, 1986; Cushner & Brislin, Institute (ICI) in Portland and with its annual
1996). Cross-Cultural Orientation Programs programs of culture learning through the
(Brislin & Pedersen, 1976) and a compilation Summer Institute in Intercultural Communi-
of training modules (Weeks, Pedersen, & Bri- cation (SIIC), which now marks forty years
slin, 1977) provided helpful applications, as since it began at Stanford.
did Brislin’s ongoing “Workshop for Develop- In later years, both Brislin and Bhawuk
ing Coursework at Colleges and Universities,” moved to The Shidler College of Business,
which ran from 1987 to 1995 at the EWC, was University of Hawaii and adapted their cross-
directed by Bhawuk from 1997 to 2000, and cultural training (CCT) approaches for MBA,
moved to the University of Hawaii in 2000. EMBA and business students (e.g., Working
Brislin’s programs at the EWC also secured with Cultural Differences: Dealing Effectively
funded support from the US Information with Diversity in the Workplace, Brislin, 2008).
Agency in Washington, DC. From 1972 Bhawuk has particularly addressed individual-
to 1975, he was funded to develop three ism and collectivism in the field related to
4-month-long programs for educators from diversity (2012), how self-concept affects
Asia, the Pacific, and the United States leading across cultural groups (Bhawuk &
(administrators of bilingual education pro- Munusamy, 2010), and using cultural stand-
grams, principals of international schools, ards in the preparation of managers in

countries at different development levels (Bha- divisions: Organizational Communication in

wuk, 2009b). His research also focuses on 1983 and International and Intercultural Com-
globalization vs. indigenous cultures (Bhawuk, munication in 1984” (Gehrke & Keith, 2014,
2008) as well as addressing cultural roots and p. 17). Many trainers were operative in both,
practice of spirituality and the implication of applying their intercultural learning to both
local values on intercultural interactions. business and educational contexts. Also, there
was strong collaboration in scholarship, con-
ferences, and training between US and Japan-
Founding IC: Academic Associations
ese pioneers as they respectively compared
and Their Journals
their cultures and worked together to launch
Intercultural and Development Communication
the field, which should be more fully
Division, International Communication
researched and reported beyond the confines
Association (ICA)
of this chapter (cf. Clarke, 2008; Kawakami,
Three organizations were formed in the 1970s
2009; Kulich, 2012).
related to inter- or cross-cultural aspects of
The field was also maturing in its growing
communication. The first of these, the ICA,
publication history. For the SCA/NCA,
began with a proposal submitted by Sitaram
Casmir (1974–1976) edited the first three Inter-
submitted a proposal to establish a 5th
national and IC Annuals, followed by Jain
Division (Intercultural and Development
(1977–1982) and then Gudykunst (1983–1985),
Communication) within the International
who shifted the focus to key topic volumes,
Communication Association (ICA), which
starting with IC Theory. Other editors con-
was approved on May 6, 1970, in Minneap-
tinued the International and IC Annual for over
olis. He became its first Chair (Prosser, 2012,
thirty years before becoming the NCA Journal
p. 860). Many in the new Division focused on
of International and IC (JIIC) in 2008.
university teaching, textbook development,
and cross-cultural mass communication
applications.
Communication Association of the Pacific
(CAP) and World Communication
International and Intercultural Division, Association (WCA)
National Communication Association Donald Klopf and some of his Speech Com-
(NCA) munication colleagues (like Stanley Harms,
The second organization, NCA, began in Jeffrey Auer) at the University of Hawaii,
1971 when Prosser organized a consultation Honolulu developed links with Asian col-
with US (Howell, SCA) and Canadian Speech leagues including Takahide Kawashima,
Communication Association (Lyman, CSCA) Satoshi Ishii, and Tsukasa Nishida to establish
counterparts in Indiana to discuss proposals the Communication Association of the Pacific
for developing a formal field of IC studies. (CAP) in 1971, declaring it as the first truly
He then applied to become one of the early international organization in communication.
Commissions of the Speech Communication CAP scholars carried out and published
Association. However, by the late 1970s and research on a broad range of comparative
early 1980s, the (inter)related field(s) of ICs and intercultural interests. From 1972 on, they
were thriving, such that in SCA/NCA, “rising hosted various gatherings in Japan (which
areas and changing interests in communication were forerunners to the 1983 World Commu-
studies led to the development of two new nication Association) and launched their

official journal Communication, which was Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology and

edited first by Wayne Oxford (1972) then Sport Facilitation sought to publish empirical
Auer, and which was later renamed World studies, theoretical propositions, and case
Communication (1985–2001, edited by Ron studies for community-based and inter/intra-
Applebaum). In 1985–1994, another focused cultural effects on human behavior and rela-
journal named Communication Research tionships in the family, workplace, schools,
Reports was also published. Since 2002, the organizations (www.ajol.info/index.php/ajcpsf)
official journal of WCA has been called the but was discontinued. The Journal of Multicul-
Journal of IC Research (JICR). tural and Cross-Cultural Research in Art Educa-
tion advanced the work of the United States
Society for Education Through Art from 1981
Publishing the Expanding IC Field to 1990 (https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED365566).
The focus on publication addressing IC issues And yet, new areas emerge: the Journal of
continues to receive attention across the dis- Cross-Cultural Family Studies was just
ciplines. Almost annually, a new journal is launched in 2017 (https://digitalcommons
launched that focuses on a cross- or intercul- .acu.edu/jccfs/about.html). Extending inter-
tural topic. Table 3.5 (Appendix A) highlights cultural and cross-cultural research to new
over thirty such journals, illustrating the range domains continues.
of topic areas now affected by this endeavor. It
should be noted, however, that journals with
“multicultural” in their title, of which there are
Intercultural Theorizing
now over fifteen, are not included partly due to
(from the 1970s to 2005)
space but also due to noting the scope of such
journals. Though they could be considered IC- One early emphasis of field founders in the
related for foci on the comparing and mixing early 1970s was “invading” other disciplines
of cultures, they extend to an even wider range with the intercultural ideal as well as
of topics dealing with policy, citizen education, borrowing concepts from the broader academy
social studies, or broader societal issues and to promote action (Smith, 1977). But as the
applications. academic field grew, the need for original
As noted in the organizational histories theory and field development grew more
above, some of these long-established journals urgent (see Table 3.6, in Appendix A).
have now become highly respected flagships As early as 1971, Prosser organized a con-
for their association and key peer-reviewed sultation at Indiana University/Brown County
publication outlets for the field. It is also State Park. Identifying relevant theories was a
apparent how this list keeps growing, either key item on the agenda. Theory was also
through the formation of new associations or among the topics at Prosser’s University of
to specific institutions with IC-related special- Virginia/Massenetta Springs “Syllabus Con-
ties. This reflects how well-established and struction Conference on IC and Communica-
broadly applied the cross- and intercultural tion and Social Change” in 1973. Casmir
approach to research has now become. (1973) constructed the first annotated bibliog-
However, not all journals listed have raphy for this emerging branch of communi-
attained broad circulation or standing, nor cation studies. Edward C. Stewart’s (1973/
have all that maintained their viability. For 1978) “Outline of IC” provided concept and
example, from 2004 to 2008, the African theory categorizations, which became the

central foci of the 1974 combined SCA/ICA/ Differences), and explained in the extensively
SIETAR 1974 Chicago Conference (Jain, documented multi-edition text Communicating
Prosser, & Miller, 1974). Molefi Asante and with Strangers (Gudykunst & Kim, 1984/1991/
Eileen Newmark (1976) followed suit produ- 1996/2002). His tour-de-force IC theory compil-
cing their first small monograph IC: Theory ation (Gudykunst, 2005) was completed just
into Practice. From this, they recruited authors before his death.
to produce the first Handbook of IC (Asante, Across these articles and volumes, at least
Newmark, & Blake, 1979). eight key theoretical themes have consistently
The first IC theory summaries began under been addressed by IC scholars: attributions
Brent Rubin’s founding editorship of the ICA (what we associate with or expect of cultural
Communication Yearbook (1977–1979) which others), identity, perceptual bias or issues of
provided “state of the art” on specific sub- prejudice, language interrelationships (linguis-
fields. From Tulsi Saral’s (1977) opening over- tic rules, speech codes, meaning management),
view, to Michael Prosser’s (1978a) discussion values or beliefs systems, culture learning
of major constucts, to Saral’s (1979) “Chal- toward personal adjustment and system- or
lenges and Opportunities,” this framing of the schema-based adaptation, effectiveness or
field continued under the new editor, Dan competence, and conflict (see Table 3.7, in
Nimmo (Asante, 1980). Appendix A). These also continue to be some
The first compilations began with a theory of the topics typically covered or applied in
volume (Hoopes, Pedersen, & Renwick, 1979) intercultural education and training design
as Vol. 1 in SIETAR’s Overview of Intercultural (e.g., Bhawuk, 2009a; Milhouse, 1996).
Education, Training and Research series. Wil- But theorizing is dynamic in any field, and
liam G. Davey, with Shiela van Derck, who historical software needs to keep being
was also present at Prosser’s Indiana meeting, updated to meet new contexts or realities.
produced SIETAR’s IC Theory and Practice Many of the cited theories represent the social
volume (1979, Vol. 2). William Howell (also science paradigm of IC and inadequately cover
present at the Indiana meeting) wrote a chapter the range of interpretative or critical
updating the state of IC theory (1979) in Asante approaches that are proving increasingly rele-
et al.’s Handbook, while developing the illustri- vant for dealing with the nuanced array of
ous IC doctoral program at the University of complex problems faced in our times. Kim
Minnesota, where many leading IC scholars (2017, pp. xlii), as chief-editor of a six-volume
were trained (cf. Hasslet, 2017). IC encyclopedia, recruited twenty-two leading
At the 1980 SCA Convention in New York IC scholars, who then complied 256 key word
City, Larry Sarbaugh and Nobleza Asuncion- entries, reflecting the main topics currently
Lande held an “Action Caucus and Seminar focused on by IC scholars and practitioners.
on Theory in IC,”which became “Bill” Gudy- Table 3.8 (Appendix A) provides the details.
kunst’s (1983) first theme volume as editor of According to Kim’s analysis, these six focus
SCA’s International and IC Annual (IICA) IC areas are robust, their theories mature, and
Theory, Vol. 7. This tradition continued with areas of analysis broad and expanding.
regular updates (Kim & Gudykunst, IICA,
Vol. 12, 1988; Wiseman, IICA, Vol. 19, 1995).
Concluding Remarks
Gudykunst was particularly active in and
also committed to the practical application Overall, this chapter has offered a response to
of theories (Gudykunst’s 1998 Bridging critiques of our field that call for clearer and

yet more nuanced thinking about the complex 1. a clear concept of culture or theories
issues and dialectics of culture (e.g., Croucher on interactions between cultures did NOT
et al., 2015; Martin & Nakayama, 1999; exist for, as far as we know, most
Moon, 2010; Ogay & Edelmann, 2016). Even pre-Enlightenment and Enlightenment
with seeking to be selective, provide highlights, thinkers;
and attempt to draw links to later expressions 2. yet, some thinkers were clearly striving to
for some of these streams of thinking and understand many of the same concepts and
praxis, the content covered is admittedly vast, issues that we still struggle with today; and
yet some topics have been inadequately therefore,
addressed. This chapter is a limited first 3. some of their thinking is important and
attempt at broadening our understanding of allows us to rethink how we can understand
the rich roots, diverse dimensions, and broad and relate with cultural groups different
applications of branches of study and practices from our own.
that have helped formulate a robust family of
cross- and intercultural fields and approaches While “IC” as an academic field may have
to interculturality in interactions. As in begun in the latter half of the twentieth cen-
C. Wright Mills’ (1959) Sociological Imagin- tury, thinking about human culture is ancient
ation, we have sought to review the historical and rich in content and implications. To
legacies of particular thinkers at particular recover what might have been forgotten, this
times to reflect on how they affected the rela- chapter has revisited reflections on the rela-
tions of people in their social-cultural contexts, tionship between culture, power, perceived
as well as to “think ourselves away” from the reality/truth, morality that might help address
familiar history of our field to reexamine it critiques that call for more nuanced thinking
with critical eyes and fresh perspectives. This about the complex issues, contexts, and diver-
chapter expands, updates, and supplements sities within and across culture(s) (e.g., Asante
received narratives, seeking to locate historical et al., 2008; Holliday, 2011; Moon, 2010;
precedents or inspirations for new challenges Nakayama & Halualani, 2010; Ogay & Edel-
facing the field today. mann, 2016; Starosta, 2011).
Second, this coverage notes the limitation of
identifying a few field founders, books, or
“Mainstream” Narrative and
grand theories, and the richness of acknow-
“Unnoticed” Streams: Summative
ledging the plurality and diversity of scholars
Comparison
and practitioners over many years who have
Based on the authors and narratives presented proffered perspectives on culture and human
in this chapter, three comparative conclusions relations in anthropology, sociology, social/
can be drawn. First and foremost, “IC,” group psychology, linguistics, education, and
though often considered a relatively young other fields. Each contributed to the collective
field (formalized in the 1970s), is rooted in rich understanding we now have of how different
intellectual traditions of thinking about and groups are formed, how distinct characteristics
comparing ourselves to others. can be best understood relative to one another,
Influential thinkers have been engaging in and how interactive processes between
social or cultural criticisms and grappling with members of different groups work.
ways to describe human society in terms of Spheres of inspiration, collaboration, and
“culture” for centuries. Yet we note that crossover between the fields can be observed

between the scholars pioneering at the Univer- linear progression in the development of “the
sity of Berlin, the Frankfurt school, the Bir- field” would not conform to the broad range of
mingham institute, the many programs at “intercultural” initiatives that this chapter
Columbia University, New York University, shows have coexisted and at times challenged
University of Chicago, and those not yet each other over the last ninety years. As Blom-
adequately covered in this space like the Uni- maert (1998) notes, the broad field of IC
versity of Minnesota, University of Pittsburgh, remains multi-paradigmatic and contested in
Northwestern University, Indiana University, many ways. An intercultural approach to
Pepperdine University, Howard University, research, education, and social application
and other institutions (cf. Kulich & Zhang, has now spread beyond the confines of “a
2012). Equally noted is the interdisciplinary field” or even “parent” disciplines to increas-
collaboration on important themes like ways ingly reflect the cognitive complexity that each
to identify attitudes, attributions, and preju- generation of uniquely positioned intercultur-
dice, methods or designs to foster intercultural alists seek to embody or develop in others in
training, learning, and counselling, approaches their context.
to cultivate intercultural awareness, sensitivity,
and competence and the inseparable links
Implications for the Field(s) of
between theory and practice. A case in point
Intercultural Studies, Education,
is the intertwined efforts between Benedict,
and Training Today
M. Mead, Lasker, Katz, W.E.B. DuBois,
Kleinberg, Lewin, Allport, and Davis-DuBois Overall, the value of this chapter is in its
within the early Intercultural Education move- attempt to allow intercultural scholars and
ment. Such individual and shared efforts both practitioners to (re)consider their own assump-
crystallize some earlier philosophical ideals, as tions about what IC is; when, where, and how
well as inspire later developments in this it started; where it is going (or rather, what its
ongoing process of intercultural inquiry, appli- inherent purposes/trajectories are); and what it
cation, and agency. The field(s) of IC is/are faces or needs to more clearly address
shown to be international, interested in inter- (acknowledging Croucher et al.’s 2015 ques-
ethnic/interracial/intergroup issues, and also tions). It may be the nature of modernized,
dealing with differential responses to the chal- progressive societies to reify our histories into
lenges of mixing and hybridity occurring in mono-linear, phase-by-phase, progressive nar-
new ways in global contexts (starting to address ratives which cast recent developments in the
critiques posed by Sorrells, 2012; Szkudlarek, most favorable light as the latest and greatest
2009; Ting-Toomey & Dorjee, 2019). step towards what Fukuyama (1992) once geo-
Third, the ferment that culminated in the politically called the “end of history.” Some
1970s shows that while the formalization of tend to imply that by telling our history
the field followed similar steps (conferences/ “right” we can direct our societies, our field,
collaborations, organizations, publications, or our students/clients toward a better and
and theorizing), it occurred concurrently, brighter future. Others question such grand
within and across several parallel tracks. The assumptions.
prevailing three-paradigm model (González, The people and contributions presented in
2010; Kurylo, 2012; Martin & Nakayama, this chapter issue a sharp challenge to intellec-
1999) might still describe epistemologies and tual malaise or myopic and simplistic views of
approaches to research, but trying to show intercultural concepts and practice. These

concur with two recent assessments made by scholars since the 1970s has focused on empir-
several scholars who are similarly attempting ical or binary-dimension cultural compari-
to define, describe, and clarify what exactly sons at the national level, leaving others
intercultural study is. working on different cultural levels or with
other complex domains sensing either mis-fit
First, context matters. The metaphorical or irrelevance of established theories to their
“murky waters” that flow through the history context or their scholarship. Additionally,
of IC studies (Baldwin, 2016) have made it both Kathyrn Sorrells (2012) and Barbara
increasingly context- and area-focused. For Szkudlarek (2009) lament the lack of training
example, Rabi Bhagat and Kristin Prien methods particularly designed for use in crit-
(1996) focused on functional organizational ical contexts, such as addressing majority/
contexts and methods in CCT. Daniel Kealey minority relations and social justice issues. It
and David Protheroe (1996) specifically can be both inspiring and sobering to realize
reviewed training designs for “expatriates” that some of the work being done in the early
who are “going across.” Jan Selmer (2005) twentieth century in intercultural education
examined CCT as related to expatriate adjust- and social psychology was already seeking to
ments in China, and Robert Bean (2006, 2007) address related issues.
evaluated the need and acceptance of CCT in Given that the field of IC embodies multiple
Australian contexts. Early training pioneer and at times contested paradigms, histories,
Clarke (2008) provided a scholar-practitioner goals, focuses, theories, etc., it thus has the
review with helpful reference to the Japanese potential to be more flexibly and fairly under-
context. Dorian Brown and Trey Martindale stood, defined, and applied. Context, domain,
(2012) conducted a review of ICT as applied to or specific group can and should play a signifi-
the workplace, focusing especially on Cultural cant role in determining the selection and
Intelligence (CQ) applications in business. application of the most relevant contructs/
These preferences for a context-driven theory, or foster the developing of a new one.
approach in reviewing the foci, key concepts, Reviewing the multiple perspectives, varied
theories, best practices, and goals take us approaches, and range of cultural levels
beyond clear-cut categories or field boundar- involved when groups interact, models may
ies. Since intercultural studies rose out of a be needed that incorporate these levels and
multiplicity of fields, borrowing key concepts provide conceptual maps of what types of
from each, it behooves us to readopt a “con- training might address the types of inter-, cul-
text-based” approach to the field (e.g., Wang ture, and communication, and intersubjective
& Kulich, 2015), whether based on place (Aus- representations at hand (Wan, 2015; or pro-
tralia, China, Japan, etc.,), purpose (training, posals of different levels, modes, or praxis, cf.
education, or research), or past influences Wang & Kulich 2015). Dynamic, dialectic, or
(anthropological, psychological, linguistic, dialogic approaches (Doron, 2009; Ganesh &
etc.). Holmes, 2011; Holmes, 2014; Martin &
Nakayama, 1999) not only broaden our under-
Second, the mainline “intercultural” conception standing of IC history and past intercultural
has been limited or contained – both for training applications, but help the develop-
research and training applications. A large ment of context-specific models, methods,
body of research generated mainly by cross- and techniques for facing new circumstances
cultural psychologists or communication and gaps noted in emerging categories.

Looking Back to Look Forward: Future outside the mainstream; and (3) there is an
Directions over-emphasis on US and English-speaking
histories. In dealing with historic centrisms,
. . . the horizon of the present is continually in the
Szkudlarek (2009; Szkudlarek & Romani,
process of being formed because we are
2017) similarly notes that the intercultural story
continually having to test all our prejudices. An
important part of this testing occurs in has been typically told “through Western eyes”
encountering the past and in understanding the or from ideologically mainstream positions
tradition from which we come. Hence the and assumptions (e.g., Dervin, 2016; Gorski,
horizon of the present cannot be formed without 2008). Consequently, important developments
the past . . . Understanding is always the fusion of in or perspectives from other countries,
these horizons supposedly existing by themselves. regions, or social milieus may only be known
(italics his, Gadamer, 1960, p. 305) to insiders. Without them what can the global
intercultural community learn about how they
This chapter provides only the beginnings of came into being or what issues they are
an attempt to holistically explore our multi- addressing? Like the ongoing enterprise of
perspectival IC history. Inclusion of other indigenous psychology, where each emic has
influential pioneers beyond those biographed value in checking the assumptions of prevail-
in the IJIR Special Issue (Prosser & Kulich, ing etics, efforts must be made to compare and
2012) was only partially and briefly accom- integrate localized expressions of our field in
plished. Space did not permit inclusion of an spite of language and/or cultural barriers. Both
important part of this project on documenting multilingual and multidisciplinary approaches
intercultural developments in specific national (Spencer-Oatey & Franklin, 2009) are needed
contexts like Germany, Japan, China, and to begin to make sense of the multilayered
other countries. Deeper analysis of the inter- complexity of all that we call “intercultural.”
cultural topic range (as historically published As this chapter has illustrated, despite some
in handbooks or key journals), theory analysis, simplified narratives from this rich intercul-
broader application areas, or best practices in tural heritage, today’s intercultural field(s) is/
education and training are not yet included. are more diverse and nuanced than “we”
Two directions for future efforts are recom- might think:
mended. First, further detailed analysis of
early documents and lines of publication is The central fact of our history is the ambiguity of
needed to clarify the strength, emergent foci, “we” . . . it can also refer to a multiplicity of
and breadth of each IC studies or education voices, sometimes in harmony, but not
category and its related training approaches necessarily unified . . . Our field and association
have never had a stable identity . . . the unique
(examples like Ho, Holmes, & Cooper, 2004;
strengths and weaknesses of the field flow from a
Martin, Nakayama, & Carbaugh, 2012).
dynamic scholarly identity, always in flux, never
Second, historical consciousness must truly at rest. (Gehrke & Keith, 2014, p. 1)
become intercultural by “leaving home” and
“going abroad.” Baldwin’s (2016, p. 19) chap- It may behoove us to view our history as a
ter notes three basic truths about current repre- pendulum, emerging painting, or unfolding
sentations of intercultural history with which tapestry, rather than an energizer bunny of
the authors agree: (1) there are histories in progress. Considering diverse contexts and
communication and culture that precede Hall contending dialectics have fostered fermenta-
(many outlined here); (2) there are domains tion in the field and can continue to push us

toward greater depth, (re)definition, and initiative for a special issue helped launch this
innovative praxis of the field’s intellectual project in 2010, appeared as biographical
legacy to address the challenging realities we essays in 2012, IJIR 36(6), and led to six sym-
each face. The points of emphasis may sway posium sessions at the IAIR 2013 Conference
back and forth with the times, but we can in Reno, Nevada. Thanks also goes to the
remix the colors on our pallet or strands in research fellows and assistants of the SISU
our loom so that neither historical amnesia Intercultural Institute and doctoral course par-
nor irrelevance are inevitable. ticipants Gefei Suo, Yi’an Wang, Jiaojiao
It is hoped that when we as scholar/practi- Meng, Aili Guo, Xuan Wang, Ying Ren, and
tioners (re)discover some of the forgotten or to MA students Yan’ni Meng, Xueke Sun,
bypassed lines of thinking and praxis presented Anthony Yuchi Chen, and others for extensive
here, our (re)defined and revived understand- sourcing and thesis documentation, to Janet
ing of IC can help us to pursue, foster, and Bennett’s IC Institute (ICI) in Portland,
forge a wider range of applications and agency Oregon and librarian Sandra Garrison for
in complex contexts around the globe. It takes scans and copies of early works, and to inter-
a renewed vision of the past to more meaning- cultural pioneers for reviewing sections of this
fully, realistically, and successfully face the manuscript: John “Jack” Condon, Clifford
complex intercultural challenges of our shared Clarke, Fred Casmir, and contributions from
future. Jacqueline Wasilewski, Juergen Henze, Wendy
Leeds-Hurwitz, Michael Steppat, Kathryn Sor-
rells, Valery Chirkov, and John Baldwin. The
Acknowledgments lead author takes responsibility for any omis-
This chapter is part of a funded “Cultural and sions or errors and is committed to correcting
Educational High-end Foreign Expert Pro- them in future updates on this complex history.
ject” position awarded to the first author by
the Chinese National Foreign Expert Bureau
(2014–2016 Project No.: GDW20143100106). Appendix A
The chapter is dedicated to our colleague
(2005–2009), Michael H. Prosser, whose Tables

Table 3.1 1784–1919: Milestones in the early formative history of intercultural communications
Academic Concepts/Theories Institutions/Organiza-

Year published Person(s) tions founded Applied initiatives launched Location
1784 Outlines of a Philosophy of the Johann Gottfried von U of Berlin
History of Man (“Kultur” Herder (1784)
coined as “way of life”)
1839–1850 Initial ideas of preparing to Early “shipboard education” England
enter a new culture for migrants to colonial New
Zealand
1874–1891 “Geist des Volkes” (“Volk” as a Johann Gottfried von U of Berlin
ethnic people group, Herder
“Völker” as different peoples)
1853 Observation, positivism, field of Auguste Comte Scientific approach to social Paris, France
sociology theory
1866–1871 The Peoples of East Asia Adolf Bastian (1866) U of Berlin
1869 Journal Zeitschrift für Launching Editors: Berlin Society for Berlin
Ethnologie (ZIE) Robert Hartmann, Anthropology,
Adolph Bastian Ethnology, and
Prehistory
1870–1871 Conceptualizing Kultur der Jacob Burckhardt, (Culture+s as plural: U of Basel
Beggnung der Kultures (the Fredrich Nietsche Perspectivism: maturity by
culture of meeting other experiencing several cultures,
Cultures) comprehending others via
“objectivity”)
1872 Origin of Species 6th ed. (the Charles Darwin (1872) England,
importance of “facial HMS
expressions” first noted, Beagle
precursor to non-verbals)
1877 Learning through Traveling abroad James O. Woodruff Vision articulated for Indianapolis,
shipboard education, IN
students to sail and learn
around the world
Table 3.1 (cont.)

1881 Der Völkergedanken in Aufbau einer Adolf Bastian (1881) U of Berlin
Wissenschaft (building a science
based on ethnic peoples thinking,
precursor of “emics”)
1884 Die allgemeinen Grundzüge der Adolf Bastian (1884) U of Berlin
Ethnologie (Foundations of
Ethnologie)
1887 Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft Ferdinand Tönnies Kiel U,
(Community and Association) (1887) Germany
1893 “Social facts” as comparative frame Emile Durkheim U of
of mechanical (traditional) and (1893) Bordeaux,
organic (modern) solidarity France
1894 Collective conscientiousness vs. Emile Durkheim U of
Individualism (towards organic (1894) Bordeaux,
solidarity) France
1881 Applied sociology (as social + Georg Simmel Simmel continued teaching at U of Berlin
personal exchanges) (awarded PhD in the U of Berlin for 29 years
Sociology) (Albion Small worked as a
fellow)
1892 Adopting European models, US Albion Small 1st US Department of U of Chicago
field of sociology begins Sociology
1895 Der ethnische Elementargedanken in Adolf Bastian (1895) Postulating local cultural U of Berlin
der Lehre vom Menschen (the group thinking, precursor of
“psychic unity” of mankind across “etics”
ethnic groups)
1900 Philosophy of Money Georg Simmel (1900) R. E. Park took Simmel’s U of Berlin
(interaction & social formation, Sociology course and earned
dual relations) his PhD in Berlin
1903 Concepts of “homophily” and Gabriel Tarde (also Critique of Durkheim, Collège de
“heterophily” used by Simmel) stablished the "French school" France
of criminology, emphasizing
group mind and psychology
(a critique of Durkheim)
1904 The Protestant Ethic and the Max Weber (1904) Contrasting American, U Heidelberg
Spirit of Capitalism Western, and Asian values
and economic orientations
1906 Folkways (ingroup, outgroup, William Graham Yale U
ethnocentrism) Sumner (1906)
1908 Concept of the “Stranger” Georg Simmel (1908) U of Berlin
1909 NAACP magazine, The Crisis Founding Editors: W. National Association New York
E. B. DuBois, Mary for the Advancement City
White Ovington, and of Colored People
others (NAACP)
1911 Völkerpsychologie (The Wilhelm Wundt U of Leipzig
Psychology of Peoples) (1911–1920, 1916)
1915 Gender awareness and global Jane Addams and Women’s Philadelphia,
peace initatives others International League PA
for Peace and
Freedom (WILPF)
1915 “Women and Internationalism,” Jane Addams, Emily The 1st International (thereafter triannual world The Hague,
Women at the Hague Greene Balch, Alice Congress of Women congresses, with regional Netherlands
Hamilton (1915) conferences in between)
1915–1925 Concept of the marginal man Robert E. Park, R. E. Park worked for Booker Tuskegee
proposed Booker T. Washington T. Washington in the Congo Institute.,
Reform Association Alabama
Table 3.1 (cont.)

1915–1935 Research model of scientific George Herbert Mead, Dominance of Chicago U of Chicago
objectivity (distance of outsider/ Robert E. Park Sociology (Park began
stranger) teaching there)
1916 Study of ethnic communities in Robert E. Park (1916) Approach of “the Chicago U of Chicago
urban contexts School”
1918 Advances in women's roles in Jane Addams and 2nd WILPF Zurich,
society others International Switzerland
Congress
1919 First efforts at uniting nations to National leaders like Post–WWI Treaty of Versailles,
prevent war, though with colonial Woodrow Wilson, Versailles France
compromises Georges Clemenceau,
and David Lloyd
George
1919 Initiatives toward cross-racial Will W. Alexander Commission on (to curtail racial violence, Atlanta
understanding Interracial investigate race relations,
Cooperation (CIC) housing, sanitation)
(for the US South)
Table 3.2 1920–1945: Milestones in the formative history of intercultural communications
Academic Concepts/ Institutions/Organizations Applied initiatives

Year Theories published Person(s) founded launched Location
1918–1920 The Polish Peasant In William Thomas and (study of the values, U of Chicago
Europe and America Florian Znaniecki cultural identity, and
(1921) interactions of a cultural
group in plural contexts)
1920s–1940s Concept of Linguistic Edward Sapir (1921, Columbia U
Relativity (Sapir-Whorf 1949) and Benjamin
hypothesis) Whorf
1920s Cultural relativism Franz Boas and Columbia U
proposed students
1921 Jane Addams and 3rd WILPF International (Rachel DuBois attended Vienna,
others Congress a 1922 Hague "conference" Austria
after Versailles)
1922 Conflict and the Web of Georg Simmel (1922) U of Berlin
Group-Affiliations
(modern society: examine
reciprocal interactions
=person and others)
1922 Klassen, Stände, Partie (3- Max Weber (1922) U Heidelberg
Component theory of
social stratification)
1922 Concept of “stereotype” Walter Lippman
1922–1923 Cross-national speech A. Craig Baird First US–UK debate team Bates College/
collaboration exchanges (both ways) Oxford
1924 Jane Addams and 4th WILPF International Washington,
others Congress DC
1924 Concept of “social Robert E. Park U of Chicago
distance”
Table 3.2 (cont.)

1924 Negative attitudes and The US Immigration Act Washington,
policies toward (the Johnson–Reed Act, DC
immigrants including the Asian
Exclusion Act and
National Origins [quotas]
Act)
1924–1926 “Social distance scale” Emory S. Bogardus PhD graduate of the U of Sociological study of U of Chicago/
(1926) Chicago School of psychological attitudes USC
sociology 1911, he and early scale
established an early
independent Sociology
Dept at the U of Southern
Cal. in 1915
1924–1928 A Program for Education Rachel Davis-DuBois The "Woodbury Plan" for Woodbury,
in World Mindedness (1928) engaging students in inter- NJ
ethnic/inter-religious
School Assemblies
1926 Children, The Magazine George C. Hecht Vehicle for parent US
for Parents (name changed education including
to Parent’s Magazine in reviews of Lasker's work
1929) on prejudice, a “Tolerance
Test” etc.
1926 Initiating shipboard James E. Lough, University World Cruise One-time voyage seeking New York
education Holland America Line (outgrowth of study to provide study-abroad U Extramural
abroad trips 1923–1926) education at sea (Holland Division
American Lines)
1927 Formalizing shipboard International University Multiple shipboard

eduation Cruise (IUC) and education programs
University Travel instituted, programs in
Association (UTA) 1928, first sail of IUC
1928, UTA 1929
1928 Anthropology and Modern Franz Boas (1928) Columbia U
Life
1929 Race Attitudes in Children Bruno Lasker (1929) Survey Magazine Noting effects of New York
(Associate Editor) communal/parental City
conscious and unconscious
fostering of prejudice
1929 NATC (later became US–UK
SCA/NCA) formed Int'l exchange
Debating committee
1929–1933 Clark L. Hull, with Yale Institute of Human Interdisciplinary work- Yale U
John Dollard, John Relations group among social
Whiting, etc. scientists
1929/1937 Concept of “marginal Robert E. Park in U of Chicago
man” formalized collaboration with
(“sojourner,” Sui, 1952) Everett V. Stonequist
(1929)
1930 Editors: Franz Boas, Journal of Social
Lucien Levi-Bruhl, Psychology: Political,
Bertrand Russell, Racial, and Differential
Edward Sapir Psychology
1930s Critical media studies (The Benjamin, Marcuse, Neo-Marxist, anti- Frankfurt
Frankfurt School) Adorno, Horkheimer, authoritarian analysis U Center
From, Löwenthal, etc.
1931 Phenomenology of Edmund Husserl (1931) Likely first use of Göttingen U,
Intersubjectivity "interkulturall" as Freiburg U
adjective in German
Table 3.2 (cont.)

1931 Study of Values (SOV) Gordon Allport and Harvard U
Philip Vernon (1931)
1932 Institutionalizing a Institute of Int'l Education Institutionalizing a Washington,
national focus on (IIE) national focus on DC
international education international education
1932 Fostering peace through Donald Watt Experiment in Created and administered Brattelboro,
understanding, International Living (EIL) “semester abroad” (first VT
communication, and group with French +
cooperation by living Germans) then 1933
together “homestay”
1932 Developing awareness of "Cultural Mosaics" New York U
cultural differences on a campus club program
university campus
1932–1935 Rachel Davis-DuBois Courses designed with Boston U, UC
intercultural education Berkley
contents
1934 Thinking and Speech Lev Vygotsky (1934) Moscow,
(Vygotsy’s socio-cultural Russia
studies of children's
development)
1934 Study on prejudice/ Richard LaPiere (1934) As Stanford Professor, he (replication by Kutner, Stanford U
discrimination drove through the US with Wilkins, & Yarrow 1952)
a Chinese couple,
documenting responses
then measured attitudes
1934 Patterns of Culture Ruth Benedict (1934) Columbia U
1934 Launching the first Rachel Davis DuBois The Service Bureau for (renamed Service Bureau New York
clearing house for human Education in Human for Intercultural City
and later intercultural Relations Education, 1938–1941)
relations eduation via
school social studies or
extracurricular programs
1934 “Intercultural contacts” William Ernest Articles on inter-faith Harvard U
focus of Journal of Hocking and Archibald intercultural religious
Religion Baker contact
1934 Modern Trends in World A. Eustace Haydon U of Chicago
Religions (comparative (1934)
study of “intercultural
contacts”)
1934 Mind, Self, and Society: George Herbert Mead U of Chicago
From the Standpoint of a (1934)
Social Behaviorist (social
interactionism)
1935 Inter-ethnic stereotypes Daniel Katz and U of Michigan
and prejudice Kenneth Braly (1935)
1935 Idea of “intercultural Rachel Davis-DuBois Through a lecture series in New York
education” coined/ Mexico, DuBois' City
developed educational practices were
given a name and focus
1935 First commisson focused 1st National Director: Progressive Education New York
on intercultural education Rachel Davis-DuBois Association’s (PEA) City
Commission on
Intercultural Education
1936 Study of social- Kurt Lewin U of Berlin,
psychological differences: Cornell, Iowa
US & Germany
Table 3.2 (cont.)

1936 Development of International study- Launched by the Brattelsburo,
international exchange abroad programs Experiment for VT
and exposure programs International Living
1936 Funding for international DeWitt and Edna Lisle Fellowship Experiential off-campus New York,
worldminded learning Baldwin summer program for Happy Valley
international Center
understanding and
“world-mindedness”
1937 Beginning of Area Studies American Studies Started from a course on Harvard U
as a research focus programs History of American
Civilization
1937 Classifying the subject George P. Murdock Project of the Yale Yale U
matter of culture with the Institute of Human
Cross-cultural Survey Relations
1938 Outline of Cultural George P. Murdock Materials from 90 cultures Yale U
Materials (Murdock, (rev with Whiting, 1945) first published
1938)
1938–1939 National Radio Broadcast Lead Consultant: Service Bureau for sponsored by the Dept. of SBIE, NYU
(CBS) “Americans All - Rachel Davis-DuBois Intercultural Education the Interior, Office of
Immigrants All” Education, WPA, PEA
1939 Out of the Many, One: Rachel Davis-DuBois SBIE
A Plan for Intercultural (1939)
Education
1939 Intercultural Education Launched by Rachel SBIE newsletter for school SBIE/NYU
News (Vol. 1) Davis-Dubois and team teachers and affiliates
1940 Concepts of Gemeinshaft Translation/use of Kiel U,
(community) and Tönnies' concepts in Germany
Gesellshaft (society) articles (later books:
(appear in English) Merton, 1949; Tönnies,
1957)
1940 Margaret Mead, Rhoda Council of Intercultural This later became the New York
Metraux, Ruth Relations Institute for intercultural City
Benedict Studies, 1941
1940 Social Psychology Otto Kleinberg (1940)
1940 Race, Language, and Franz Boas (1940) Columbia U
Culture
1940 First intercultural doctoral Rachel Davis-DuBois PhD disseration title: Early attempts to use IC New York U
degree “Adventures in processes of inter-group
Intercultural Education” contact and dialogue to
overcome prejudice and
racism
1940s Prejudice studies (Lewin) Kurt Lewin Kurt Lewin (as a Jew
fleeing Nazi Germany)
migrated to US
1940s/1941 Myth of the Negro Past Melville Herskovits Program on African Columbia U
(1941) American Studies
1940s National Character Boas’ students: Columbia U
studies started Benedict, Gorer, Mead
1941 “Intercultural Education: Stewart G. Cole (1941a, The new leader of the SBIE, New
Outlines” + “Cultural 1941b) SBIE clarified his vision York City
Diversity” for applying IC to schools,
departing from Davis-
DuBois' focus
1941 Intercultural/intergroup Rachel Davis-DuBois Workshop for Cultural Teacher training by From New
teacher training Democracy intercultural educators for York City to
IC awareness through other locations
intergroup contact for US
secondary schools
1941 First institute focusing on Margaret Mead, Rhoda Institute for Intercultural New York
intercultural studies Metraux, Ruth Studies (IIS) (connecting City
Benedict, other leading anthropologists)
anthropologists
Table 3.2 (cont.)

1941 Employing culture- Alexander Leighton, US Office of War, Foreign Commissioned Washington,
focused scholars to Director Morale Analysis Division anthropologists to apply DC
address international (FMAD) research to cultural
relations/diplomatic issues understanding
1942 Edward T. Hall (earned (doctoral program taught Columbia U
PhD in Anthropology) by Benedict, Mead, and
Linton)
1942–1954 Shifting school social Stewart C. Cole, Bureau for Intercultural (later H.H. Giles, Hilda BIE, New
studies focus toward William Vickery Education (redirected Taba, William Van Til) York City
intergroup and what was the SBIE shfting
multicultural education the focuse first to
intergroup then later
multicultural education)
1944 A Scientific Theory of Bronislaw Malinkowski (OED's first noted English
Culture (1944) use: “the comparative
method . . . gathering
extensive cross-cultural
documentations”
1945 End of World War II
Table 3.3 1945–1972: Post–WWII milestones leading up to founding the field of intercultural communications*

1945 Hilda Taba and William National Council of Social (nation-wide survey on Washington,
van Till Studies Report intercultural education in DC
high school curricula)
1945–1954 Stewart C. Cole The Pacific Coast Council Noteworthy programs in West Coast
on Intercultural Sand Diego City Schools USA,
Communication (PCCIC) (1946–1949, Will especially in
Crawford) CA
1946 Chrysanthemum and the Ruth Benedict (1946) Columbia U
Sword
1946 Formalizing the face-to- Rachel Davis-DuBois New York City
face Group Conversation (1946)
Method
1946 Intergroup education Intergroup Education American Council on Washington,
Workshop Education DC
1946 Training for foreign service Linguists (US Army Foreign Service Act (US Foreign Service Institute Washington,
begun language training Congress passed) (FSI) DC
program) and later
anthropologists
1946 Scholarly exchange William Fulbright Fulbright Program Washington,
initiatives (managed by the IIE) DC
1946 Council for Int'l Education Washington,
Exchange (CIEE) DC
1946 American Institute of US
Foreign Trade
1946 Thunderbird College (American Graduate Thunderbird,
(Graduate School) School of International AZ
Management)
Table 3.3 (cont.)

1947 Founding of the United United Nations New York City
Nations and UNESCO
1947 From Sea to Shining Sea: American Ass'n of School Commission on Intergroup American Association of Washington,
Administrators Handbook Administrators (1947) Education School Administrators DC
for Intergroup Education.
1947 American Field Service US
(AFS) Exchange Program
1978 Human rights Universal Declaration of United Nations New York City
Human Rights
1947 NAFSA (Nat'l Assn of Washington,
Foreign Student Advisors) DC
1948 4-H International (youth US
exchange)
1948 Harry Truman Presidential Executive Washington,
Order mandating racial DC
integration in the US
Armed Forces
1949 Human Relations Area US
Files (HRAF) (Dept of
Army)
1949 Formalizing the concept of Robert K. Merton (1949) Columbia U
“cosmopoliteness” (from
Simmel)
1949 Effective racial integration Stouffer, et al. (1949) US Army
shown in “The American
Soldier” study
1949 Conflicting Patterns of Karl Pribram (1949) Washington,

Thought (promoting DC
“nominalism”)
1949–1955 Clyde Kluckhohn, Harvard Comparative Harvard U
Florence Kluckhohn, Values Project
Fred Strodtbeck and
others
1950s Start of Civil Rights US
Movement
1950 National Society for the (initially a subsidiary of Austin, TX
Study of Communication SSA/SCA/NCA founded
(NSSC) in Austin Texas, but
separated 1967 to become
ICA in 1969)
1950 Cultural awareness L. Robert Kohls (served Washington International (funded through AID, Washington,
training as VP from 1983 on) Center (WIC) (first USIA exchange programs DC
training) located in Meridian
House)
1950 Authoritarian Personality, Theodor Adorno (et al., UC Berkeley
prefudice, fascist F scale, 1950)
ethnocentrism scale
1951 Journal of Communication Thomas R. Lewis Flagship journal for basic (first volume had article US
(ICA) (founding Editor) communication studies, by Arthur Campa on
initially of NCCS which “Language Barriers and
became ICA by 1969 Intercultural Relations)
1951 Language and culture E. T. Hall with Raymond Foreign Service Institute E. T. Hall, Director of FSI,
training Birdwhistell, and George (FSI) Point IV Training Washington,
L. Trager Program DC
1951 Youth for Understanding US
(YFU)
Table 3.3 (cont.)

1953 The Study of Culture at a Margaret Mead and Columbia U
Distance Rhoda Metraux (1953)
1953 The Analysis of Culture Edward T. Hall & George (proposal for a structural FSI,
(structural categories) Traeger (1953) analysis of elements of Washington,
culture, academic framing DC
of what became The Silent
Language, but not yet
proposing “Intercultural
+communication”)
1954 Analysis of non-verbal Ray Birdwhistell FSI,
patterns and coining of Washington,
kinesics DC
1954 Nature of Prejudice Gordon Allport (1954) US
(contact hypothesis)
1954 Area Studies Program American U
(American Univ)
1954 Outline of World Cultures George Murdock (1954) Human Relations Area Formalizing the catalogue Yale U/
Files (HRAF) (Dept of of cross-indexed American U
Army) ethnographic data at Yale
(then at American U)
1954 Standard Vacuum Oil for Indonesian
Company established the personnel
first documented in-house
training program
1954 Critical cultural studies Richard Hoggart, Centre for Contemporary Birmingham
(Birmingham School) Raymond Williams, Cultural Studies University
Stuart Hall
1955 George Murdock's Establishing other HRAF US

network centers at Cornell, Texas,
UCLA, Wisc, and
Michigan
1955 “U Curve” of cultural Sverre Lysgaard (1955) Institute of Social Norway
adjustment Research, Oslo
1955 “Anthropology of E. T. Hall (1955) Specified culture FSI,
Manners,” Scientific orientation and training Washington,
American DC
1957–1958 Etc. Special Issue: Edmund Glenn (1957– Analysis of the First use of “intercultural US Dept of
Interpretation and 1958) 1956 Washington communication” State,
Intercultural Conference (Interpreting Washington,
Communication Branch) DC
1957–1964 Martin Bryan (1st Chair, Committee on Assistance U of Cincinnati
with Robert Oliver on for Foreign Universities
committee) (SAA, later SCA/NCA)
1958 The Ugly American William Lederer and US
Eugent Burdick (1958)
1958 The Business Council for US
Int'l Understanding
1959 The Presentation of Self in Erving Goffman (1959)
Everyday Life
1959 The Silent Language E. T. Hall (1959) Acclaimed combination FSI,
of “intercultural Washington,
+communication” though DC
Glenn’s preceded this
1959 Shepherd Whitman, Regional Council for U of Pittsburgh
David Hoopes, others International Education
(RCIE)
1960 East-West Center, Hawaii U of Hawaii
1960 “Dogmatism scale” Milton Rokeach (1960) Michigan State
U
Table 3.3 (cont.)

1960 The Overseas Americans Harlan Cleveland, Gerald Maxwell School of Syracuse U
Mangone, and John Citizenship and Public
Clarke Adams (1960) Affairs
1960 Concept of Culture Shock Kalvero Oberg (1960) Building on Cora Dubois' Anthropological studies US
formalized IIE speech in 1951 who on adjustment
credited Ruth Benedict's
work
1961 Berlin Wall was Built Cold War Europe
1961 Variations of Value Florence Kluckhohn and Harvard U
Orientations Fred Strodtbeck (1961)
1961 Pres. John F. Kennedy Peace Corps Peace Corps Area Studies US
approach to training
1961 Psychoanalysis: Its Image Serge Moscovici (1961) Paris, France
and Its Public (theory of
socially constructed social
representations)
1962 The Structure of Scientific Thomas Kuhn (1962) Inspiration for the
Revolutions (paradigms) “culture turn” in many
fields
1962 Culture and Robert T. Oliver (1962) Linking the study of Penn State U
Communication: The culture in speech to area
Problem of Penetrating studies
National and Cultural
Boundaries
1962–1966 “Contrast American” Alfred J. Kramer and Human Resources HumRRO sponsored Washington,
training approach Edward Stewart Research Organization training initiatives DC
(HumRRO) research
project
1963 Univ. of the Seven Seas Accredited/managed by US

(re-conceptualized by Chapman Univ, 1965,
Whittier 1961, launched in later “World Campus
1963) Afloat”+Institute for
Shipboard Education
(with C. Y. Tung), 1970,
then “Semester at Sea”
since 1977)
1963 Concept of “proxemics” E. T. Hall
formalized
1963 “W-curve” of cultural (re) John T. and Jeanne "Human Factors in American Psychological St. Louis, MO
adjustment E. Gullahorn (Gullahorn International Association meeting
& Gullahorn, 1963) Development Programs - symposium
Problems of Overseas
Adjustment
1963 Men in the Middle of the John Useem, John Michigan State
Third Culture Donaghue, and Ruth Hill U
Useem (1963)
1963 Earliest doctoral PhD advisors John and In cooperation with AID (Dept. of Michigan State
dissertations on cultural Ruth Useem, Eugene (Agency for International Communication, MSU U
training Jacobson, David Berlo Development) from 1963 on)
1964 US Civil Rights Act signed US Congress Washington,
into law DC
1964 Nelson Mandela Apartheid continues South Africa
sentenced to life
imprisonment
1964 Further experiential Donald Batchelder, EIL started School for Brattelsburo,
training approaches Elisabeth Warner, Alvino International Training Vermont
Fantini, others (SIT)
1964 Institutionalizing HRAF George Murdock HRAF Special Operations Yale U
data collection and Research Office (SORO)
management
Table 3.3 (cont.)

1964 Formalizing George Murdock's Center for Research in Yale U
interdisciplinary research network Social Systems (CRESS)
on cultures
1964 Semantic differential Charles Osgood (1964) U of Illinois
technique
1964 Concept of “heterophily” Paul Lazarsfeld and
(formalizing Simmel’s Robert Merton (1954)
concept)
1964 Starting cross-national George Gurganus, Robert Committee on Became the Commission Harding
links for studying Oliver, others Cooperation with Foreign on Int’l and IC Speech College,
communication Universities (SAA) Communication in 1971 Memphis
(under SSA/1971 SCA/ (Dept of
later NCA) Religion)
1965 Forming “international Wilbur Schramm and International Association for Education
communication” as a field others Communication Division in Journalism (now
(ICD of AEJ) AEJMC since 1982)
1965 Intercultural Systems Malcome Knowles
Approach (ISD) to
training
1965 Experiential Training Al Wight, Michael Peace Corps volunteer Utah State/W
approaches Tucker, others training Texas State
1965–1970 LaRay Barna Intercultural exploration Portland State
in university ESL classes Univ
1966 International Initiated by Wilbur Association for Education by U of Iowa
Communication Bulletin Schramm, others. in Journalism (AEJ) and U of
(ICB) International Maryland,
Communication Division College of
(ICD) Journalism
1966 First global conference Gerhard Maletzke Conference on Int'l and German
with IC named Intercultural Development
Communication between Institute, Berlin
Developed and
Developing Countries
1966 The Social Construction of Peter Berger and Thomas
Reality (differentiating Luckman (1966)
objective and subjective
culture)
1966 Developing academic CC 1st university level course U of
coursework (s) for cross-cultural Pittsburgh,
communication Michigan State
Univ, and
others
1966 Developing IC as a David Hoopes, Stephen 1st Intercultural Received NAFSA U of Pittsburgh
focused workshop Rhinesmith (then Clifford Communication +Bureau or Ed and
(the ICW) Clarke, others) Workshop (ICW) Cultural Affairs US Dept
State funding for 10 year
project
1966 The Hidden Dimension E. T. Hall (1966) US
(formalized time and space
studies: poly-, mono-
chronic orientations and
proxemics)
1966 Culture and Alfred G. Smith (1966)
Communication (textbook)
1966 US Navy under Admiral US Navy
Zumwalt starts the
Personal Response
Project for Navy
personnel in Vietnam
Table 3.3 (cont.)

1967 Instrumented training Robert R. Blake and Jane “Training” becomes an U Texas,
approach adopted S. Mouton (1962) (method alternative to the National
used by Al Wight, others) university lecture model Training
of learning Laboratories
1967 Start of in-country/culture- Peace Corps begins in-
specific training country training (country
of service)
1967 Specific country cultural Alison R. Lanier Overseas Briefing
awareness Updates began Associates
1967 Initiated by Fred Casmir, Meeting of SCA/CCFU CCFU meeting organized Harding
Michael Prosser, Helmut planning biennial German/ by Gurganus (Dept. of College,
Geissner (President of the European meetings/ Religion, Harding) Memphis
German Speech cooperation (the
Association) Heidelberg Conference)
1968 Bi-national Helmut Geissner, Fred Bi-annual US-German U of
communication Casmir Speech Association Heidelberg,
conferences Conferences began Pepperdine
Haus
1968 Collaboration of cross- Albert Wight, Stephen Center for Research and First major conference of Denver,
and intercultural Rhinesmith Education (CRE) plans intercultural and training Colorado
specialists to address forming the Society of experts at Estes Park, CO
training Intercultural Training and (with Harry Triandis,
Research (SITAR) David Kolb, Ed Stewart,
Richard Hopkins, others)
1968 James Markham, John Establishing the Racine,
Merrill, and Ralph International Wisconsin
Lowenstein Communication field at
the Wingspread
Conference
1969 Int'l Communication as a James Markham (1969) U of Iowa

Field of Study
1969 Edward Stewart, Edmund 2nd University Course in U of Delaware
Glenn Intercultural
Communication
1969 Guidelines for Peace Corps Albert Wight, Mary Anne Center for Research and First intercultural training Estes Park/
Cross-cultural Training Hammons, and W. I. Education (CRE) manual Denver, CO
Wight (1969)
mid-1960s Development of cultural Fred Fielder, Terrance Funded by Office of U of Illinois
assimilator training Mitchell, and Harry Naval Research
approach Triandis (1971)
1969 Adult self-directed Malcome Knowles (1969, Boston U
learning theory 1970)
(androgogy) approach to
training, and an
Intercultural Systems
Approach (ISD) to
training
1969–1972 Jeffrey Auer (with Indiana intercultural Indiana U
Michael Prosser) indicatives (and first
PhDs: Starosta, Monfils,
Gonzales)
1970 Kinesics Ray Birdwhistell (1970)
1970 International Studies of Fred Casmir and Stan Pacific Speech Association First book on Speech Pepperdine
National Speech Education Harms (1970) Communication for other U and U of
Systems countries Hawaii
1972 Cultural relativism (as Melville Herskovits (1972) Columbia U
anthropological theory)
formalized
1973 The Interpretation of Clifford Geertz (1973)
Culture (structural
linguistic/cultural
approach)
Table 3.3 (cont.)

1973 The Bafá, Bafá training Gary Shirts US Navy
technique
1974 Foundations of Dell Hymes (1974)
Sociolinguistics: An
Ethnographic Approach
1974 Joining IC-related John Condon, Dean 1st bicultural IC Nihonmatsu,
associations and scholars Barnlund, William conference (64 leading Tokyo, Japan
Howell, Fred Casmir, interculturalists,
Clifford Clarke, Michael 8-bicultural groups) at
Prosser, others International Christian
University (ICU)
1975 Founding global CC Jean Phillips-Martinsson Cross-Cultural Relations "Communicating with UK–
centers Center Confidence" seminars Stockholm,
Sweden
1975 Concept of "uncertainty Charles Berger and
reduction" formalized William Calabrese (1975)
1976 Beyond Culture E. T. Hall (1976)
(formalized analysis of
High-, Low-context HC/
LC cultures)
1976–1980 Introduction to UNESCO - Introduction UNESCO Paris, France
Intercultural Studies: to Intercultural Studies
Outline of a Project for
Elucidating and Promoting
Communication between
Cultures
1977 Outline of a Theory of Pierre Bourdieu (1972/77) Paris, France

Practice (conceptualized
Field, Habitus, social
theory and social action)
late 70s Corporate IC training Neesa Lowenthal 1st International
initiatives Relocation Program
started for the Bechtel
Corporation
1979 Managing Cultural Philip Harris and Robert Text for cross-cultural Thunderbird,
Differences T. Moran (1979) management AZ
1979 Survival Kit for Overseas L. Robert Coles (1979) An early and perennially Chicago, IL/
Living best-selling guide for Yarmouth, ME
overseas adaptation
(republished in 1984,
1986, 2001 with
Intercultural Press)
1980 Geert Hofstede Institute for Research on Dutch NGO established The
Intercultural Cooperation Netherlands
(IRIC) (existed until 2004) (1998–2004 at
Tilburg U)
1980 Official conceptual USIA conceptually splits USIA,
separating of cultural and field into Intercultural Washington,
power issues (paradigm Communication (social DC
divide) and cultural concerns)
and International
Communication (political
and technological
concerns)
*Credits: chronological listing inspired by, referenced to, and expanded from George Renwick’s timelines presented in Wasilewski (1999)
Table 3.4 Parallel chronological history of the founding of IC associations
IC Communication IC Education
Year (Speech and Mass Comm) (International Students) CC Learning and Training CC Psychology
(primarily SCA/NCA, ICA, (primarily Pittsburgh, RCIE, (primarily FSI and Peace (primarily social psychologists,
CAP/WCA, PACA) ICWs, NAFSA, SIETAR) Corps, Washington, DC, EIL IACCP, SCCP, SPA)
Vermont, EWC Hawaii, BYU,
Salt Lake City)
1956 Transcultural Psychiatric
Research Review began
publication by the World
Psychiatric Association
1957–1958 First use of “intercultural UNESCO hosted the 1958
communication” by Glenn in “Expert Meeting on Cross-
Etc. Special Issue on Int'l and Cultural Research in Child
IC Psychology” in Bangkok,
Thailand, headed by E. E.
Boesch. At Yale, the HRAF
Collection on Ethnography
was first distributed on
microfiche
1959 Founding of Regional Council Popularization of the concept
for International Education of “intercultural
(RCIE, at University of communication” (with Hall's
Pittsburgh, Whitman) for inter- Silent Language, 1959) and
institutional cooperation, inspiration of the FSI training
Hoopes’s initiatives to organize model
leaders of foreign student
programs
1960 East–West Centre founded
(University of Hawaii)
1961 Francis L. K. Hsu (1961/1972)

published his first edition of
Psychological Anthropology:
Approaches to Culture and
Personality (re-emphasizing in
1972 that this should be the
field name for studies that link
these two areas)
1963 Hoopes work with the First PhD dissertations on
Regional Council for cross-cultural training (1963,
International Education 65, 66), based on projects and
(RCIE) involved Rhinesmith, seminars with AID (Agency for
Althen, others. International Development)
(directed by Useem, Jacobson
Berlo, Michigan State U)
1964 Formation of Committee on Regional Council Centre for Experiment in International Opening of HRAF Special
Cooperation with Foreign International Students office Learning (EIL) started School Operations Research Office
Universities (CCFU of SAA opened (support from Ford for International Training (SORO), Center for Research
later SCA/NCA. Oliver Foundation, NAFSA, at (SIT) (EIL now called World in Social Systems (CRESS)
member, led by Gurganus, University of Pittsburgh) Learning), Brattelsburo, (George Murdock with
Harding College, Memphis) Vermont (Batchelder, Warner, Anthropologists, Social
Gochenor, Fantini, others) Psychologists, at Yale
University)
1964 Department of Speech Peace Corps volunteer Triandis (1964) postulated
Communication under William effectiveness research project, "cultural influences upon
Howell at Univ of Minnesota Al Wight and Michael Tucker, cognitive processes
recruited a strong IC faculty, University of Utah (under
visiting scholars and doctoral Calvin Taylor)
cohort (first PhD graduates
1967, 1971, peak years in the
1970s graduating a Who's Who
for IC)
Table 3.4 (cont.)
1965 Founding of International 1st intercultural exploration Peace Corps expands training
Communication Division (ICD components in university ESL locations to Hawaii, Puerto
of Association for Education in courses (Barna at Portland Rico, Escondido, CA, and the
Journalism, AEJ, at Syracuse State U, though Davis-DuBois Virgin Islands
U) (Schramm and others) had IC courses from 1932 on at
NYU, Boston U, UC Berkeley)
1965 Experiential training Cultural assimilator training
approaches (for Peace Corps) approach, funded by Office of
developed by Wight, others at Naval Research, Fielder,
Utah State, W. Texas State U Mitchell, Triandis, U of Illinois
1966 Conference on "Int'l and Intercultural Communication Murdock’s HRAF started
Intercultural Communication Workshop (ICW) at Pittsburgh Behavioral Science Notes (in
between Developed and U, Cornell, U Cincinnati, 1993 became Cross-cultural
Developing Countries" Portland State U. (Hoopes, Research); Dobb, as Editor of
(Maletzke, German Rhinesmith, Clarke with Journal of Social Psychology,
Development Institute, Berlin) NAFSA+Bureau or Ed and established a special section on
Cultural Affairs US Dept State "Cross-cultural Notes"
funding)
1966 Publication of International 1st university level course(s) for International Journal of
Communication Bulletin (ICB) cross-cultural communication Psychology founded by the
launched (at Pittsburgh U, Michigan International Union of
State U, and components at Psychological Science
other universities) (supported by UNESCO)
published early cross-cultural
articles giving visibility to the
emerging field; Frida and
Johada (1967) outline prospects
of CC research.
1967 Memphis meeting of SCA's Vidya launched (academic "Training" becomes an Culture and Psychology
CCFU (by Gurganus, with journal of RCIE) alternative to the university Conference (initiated by
members Casmir, Prosser lecture model of learning, Kellman and Tajfel, attended
suggesting biennial German/ Peace Corps begins in-country by Triandis, Drenth, others)
European cooperation with training (country of service) (Ibadan, Nigeria), and Berry's
Geissner, President of the survey (N=150) of research on
German Speech Association) scholars doing cross-cultural
applications, which led to his
“Directory”
1968 Bi-annual US–German Speech The Intercultural Network Center for Research and Berry published the first
Association Conferences began (published by Margaret Pusch Education (CRE) hosts first “Directory of Cross-cultural
(Pepperdine Haus, Heidelberg and David Hoopes from major conference on Psychological Research”
U, organized by Geissner, Chicago) published A Manual intercultural training of (Berry, 1968 in IJP) and
Casmir) of Structured Experiences for experts, Estes Park, CO and Triandis published Cross-
Cross-cultural Learning call for Peace Corps Cross- cultural Social Psychology
(Weeks, 1968) Cultural Training Guidelines Newsletter (today CCP
and an Assessment Manual Bulletin, 1968)
1968 US Office of Naval Research Vassilou and Triandis
had Berrien organize a EWC's organized "analysis of
Institute of Advanced Projects subjective culture" conference,
conference on “Psychological Lagonissi, Greece. Early
Problems in Changing comparative universals were
Societies” (linking disciplines) proposed, like tight and loose
cultures by Finnish
anthropologist Pelto (1968)
1969 U of Indiana early IC-related 2nd university courses in First intercultural training 2nd Directory of CCP
doctoral candidates e.g., Intercultural Communication manual, Draft Handbook for Research published (Berry,
Starosta, Monfils, Gonzales (Stewart and Glenn, U of Cross-Cultural and Community 1969 in IJP); Lonner
(directed by Jeffry Auer, with Delaware, followed by U of Involvement Training (Wight, established first CCP unit:
credits to Michael Prosser) Minnesota) Hammons, Bing, 1969) Centre for Cross-Cultural
+B20 Research (Western Washington
University)
Table 3.4 (cont.)
1970 Sitaram founded Division Fred Casmir and Stan Harms Guidelines for Peace Corps Lonner launched Journal of
V (Intercultural and developed the first textbook on Cross-Cultural Training Cross-cultural Psychology
Development Communication) Speech Communication for (Wight, Hammons, & Wight, (JCCP) and published
of the International other countries (Casmir & 1970) expanded (600+) Directory of
Communication Association Harms, 1970) Cross-cultural Psychologists
(ICA) (Berry & Lonner, 1970)
1971 Consultation of US and First Issue of Communique Cronbach and Drenth (1972)
Canadian Speech (Univ of Pittsburgh, for the organized Conference on the
Communication leaders, Intercultural Network, after cross-cultural use of mental
scholars, and students to 1974–1999 for SIETAR) tests in Istanbul, Turkey
develop a formal field of IC (funded by NATO Advisory
study (Prosser invited Assn Panel on Human Factors)
Presidents Howell, Layman,
other IC key influencers,
Brown County, Indiana)
1971 Prosser founded Commission
on International and
Intercultural Communication
(later the IIC Division in 1984)
of Speech Communication
Association (SCA) now
“National” (NCA)
1971 Klopf, Kawashima, Ishii,
Nicshida, Harms founded the
Communication Association of
the Pacific (CAP) which
became the World
Communication Association in
1983
1972 Oxford served as first editor of Intercultural Communications International Association for
Communication (Journal of Network formed Cross-cultural Psychology
CAP) which became World (IACCP) launched by Dawson,
Communication (Applebaum, Jehoda, Segall, etc. at Hong
1985–2001), adding Kong University Conference.
Communication Research Bruner elected President.
Reports (1985–1994), and since
2002 Journal of Intercultural
Communication Research
(JICR)
1972 Team-taught course on Peace Corps begins developing Publication of The Analysis of
Communication and Culture "behavioral objectives" for Subjective Culture (Triandis
(1st IC course taught there in cross-cultural training et al., 1972)
1974) (Casmir and others,
Pepperdine U)
1973 After the Indiana consultation, SiTAR leaders met to consider Founding of EWC's Culture Updated directory for the new
early compilations come out: adding the "E" (Hoopes, Learning Institute (CLI) IACCP published (Berry,
Intercultural Communication: Wight, Stewart, etc.) (University of Hawaii) (led by Lonner, & Leroux, 1973 in
A Reader (Samovar & Porter, Bickley, then Trifonovitch, and IJP) containing the names,
1973) and Intercommunication later Bitterman). Brislin edited addresses, and fields of interest
between Nations and Peoples annual issues of Topics in of 1,125 cross-cultural
(Prosser, 1973a) Intercultural Learning (Brislin, psychologists
1973–1977) and Cross-cultural
Research Methods (Brislin,
Lonner, & Thorndike, 1973)
1973 1st national intercultural Peace Corps teams in Naples Pedersen, Lonner and Draguns
communication conference and Athens begin training (1976) developed the first text
(sponsored by Univ of incoming personnel; teams in for counseling across cultures,
Virginia) (Prosser) San Diego Norfolk and Pearl which became multicultural
Harbor begin preparing ship counseling
crews for overseas deployment
Table 3.4 (cont.)
1974 Casmir edited the first three SIETAR founded (Univ of The EWC's CLI continued to The first edited Proceedings of
International and Intercultural Pittsburgh) and holds first produce Topics in Intercultural an IACCP conference (1972 in
Communication Annuals conference in Gaithersburg, Learning (Brislin, 1974) Hong Kong) Readings in
(1974–1976) (sponsored by the MD (Asante named first Cross-Cultural Psychology
SCA Commission on president) were published (Dawson &
International and Intercultural Lonner, 1974)
Communication (became a
Division in 1974)
1974 SCA’s Int' and Intercultural 1st large scale bicultural IC
Communication Division conference bridging these
(IICD) holds 2nd national tracks at International
intercultural communication Christian University (ICU)
focused conference (with ICA hosted by John Condon, Dean
and SIETAR in Chicago, Barnlund (organized by
Prosser as Division Chair Howell, Casmir, Clarke,
1974–1976) and Syllabi in Prosser others, with
Intercultural Communication 64 individuals from Japan and
and Social Change (SIETAR the US in Nihonmatsu, 8 bi-
published models from cultural groups, 6 hours per
Prosser’s U of Virginia day, with many leading
symposium) interculturalists)
1975 Bridge Magazine (by CRE An EWC CLI project produced Psychological anthropologists
located in Denver, then Cross-cultural Perspectives on at Harvard’s Department of
SYSTRAN, published from Learning (Brislin, Bochne, & Social Relations, Beatrix and
1975–1983) Lonner, 1975) John Whiting (1975), produced
the holistic and wide-ranging
“Six Cultures” study of
variations in child and human
development (concept of
“culture learning
environment”)
1976 International and Intercultural Stanford Institute for EWC development and
Communication (Fisher & Intercultural Communication assessment of training,
Merrill, 1976) revised edition of (SIIC) summer sessions began published Cross-Cultural
the late Markham (Clarke, K. M. Young Orientation Programs (Brislin
organized these for 10 years & Pedersen, 1976) and a
before they were moved to volume on cross-cultural issues
Portland's Intercultural of Translation (Brislin, 1976)
Communication Institute in
1986)
1977* USIA (Washington, DC) offers Initiated in 1976, Landis BYU Language and Society for Psychological
first intercultural course founded the Int'l Journal of Intercultural Communication Anthropology (SPA) of the
(Prosser, 1977) Intercultural Relations (IJIR) Resource Centre (changed to American Anthropological
and a year later linked it to Language and Humanities Association was founded and
SIETAR (1978–1998, then to Research Centre in 1981) adopted Ethos as its flagship
the founding of IAIR, 1998) (Taylor Director with Tyler) publication
1977 Intercultural Press (formed out BYU published Intercultural
of the IC Network and Communication Resources
SIETAR publications) (Seelye & Tyler, 1977) and EIL/
(Hoopes, Pusch, Renwick, SIT Beyond Experience
Frank and others) (Batchelder & Warner, 1977)
1978 The Cultural Dialogue: An
introduction to Intercultural
Communication (Prosser,
1978b) highlighting key field
topics and a report on the
1972 ICU Japan Nihonmatsu
consultation
1979 Key theme volume, Intercultural Publication of Intercultural
and International Press's perennial best-seller
Communication (Casmir, 1978) Survival Kit for Overseas Living
(Pepperdine U); the first (Kohls, 1979)
Handbook of Intercultural
Communication was published
(Asante, Blake, Newmark, 1979)
Table 3.4 (cont.)
1979 Action Caucus formed (1979 Intercultural Press' The first volumes of the
SCA San Antonio, Texas, (Bob Multicultural Education: Handbook of Cross-Cultural
Shuter past chair) Larry A Cross-Cultural Training Psychology (Triandis, &
Sarbaugh, incoming chair of Approach (Pusch, 1979) Lambert, 1979; Triandis &
the Commission on Int'l and IC Berry, 1979; Triandis &
Comm coordinated Lonner, 1980) appeared
(eventually six volumes),
establishing cross-cultural
psychology as a distinct branch
of psychology
1980 SCA (NYC) Action Caucus Cross-cultural Training for Brislin and his network The Handbook of Cross-
and Seminar on Theory in Peace Corps Volunteers (first contributed to Vol. 5 of the Cultural Psychology – final six
Intercultural Communication work identifying skills Handbook of Cross-cultural volumes continued to be
(Asunciun Lande, Sarbaugh), necessary for cross-cultural Psychology (Triandis & Brislin, published (Vol 6. completed in
spawned work on the training and attempt to train 1980), and Research in Culture 1981)
Intercultural and Int'l those specific skills) (Edwards Learning (Hamnett & Brislin
Communication Annual's first & McCaffery, 1980) 1980)
Theory volume
1981 Kolb and Fry (1981) published Hofstede established the
the Learning Styles Inventory/ Netherlands' NGO Institute for
Experiential Learning, Research on Intercultural
providing a further framework Communication (IRIC) and
for training approaches published Culture's
Consequences (Hofstede, 1980)
1983 The 1980 Action Caucus Collaboration with scholars in
Seminar contributions were Hawaii and the linking of EWC
published as SCA’s Intercultural and CCP networks led to the
and Int'l Communication groundbreaking 3 volumes of
Annual's first thematic volume Handbook of Intercultural
on Intercultural Theory Training (Landis & Brislin,
(Gudykunst,1983) 1983)
*Credits: chronological listing inspired by, referenced to, and expanded from George Renwick’s timelines presented in Wasilewski (1999)
Table 3.5 Chronological history for establishing cross- and intercultural journals
Start
year Journal name Website URL Current publisher Affiliation(s) Related field(s) and topics
1968 Cross-Cultural Psychology https://journals Sage Publications International Association psychology, sociology,
Bulletin (CCPB) .sagepub.com/home/jcc for Cross-Cultural cultural studies
Psychology (IACCP)
1970 Journal of Cross-Cultural https://journals SAGE Publications International Association psychology, sociology, and
Psychology (JCCP) .sagepub.com/home/ for Cross-Cultural interdisciplinary studies
JCC Psychology (IACCP)
1972 Cross-Cultural Research https://uk.sagepub Sage Publications Human Relations Area anthropology, sociology,
(The Journal for .com/en-gb/asi/journal/ Files, Inc. (HRAF), Society psychology, political
Comparative Social cross-cultural-research for Cross-Cultural Research science, economics, human
Science) (CCR) (SCCR) ecology, and evolutionary
biology
1972 Journal of Intercultural www.tandfonline.com/ Taylor & Francis World Communication interrelationships between
Communication Research toc/rjic20/current Association (WCA) culture and communication
(JICR)
1974 Journal of Intercultural www.tandfonline.com/ Taylor & Francis Intercultural Research cultural studies, sociology,
Studies (JIS) toc/cjis20/current Institute, Kansai University migration studies, literary
of Foreign Studies, now studies, gender studies,
sponsored by the Alfred anthropology, cultural
Deakin Institute for geography, urban studies,
Citizenship and race and ethnic studies
Globalization
1974 International & Speech Communication intercultural
Intercultural Association (SCA), now communication topics, then
Communication Annuals National Communication annual volume themes on
(in 2008 became IJIC Association (NCA) key IC field areas
below)
Table 3.5 (cont.)
Start
1977 International Journal of www.journals.elsevier Elsevier founded by Dan Landis, social psychology and
Intercultural Relations .com/international- linked first with SIETAR, sociology
(IJIR) journal-of- then International Academy
intercultural-relations/ of Intercultural Research
1982 Journal of Cross-Cultural www.degruyter.com/ De Gruyter partners with Language on bi- and multilingualism;
and Interlanguage view/j/mult?tab=call_ the Move (ISSN 2203-5001) language education,
Communication for_papers learning, and policy; Inter-
(Multilingua) and cross-cultural
communication; translation
and interpreting in social
contexts; critical
sociolinguistic studies of
language and
communication in
globalization,
transnationalism,
migration, and mobility
across time and space
1982 FLEKS – Scandinavian https://journals.hioa Oslo Metropolitan Oslo Metropolitan intercultural pedagogy,
Journal of Intercultural .no/index.php/fleks University Library University psychology and philosophy;
Theory and Practice professions in diverse
societies; language,
interpreting and translation;
development studies;
migration health; diversity
management
1985 World Cultures Journal of www.worldcultures https://escholarship Institute for Mathematics data, and comparative
Comparative and Cross- .org/ .org/uc/wc_ and Behavorial Sciences, research on human behavior,
cultural Research (now worldcultures Social Dynamics and comparative database,
World Cultures eJournal) Complexity, UC Irvine regional or worldwide,
programs and teaching
materials, communications
on research, coding, sources,
comparative materials
1986 Journal of Cross-Cultural https://link.springer Springer US history, anthropology,
Gerontology (JCCG) .com/journal/10823 sociology, political science,
psychology, population
studies
1990 Journal of Intercultural www.tandfonline.com/ Taylor & Francis International Association terminological issues,
Education (JIE) toc/ceji20/current for Intercultural Education education and multicultural
(IAIE); renamed in 2000; society today, intercultural
formerly European Journal communication, human
of Intercultural Studies, rights and anti-racist
1990–1999 education, pluralism and
diversity in a democratic
frame work, pluralism in
post-communist and in
post-colonial countries,
migration and indigenous
minority issues, refugee
issues, language policy
issues, curriculum and
classroom organization, and
school development
1991 Intercultural https://web.uri.edu/ International Assn of cross- and intercultural
Communication Studies iaics/iaics-journal/ Intercultural communication, culture and
(ICS) Communication Studies language, teaching,
translation
1994 Emerald Publishing
Table 3.5 (cont.)
Start
Cross Cultural & Strategic www.emeraldinsight formerly Cross Cultural business, management &
Management (CCSM) .com/loi/ccsm?fullSc=1 Management: An strategy, anthropology,
International Journal economics, political science,
(CCM) (till 2015) psychology, and sociology
1999 Journal of Intercultural www.immi.se/ Immigrant Institute, Nordic Network for research, education, and
Communication (JIC) intercultural/ Sweden Intercultural training in the area of
Communication intercultural
communication
1999 Cross-Cultural http://cmj Editorial Dept SEA Open Research multi-, cross-, and inter-
Management Journal .seaopenresearch.eu/ FRIA Academic Platform cultural issues and
(CCM) index applications for business,
organizations, and
management
2001 International Journal of http://ccm.sagepub SAGE Publications organizational behavior,
Cross Cultural .com/ HRM, organizational
Management (JCCM) psychology, international
and comparative
management, and
international industrial
relations
2001 Journal of Language and www.tandfonline.com/ Taylor & Francis International Association intercultural
Intercultural toc/rmli20/current for Languages and communication, language,
Communication (JLIC) Intercultural the learning of foreign
Communication (IALIC) languages, education,
especially higher education,
and for language learning
and teaching
2003 Journal of Intercultural https://journals.ub.uni- Antonella D’Ascoli, interdisciplinary

and Interdisciplinary heidelberg.de/index University of Heidelberg, archaeology, antiquity
Archaeology (JIIA) .php/jiia/ Germany sciences and sciences
applied to archaeology,
problems of interculturality
in the ancient world
2004 Intercultural Pragmatics www.degruyter.com/ De Gruyter Mouton pragmatics, intercultural
view/j/iprg communication, language
acquisition and use,
multilingualism, semantics
2005 Cross-Cultural www.cscanada.net/ Canadian Academy of social science
Communication index.php/ccc/ Oriental and Occidental
Culture (CAOOC)
2006 Intercultural https://revistacil Intercultural culture, identity,
Communication and .wordpress.com/2016/ Communication and multiculturalism, literature
Literature 02/21/despre-noi-2/ Literature Research Center
2008 Journal of International www.tandfonline.com/ Taylor & Francis co-sponsored by Yonsei culture, communication,
and Intercultural toc/rjii20/current University mass media
Communication
2008 Cultus: the Journal of www.cultusjournal Iconesoft Edizioni culture in constructing,
intercultural Mediation .com/ perceiving and translating
and Communication reality; language, languages,
cultural models, conflict,
mediation and
interculturality
2008 Journal of Linguistic and http://jolie.uab.ro/ Centre for Research University of Alba Iulia, current debates in language
Intercultural Education and Innovation in Romania, education policies,
(JoLIE) Linguistic instruments and end
Education (CIEL). products, bi- and
plurilingualism, language
learning/teaching and
teacher education,
intercultural and cross-
cultural awareness
Table 3.5 (cont.)
Start
2009 European Journal of www.inderscience.com/ Inderscience, International Association of cultural differences and
Cross-Cultural jhome.php?jcode= SIETAR Europa Cross-Cultural diversity on the
Competence and ejccm +Austria Management and management of
Management (EJCCM) Competence (IACCM). organizations; how culture
affects both managers and
decision-makers in
situations involving the
cross-cultural transfer of
knowledge, values and
experiences
2010 Alterstice – Revue www.alterstice.org Association internationale psychology,
Internationale de la pour la Recherche communication,
Recherche Interculturelle InterCulturelle (ARIC); intercultural, culture
Centre de recherche
Cultures-Arts-Sociétés
(CELAT)
2011 International Journal of www.brownwalker Brown Walker Current Editor at Asian anthropology, sociology,
Cross-Cultural Studies .com/journal-info/ Press, Irvine, School of Management and psychology, economics, and
(IJCCS) 09743480 California Technology political science multi-
society data to examine and
test hypotheses about
human behavior and culture
2012 The International Journal https:// Editura Editura Universitară and cultural otherness and
of Cross-Cultural Studies crossculturenvironment Universitară & ADI Asociația pentru Dezvoltare cultural identity, history of
and Environmental .wordpress.com/ Publications Interculturală ideas, humanities and
Communication science, arts and culture,
(IJCCSEC) media anthropology,
transnational anthropology,
gender studies, linguistics
(socio/psycho-linguistics,
ethno-linguistics, cognitive
linguistics), communication
sciences, discourse theory
and political analysis,
environmental
communication, media
studies
2014 FLEKS – Scandinavian https://journals.hioa Oslo Met University Oslo Metropolitan intercultural
Journal of Intercultural .no/index.php/fleks Library University communication, cross-
Theory and Practice cultural studies,
multicultural studies,
intercultural pedagogy,
psychology and philosophy,
professions in diverse
societies, language,
interpreting and translation,
development studies,
migration health, diversity
management
2014 Asia Pacific Translation www.tandfonline.com/ Taylor & Francis literature, linguistics,
and Intercultural Studies loi/rtis20 history, art, media and
(APTIS) communications, cultural
studies, political science,
international relations,
sociology and anthropology
that focuses on translation
and culture
Table 3.5 (cont.)
Start
2017 Journal of Philology and http://llcs.journal.mta Military Technical Department of Foreign literature, comparative
Intercultural .ro/en_US/home/ Academy Pub. Languages and Intercultural literature, literature and
Communication (JPIC) House Communication, Military civilization, intercultural
Revue de Philologie et de Technical Academy, communication, cultural
Communication Bucharest, Romania studies, linguistics, applied
interculturelle) (French & English) linguistics, second language
acquisition, foreign
language teaching
methodologies, translation
studies
2018 InterCultural Philosophy http:// University of Ruprecht-Karls-Universität comparative philosophy
interculturalphilosophy Heideberg Heidelberg
.com/
Table 3.6 Chronological development of published IC theory summaries
In whose volume
Year Author(s) (or series, institution) Publication title
1976 Asante and Newmark (1976) (Eds.) Speech Communication Association (SCA) IC: Theory into Practice
1977 Saral (1977) (chapter) In ICA Communication Yearbook 1 (Rubin, Ed.) “IC Theory and Research: An Overview”
1978 Prosser (1978a) (chapter) In ICA Communication Yearbook 3 (Rubin, Ed.) “IC Theory and Research: An Overview of
Major Constructs”
1979 Saral (1979) (chapter) In ICA Communication Yearbook 3 (Rubin, Ed.) “IC Theory and Research: An Overview of
Challenges and Opportunities”
1979 Hoopes, Pedersen, and Renwick Intercultural Network/SIETAR: Overview of IC Vol. 1: Theory
(1979) (Eds.) Education, Training, and Research
1979 Davey and van Derck (1979) (Eds.) Intercultural Network/SIETAR (Nimmo, Ed.) Vol. 2: IC Theory and Practice
1979 Howell (1979) (chapter) In Asante, Newmark, Blake (1979) (Eds.) Handbook “Theoretical Foundations for IC”
of IC
1980 Asante (1980) (chapter) In ICA Communication Yearbook 4 (Nimmo, Ed.) “IC: An Inquiry into Research Directions”
1983 Gudykunst (1983) (Ed.) ICCA, Vol. 7, Sage/SCA IC Theory
1988 Kim and Gudykunst (1988) (Eds.) ICCA, Vol. 12, Sage/SCA Theories in IC
1989 Gudykunst and Nishida (1989) In Asante and Gudykunst (1989) (Eds.), Handbook “Theoretical Perspectives for Studying IC”
(Chapter) of Int’l and IC
1995 Wiseman (1995) (Ed.) ICCA, Vol. 19, Sage/SCA IC Theory
2002 Gudykunst and Lee (2002) In Gudykunst & Mody (2002) (Eds.), Handbook of “Cross-Cultural Communication Theories”
(Chapter) Int’l and IC (2nd ed.)
2002 Gudykunst (2002) (Chapter) Also in Handbook of Int’l and IC (2nd ed.) “IC Theories”
2005 Klyukanov (2005) Pearson textbook Principles of IC
2005 Gudykunst (2005) (Ed.) Sage Theorizing about IC
2007 Kotthoff and Spencer-Oatey (2007). de Gruyter Handbook of IC
Source: updated adaptation of Kulich and Zhang (2012, p. 892, Table 1)

Table 3.7 Historical sequence and themes noted in specified intercultural theory volumes
Intercultural Perception CC
theory Attributions/ (prejudice, Language/Speech Systems theory Effectiveness/
domains Expectations Identity intolerance) Codes/Meaning Values/Beliefs and adaptation IC Competence Conflict
Volume,
year
(Hoopes, Perception in (Singer)* The Function of Values and Adaptation to New CC Effectiveness Conflict in
Pedersen, & International Language in CC Beliefs Cultural (Ruben) CC
Renwick, Affairs and Note on Interactions (DePietro) (Strodbeck) Environments Interaction
1977) Identity (Singer)* (Klein) (Milburn)
(Gudykunst, Culture and 2. Codes and Contexts 1. Language Theory Cultural 1. Adaptive IC 3. System The Roots
1983) the Attribution (Cooley) and Linguistic Assumptions of (Ellingsworth) Theoretic View of Conflict
Process 3. Rules Theories Principles (Asuncion- East and West 2. Convergence (Ruben) (Tafoya)
(Ehrenhaus) (Pearce & Wiseman) Lande) (Okabe) Theory (Barnett & <—————
——————> Kincaid)**
(Kim & Cultural Identity: Coordinated 4. Network 1. Intercultural Communication Face-
Gudykunst, An Interpretive Management of Theory (Yum) Transformation Accommodation Negotiation
1988) Perspective (Collier Meaning (Cronen, 5. Adaptation (Kim, Y.Y. & Theory (Gallois Theory
& Thomas) Chen, & Pearce)** in Intercultural Ruben) et al.)** (Ting-
Dyads 2. (Barnett & Toomey)**
(Ellingsworth) Kincaid)**
——————> 3. Anxiety &
Uncertainty
(Gudykunst)***
(Wiseman, Expectancy Layered Perspective 1. From “Context” to 1. Integrative 1. (Gallois et al.)**

1995) Violations of Cultural (In) “Contexts” (Katriel) Communication 2. Effective
Theory Tolerance(s) (Baldwin 2. Conversational Theory (Kim, Intercultural
(Burgoon)** & Hecht) Constraints Theory Y. Y.)** Decision-Making
(Kim, M.)** 2. Differential Theory (Oetzel)**
Demand Model of
Sojourner
Adjustment (Ady)
3. (Gudykunst)***
(Gudykunst, (Hubbard & 1. Cultural 3. Identity 1. (Pearce & Cronen)** 1. (Kim, Y. Y.)** 1. (Gallois et al.)** (Ting-
2005) Burgoon)** Identifications Management Theory 2. (Kim, M.)** 2. Cultural Schema 2. (Oetzel)** Toomey)**
(Collier) (Imahori & Cupach) 3. Speech Codes Theory Theory (Nishida) 3. (Gudykunst)***
2. Identity 4. Communication (Philipsen, Coutu, & 3. Co-Cultural
Negotiation (Ting- Theory of Identity Covarrubias) Theory (Orbe &
Toomey) (Hecht et al.) Spellers)
<——————— 4. (Gudykunst)***
Key: CC = Cross- * = Theory shares ** = Theory is updated *** = Theory is applicable to multiple
Cultural multiple domains in later text(s) (Only domains and updated in later text(s)
IC = Intercultural (Only one includes original includes name (Only original includes name of
Communication name of theory) of theory) theory)
Table 3.8 Main topics currently focused on by IC scholars and practitioners (Kim, 2017)
Area of focus (percentage of IC areas of study

entries) IC theories and theorized dimensions/domains or application
Intercultural Communication Acculturation Strategies; Anxiety/Uncertainty Cultural Diversity in Organizations; Cultural Humility;
Core (36%) Management (AUM)Theory; Communication Theory of Cultural Intelligence; Culture Shock and Reentry Shock;
(Kim, 2017, pp. xxxix) Identity; Identity Negotiation; Contextual Theory of Identity, Intercultural; IC Apprehension; IC in the
Interethnic Communication; Cosmopolitanism; Cultural Classroom; IC Competence; IC in Healthcare; IC in
Identifications Theory; Identity Management Theory International Negotiation; Intercultural Conflict and
Conflict Management; Intercultural Empathy;
Intercultural Ethics; Intercultural Friendship;
Intercultural Intimate Relationships; Intercultural
Peacebuilding; Synchrony in IC; Third-Culture
Individuals; Tourism and IC; and Worldview in IC
Cross-cultural High- and Low-Context Cultures; Individualism and Methodological issues such as Cross-Cultural
Communication (16%) Collectivism; Monochronic and Polychronic Time, Experimental Research; Emic and Etic Research;
(Kim, 2017, pp. xl) Research findings on communication-related variables Interviews, Qualitative; Interviews, Standardized; Survey
across cultures such as Cognitive Styles; Conflict Research and Sampling Equivalence; and Translation:
Management Styles; Conversational Norms; Emotions Communication Styles in English and German; and
and Expressions; Nonverbal Communication; Personal Pedagogy across Cultures
Space; Shame and Guilt; Virtues and Vices
Cultural Communication Speech Codes Theory (ethnographic field studies), and Methodology-related approaches such as Culture in
(15%) theory-guided research approaches like Phenomenology Conversation; Discourse of Difference; Ethnography of
(Kim, 2017, pp. xl) of Cultural Communication; Semiotics of Cultural Cultural Communication; and descriptions and
Communication interpretations of various cultural communication modes
around the world
Intergroup Communication Key social psychological theories of intergroup Salient concepts and issues such as Bi- and
(9%) communication such as Communication Multilingualism; Ethnophaulism; Hate Speech;
(Kim, 2017, pp. xli) Accommodation Theory; Intergroup Contact Theory; Intergroup Conflict and Reconciliation Language
Intergroup Threat Theory; Self-Categorization Theory; Attitudes; Power in Intergroup Communication;
Social Identity Theory; and Uncertainty–Identity Theory Prejudice and Discrimination; and Stereotypes
Intercultural Training & Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity; Core ICT issues and concepts such as Cultural Diversity
Education (6%) Intercultural Competence Development Training in Organizations; Culture Assimilator;
(Kim, 2017, pp. xli) Intercultural Competence Development; Intercultural
Experiential Learning; Intercultural Games and
Simulations; Intercultural and Multicultural Education;
Intercultural Training for Educators; Intercultural
Training in the Peace Corps; Training for Expatriates;
and Training for Study Abroad Programs
Critical Intercultural Co-Cultural Theory; Critical Theory; Cultural Contracts Key critical concepts such as Afrocentricity;
Communication (18%) Theory; Cultural Imperialism Theories; Intersectionality; Asiacentricity; Borderlands
(Kim, 2017, pp. xli–xlii) Muted Group Theory; Orientalism; and Standpoint Analytic methods such as Critical Discourse Analysis;
Theory Cultural Studies; Diaspora and Diasporic Identity;
English Hegemony
References Arnold, M. (1960). Culture and anarchy (Reprint,

J. D. Wilson, Ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
Adamopolis, J., & Kashima, Y. (Eds.). (2000). University. (Original work published 1869).
Social psychology and cultural context. Asante, M. K. (1980). Intercultural communication:
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. An inquiry into research directions. In
Addams, J., Balch, E., & Hamilton, A. (Eds.). D. Nimmo (Ed.), Communication yearbook 4
(1915). Women at the Hague: The international (pp. 401–411). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
congress of women and its results. New York, Asante, M. K., Blake, C. A., & Newmark, E. (Eds.).
NY: Macmillan. (1979). The handbook of intercultural
Adichie, C. N. (2009). The danger of a single story. communication. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage
TED talk. www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ Publications.
adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story Asante, M. K., & Gudykunst, W. B. (Eds.). (1989).
Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswik, E., Levinson, Handbook of intercultural communication.
D. J., & Sanford, R. N. (1950). The authoritarian Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
personality. New York, NY: Harper and Row. Asante, M. K., & Newmark, E. (Eds.). (1976).
Adorno, T. W., & Horkheimer, M. (2007). Dialektik Intercultural communication: Theory into
der Aufklärung [Dialectic of enlightenment]. practice. Alexandria, VA: Speech
(E. Jephcott, Trans., G. S. Noerr, Ed.). Stanford, Communication Association.
CA: Stanford University Press. (Originally Asante, M. K., Miike, Y., & Yin. J. (Eds.). (2008).
published 1944). Global intercultural communication reader.
Ady, J. C. (1995). Toward a differential demand New York, NY: Routledge.
model of sojourner adjustment. In R. L. Asante, M. K., Newmark, E., & Blake, C. A. (Eds.).
Wiseman (Ed.), Intercultural communication (1979). Handbook of intercultural
theory (pp. 92–114). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage communication. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.
Publications. Asante, M. K., Newmark, E., & Blake, C. A. (1979).
Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. The field of intercultural communication. In
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley (Garden City, M. K. Asante, E. Newmark, & C. A. Blake
NY: Doubleday Anchor Books). (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural communication
Allport. G. W. (1955). Becoming: Basic (pp. 11–22). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
considerations for a psychology of personality. Asuncion-Lande, N. (1983). Language theory and
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. linguistic principles. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.).
Allport, G. W. (1961). Pattern and growth in Intercultural communication theory: Current
personality. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, & perspectives (pp. 253–258). Beverly Hills, CA:
Winston. Sage Publications.
Allport, G. W., & Vernon, P. E. (1931). Study of Baker, A. G. (1927). Book review of Y. M. Mei’s
values: A scale for measuring the dominant interests Zoroasterism. International Journal of Ethics,
in personality. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. 37(3), 333.
Allport, G. W., Vernon, P. E., & Lindzey, G. Baker, A. G. (1929), How shall we relate
(1960). Study of values: Test booklet and manual Christianity to other religions?. The Journal of
(3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Religion, 9(3), 478–480.
American Association of School Administrators, Baldwin, J. R. (2016). Murky waters: The histories
Commission on Intercultural Education. (1947). of intercultural communication research. In
From sea to shining sea [administrators L. Chen (Ed.), Handbook of Intercultural
handbook for intergroup education]. Communication (Vol. 9, pp. 19–43). New York,
Washington, DC: American Association of NY: Mouton de Gruyter.
School Administrators of the National Baldwin, J. R., Faulkner, S. L., Hecht, M. L., &
Education Association. Lindsley, S. L. (Eds.) (2006). Redefining culture:

Perspectives across the disciplines. Mahwah, NJ: Bauer, M. W., & Gaskell, G. (1999). Toward a
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. paradigm for research on social representations.
Baldwin, J. R., & Hecht, M. L. (1995). The layered Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 29(2),
perspective of cultural (in)tolerance(s): The roots 163–186.
of a multidisciplinary approach. In R. L. Wiseman Bauer, M. W., & Gaskell, G. (2008). Social
(Ed.). Intercultural communication theory (pp. representations theory: A progressive research
59–91). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. programme for social psychology. Journal for
Banks, C. A. (2006). Improving multicultural education: the Theory of Social Behavior, 88(4), 335–353.
Lessons from the intergroup education movement. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5914.2008.00374
New York, NY: Teacher’s College Press. Bean, R. (2006). Cross-cultural competence and
Banks, C. (2012). A historical perspective on training in Australia. Diversity Factor, 14(1), 14–22.
intercultural/multicultural education in the Bean, R. (2007). Australia measures the value of
United States. In P. Nektaria & D. Gunther cross-cultural training. Diversity Factor, 15(2),
(Eds.), Mapping the broad field of multicultural 39–45.
and intercultural education worldwide: Towards Benedict, R. (1934). Patterns of culture. New York,
the development of a new citizen (pp. 78–92). NY: Houghton Mifflin.
Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars. Benedict, R. (1945). Race, science, and politics.
Barnett, G. A., & Kincaid, D. L. (1983). Cultural New York, NY: Viking Adult.
convergence: A mathematical theory. In W. B. Benedict, R. (1974). The chrysanthemum and the
Gudykunst (Ed.). Intercultural communication sword. Boston, MA: Charles Tuttle Company,
theory: Current perspectives (pp. 171–194). an Imprint of Houghton Mifflin Company.
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. (Original work published 1946).
Bastian, A. P. W. (1860). Der Mensch in der Benjamin, W. (1936). Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter
Geschichte [Man in history]. Berlin, Germany: seiner technischen Reproduzierbarkeit [The work
University of Berlin. of art in the age of mechanical reproduction]
Bastian, A. P. W. (1866–1871). Die Völker des (Hannah Arend, Trans, Ed.) New York, NY:
östlichen Asien. Studien und Reisen.6 Bände [The Schocken Books/Random House.
people’s of East Asia: Studies and Travels, 6 Vols.]. Bennett, M. J. (2013). Basic concepts of intercultural
Leipzig, Germany: Otto Wigand Verlag/Jena. communication: Paradigms, principles, &
Bastian, A. P. W. (1881). Der Völkergedanken in practices (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Intercultural
Aufbau einer Wissenschaft von Menschen Press/Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
[Peoples/ethnic thoughts in the building of a Bennett, J. M., Bennett, M. J., & Stillings, K.
science of humanity]. Berlin, Germany: F. (1977). Description, interpretation, evaluation:
Dümmlers (Hoefer & Vohsen). Facilitators’ guidelines. Intercultural
Bastian, A. P. W. (1884). Die algemeinen Grundzüge Communication Institute. Retrieved from:
der Ethnologie [A general outline of ethnology]. www.intercultural.org/resources.php
Berlin, Germany: Deitrich Reimer Verlag. Berger, C. R., & Calabrese, R. J. (1975). Some
Bastian, A. P. W. (1895). Der ethnische explorations in initial interaction and beyond:
Elementargedanken in der Lehre vom Menschen Toward a developmental theory of interpersonal
[The psychic unity of peoples in understanding communication. Human Communication
mankind]. Berlin, Germany: Deitrich Reimer Research, 1(2), 99–112. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-
Verlag (Hoefer & Vohsen; Weidmannsche 2958.1975.tb00258.x
Buchhandlung) Berger, P. L., & Luckman, T. (1971).
Batchelder, D., & Warner, E. G. (1977). Beyond The social construction of reality: A treatise
experience: The experiential approach to in the sociology of knowledge. Harmondsworth,
cross-cultural education. Brattleboro, VT: UK: Penguin Books. (Original work published
Experiment Press. 1966).

Berquist, G. (1990). The rhetorical travels of Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Brislin, R. W. (2000). Cross-
Robert T. Oliver. Rhetoric Review, 9(1), 173–183. cultural training: A review. Applied Psychology:
Berry, J. W. (1968). Directory of cross-cultural An International Review, 49(1), 162–191.
psychological research. International Journal of (concurrently published in Delhi Business
Psychology, 3(2), 137–148. Review, 1(1), 1–20, available online).
Berry, J. W. (1969). Directory of cross-cultural Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Munusamy, V. P. (2010).
psychological research. International Journal of Leading across cultural troups: Implications of
Psychology, 4(4), 333–336. self-concept. In K. Hannum, B. McFeeters, &
Berry, J. W., & Lonner, W. J. (1970). Directory of L. Booysen (Eds.), Leadership across differences:
cross-cultural research and researchers. Bellingham, Cases and perspectives (pp. 155–162). San
WA: Western Washington University Press. Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.
Berry, J. W., Lonner, W. J., & Leroux, J. Birdwhistell, R. L. (1952a). Field methods and
(1973). Directory of cross-cultural research and techniques: Body motion research and
researchers (2nd ed.). Bellingham, WA: Western interviewing. Human Organization, 11(1), 37–38.
Washington University Press. Birdwhistell, R. L. (1952b). Introduction to kinesics:
Bhagat, R. S., & Prien, K. O. (1996). Cross-cultural An annotation system for analysis of body motion
training in organizational contexts. In and gesture. Washington, DC: Department of
D. Landis & R. S. Bhagat (Eds.), Handbook of State, Foreign Service Institute.
intercultural training (2nd ed., pp. 216–230). Birdwhistell, R. L. (1954). Kinesics and
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. communication. Explorations, 3, 31–41.
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2000, July). Evolution of cross- Birdwhistell, R. L. (1970). Kinesics and context:
cultural training as a field of research: Essays on body motion communication.
Contributions of Harry Triandis. Unpublished Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania
paper presented in 2000 at the XVth Congress of Press.
International Association for Cross-Cultural Blake, R. T., & Mouton, J. S. (1962). The
Psychology, Pultusk, Poland, July 16–21, 2000, instrumental training lab. In I. R. Weschler &
in the symposium “Social Psychology and E. H. Schein (Eds.), Issues in human relations
Cultural Context.” training (pp. 61–76). Washington, DC. National
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2008). Globalization and Training Laboratories.
indigenous cultures: Homogenization or Blommaert, J. (1998, February). Different
differentiation?. International Journal of approaches to intercultural communication:
Intercultural Relations, 32(4), 305–317. A critical survey. Plenary lecture, Lernen und
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2009a). Intercultural training for Arbeiten in einer international vernetzten
the global workplace: Review, synthesis, and und multikulturellen Gesellschaft,
theoretical explorations. In R. S. Bhagat & R. Expertentagung Universität Bremen, Institut für
Steers (Eds.), Handbook of Culture, Projektmanagement und Witschaftsinformatik
Organization, and Work (pp. 462–488). (IPMI). Retrieved May 6, 2015 from www.cie
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. .ugent.be/CIE/blommaert1.htm
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2009b). Intercultural Blubaugh, J. A., & Pennington, D. (1976). Crossing
communication in a dynamic environment: differences: Interracial communication.
Preparing managers of developing and developed Colombus, OH: Bobbs-Merrill.
countries using cultural standards. Psychology Bluedorn, A. C. (1998). An interview with
and Developing Societies, 21(2), 161–181. anthropologist Edward T. Hall. Journal of
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2012). Diversity and intercultural Management Inquiry, 7, 109–115. DOI: 10.1177/
communication: The influence of individualism 105649269872003
and collectivism. In E. Christopher (Ed.), Blumer, H. (1969). Symbolic interactionism:
Communication across Cultures (pp. 42–53). UK: Perspective and method. Newark, NJ:
Palgrave Macmillan. Prentice-Hall.

Boas, F. (1911). The mind of primitive man. Brislin, R. W., Bochner, S., & Lonner, W. J. (Eds.).
New York, NY: Macmillan. (1975). Cross-cultural perspectives on learning.
Boas, F. (1928). Anthropology and modern life. New York, NY: Sage Publications.
New York, NY: Macmillan. Brislin, R. W., & Cushner, K. (Eds.). (1997).
Boas, F. (1940). Race, language, and culture. Improving intercultural interactions: Modules for
New York, NY: Macmillan. cross-cultural training programs, Vol. 2.
Bogardus, E. S. (1926). Social distance in the city. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Proceedings and Publications of the American Brislin, R. W., Cushner, K., Cherrie, C., & Yong,
Sociological Society, 20, 40–46. M. (1986). Intercultural interactions: A practical
Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a theory of practice guide. [Cross-cultural research and methodology
(Cambridge Studies in social and cultural series, Volume 9]. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage
anthropology, Band 16) (R. Nice, trans.). Publications.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press Brislin, R. W., Lonner, W. J., & Thorndike, R. M.
(Original work published 1972). (1973). Cross-cultural research methods. New
Bourdieu, P. (1993). The field of cultural production: York, NY: Wiley.
Essays on art and literature. New York, NY: Brislin, R. W., & Pedersen, P. (Eds.). (1976). Cross-
Columbia University Press. cultural orientation programs. New York, NY:
Bourdieu, P. (1998). Von Gebrauch der Garden Press and Wiley/Halsted Publishers.
Wissenschaft [On the use of science: Toward a Brislin, R. W., & Yoshida, T. (1994a). Intercultural
clinical sociology of scientific fields]. Fuer eine communication training: An introduction.
klinische Soziologie des wissenschaftlichen Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Feldes. Konstanz, Germany: Universität Verlag Brislin, R. W., & Yoshida, T. W. (Eds.) (1994b).
Konstanz. Improving intercultural interactions: Modules for
Braithwaite, C. A. (1990). Communicative silence: cross-cultural training programs. Newbury Park,
A cross-cultural study of Basso’s hypothesis. In CA: Sage Publications.
D. A. Carbaugh (Ed.), Cultural communication Brown, D., & Martindale, T. (2012). A review of
and intercultural contact (pp. 321–327). intercultural training in the workplace.
Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates. Proceedings of Selected Research and
Bramfeld, T. (1946). Minority problems in the public Development Papers at the Annual Convention of
schools: A study of administrative policies and the Association of Educational Communications
practices in seven school systems [BIE Vol. 4, and Technology.
Problems of race and culture in American Brown, F. J. (1939). Sociology and intercultural
schools]. New York, NY: Harper. understanding. Journal of Educational Sociology
Brislin, R. W. (Ed.). (1973–77). Topics in culture 12(6), 328–331.
learning, Vols. 1–5. Honolulu, HI: East–West Brown, F. J., & Roucek, J. S. (1937). Our racial and
Center. national minorities. New York, NY: Prentice
Brislin, R. W. (Ed.). (with Anderson, R., & Hall, Inc.
Bruce, W.). (1976). Translation: Applications and Brown, I. C. (1949). Race relations in a democracy
research. New York, NY: Garden Press. [BIE Vol. 5, Problems of race and culture in
Brislin, R. W. (Ed.). (1977). Culture learning: American schools]. New York, NY: Harper.
Concept, application, and research. Honolulu, Brown, S. (1945). They see for themselves:
HI: East-West Center. A documentary approach to intercultural
Brislin, R. W. (2000). Understanding culture’s influence education in high school [BIE Vol. 3, Problems of
on behavior. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Race and Culture in American Schools, Vickery]
Jovanovich. (Original work published 1993). New York, NY: Harper.
Brislin, R. W. (2008). Working with cultural Burgoon, J. K. (1995). Cross-cultural and
differences: Dealing effectively with diversity in intercultural applications of expectancy violations
the workplace. Westport, CT: Praeger Publisher. theory. In R. L. Wiseman (Ed.), Intercultural

Communication Theory (pp. 194–214). Thousand Cole, S. G. (1941b). Intercultural education:

Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Cultural diversity and education. Contemporary
Burgoon, J. K., & Ebesu Hubbard, A. S. (2014). Jewish Record, 4(3), 269–282.
Cross-cultural and intercultural applications of Cole, S. G. (1943). Intercultural education in American
expectancy violations theory and interaction schools. New York, NY: Harper & Bros.
adaptation theory. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.). Cole, S., et al. (1946). Charting intercultural
Theorizing about intercultural communication education 1945–1955: A report of the summer
(pp. 149–172). Shanghai, China: Shanghai 1945 workshop on intercultural education
Foreign Language Education Press. (Original sponsored by the Stanford University School of
work published 2005). education and the west coast office of the Bureau
Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing for Intercultural Education. Stanford, CA:
intercultural communicative competence. Stanford University Press.
Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. Collier, M. J. (2014). Theorizing cultural
Campa, A. L. (1951). Language barriers in identifications: Critical updates and continuing
intercultural relations. Journal of evolution. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Theorizing
Communication, 1, 41–46. about intercultural communication (pp. 235–256).
Carbaugh, D. A. (2005). Cultures in conversation. Shanghai, China: Shanghai Foreign Language
New York, NY: Routledge. Education Press. (Original work published 2005).
Casmir, F. L. (1973). International, intercultural Collier, M. J., & Thomas, M. (1988). Cultural
communication: An annotated bibliography. Special identity: An interpretive perspective. In Y. Y.
communication module. ERIC Clearinghouse on Kim & W. B. Gudykunst (Eds.), Theories in
Reading and Communication Skills. intercultural communication (pp. 99–120).
Casmir, F. L. (Ed.) (1974–1976). International and Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
intercultural communication annual (Vols. 1, 2, Comenius (Komensky), J. A. (1636). Janua
and 3). Falls Church, VA: Speech Linguarum Reserata [The gate of tongues
Communication Association. unlocked] (J. A. Anchoran, Trans., T. Horne,
Casmir, F. L. (Ed). (1978). Intercultural and Ed.). London, UK: Licentiatein Divinity.
international communication. Washington, DC: (Original work published 1631).
University Press of America. Comenius (Komensky), J. A. (1968). Didactica Magna
Casmir, F. L., & Harms, L. S. (1970). International [The great didactic]. In J. A. Comenius (Ed.),
studies of national speech education systems Opera didactica omnia (3 vols. compilation in
(Vol. 1). Minneapolis, MN: Burgess Pub. Co. Latin, reprinted in Prague, 1657) (M. W. Keatinge,
and Pacific Speech Association. trans., 1896). New York, NY: Publisher unknown.
Clarke, C. H. (2008). Practicing the integration of (Original work published 1633–1638).
discipline and compassion (Keynote speech at Comenius, J. A. (1641). Via Lucis [The way of
the 2007 SIETAR Japan Conference). Journal of light]. (E.T. Campagnac, Trans.). Amsterdam,
Intercultural Communication, 11, 1–21. The Netherlands: Ch. Cunrad. (Written in
Clarke, C. H., & Takashiro, N. (2014). Evolving England in 1641 but fully published in 1668).
paradigms and research applications in Comenius (Komensky), J. A. (1651). Pansophiae
intercultural training: A personal historical [A pattern of universal knowledge]. London,
perspective of fifty-five years. Unpublished UK: Publisher unknown.
manuscript. Comte, A. (2003). The positive philosophy of
Cleveland, H., Mangone, G. J., & Adams, J. C. Auguste Comte (H. Martineau, Trans.). New
(1960). The overseas Americans. New York, NY: York, NY: D. Appleton & Co. (Original work
McGraw-Hill. published 1853).
Cole, S. G. (1941a). Intercultural education: Condon, J. C., & Yousef, F. (1975). An introduction
Outlines of the problem. Contemporary Jewish to intercultural communication. Indianapolis, IN:
Record, 4(2), 99–109. Bobbs Merrill.

Cooley, R. E. (1983). Codes and contexts: Davis-DuBois, R. (1936). Practical problems of

An argument for their description. In W. B. international and interracial education. Junior-
Gudykunst (Ed.), Intercultural communication Senior High School Clearing House, 10(8),
theory: Current perspectives (pp. 241–252). pp. 486–490.
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. Davis-DuBois, R. (1938–39). Americans all,
Crawford, W. C. (1956, December). Intercultural immigrants all. Retrieved from www.wnyc.org/
Project Summary. Grant No. 146, 146-A, series/americans-all-immigrants-all
Rosenberg Foundation Files. Davis-DuBois, R. (1939). Out of the many –
Crider, F. J. (1922). The effect of intercultural one: A plan for intercultural education. New
practices on temperatures and humidity in citrus York, NY: Service Bureau for Intercultural
orchards. Science, New Series 58(1429), Education.
542–550. Davis-DuBois, R. (1943). Get together Americans:
Cronbach, L. J., & Drenth, P. J. D. (1972). Mental Friendly approaches to racial and cultural
tests and cultural adaptation. The Hague, conflicts through the neighborhood-home festival.
Netherlands: Monton. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers.
Cronen, V. E., Chen, V., & Pearce, W. B. (1988). Davis-DuBois, R. (1946). The face-to-face group as
Coordinated management of meaning: A critical a unit for a program of intercultural education.
theory. In Y. Y. Kim & W. B. Gudykunst (Eds.), The Journal of Educational Sociology, 19(9),
Theories in intercultural communication (pp. 555–561.
66–98). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Davis-DuBois, R. (1950). Neighbors in action:
Croucher, S. J., Sommier, M., & Rahmani, D. a manual for local leaders in intergroup relations.
(2015). Intercultural communication: Where New York, NY: Harper.
we’ve been, where we’re going, issues we face. Davis-DuBois, R., & Li, M. (1963). The art of group
Communication Research and Practice, 1(1), conversation: A new breakthrough in social media
71–87. DOI: 10.1080/22041451.2015.1042422 communication. New York, NY: Association
Cushner, K., & Brislin, R. W. (1996). Intercultural Press.
interactions: A practical guide (2nd ed.). Davis-DuBois, R., & Okoradudu, C. (1984). All this
New York, NY: Sage Publications. and something more: Pioneering in intercultural
Darwin, C. (1872). The origin of species (6th ed.). education, an autobiography. Bryn Mawr, PA:
New York, NY/London, UK: D. Appleton. Dorrance.
Davey, W. G. (Ed.). (1979). Intercultural theory and Dawson, J. L. M. B., & Lonner, W. J. (Eds.). (1974).
practice, Vol. 2. La Grange Park, IL: Readings in cross-cultural psychology. Hong
Intercultural Network. Kong, China: University of Hong Kong Press.
Davis, A., & Dollard, J. (1940). Children of Deardorff, D. K. (2008). What is intercultural
bondage: The personality development of Negro competence? In Schreiber & Berninghausen
youth in the urban south. [Personality Series]. (Eds.), Global competence for the future:
Washington, DC: American Council of Employability, mobility, quality. Germany:
Education. Kellner-Verlag.
Davis-DuBois, R. (1928). Education in Deardorff, D. K. (2009). Handbook of intercultural
worldmindedness: A series of assembly programs competence. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
given by students of Woodbury high school, Publications.
Woodbury High School, Woodbury, New Jersey, Dervin, F. (2016). Interculturality in education:
1927–1928. Newark, NJ: American Friends A theoretical and methodological toolbox.
Service Committee/Women’s International London, UK: Palgrave.
League for Peace and Freedom. Dollard, J. (1939). Frustration and aggression.
Davis-DuBois, R. (1934). Changing attitudes toward New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
other races and nations. New York, NY: Service Doron, A. (2009). Towards a definition of
Bureau for Education in Human Relations. intercultural dialogue. In A. Aharoni (Ed.),

Encyclopedia of life support systems (EOLSS), Ellingsworth, H. W. (1983). Adaptive intercultural

peace, literature, and art (Vol. 2). Retrieved from communication. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.).
www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C04/E1-39A-30 Intercultural communication theory: Current
.pdf perspectives (pp. 195–204). Beverly Hills, CA:
DuBois, G. J., Potts, L. B., & Kulich, S. J. (2017). Sage Publications.
IC scholars before their time: Rachel Davis- Ellingsworth, H. W. (1988). A theory of adaptation
DuBois and the IC education movement. In S. J. in intercultural dyads. In Y. Y. Kim & W. B.
Kulich & A. S. English (Eds.), China Gudykunst (Eds.), Theories in intercultural
intercultural communication annual, Vol. 2 communication (pp. 259–279). Newbury Park,
(pp. 54–79). Beijing, China: Chinese Academy of CA: Sage Publications.
Social Science (CASS) Press. Ellis, R. R. (2006). The middle kingdom through
DuBois, W. E. B. (1903). The souls of black folk Spanish eyes: Depictions of China in the writings
(3rd ed.). Chicago IL: A. C. McClure & Co. of Juan González de Mendoza and Domingo
Durkheim, É. (1964). De la division du travail social Fernández Navarrete. Retrieved August 5, 2009,
[The division of labor in society]. (G. Simpson, from http://bulletinofhispanicstudies.
Trans.). New York, NY: Free Press. (Original lupjournals.org/uploads/bulletinofhispanic
work published in 1893, first translated version studies lupjournalsorg/gratis/2.pdf
1933). Engels, F. (1893). Letter to Franz Mehring, 14 July
Durkheim, É. (1938). Les règles de la méthode 1893, In Institute für Marxismus-Leninismus
sociologique [The rules of sociological method]. beim ZK der SED (Ed.), Werke (Vol. 39,
(S. A. Solovay & J. H. Mueller, Trans.). pp. 96–101). Berlin, Germany: Dietz-Verlag.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Fei, X. T. (1939). Peasant life in China: A field study
(Original work published 1894, Paris, France) of country life in the Yangtze valley. Preface by
Edwards, D., & McCaffery, J. (1980). Cross-cultural B. Malinowski. London, UK: G. Routledge/
training for peace corps volunteers. Washington, New York, NY: Dutton.
DC: Peace Corps Office of Programming and Fei, X. T. (1945). Earthbound China. Chicago, IL:
Training Coordination. University of Chicago Press.
Ehrenhaus, P. (1983). Culture and the attribution Fiedler, F., Mitchell, T., & Triandis, H. (1971).
process: Barriers to effective communication. The culture assimilator: An approach to cross-
In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.). Intercultural cultural training. Journal of Applied Psychology,
communication theory: Current perspectives 55(2), 95–102.
(pp. 259–270). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Fischer, H. D., & Merrill, J. C. (Eds.). (1976).
Publications. International and intercultural communication
Elberfeld, R. (2008a). Durchbruch zum Plural. (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Hastings House.
Der Begriff der Kulturen bei Nietzsche Foa, U., & Foa. E. (1974). Societal structures of the
[Breakthrough to the plural. The concept of mind. Springfield, IL: Charles Thomas.
cultures in Nietzsche]. Nietzsche-Studien 37, Foucault, M. (1972). The archology of knowledge.
115–142. New York, NY: Pantheon Books.
Elberfeld, R. (2008b). Forschungsperspektive Foucault, M. (1980). Truth and power. In C.
“Interkulturalität”: Transformation der Gordon (Ed.), Power/knowledge: Selected
Wissensordnungen in Europa [Research interviews & other writings, 1972–1977
perspective on “Interculturality”: (pp. 109–133). New York, NY: Pantheon.
Transformation of the ordering of knowledge in Frijda, N., & Jahoda, G. (1966). On the scope and
Europe]. In R. Konersmann, J. M. Krois, & D. methods of cross-cultural research. International
Weserkamp (Eds.), Zeitschrift fuer Journal of Psychology, 1(2), 109–127.
Kulturphilosophie, Band 2, Heft 1 (pp. 7–26). Fritz, J. M. H. (Ed.). (2010). The Pennsylvania
Hamburg, Germany: Felix Meiner Verlag. Scholars Series, Vol. 5: Robert T. Oliver –

Standard bearer of the discipline. Pittsburgh, PA: Glenn, E. S. (1956). Languages and patterns of
Pennsylvania Communication Association. thought. Washington, DC: Georgetown
Fulbright, W. J. (1974). Founding address. The University (Paper presented at the 5th
Fulbright Program. Washington, DC: The International Conference of Anthropology and
United States Senate. Ethnology).
Fukuyama, F. (1992). The end of history and the last Glenn, E. S. (1957–1958). Introduction [to the
man. New York, NY: The Free Press. Special Issue: Interpretation and intercultural
Gadamer, H.-G. (1960). Wahrheit und Methode communication]. A Review of General Semantics,
[Truth and method]. (P. Siebeck, Trans.). 15, 87–97.
Tübingen, Germany: Mohr (Siebeck). Glenn, E. S. (1966). Meaning and behavior:
Gallois, C., Franklyn-Stokes, A., Giles, H., & Communication and culture. Journal of
Coupland, N. (1988). Communication Communication, 16(4), 248–272.
accommodation in intercultural encounters. In Gochenour, T. (1995). Beyond experience: The
Y. Y. Kim & W. B. Gudykunst (Eds.), Theories experiential approach to cross-cultural
in intercultural communication (pp. 157–185). education (2nd ed.). Yarmouth, ME:
Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Intercultural Press.
Gallois, C., Giles, H., Jones, E., Cargile, A. C., & Goethe, J. W. (2010). Maxims and reflections
Ota, H. (1995). Accommodating intercultural (T. B. Saunders, Trans.,). New York, NY: The
encounters: Elaborations and extensions. Macmillan Company. (Original work published
In R. L. Wiseman (Ed.), Intercultural 1833).
communication theory (pp. 115–147). Thousand Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. everyday life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
Gallois, C., Ogay, T., & Giles, H. (2014). González, A. (2010). A critique of research in
Communication accommodation theory. intercultural communication. In T. K.
In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Theorizing about Nakayama & R. T. Halualani (Eds.), The
intercultural communication (pp. 121–148). handbook of critical intercultural communication
Shanghai, China: Shanghai Foreign Language studies (pp. 53–56). Malden, MA: Wiley-
Education Press. (Original work published 2005). Blackwell.
Ganesh, S., & Holmes, P. (2011). Positioning Gorer, G. (1948). The American people: A study
intercultural dialogue: Theories, pragmatics, in national character. New York, NY:
and an agenda. Journal of International and W. W. Norton & Co.
Intercultural Communication 4(2), 81–86. Gorski, P. C. (2008). Good intentions are not
Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures. enough: A decolonizing intercultural education.
New York, NY: Basic Books. Intercultural Education, 19(6), 515–525.
Gehrke, P. J., & Keith, W. M. (2014). Introduction: Gramsci, A. (2011). Quaderni del carcere [Prison
A brief history of the national communication notebooks]. (J. A. Buttigieg, Trans. & Ed.).
association. In P. J. Gehrke & W. M. Keith New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
(Eds.), A century of communication studies: The (Original work published 1992–2007).
unfinished conversation (pp. 1–25). New York, Greenfield, P. (2009). Linking social change and
NY: Routledge. developmental change: Shifting pathways of
Georges-Louis Leclerc, C. (1749–1804). Histoire human development. Developmental Psychology,
naturelle, générale et particulière, avec la 45(2), 401–418.
description du cabinet du roi [Natural history, Gudykunst, W. B. (Ed.). (1983). Intercultural
general and particular, with a description of the communication theory: Current perspectives.
king’s cabinet]. Paris, France: Imprimerie Royale. International and intercultural communication
Glenn, E. S. (1954). Semantic difficulties in annual (Vol. 7). Beverly Hills, CA: SCA/Sage.
international communication. A Review of Gudykunst, W. B. (Ed.). (1984). Methods for
General Semantics, 11, 163–180. intercultural communication research.

International and intercultural communication Gullahorn, J. T., & Gullahorn, J. E. (1963). An

annual (Vol. 8). Beverly Hills, CA: SCA/Sage. extension of the U-curve hypothesis. Journal of
Gudykunst, W. B. (1985). Intercultural Social Issues, 19, 33–47.
communication: Current status and proposed Habermas, J. (1981). Theorie des kommunikativen
directions. In B. Dervin & M. J. Voigt (Eds.), Handelns [Theory of communicative action].
Progress in communication sciences, Vol. 6 (T. McCarthy, Trans.). Frankfurt am Main,
(pp. 1–46). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Germany: Suhrkamp Verlag.
Gudykunst, W. B. (1998). Bridging differences, Habib, M. A. R. (2017). Hegel and empire: From
Effective intergroup communication (3rd ed.). postcolonialism to globalism. Cham, Switzerland:
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. (Originally Palgrave Macmillan.
published 1991, 2nd ed., 1994). Hall, E. T. (1950). Military government on Truk.
Gudykunst, W. B. (2002). Intercultural Human Organization, 9, 25–30.
communication theories. In W. B. Gudykunst & Hall, E. T. (1955). The anthropology of manners.
B. Mody (Eds.), Handbook of international and Scientific American, 192, 85–89.
intercultural communication (2nd ed., pp. 183–206). Hall, E. T. (1959). The silent language. Garden City,
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. NY: Doubleday.
Gudykunst, W. B. (Ed.). (2005). Theorizing about Hall, E. T. (1966). The hidden dimension. New York,
intercultural communication. Thousand Oaks, NY: Doubleday.
CA: Sage Publications. Hall, E. T., & Trager, G. L. (1953). The analysis of
Gudykunst, W. B. (2014). An anxiety/uncertainty culture. Washington, DC: American Council of
management (AUM) theory of effective Learned Societies/Foreign Service Institute.
communication: Making the mesh of the net Hall, E. T., & Whyte, W. F. Jr. (1960). Intercultural
finer. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.). Theorizing communication. A guide to men of action.
about intercultural communication (pp. 281–322, Human Organization, 19(1), 5–12.
419–458). Shanghai, China: Shanghai Foreign Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond culture. Garden City,
Language Education Press. (Original work NY: Doubleday.
published 2005). Hall, S. (1973). Encoding and decoding in the
Gudykunst, W. B., & Kim, Y. Y. (2002). television discourse. Birmingham, UK:
Communicating with strangers: An approach to University of Birmingham Press.
intercultural communication (Original edition, Hall, S. (1992). Race, culture, and communications:
1984; 2nd ed., 1991; 3rd ed., 1996; 4th ed., 2002). Looking backward and forward at cultural
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. studies. Rethinking Marxism, 5(1), 10–18.
Gudykunst, W. B., & Lee, C. M. (2002). Cross- Hamnett, M. P., & Brislin, R. W. (Eds.). (1980).
cultural communication theories. In W. B. Research in culture learning: Language and
Gudykunst & B. Mody (Eds.), Handbook of conceptual studies. Honolulu, HI: East-West
international and intercultural communication Culture Learning Institute.
(2nd ed., pp. 25–50). Thousand Oaks, CA: Harman, R. C., & Briggs, N. E. (1991). SIETAR
Sage Publications. Survey: Perceived contributions of the social
Gudykunst, W. B., & Mody, B. (Eds.). (2002). sciences to intercultural communication.
Handbook of international and intercultural International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
communication, (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: 15(1), 19–28.
Sage Publications. Harris, P., & Moran, R. T. (1979). Managing
Gudykunst, W. B., & Nishida, K. (1989). Theoretical cultural differences. Houston, TX: Gulf
perspectives for studying intercultural Publishing Co.
communication. In M. K. Asante & W. B. Hart, W. B. (1999). Historical contributions of
Gudykunst (Eds.), Handbook of international Boasian anthropology to the interdiscipline
and intercultural communication (pp. 17–46). of intercultural relations. Unpublished
Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. doctoral dissertation. The University of

New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico. Hofstede, G. (1980). Cultures consequences:

Retrieved from UMI. International differences in work-related Values.
Hart, W. B. (2005). Everett M. Rogers: His role in Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
intercultural communication study. International Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences:
Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29, 491–495. Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and
Hasslet, B. B. (2017). Establishing a unique organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks,
intercultural communication learning CA: Sage (copublished in the PRC as Vol. 10
environment: The University of Minnesota in the Shanghai Foreign Language Education
heritage in the 1970s and 1980s. In S. J. Kulich & Press SFLEP Intercultural Communication
A. S. English (Eds.), China intercultural Reference Series, 2008).
communication annual, Vol. 2 (pp. 80–94). Beijing, Hoggart, R. (1957). The uses of literacy.
China: China Social Sciences Publishing House. Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge.
Haydon, A. E. (Ed.) (1934). Modern trends in world Holliday, A. (2011). Intercultural communication
religions. Chicago, IL: The University of and ideology. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
Chicago Press. Publications.
Hebdige, D. (1979). Subculture: The meaning of Holmes, P. (2014). Intercultural dialogue:
style. Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge. Challenges to theory, practice and research.
Hegel, G. W. F. (1807). Phänomenologie des geistes Language and Intercultural Communication
[The Phenomenology of Spirit]. Bamberg und 14(1), 1–6. DOI: 10.1080/14708477.2013
Würzburg, Germany: Joseph Anton Goebhardt. .866120
Hegel, G. W. F. (1902). Vorlesungen über die Hoopes, D. S. (Ed.). (1975). Readings in
philosophie der weltgeschichte [Lectures on the intercultural communication, Vol. 1. The
philosophy of world history]. (J. Sibree, Trans). intercultural communication workshop.
London, UK: George Bell and Sons. (Original Pittsburgh, PA: The Intercultural
work published 1837). Communications Network (original collection,
Henry, D. D. (1963, October). The American 1970; June 1975 reprint, Washington, DC:
university looks abroad: View from the Society for Intercultural Education, Training
President’s office. Paper presented at Regional and Research, SIETAR).
Conference of Education and World Affairs, Hoopes, D. S. (Ed.). (1971, 72, 73, 74, 75/76).
East Lansing, MI. Readings in intercultural communications,
Herder, J. G. von. (1800-1803). Ideen zur Philosophie (Vols. 1–5). Pittsburgh, PA, later Washington,
des Geschicte der Menschheit (Vol. 1–2) [Outlines DC: The Intercultural Communications
of a philosophy of the history of man]. (T. O. Network/Society for Intercultural Education,
Churchill, Trans.). London, UK: J. Johnson, St. Training and Research (SIETAR).
Paul’s Church-Yard. (Original work published Hoopes, D. S. (1980). Intercultural education
1784–1791). (Phi Delta Kappa Fastback # 142).
Herskovits, M. J. (1941). The myth of the negro past. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational
New York, NY: Harper & Brothers. Foundation.
Herskovits, M. J. (1972). Cultural relativism: Hoopes, D. S., Bretz, F. H., Hoffman, N. M., &
Perspectives in cultural pluralism. New York, Spencer, A. M. (1971). A study of the dynamics
NY: Vintage Books/Random House. of inter-institutional cooperation for
Ho, E., Holmes, P., & Cooper, J. (2004). Review and international education development, Final
evaluation of international literature on managing report. Pittsburgh, PA: Regional Council for
cultural diversity in classrooms. Hamilton, International Education (RCIE) (retrieved from
New Zealand: University of Waikato. ERIC EDO48716).
Hocking, W. E. (1934). Christianity and Hoopes, D. S., Pedersen, P. B., & Renwick, G. W.
intercultural contacts. The Journal of Religion (Eds.). (1977). Overview of intercultural
14(2), 127–138. education, training and research, Vol. I: Theory.

Washington, DC: International Society for Intercultural Communication. Retrieved from

Intercultural Education, Training and Research. immi.se
Houghton, S. (2009). Managing stereotypes in Johnson, L. D., & Pak, Y. K. (2019). Teaching for
intercultural communication. The Humanities and diversity: Intercultural and intergroup education
Social Studies in the Far East, 1(21), 139–141. in the public schools, 1920s–1970s. Review of
Howell, W. S. (1979). Theoretical foundations for Research in Education, 43(1), 1–31. doi:10.3102/
intercultural communication. In M. K. Asante, 0091732X18821127
E. Newmark, & C. A. Blake (Eds.), Handbook of Kant, I. (1968). Von den verschiedenen racen der
intercultural communication (pp. 23–42). Beverly menschen [On the different races of men]. In I.
Hills, CA: Sage Publications. Kant & Werke, (W. Weischedel, Ed.), Vol XI
Hsu, F. L. K. (1953). Americans and Chinese: Two (pp. 9–30). Frankfurt-on-Main, Germany:
ways of life. New York, NY: Abelard-Schuman. Suhrkamp. (Original work published 1775).
Hsu, F. L. K. (Ed.). (1972). Psychological Kant, I. (1781). Kritik der reinen Vernunft
anthropology: Approaches to culture and [Critique of pure reason]. Riga, Latvia:
personality (rev. ed.). Homewood, IL: Dorsey Hartknoch.
Press. (Original work published 1972, Kant, I. (1793). Determination and the concept of a
Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Pub. Co). human race. Reprinted in I. Kant, Zerstreute
Hsu, F. L. K. (1963). Clan, caste, and club. Aufsatze, Frankfurt/Leipzig, Germany:
New York, NY: Van Nostrand. Neuweid. (Original work published 1785).
Hsu, F. L. K. (1969). The study of literate Kant, I. (2006). Anthropologie in pragmatischer
civilizations. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Hinsicht [Anthropology from a pragmatic point
Winston. of view]. (R. B. Louden & M. Kuehn, Trans.).
Hume, D. (1751). An enquiry concerning the New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
principles of morals (1st ed.). London, UK: (Original work published 1798).
A. Millar. Katriel, T. (1995). From “context” to “contexts” in
Husserl, E. (1974). Zur Phänomenologie der intercultural communication research. In R. L.
Intersubjektivität. Dritter Teil. [The Wiseman (Ed.), Intercultural communication
phenomenology of intersubjectivity. Third part]. theory (pp. 271–284). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Husserliana, Volume Band 15. Den Haag, The Publications.
Netherlands: Iso Kern. (original series of Katz, D., & Braly, K. W. (1935). Racial prejudice
volumes published 1929–1935). and racial stereotypes. The Journal of Abnormal
Hymes, D. (1974). Foundations in sociolinguistics: and Social Psychology, 30(2), 175–193.
An ethnographic approach. Philadelphia, PA: Kawakami, H. S. (2009). A history and development
University of Pennsylvania Press. of the intercultural communication field in Japan
Inglis, F. (2004). Culture. Cambridge, UK: Polity (1950–present). Unpublished doctoral
Press Ltd. dissertation. The University of New Mexico.
Jain, N. C. (Ed.). (1977, 1979, 1982). International and Retrieved December, 2010, from gradworks.
intercultural communication annual (Vols. 4–6). umi.com.
Falls Church, VA: Speech Communication Kealey, D. J., & Protheroe, D. R. (1996). The
Association. effectiveness of cross-cultural training for
Jain, N. C., Prosser, M. H., & Miller, M. H. (Eds.). expatriates: An assessment of the literature on
(1974). Intercultural communication: Proceedings the issue. International Journal of Intercultural
of the speech communication association summer Relations, 20(2), 141–165.
conference X. Falls Church, VA: Speech Kennard, E. A. (1948). Cultural anthropology and
Communication Association. the Foreign Service. American Foreign Service
Jebsen, I. (1999). The practice of intercultural Journal, 25, 18–19, 42, 44.
communication – Reflections for professions Khaldûn, I. (1968). Al-Muqaddima (Discours sur
in cultural meetings. Online Journal of l’histoire universelle) [Introduction: Discourse on

universal history]. Paris, France: Sindbad. Kluckhohn, F. R., & Strodtbeck, F. L. (1961).
(Original work published 1377). Variations in value orientations. Westport, CT:
Kim, M. S. (2014). Culture-based conversational Greenwood Press (concurrently by
constraints theory: Individual- and culture- Bloomington, IN: Row & Peterson).
level analyses. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Klyukanov, I. E. (2005). Principles of intercultural
Theorizing about intercultural communication communication. Boston, MA: Pearson
(pp. 93–118). Shanghai, China: Shanghai Education/Allyn & Bacon.
Foreign Language Education Press. (Original Klyukanov, I. E. (2010). A communication universe:
work published 2005). Manifestations of meaning, stagings of
Kim, M. S. (2010). Intercultural communication significance. Lanham, MD: Lexington/
in Asia: Current state and future prospects. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
Asian Journal of Communication, 20(5), Knowles, M. S. (1969). An experiment with
166–180. group self-directed learning: The learning
Kim, Y. Y. (Ed.). (2017). The international teaching team. In P. Runkel, R. Harrison, &
encyclopedia of intercultural communication. M. Runkel (Eds.), The changing college
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons/Blackwell classroom. San Francisco, CA:
Kim, Y. Y., & Gudykunst, W. B. (Eds.). (1988). Jossey-Bass.
Theories in intercultural communication: Knowles, M. S. (1970). The modern practice of adult
International and intercultural communication education: From pedagogy to andragogy. New
annual (Vol. 12). Newbury Park, CA: SCA/Sage York, NY: Association Press.
Publications. Knowles, M. S. (1973). The adult learner:
Klemm, G. F. (1843–52). Allgemeine Cultur- A neglected species. Madison, WI: American
Geschichte der Menschheit [General cultural Society for Training and Development.
history of mankind]. Leipzig, Germany: Knowles, M. S. (1985). Shifting to an HRD systems
Teubner. approach. Training & Development Journal,
Klineberg, O. (1940). Social psychology. New York, 39(5), 24–25.
NY: Henry Holt & Co. Kochman, T. (1983) Black and white styles in conflict.
Klineberg, O. (1944). Characteristics of the American Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
negro. Manhattan, NY: Harper & Brothers. Kohls, L. R. (1979). Survival kit for overseas living.
Kluckhohn, C. K. M. (1954). Culture and behavior. Chicago, IL: Intercultural Network, SYSTRAN
In G. Lindzey (Ed.), The handbook of social Publications.
psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 921–976). Reading/ Kolb, D. A., & Fry, R. (1981). Experiential learning
Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley. theory and learning experiences in liberal arts
Kluckhohn, C. K. M. (1962). Universal categories education: New directions for experiential
of culture. In S. Tax (Ed.), Anthropology today: learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Selections (pp. 304–320). Chicago, IL: Kotthoff, H., & Spencer-Oatey, H. (2007).
University of Chicago Press. (Original work Handbook of intercultural communication.
published 1952). New York, NY: Mouton de Gruyter.
Kluckhohn, C. K. M. (1964). Education, values, Ku, H. M. (1998). The spirit of the Chinese people.
and anthropological relativity. In R. Kluckhohn Beijing, China: Foreign Language Teaching
(Ed.), Culture and behavior: Collected essays of and Research Press. (Original work published
Clyde Kluckhohn (pp. 286–300). (Original work 1915).
published 1952 as “Universal values and Kulich, S. J. (2011). Applying cross-cultural values
anthropological relativism,” in Modern research to “the Chinese”: A critical integration
education and human values: The Pitcairn- of etic and emic approaches (in 2 Volumes).
Crabbe Foundation lecture series, (Vol. 4, Doctoral dissertation, Humboldt Universitaet zu
pp. 87–112). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Berlin, published online at http://edoc.hu-berlin
Pittsburgh Press). .de/docviews/abstract.php?lang=ger&id=39023

Kulich, S. J. (2012). Reconstructing the histories Lebedko, M. (2010). Tackling ethnic stereotypes in
and influences of 1970s intercultural leaders: an intercultural communication course.
Prelude to biographies. International Journal of Intercultural Communication Studies, 19(1),
Intercultural Relations, 36, 744–759. doi:10.1016/ 168–181.
j.ijintrel.2012.08.004 Lederer, W. J., & Burdick, E. (1958). The ugly
Kulich, S. J. (2017). Reviewing intercultural study American. New York, NY: Norton.
roots: From reviving histories toward reassessing Leeds-Hurwitz, W. (1990). Notes in the history of
the status of the field (Part 1 Intro). In S. J. intercultural communication: The Foreign
Kulich & A. S. English (Eds.), China Service Institute and the mandate for
intercultural communication annual, Vol. 2 intercultural training. Quarterly Journal of
(pp. 33–53). Beijing, China: Chinese Academy of Speech, 76, 262–281.
Social Science (CASS) Press. Leeds-Hurwitz, W. (2010a). Writing the intellectual
Kulich, S. J., & Zhang, X. J. (2012). Profiling people history of intercultural communication. In T. K.
in multiple domains: Toward a sociology of Nakayama & R. T. Halualani (Eds.), The
science for intercultural disciplines. International handbook of critical intercultural communication
Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36, 885–901. (pp. 21–33). Chichester, West Sussex/Oxford,
doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2012.08.019 UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
Kurylo, A. (Ed.) (2012). Inter/cultural Leeds-Hurwitz, W. (2010b). The social history of
communication: Representation and construction language and social interaction: People, places,
of culture. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage ideas. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Publications. Lefringhausen, K., Spencer-Oatey, H., & Debray,
Kroeber, A. L., & Kluckhohn, C. K. M. (1952). C. (2019). Culture, norms, and the assessment of
Culture: A critical review of concepts and communication contexts: Multidisciplinary
definitions. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University perspectives. Journal of Cross-Cultural
Press. Psychology, 50(10), 1098–1111.
Lal, S. (2004). 1930s multiculturalism: Rachel Lehtonen, J. (1994). Cultural stereotypes and
Davis-Dubois and the bureau for intercultural intercultural communication. In G. Bartelt
education. Radical Teacher, 69, 18–22. (Ed.), The dynamics of language process
Landis, D., & Brislin, R. W. (Eds.). (1983). (pp. 173–182). Tübingen, Germany: Günter
Handbook of intercultural training (Vols. 1–3). Narr Verlag.
Elmsford, NY: Pergamon. Leighton, A. H. (1984). Then and now: Some
Landis, D., & Wasilewski, J. H. (1999). Reflections notes on the interaction of person and social
on 22 years of the Intercultural Journal of environment. Human Organization, 43(3),
International Relations and 23 years in other 189–197.
areas of intercultural practice. International Leighton, A. H. (2000). Science and values:
Journal of Intercultural Relations, 23(4), A historical perspective. In K. W. Russo (Ed.),
535–574. Finding the middle ground: Insights and
LaPiere, R. T. (2010). Attitudes vs. actions. applications of the value orientation method
International Journal of Epidemiology, 39, 7–11. (pp. 21–30). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
(Original work published 1934) Lewin, K. (1936). Some social-psychological
Lasker, B. (1929). Race attitudes in children. differences between the United States and
New York, NY: Henry Holt & Co. Germany. Character and Personality, 4,
Lazarsfeld, P. F., & Merton, R. K. (1954). Friendship 265–293.
as a social process: A substantive and Lewin, K. (1947a). Frontiers in group dynamics:
methodological analysis. In M. Berger, T. Able, & I, Concept, method, and reality in social science,
C. H. Page (Eds.), Freedom and control in modern social equilibria, and social change. Human
society (pp. 18–66). New York, NY: Van Nostrand. Relations, 1(1), 5–42.

Lewin, K. (1947b). Frontiers in group dynamics: Martin, J. N., & Nakayama, T. K. (2010).
II, channels of group life, social planning and Intercultural communication in contexts (5th ed.).
action research. Human Relations 1(2), Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
179–193. Martin, J. N., Nakayama, T. K., & Carbaugh, D.
Lewin, K. (1948). Resolving social conflict: Selected (2012). The history and development of the study
papers on group dynamics. New York, NY: of intercultural communication and applied
Harper and Brothers. linguistics. In J. Jackson (Ed.), The Routledge
Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science: handbook of language and intercultural
Selected theoretical papers. New York: NY: communication (pp. 17–36). New York, NY:
Harper and Brothers. Routledge.
Liebniz, G. W. (1957). Novissima Sinica [Letters Martin, J. N., Nakayama, T. K., & Carbaugh, D.
from China]. (D. Lach, Trans.). Honolulu, HI: (2020). A global look at the history and
University of Hawaii Press. (Original work development of language and intercultural
published 1697). communication. In J. Jackson (Ed.), The
Lippman, W. (1922). Public opinion. New York, Routledge handbook of language and intercultural
NY: W. W. Norton & Company. communication, (2nd ed.) (online Chap 3).
Locke, J. (1996) An essay concerning human Abingdon, UK: Routledge/Taylor & Francis.
understanding (K. P. Winker, Ed.). Indianapolis, Marx, K. (1843). Zur Kritik der Hegelschen
IN: Hackett Publishing Company. (Original Rechtsphilosophie [Critique of Hegel’s
work published 1690). philosophy of right]. Reprinted in K. M. Guth
Lysgaard, S. (1955). Adjustment in a foreign (Ed.), Berlin, Germany: Hofenberg. (Original
society: Norwegian Fulbright grantees visiting “Einleitung” written in 1843–44).
the United States. International Social Science Marx, K. (1859). Zur Kritik der politischen
Bulletin, 7, 45–51. Ökonomie [A contribution to the critique of
Malinowski, B. (1922). Argonauts of the western political economy]. Berlin, Germany: Franz
pacific: An account of native enterprise and Duncker.
adventure in the Archipelagoes of Melanesian McLuhan, M. & Powers, B. R. (1989). The global
New Guinea. London, UK: Routledge and village: Transformations in world life and media
Kegan Paul. in the 21st century. New York, NY: Oxford
Malinowski, B. (1944). A scientific theory of culture, University Press.
and other essays. Chapel Hill, NC: University of Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self, and society: From
North Carolina Press. the standpoint of a social behaviorist. Chicago,
Mandeville, J. (1684). The voyages and travels of Sir IL: University of Chicago Press.
John Mandeville. London, United Kingdom: Mead, M. (1928). Coming of age in Samoa:
Printed for R. Scot, T. Basset, J. Wright, and A psychological study of primitive youth for
R. Chiswel. (Original work published 1370). Western civilization. New York, NY:
Marcuse, H. (1964). One-dimensional man: Studies Morrow.
in the ideology of advanced industrial society. Mead, M. (1942). And keep your powder dry: An
Boston, MA: Beacon Press. anthropologist looks at America. New York, NY:
Markham, J. W. (1969). International communication Morrow.
as a field of study: Reports and papers from the Mead, M. (1951). The study of national character.
Wingspread Symposium on education and research In D. Lerner & H. D. Lasswell (Eds.), The policy
in international and comparative communication. sciences: Recent developments in scope and
Iowa, IA: City: Publication Department of the method (pp. 70–85). Stanford, CA: Stanford
University of Iowa. University Press.
Martin, J. N., & Nakayama, T. K. (1999). Thinking Mead, M., & Metraux, R. (Eds.). (1953). The study
dialectically about culture and communication. of culture at a distance. Chicago, IL: University
Communication Theory, 9, 1–25. of Chicago Press.

Merton, R. K. (1949). Social theory and social public]. Paris, France / Cambridge, MA: Presses
structure: Toward a codification of theory and Universitaires de France / Polity Press.
research. Glencoe, IL: Free Press. Murdock, G. P. (1938). Outline of cultural materials.
Mikkelson, J. M. (2013). Kant and the concept of race. New Haven, CT: Yale University Institute of
Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Human Relations. (reprint 2004, Human
Milhouse, V. H. (1996). Intercultural Relations Area Files).
communication education and training: Goals, Murdock, G. P. (1975). The outline of world
content, and methods. International Journal of cultures. New Haven, CT: Human Relations
Intercultural Relations, 20, 69–95. Area Files. (Original work published 1954).
Mills, C. W. (1959). The sociological imagination. Murdock, G. P., & Whiting, J. W. M. (1945).
New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Outline of cultural materials. New Haven,
Montagu, A. (1945). Man's most dangerous myth: CT: Yale University Institute of Human
The fallacy of race (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Relations.
Columbia University Press. Nakamura, H. (1964). Ways of thinking of Eastern
Montagu, A. (Ed.). (1964). The concept of race. people: India, China, Tibet, Japan. Honolulu,
New York, NY: MacMillan. HI: East-West Center Press.
Montagu, A. (1972). Statement on race: An Nakayama, T. K., & Halualani, R. T. (Eds.).
annotated elaboration and exposition of the four (2010). The handbook of critical intercultural
statements on race issued by the United Nations. communication. West Sussex/Oxford, UK:
New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Wiley/Blackwell.
Montaigne, M. (1969) Essais [Essays]. (J. Folio, Nam, K.-A. (2012). DAE Exercise. In K. Berardo &
Trans.). Retrieved March 30, 2019 from https:// D. Deardorff (Eds.), Building cultural
scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/xmlui/bitstream/ competence: Innovative activities and models
handle/1794/766/montaigne.pdf?sequence=1 (pp. 53–57). Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing.
(Original work published 1580) Nam, K.-A., Choi, Y., & Lee, M. (2013). Cross-
Montalto, N. (1982). A history of the intercultural cultural training and its implications for HRD.
educational movement, 1924–1941. New York, In R. F. Poell, T. S. Rocco, & G. L. Roth (Eds.),
NY: Garland Publishing, Inc. The Routledge Companion to Human Resource
Montesquieu, C. S. (1748). De l’esprit des lois Development (pp. 582–591). New York, NY:
[The spirit of the laws]. Geneva, Switzerland: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Chez Barrillot & Fills. Nam, K.-A., Choi, Y., & Lee, M. (2014). When
Moon, D. G. (1996). Concept of ‘culture’: “West meets East”: Identifying the gap in
Implications for intercultural communication current cross-cultural training research.
research. Communication Quarterly, 44(1), 70–84. Human Resource Development Review, 13(1)
Moon, D. G. (2010). Critical reflections on culture 36–57.
and critical intercultural communication. In Nam, K.-A., & Condon, J. C. (2010). The DIE is
T. K. Nakayama & R. T. Halualani (Eds.), The cast: The continuing evolution of intercultural
handbook of critical intercultural communication communication’s favorite classroom exercise.
(pp. 34–52). Chichester, West Sussex/Oxford, International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
UK: Wiley-Blackwell. 34(1), 81–87.
More, T. (1909–1914). Libellus vere aureus, nec Navarrette, D. F. d. (1960). Tratados históricos,
minus salutaris quam festivus, de optimo rei políticos, éticos y religiosos de la monarquia de
publicae statu deque nova insula Utopia [Utopia]. China [The travels and controversies of Friar
(R. Robinson, Trans.). New York, NY: P. F. Domingo Navarrete] (Vols. 1–2) (J. S. Cummins,
Collier & Son. (Original work published 1516). Ed. & Trans.) Second series, No. 118. London,
Moscovici, S. (1961). La psychanalyse, son image et UK: Hakluyt Society. (Original work published
son public [Psychoanalysis: Its image and its in Madrid in Spanish 1676).

Nietzsche, F. (1887). On the genealogy of morality Pearce, W. B. (2014). The coordinated management
(M. Clark & A. J. Swensen, Trans.). of meaning (CMM). In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.),
Indianapolis, IN/Cambridge, UK: Hackett. Theorizing about intercultural communication
Oberg, K. (1960). Culture shock. Practical (pp. 35–54). Shanghai, China: Shanghai Foreign
Anthropology, 7, 177–182. Language Education Press. (Original work
Ogay, T., & Edelmann, D. (2016). Taking culture published 2005)
seriously: Implications for intercultural Pearce, W. B., & Wiseman, R. L. (1983). Rules
education and training. European Journal of theories: Varieties, limitations, and potentials.
Teacher Education, 39(3), 388–400. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Intercultural
Oliver, R. T. (1962). Culture and communication: communication theory: Current perspectives
The problem of penetrating national and cultural (pp. 79–88). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
boundaries. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Pedersen, P., Lonner, W., & Draguns, J. (1976).
Oliver, R. T. (1971). Communication and culture in Counseling across cultures. Honolulu, HI:
ancient India and China. New York, NY: University Press of Hawaii.
Syracuse University Press. Pelto, P. (1968). The difference between “tight” and
Olneck, M. (1990). The recurring dream: Symbolism “loose” societies. Transaction, 5, 37–40.
and ideology in intercultural and multicultural Peterson, E. E. (2009). An introduction to
education. American Journal of Education, 98(2). communication and public policy. In E. E.
147–174. www.jstor.org/stable/1085376. Petersen (Ed.), Communication and public policy:
Osgood, C. E. (1964). Semantic differential Proceedings of the 2008 International Colloquium
technique in the comparative study of cultures. on Communication (pp. 1–3). Retrieved from:
American Anthropologist, 66, 171–200. DOI: http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ICC/2008/
10.1525/aa.1964.66.3.02a00880 ICC2008Peterson.pdf
Osgood, C. E., May, W. H., & Miron, M. S. (1975). Pettigrew, T. (1958). Personality and sociocultural
Cross-cultural universals of affective meaning. factors in intergroup attitudes. Journal of
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Conflict Resolution, 2, 29–42.
Pak, Y. K. (2002). “If there is a better intercultural Pettigrew, T. (1978). Three issues in ethnicity. In
plan in any school system in America, I do not J. Yinger & S. Cutler (Eds.), Major social issues.
know where it is”: The San Diego City Schools’ (pp. 25–49). New York, NY: Free Press.
Intercultural Education Program, 1946–1949. Pettigrew, T. (1979). The ultimate attribution error.
Urban Education, 37(5), 588–609. DOI: 10.1177/ Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 5,
0042085902238675 461–476.
Park R. (1916). Suggestions for the investigations of Pettigrew, T. (1982). Cognitive styles and social
human behavior in the urban environment. behavior. In L. Wheeler (Ed.), Review of personality
American Journal of Sociology, 20(5), 577–612. and social psychology (Vol 3, pp. 199–233). Beverly
Park, R. E. (1926). The urban community as a Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
spatial pattern and a moral order. The Urban Pettigrew, T. (1986). The intergroup hypothesis
Community, 2, 3–18. reconsidered. In M. Hewstone & R. Brown
Park, R. E., & Burgess, E. W. (1921). Introduction to (Eds.), Contact and conflict in intergroup
science and sociology. Chicago, IL: University of encounters (pp. 169–195). Oxford, UK:
Chicago Press. Blackwell.
Parsons, T., & Shils, E. A. (Eds.) (1951). Philipsen, G. (1992). Speaking culturally:
Toward a general theory of action. Cambridge, Explorations in social communication. Albany,
MA / New York, NY: Harvard University NY: State University Press of New York.
Press / Harper & Row. Philipsen, G., Coutu, L. M., & Covarrubias, P.
Pascal, B. (1966). Pensées [The meditations]. (A. J. (2014). Speech codes theory: Restatement,
Krailshemer, Trans.). London, UK: Penguin. revisions, and response to criticisms. In W. B.

Gudykunst (Ed.), Theorizing about intercultural Prosser, M. H., & Kulich, S. J. (Eds.). Early
communication (pp. 55–68). Shanghai, China: American pioneers of intercultural
Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. communication [Special issue]. International
(Original work published 2005) Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36(6),
Pike, K. L. (1966). Etic and emic standpoints for the 743–902.
description of behavior. In A. Smith (Ed.), Pusch, M. D. (Ed.). (1979). Multicultural education:
Communication and culture. (pp. 152–63). New A cross cultural training approach. Chicago, IL:
York, NY: Holt, Reinhart, and Winston. Intercultural Network, Inc.
Piller, I. (2017). Intercultural communication: Pusch, M. D. (2004). Intercultural training in
A critical introduction (2nd ed.). Edinburgh, UK: historical perspective. In D. Landis, J. Bennett
Edinburgh University Press. & M. Bennett (Eds.), The handbook of
Plato (1966). Phaedo [Phaedo]. Cambridge, MA: intercultural training (3rd ed., pp. 13–36).
Harvard University Press & William Heinemann Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Ltd. (Original work published 1925) Renwick, G. W. (1994). A longitudinal analysis and
Porter, R. E., & Samovar, L. A. (1973). Intercultural assessment of intercultural education, training,
communication: A reader. Belmont, CA: and research, 1932–1984. [Unpublished doctoral
Wadsworth. dissertation]. The Graduate School of Public and
Powdermaker, H. F. (1944). Probing our prejudices: International Affairs, University of Pittsburgh.
A unit for high school students [BIE Vol. 2, Rich, A. (1974). Interracial communication.
Problems of race and culture in American New York, NY: Harper & Row.
schools]. New York, NY: Harper. Rogers, E. M. (1962). Diffusion of innovations.
Pribham, K. (1949). Conflicting patterns of thought. New York, NY: Free Press.
Washington, DC: Public Affairs Press. Rogers, E. M. (1999). Georg Simmel’s concept of
Prosser, M. H. (1973a). Intercommunication among the stranger and intercultural communication
nations and peoples. New York, NY: Harper & research. Communication Theory, 9(1), 58–74.
Row. Rogers, E. M., Hart, W. B., & Miike, Y. (2002).
Prosser, M. H. (Ed.). (1973b, 1974). Prosser, M. H. Edward T. Hall and the history of intercultural
(Ed.). (1973b, 1974). Intercultural communication: The United States and Japan.
communication and social change [Syllabus]. Keio Communication Review, 24, 3–26.
Charlottesville, VA: Department of Speech Rogers, E. M., & Steinfatt (1999). Georg Simmel’s
Communication, University of Virginia. concept of the stranger and intercultural
Prosser, M. H. (Ed.). (1977). USIA Intercultural communication research. Communication
Communications course proceedings. Washington, Theory, 9(1), 58–74.
DC: International Communication Agency/ Rohmer, R. P. (1984). Toward a conception of
SIETAR. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED163545 culture for cross-cultural psychology. Journal of
Prosser, M. H. (1978a). Intercultural Cross-Cultural Psychology, 15(2), 111–138.
communication theory and research: An Rokeach, M. (1960). The open and closed mind:
overview of major constructs. In B. D. Ruben Investigations into the nature of belief systems
(Ed.), Communication yearbook 2 (pp. 335–343). and personality systems. New York, NY: Basic
New Brunswick, NJ: ICA-Transaction Books. Books.
Prosser, M. (1978b). The cultural dialogue: Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values.
An introduction to intercultural communication. New York, NY: Free Press.
Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin. Rousseau, J. J. (1755). Discours sur l’origine et les
Prosser, M. H. (2012). K. S. Sitaram, an early fondements de l’inégalité parmi les hommes
interculturalist: Founding the field May 6, 1970. [Discourse on the origin and basis of inequality
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, among men]. Amsterdam, The Netherlands:
36(6), 857–868. Marc-Michel Rey.

Rousseau, J. J. (1762). Du contrat social [The social Selig, D. (2008). Americans all: The cultural gifts
contract]. Paris, France: Marc-Michel Rey. movement. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Ruben, B. D. (1983). A system-theoretic view. Press.
In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Intercultural Selmer, J. (2005). Western business managers
communication theory: Current perspectives in China: Adjusting to the most foreign of all
(pp. 131–145). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage foreign places. In H. Scullion & M. Linehan
Publications. (Eds.), International human resource
Rummel, R. J. (1966). Some dimensions in the management: A critical text (pp. 68–84).
foreign behavior of nations. Journal of Peace London, UK: Palgrave/Macmillan.
Research, 3, 201–223. Shuter, R. (2011). Robert T. Oliver: Trailblazer in
Samovar, L. A., & Porter R. E. (Eds.). intercultural communication. China Media
(1973). Intercultural communication: A reader. Research, 7(2), 121–126.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Sieyès, A., Lafayette., M., & Jefferson, T. (1789).
Sapir, E. (1921). Language: An introduction to the Déclaration des droits de l’homme et du
study of speech. New York, NY: Harcourt, citoyen [Declaration of the rights of man and
Brace, and Co. of the citizen]. In Conseil Constitutionnel.
Sapir, E. (1949). Culture, language, personality: Retrieved from www.conseil-constitutionnel.
Selected essays. Berkeley, CA: University of fr/sites/default/files/as/root/bank_mm/anglais/
California Press. cst2.pdf.
Saral, T. B. (1977). Intercultural communication Simmel, G. (1900). Philosophie des Geldes
theory and research: An overview. In B. D. [Philosophy of money]. Leipzig, Germany:
Ruben (Ed.), Communication yearbook 1 Duncker & Humblot.
(pp. 389–396). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. Simmel, G. (1908). Soziologie: Untersuchungen über
Saral, T. B. (1979). Intercultural communication die formen der vergesellschaftung [Sociology:
theory and research: An overview of challenges Studies in the forms of societalization]. Leipzig,
and opportunities. In D. Nimmo (Ed.), Germany: Duncker and Humblot.
Communication yearbook 3 (pp. 395–406). Simmel, G. (1921) The social significance of the
New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. “stranger.” In R. E. Park & E. W. Burgess
Schramm, W. L. (1997). The beginnings of (Eds.), Introduction to the science of sociology
communication study in America: A memoir. (pp. 322–327). Chicago, IL: University of
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Chicago Press.
Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content Simmel, G. (1955). Conflict and the web of group
and structure of values: Theoretical advances affiliations. (K. Wolff, Trans. and Ed.). Glencoe,
and empirical tests in 20 countries. In M. P. IL: Free Press. (Original work published 1922)
Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social Simmel, G. (1950). The stranger. In K. Wolff
psychology, (Vol. 25, pp. 1–65). San Deigo, CA/ (Trans. & Ed.), The sociology of Georg Simmel.
New York, NY: Academic Press. New York, NY: Free Press. (Original work
Scollon, R., Scollon, S. W., & Jones, R. H. (2012). published 1908).
Intercultural communication: A discourse Smith, A. G. (1966). Culture and communication.
approach (3rd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex, New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
UK: Wiley-Blackwell. Smith, A. G. (1977). Research and theory in
Seelye, H. N., & Tyler, L. (1977). Intercultural intercultural communication. In D. S. Hoopes,
communicator resources. Provo, UT: P. B. Pedersen, & G. W. Renwick (Eds.).
Brigham Young University Language and Overview of intercultural education, training, and
Intercultural Research Center/Bilingual research, Vol I: Theory (pp. 3–9).
Education. Department, Illinois Office of Smith, A. H. (1890). Chinese characteristics.
Education. Shanghai, China: Fleming H. Revell Company.

Smith, A. L. [a.k.a. Asante, M. K.] (1973). Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (1996). Intergroup
Transracial communication. Englewood Cliffs, relations. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
NJ: Prentice-Hall. Stewart, E. C. (1978). Outline of intercultural
Smith, H. L. Jr. (1946). Language training for the communication. In F. L. Casmir (Ed.),
Foreign Service and the Department of State. Intercultural and international communication
American Foreign Service Journal 23, 11–13, (pp. 265–344). Washington DC: University Press
43–44, 47. of America. (Original work published 1973,
Smith, W. D. (2019). Volkgeist: Bibliography. circulated at the 1974 Chicago SCA/ICA/
Science Encyclopedia – Jrank Articles. Retrieved SIETAR International Conference, and
April 11, 2019 from https://science.jrank.org/ published in Casmir, 1974, and again in 1978)
pages/8147/Volksgeist.html Stonequist, E. V. (1929). The marginal man.
Sorrells, K. (1998): Gifts of wisdom: An interview Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
with Dr. Edward T. Hall (On the past and future Storti, C., & Bennhold-Samaan, L. (1998). Culture
of intercultural relations study). The Edge: The matters: The peace corps cross-cultural
E-Journal of Intercultural Relations 1(3), 1–12. workbook. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
http://interculturalrelations.com/ Printing Office.
v1i3Summer1998/sum98sorellshall.htm#santafe Storti, C., & Bennhold-Samaan, L. (1999). Culture
Sorrells, K. (2012). Intercultural training in the matters: Trainer’s guide. Washington, DC: Peace
global context. In J. Jackson (Ed.), Routledge Corps.
handbook of language and intercultural Stouffer, S. A., Suchman, E. A., DeVinney, L. C.,
communication Star, S. A., & Williams Jr., R. M. (1949). The
(pp. 372–389). New York, NY: Routledge. American soldier: Adjustment during army life.
Sorrells, K. (2013). Intercultural communication: (Studies in social psychology in World War II,
Globalization and social justice. Thousand Oaks, Vol. 1). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
CA: Sage Publications. Sui, P. C. P. (1952). The sojourner. American
Spencer-Oatey, H. (2000). Introduction. Journal of Sociology, 58(1), 34–44.
In H. Spencer-Oatey (Ed.), Culturally speaking: Sumner, W. G. (1940). Folkways: A study of the
Managing rapport through talk across cultures sociological importance of usages, manners,
(pp. 1–8). London, England: Continuum. customs, mores, and morals. New York, NY:
Spencer-Oatey, H., & Franklin, P. (2009). Ginn. (Original work published 1906)
Intercultural interaction: A multidisciplinary Swift, J. (1726). Gulliver’s travels. London, UK:
approach to intercultural communication. Benjamin Motte.
Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Szkudlarek, B. (2009). Through Western eyes:
Spinoza, B. (1677). Ethica [Ethics]. Quinque Partes Insights into the intercultural training field.
Diflincta: Quibus Agitur. Organization Studies, 30(9), 975–986.
Starosta, W. J. (2011). Sojourning through Szkudlarek, B., & Romani, L. (2017, July). From an
intercultural communication: A retrospective. imperialist to a responsible agenda: Going
China Media Research, 7(2), 1–5. beyond the limitations of cross-cultural training
Stephan, W., & Rosenfield, D. (1982). Racial and models. Paper presented at the 59th Annual
ethnic stereotyping. In A. Millar (Ed.), In the eye Meeting of the Academy of International
of the beholder. New York, NY: Prager. Business AIB, Dubai, United Arab Emirates.
Stephan, W., & Stephan, C. (1985). Intergroup Taba, H. (1953). Research oriented programs in
anxiety. Journal of Social Issues, 41,157–166. intergroup education in schools and colleges.
Stephan, W., & Stephan, C. (1992). Reducing Review of Educational Research, 23(4), 362–371.
intergroup anxiety though intercultural contact. Taba, H., & Van Til, W. (Eds.). (1945). Democratic
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, human relations: Promising practices in
20, 409–426. intergroup and intercultural education in the

social studies (16th yearbook). Washington, DC: Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and
National Council for the Social Studies. collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
The Committee on the University and World Triandis, H. C. (2008). An autobiography: Why did
Affairs, & Morrill, J. L. (Chairman). (1960). culture shape my career? In R. Levine, A.
The university and world affairs. New York, NY: Rodrigues, & L. Zelezny (Eds.) Journeys in
The Ford Foundation. social psychology: Looking back to inspire the
Thomas, W. I., & Znaniecki, F. (1918–1920). The future (pp. 145–164). New York, NY:
Polish peasant in Europe and America: Psychology Press.
Monograph of an Immigrant Group (5 volumes). Triandis, H. C., & Berry, J. W. (Eds.). (1979).
Boston, MA: Richard G. Baxter/Gorham Handbook of cross-cultural psychology:
Press. Methodology (Vol. 2). Boston, MA: Allyn &
Ting-Toomey, S. (1988). Intercultural conflict styles: Bacon.
A face-negotiation theory. In Y. Y. Kim & W. B. Triandis, H. C., Berry, J. W., Brislin, R. W.,
Gudykunst (Eds.), Theories in intercultural Draguns, J. D., Heron, A., & Lonner, W. J.
communication (pp. 213–235). Newbury Park, (Eds.). (1979–1981). Handbook of cross-cultural
CA: Sage Publications. psychology (Vols. 1–6). Rockleigh, NJ: Allyn &
Ting-Toomey, S. (2014a). Identity negotiation Bacon.
theory: Crossing cultural boundaries. In W. B. Triandis, H. C., & Brislin, R. W. (1980). Handbook
Gudykunst (Ed.), Theorizing about intercultural of cross-cultural psychology: Social psychology
communication (pp. 211–234). Shanghai, China: (Vol. 5). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. Triandis, H. C., & Draguns, J. G. (Eds.). (1981).
(Original work published 2005) Handbook of cross-cultural psychology:
Ting-Toomey, S. (2014b). The matrix of face: An Psychopathy (Vol. 6). Boston, MA: Allyn &
updated face-negotiation theory. In W. B. Bacon.
Gudykunst (Ed.). Theorizing about intercultural Triandis, H. C., & Heron, A. (Eds.). (1980).
communication (pp. 71–92). Shanghai, China: Handbook of cross-cultural psychology:
Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. Developmental psychology (Vol. 4). Boston, MA:
(Original work published 2005) Allyn & Bacon.
Ting-Toomey, S., & Dorjee, T. (2019). Triandis, H. C., & Lambert, W. W. (Eds.). (1979).
Communicating across cultures (2nd ed.). Handbook of cross-cultural psychology:
New York, NY: Guilford Press. Perspectives (Vol. 1). Boston, MA: Allyn &
Tönnies, F. (1957). Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft Bacon.
[Community and society] (C. P. Loomis, Trans. Triandis, H. C., & Lonner, W. W. (Eds.). (1980).
& Ed.). East Lansing, MI: Michigan State Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Basic
University Press. (Original work published 1887, processes (Vol. 3). Boston, MA: Allyn &
Leipzig, Germany) Bacon.
Trager, G. L. (1958). Paralinguistics: A first Triandis, H. C., Vassiliou, V., Vassiliou, G.,
approximation. Studies in Linguistics, 13, 1–12. Tanaka, Y., & Sanmugam, A. V. (1972). The
Triandis, H. C. (1964). Cultural influences upon analysis of subjective culture. New York, NY:
cognitive processes. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Wiley.
Advances in experimental social psychology Truman, H. S. (1948). Executive order 9981.
(pp. 1–48). New York, NY: Academic Press. Independence, MO: Harry S. Truman
Triandis, H. C. (Ed). (1968). Cross-cultural social Presidential Library and Museum.
psychology newsletter. Champaign-Urbana, IL: Tylor, E. B. (1871). Primitive culture (Vols. 1–2).
University of Illinois. London, England: John Murray.
Triandis, H. C., et al. (1972). Analysis of subjective Tzeng, C. S., Landis, D., & Tzeng, D. Y. (2012).
culture. New York, NY: Wiley. Charles E. Osgood’s continuing contributions to

intercultural communication and far beyond! Wasilewski, J. [with Renwick, G. W.] (1999,
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, October). Then and now: Catching up with
36(6), 832–842. ourselves/The picture without boundaries.
University of Birmingham: Centre for SIETAR (25th Anniversary ed.). SIETAR
Contemporary Studies. (1992). The empire International Communiqué, XXX (2), 4–8.
strikes back: Race and racism in 70s Britain. Weaver, G. R., (Ed.) (2001). Culture,
London, UK: Routledge. communication, and conflict: Readings in
Useem, J., Useem, R. H., & Donoghue, J. intercultural relations, (3rd ed.). Boston, MA:
D. (1963). Men in the middle of the third- Pearson Custom Publishing.
culture: The role of American and non-Western Weaver, G. R. (2014). The evolution of international
people in cross-cultural administration. Human communication as a field of study: A personal
Organization, 22(3), 169–179. reflection. In M. K. Asante, Y. Miike & J. Yin
Vickery, W. E., & Cole, S. G. (1943). Intercultural (Eds.), The global intercultural communication
education in American schools: Proposed reader, (2nd ed., pp. 35–47). New York, NY:
objectives and methods [BIE Vol. 1, Problems of Routledge.
race and culture in American schools.] New Weber, M. (1976). The Protestant ethic and spirit of
York, NY: Harper. capitalism. London, UK: George Allen &
Vickery, W. E., & Cole, S. G. (Eds.). (1943–1954). Unwin. (Original work published 1904–1905,
Problems of race and culture in American first English ed. in 1949).
schools (Bureau of Intercultural Education Weber, M. (1978). Wirtschaft und gesellschaft:
Series, Vols. 1–10). New York, NY: Classes, stände, partie [Economics and society,
Harper. “Class, status, party”]. (G. Ruth & C. Wittich,
Voltaire. (1756). Essai sur les mœurs et l’esprit Trans.). Oakland, CA: University of California
des nations [Essay on the manners and Press. (Original work published 1922).
spirit of nations]. Paris, France: Treuttel Weeks, W. H. (1968). A manual of structured
et Würtz. experiences for cross-cultural learning. Chicago,
Vygotsky, L. S. (1934). Myshlenie i rech’. [Thinking IL: Intercultural Network.
and speech]. Moscow, Russia: Gosudarstvennoe Weeks, W. H., Pedersen, P. B., & Brislin, R. W.
Sotsial’no-Ekonomicheskoe Izdatel’stvo. (Eds.). (1977). A manual of structured
Walford, D. (Ed.). (1977). Antony Ashley Cooper, experiences for cross-cultural learning.
third earl of Shaftesbury: An inquiry concerning Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
virtue, or merit. Manchester, UK: Manchester Wells, H. B. (1970). International education: The
University Press. (Original work published by present decade. VIDYA, Journal of the Regional
Cooper, A. A., in 1699). Council for International Education, 15.
Wan, C. (2015). Understanding cultural Whiting, J. W. M., & Whiting, B. B. (1975). Children
identification through intersubjective cultural of six cultures: A psychocultural analysis.
representation. Journal of Cross-Cultural Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Psychology, 46, 1267–1272. Whorf, B. L. (1956). Language, thought and reality.
Wang, Y. A., & Kulich, S. J. (2015). Does Cambridge, MA: Technology Press of
context count? Developing and accessing Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
intercultural competence through an interview- Wight, A. (2008, October). Where SIETAR began.
and model-based domestic course design in In 2008 Global SIETAR conference, Grenada,
China. (Deardorff & Asaratnam, Eds., Special Spain. Retrieved from: www.sietar-italia.org/
issue on intercultural communication cosa-e-sietar.
competence). International Journal of Wight, A. R., & Hammons, M. A. (1970a).
Intercultural Relations, 48(5), 38–57. Guidelines for Peace Corps cross-cultural
doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2015.03.013 training: Philosophy and methodology (Part I).

Washington, DC: Office of Training Support, Wiseman, R. L. (Ed.). (1995). Intercultural

Peace Corps; and Estes Park, CO: The Center communication theory. International and
for Research and Education. intercultural communication annual, Vol. XIX.
Wight, A. R., & Hammons, M. A. (1970b). Thousand Oaks, CA: SCA/Sage.
Guidelines for Peace Corps cross-cultural Wundt, W. (1911–1920). Völkerpsychologie: eine
training: Specific methods and techniques Untersuchung der entwicklunsgesetze von sprachen,
(Part II). Washington, DC: Office of Training mythus und sitte. [People-groups psychology: An
Support, Peace Corps, and Estes Park, CO: The examination of the development of languages,
Center for Research and Education. myths, and customs]. Leipzig, Germany:
Wight, A. R., Hammons, M. A., & Bing, J. (1969). Kröner.
A draft handbook for cross-cultural and Wundt, W. (1916). Elements of folk psychology.
community involvement training. Estes Park, CO: London, UK: Allen & Unwin. (English
Peace Corps Center for Research and Education. translation of the earliest volumes 1911–1920)
Wight, A. R., Hammons, M. A., & Wight, W. Yum, J. O. (1988). Network theory in intercultural
(1970). Guidelines for Peace Corps cross-cultural communication. In Y. Y. Kim & W. B.
training. Estes Park, CO: Center for Research Gudykunst (Eds.), Theories in intercultural
and Education. communication (pp. 239–258). Newbury Park,
Williams, R. (1958). Culture and society. London, CA: Sage.
UK: Chatto and Windus. Zhang, H. L., & Kulich, S. J. (2012). The
Williams, R. (1961). The long revolution. London, quintessential intercultural learner, teacher, and
UK: Penguin. trainer: A preliminary profile of L. Robert
Williams, R. (1983). Keywords: A vocabulary of Kohls. International Journal of Intercultural
culture and society (Rev. ed.). Oxford, UK: Relations, 36(6), 823–831. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel
Oxford University Press. .2012.08.010

4 Culture Theories and Intercultural
Training
Dharm P. S. Bhawuk
The search for universal theories to predict and Multilevel Framework of Pattern
explain human behavior has led anthropolo- Variables
gists, cultural and cross-cultural psychologists,
The first effort at developing a comprehensive
and other social scientists to propose culture
theory to predict and explain human behavior
theories that could apply across geographic
was led by Parsons and Shils (1951) who
regions. In this chapter, the evolution of such
brought together a team of interdisciplinary
culture theories is traced and their implications
scholars including Tolman, Allport, Kluc-
for intercultural training is discussed. In what
khohn, Murray, Sears, Sheldon, and Stouffer,
follows the multilevel framework of pattern
comprising four psychologists, three sociolo-
variables presented by Parsons and Shils
gists, and two anthropologists. They presented
(1951), the five universal human value orienta-
a theoretical framework that could help
tions identified by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck
explain human behavior, what they called a
(1961), values associated with time and space
general theory of action, perhaps inspired by
(Hall, 1959, 1966), tightness and looseness
the general theory of relativity that was in the
(Gelfand et al., 2011; Pelto, 1968), a frame-
zeitgeist following Einstein’s groundbreaking
work for traditional, modern, and postmodern
discovery in physics. According to these
values (Inglehart, 1997; Inkles, 1969), value-
scholars, an actor in a situation faces a series
based cultural dimensions (Bond, 2010; Hof-
of dilemmas of orientation. Only after the
stede, 1980, 2001; House, Hanges, Javidan,
actor makes the series of choices can he or
Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004; Minkov, 2012; Min-
she make sense of the situation, or derive a
kov, Blagoev, & Hofstede, 2013; Minkov &
definite meaning from the situation. The
Hofstede, 2013; Rokeach, 1973), a universal
objects of the situation do not interact with
framework of values (Schwartz, 1992, 2012a,
the actor to automatically determine the mean-
2012b, 2012c), complexity (Murdock &
ing of the situation. The actor has free will in
Provost, 1973; Triandis, 1990), social
selecting from the available choices. The actor
exchange patterns identified by Fiske (1992),
must make five dichotomous choices to make
and social axioms presented by Leung and
sense of the situation. They called these five
Bond (2009). This is followed by a discussion
dichotomies pattern variables, namely, affect-
of individualism and collectivism, which has
ive versus affective neutrality, self-orientation
been applied to intercultural training much
versus collectivity-orientation, universalism
more than the other cultural theories. The
versus particularism, ascription versus achieve-
chapter is concluded with a discussion of the
ment, and specificity versus diffuseness.
implications of cultural theories for intercul-
Pattern variable scheme constituted a
tural training.

Culture Theories and Intercultural Training 165
classificatory system or a typology. Any three levels, individual, group, and society,
action, according to their theory of action, making this theory one of the earliest multi-
would be a consequent of a pattern of the five level model. At the personality level they are
choices made by using these dichotomies. habits of choice a person usually makes, and
The five patterns were not ordered in a fixed are the actor’s value-orientation standards. At
sequence. The actor could start or end with the group level these variables deal with
any one of them, though all five would need aspects of role definition. And, finally, at the
to be exhausted to come to a definite course of culture level, these variables represent value
action in a given situation. For example, the standards, which provide rules or norms for
actor could first start by deciding whether to actions. People in a culture follow these rules,
go for immediate gratification or to evaluate and have commitment to these standards. In
and delay it. Second, he or she must decide fact they are so committed that they happily
whether the moral standards of the society or transmit them to the next generation. Individ-
culture (or subsystem or subculture) should be ual value orientation is this commitment to
given primacy in the evaluative procedure. behave in a culturally prescribed way. The
Third, the actor has to decide whether cogni- pattern variables were identified as five bipolar
tive or appreciative standards should be used cultural typologies that captured cultural
in the evaluation process. If cognitive stand- differences.
ards are used, the actor would cast the objects An illustration would help. When a doctor
in relation to some generalized frame of refer- examines an unacquainted child, he or she uses
ence, whereas if appreciative standards are universalistic medical science principles to
used, the actor would examine the objects in treat the symptoms. His or her behavior is also
terms of his or her personal motives. Fourth, guided by universal professional practices that
the actor can decide whether to examine social call for maintaining privacy, respecting the
objects as quality complexes or performance patient, and so forth. The doctor is not emo-
complexes. Finally, the actor examines the tionally attached to the patient (or chooses
scope of significance of the social object, either affective neutrality), and is guided by imper-
as functionally diffuse or functionally specific. sonal professional conduct. The doctor treats
If the actor considers the social object func- the patient for the symptom (specificity), and is
tionally diffuse, he or she views it from a more not concerned about other aspects of the
general perspective, whereas if he or she con- child’s life. The doctor will employ self-
siders the social object functionally specific, he orientation and is likely to look at the child’s
or she views it from a specific perspective. It is social condition (ascription) in providing
plausible that only a few of these five are util- instructions about medication and other cares.
ized in some situations because the individual Thus, we can see that each of the five pattern
considers others less important or critical. It is variables play some role in shaping the behav-
also plausible that a person gives priority to ior of the doctor in examining the patient.
one of the five pattern variables so much that Compared to the doctor, the mother of the
he or she neglects one or all of the others. child would be guided by the pattern variables
When an actor makes these five choices, he differently. Her behavior would be character-
or she has a specific orientation for action. ized by particularism (she knows the specific
These variables enter at the concrete level as habits and idiosyncrasies of this child), affect-
the five discrete choices one must make before ive (she is emotionally attached to the child),
taking any action. The five patterns work at all collectivity-orientation (as the child is part of

166 dharm p. s. bhawuk
her in-group), ascription (whether the child is between action and object is narrow and
youngest or oldest and so forth may also factor limited are called specific cultures, and those
in how she treats him or her), and diffuseness cultures where this relationship can be indirect
(she interacts with the child not only with his or broad are called diffuse cultures. In specific
or her illness in mind but other aspects of his or cultures, compared to diffuse cultures, the
her life, for example, studies, food, play, and scope of interest in the other person or obliga-
so forth). Again, all five pattern variable are tion toward the other person is narrow,
relevant but their importance will be different not broad.
for any mother–child pair. For the doctor– These five cultural value dimensions were
child patient pair the importance of the five employed by Trompenaars (1985, 1993), who
pattern variables may be the same across also adopted two of the five dimensions from
doctors and patients with universalism, Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) – relation-
affective neutrality, specificity, individual- ship of human being with nature (humans
orientation, and ascription. Across cultures accept subjugation to nature, live in harmony
there will be variation in how these pattern with nature, or attempt mastery over nature)
variables are used. In collectivist cultures, and time orientation (people in different cul-
people may go to doctors they know person- tures focus on past, present, or future). He
ally or are related to and the doctors may pay found (Trompenaars, 1985) that people in
more attention to the social status (ascription) the United States, Netherlands, Sweden, Aus-
of the mother and child. tria, and Greece emphasized universalism,
Cultures where standards allow people individual-orientation, affective neutrality,
immediate gratification are called affective cul- specificity, achievement, future-orientedness,
tures, whereas cultures where standards are and subjugation of nature, whereas people in
such that people refrain from immediate grat- Venezuela, Spain, Italy, and Singapore
ification are called affective neutral cultures. In emphasized particularism, collective-
some cultures people pursue their individual orientation, being affective, diffuseness,
interests and do their own things whereas in ascription, past-orientedness, and harmony
other cultures people worry about the impact with nature. This provided some support that
of their actions on other people. In the first there are differences across cultures in
culture people are said to have a self- employing the five pattern variables presented
orientation, whereas in the second culture by Parsons and Shils (1951), and two of the
people are said to have collective orientation. five dimensions presented by Kluckhohn and
In some cultures a broad set of rules guide the Strodtbeck (1961).
activities of people, and this culture is labeled In a follow-up study using a large sample
universalistic, whereas in some other cultures (n=15,000) from forty-seven countries, Trom-
people decide what they will do based on the penaars (1993) found the six scales, except
situation they are in and the person they are Time Orientation, to have significant intercor-
interacting with, and this pattern is called par- relations. When Hofstede (1996) analyzed the
ticularistic orientation. When the attributes data independently, he found four instead of
possessed by people are important in cultures, seven factors – individualism and achievement
they are called ascriptive cultures, whereas loaded on the first factor, whereas universal-
when actions and performance of people are ism and diffuseness loaded on the second
important, they are called achievement cul- factor. The third factor pertained to organiza-
tures. Finally, cultures where the relationship tional issues, and the fourth one dealt with

subjugation of nature. He questioned the stat- sojourners, in combination with emotional

istical independence of the five pattern vari- intelligence or by themselves.
ables, suggesting that the five pattern
variables may be correlated.
Five Universal Human Value
The pattern variable, affective versus affect-
Orientations
ive neutrality, has reemerged with the growth
of research on emotional intelligence (Côté, & An ethnographic comparative studies of value
Miners, 2006; Goleman, 1995; Mayer & Salo- orientations in five subcultures in the United
vey, 1993; Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 2016; States – a Texan homestead community, a
Megías, Gómez-Leal, Gutiérrez-Cobo, Cabello, Mormon village, a Spanish American village,
& Fernández-Berrocal, 2018; Miao, Humphrey, a decentralized Navaho Indian band, and a
Qian, & Pollack, 2019; Sánchez-Álvarez, Extre- highly centralized pueblo of Zuni – gave a
mera, & Fernández-Berrocal, 2016; Salovey, & five-part typology of universal human value
Mayer, 1990). Whereas Parsons and Shils orientations (Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961).
(1951) posited that in any given situation First, innate human nature is mutable or
people either choose to invest their emotion immutable, and it can be evil, neutral, or good.
or try to be neutral affectively in choosing a Second, the relationship between humans and
course of action, the researchers in emotional nature reflects that humans would be subju-
intelligence posit that there are competencies gated to nature, would live in harmony with
associated with how people employ emotion in nature, or attempt mastery over nature. Dif-
making decisions. According to Mayer and ferent cultures have adopted one or the other
Salovey (1993), perceiving emotions, facilitat- of these perspectives. In general, people in the
ing thought, understanding emotions, and traditional society, particularly the traditional
managing or regulating emotions are the four agricultural society, feel dominated by nature.
skills that are needed to effectively employ They are quite dependent on weather and,
one’s emotional strength in choosing a course therefore, their subjugation to nature is under-
of action in a given situation effectively. standable. In hunting and gathering cultures
According to Goleman (1995), there are four there is a tendency to develop a relationship of
areas of emotional competencies that are harmony with nature. In modern industrial-
related to self-awareness, social awareness, ized societies one finds a mastery over nature
self-management, and relationship manage- orientation. However, as pollution, high levels
ment. According to (Bar-On, 1996), competen- of carbon dioxide, and cancer caused by chem-
cies are associated with how one addresses icals become significant issues in a society, a
issues pertaining to interpersonal, adaptability, return to a harmony with nature perspective is
stress management, and general mood. found among significant portions of the popu-
Parsons and Shils (1951) focused on the use lation of economically developed countries
emotion in a given situation in arriving at a (e.g., the Green parties in Europe, especially
course of action, whereas the current research in Germany).
posits emotional intelligence as a trait, much Third, people in different cultures may focus
like what others have called social intelligence on past, present, or future. Of course, in all
(Thorndyke, 1911; Gardner, 1983). These five cultures people deal with these three categories
pattern variables have not been widely used in of time, but in some cultures they emphasize
intercultural communication and training, and one more than the other, that is, the rank order
they can be valuable in preparing all of preference for these three types of time is

different from one culture to another. People characterized by individual autonomy,

in some cultures, for example, China and whereas collaterality is characterized by strong
India, emphasize the past, and try to maintain relationship between members of extended
the cultural traditions. People in some cultures family members. Lineality refers to emphasis
(e.g., Spanish Americans) emphasize the pre- on biological and cultural relationship among
sent, which is reflected in their attaching value people over time. Collaterality and lineality
to what one has achieved rather than what one are types of collectivism, which contrasts with
has inherited. In these cultures, one’s lineage is individualism in that individualistic principles
not important, but one’s personal achieve- lead people to give primacy to individual goals
ments are. Lastly, in some cultures people look over the goals of collateral or lineal groups.
to the future more than the present and past, Though group goals are pursued in both the
and are never content with the present, for cultures where collaterality and lineality are
example, people in the United States. How- dominant, in cultures where lineality is domin-
ever, this typology cannot fully explain the ant hereditary factors are emphasized. The
time orientation of people in all cultures. For patterns of these five value orientations vary
example, in the Hopi Indian language there from culture to culture, and are considered
are no tenses to indicate past, present, or universals. These five universal value orienta-
future, and this typology, therefore, cannot tions have been widely used in intercultural
help explain the Hopi cultural orientation to communication and training, and they are still
time, and thus may be rather limiting in certain valuable in preparing all sojourners.
situations.
Fourth, people have different orientations
Values Associated with Time
to activities, and may emphasize doing, being
and Space
(i.e., the experience), or becoming (i.e., grow-
ing, changing). In some cultures, such as In intercultural interactions the most critical
Mexico, people are spontaneous, and their value orientations are those that deal with
orientation to activities is called being. The space and time (Hall, 1959, 1966), which could
fiesta activities exemplify this. In some cultures be examined at three levels – formal, informal,
people are involved in activities that are goal and technical. The formal level refers to behav-
driven, and focus on individual development. iors or values that everyone knows about and
This orientation is called being-in-becoming. takes for granted. For example, formal time in
The third type of activity orientation is dis- the United States would refer to everyone
tinctly American in that it focuses on activities knowing that meetings start on time, buses
that result in accomplishments that can be run on time, people get upset if appointments
externally evaluated. This orientation is called are not kept, and so forth. These aspects of
doing. This orientation is characterized by time are taken for granted in daily life. Infor-
values like “focus on getting things done,” mal time refers to rather vague or imprecise
“focus on doing something about a problem,” references that vary from situation to situ-
or “a bias for action.” ation. Some examples of informal time would
And finally, social relationships may be be “a while,” “in a minute,” “later,” and so
lineal (i.e., people do what authorities say), forth. Technical time refers to how scientists
collateral (i.e., people do what peers say), or and engineers define and use time, and is likely
individualistic (i.e., people do what they to be unknown to a layperson. Hall discussed
themselves think is right). Individualism is in detail how time and space could be studied

at these three levels, and gave many cross- rules is also associated with strong emotional
cultural examples to illustrate how they could reactions. The technical aspects of a culture
be used to analyze and study culture. He are usually associated with codified rules and
argued that these three aspects are generaliz- law because of their explicitness. When one
able to all aspects of culture, and are present in observes cultural changes, technical changes
all situations, but only one of them dominates, are the ones that are most visible, and are often
or is salient, at any instant in time. counter to the older formal norms, eventually
The adult members teach formal aspects of becoming the basis of a new formal system.
a culture to the younger members. When a They are also the easiest to effect change in
young member makes a mistake, he or she is from the outside, by an outsider, because of
promptly reminded that the behavior is their technical and rational nature. Formal
inappropriate, and is asked to change the elements of a culture are the most difficult to
behavior. Formal aspects of a culture are char- change, and evolve slowly over the years,
acterized by right or wrong, without scope for almost imperceptibly.
any gray area. By contrast, members learn the People from different cultures not only
informal aspects of a culture by modeling the speak different languages but also create dif-
behaviors of other adults. Therefore, informal ferent environments around themselves, and
aspects of a culture are by nature implicit, have different value orientations on social
flexible, and with some variation across differ- and personal space. Intimate distance refers
ent people in a culture. Technical aspects of a to the situations when sight, sound, smell,
culture are those that are transmitted either and so on signal that another person is in close
orally or in writing, from the teacher to the proximity. When one is comforting another
student. Technical aspects of a culture, there- person, making love, or wrestling, the distance
fore, are explicit, often associated with cohort between them is categorized as intimate. Per-
teaching (e.g., one teacher can give lessons to a sonal distance refers to the distance that separ-
large number of people at the same time), and ates people from each other in daily
could even be taught from a distance. The interactions. It is a distance at which a person
written religious texts (e.g., the Bible) would can lay his or her hands on the other person,
be an example of the technical aspects of a which is about one and one half to four feet. In
religion, and it can be easily seen how a text terms of relationships, a spouse can stay within
like the Bible was used to proselytize people the personal distance, but another person in
who lived very far from Rome. this zone would make the person uncomfort-
Formal behaviors make up the core of a able. Social distance refers to the situation
culture, which is surrounded by informal when people do not expect to touch each
behaviors that are adaptations of the formal other, and are far enough, which is about four
behaviors, and the technical aspects provide to seven feet. Finally, public distance refers to
the structural support for the core formal a distance of twelve or more feet between
behaviors. Deep emotions are associated with people.
the violation of the formal aspects of a culture, There are significant differences in how
whereas milder affect is associated with the people use space among the American,
violation of the informal aspects of a culture. French, German, Japanese, and Arab cultures.
The technical aspects of culture can be dis- For example, the Arabs use olfaction and
cussed and explained, and are proposed to be touch more than Americans. Cultural differ-
affect free; however, the violation of technical ences in privacy, face-to-face communication,

crowding behavior, eye contact, and many order for people to have fewer conflicts with
other social behaviors are guided by value each other and, thus, dense populations
orientation toward space, and are captured become tight.
by the cultural typology of contact versus no- Cultural heterogeneity, activity independ-
contact cultures. Contact cultures are those in ence, and low population density are the ante-
which people use much touching, small cedents of looseness. When people are exposed
distances between bodies, and loud voices. to different normative systems, one is given a
Cultures around the Mediterranean and in choice. For example, in Thailand people are
Latin America are contact cultures, whereas exposed to Indian and Chinese value systems,
cultures in East Asia are no-contact cultures. and so people are allowed to follow either of
North America tends toward the contact side the two normative systems. Thus, heterogen-
of the neutral point on this dimension. Hall’s eity or diversity leads to looseness. In hunting
time and space dimensions have been widely cultures, independence is reinforced, since
used in intercultural communication and hunting does not require many people to work
training, and it is still valuable in preparing together. Therefore, people act independently,
all sojourners. and these societies with activity independence
become loose. Finally, when population dens-
ity is low, one person’s action has little impact
Tightness and Looseness
on other people, and so people do their own
Another value orientation related to following things, and low population density leads to
rules and norms (Pelto, 1968) is called tight- looseness in societies.
ness or looseness. In tight cultures, even slight Tightness and looseness also seem to be
deviations from norms are criticized, and large related to climate. Very warm climates appear
deviations are often severely punished. In loose to favor looseness, whereas cold climates sup-
cultures, there are fewer rules and norms, and port tightness. One interpretation of this rela-
people have much latitude in how they choose tionship is that Homo sapiens evolved in the
to act in idiosyncratic ways. Cultural homo- warm African climate and, therefore, adjusted
geneity, activity interdependence, and high more naturally to these conditions. Adjust-
population density are antecedents of tight- ment to cold climates required more control
ness. In a homogeneous culture, people are of self and others, and tighter regulations
similar and there is no reason to behave differ- ensured that food resources were used opti-
ently. For example, in a Christian society, mally. Though this explanation fits Thailand,
everybody goes to the Sunday Mass; in a it does not fit Singapore, which is very tight. It
Muslim society, everybody prays five times a also does not fit the United States or the Scan-
day; and in a Hindu culture, people do not eat dinavian cultures, which are cold, but loose.
beef. Homogeneity leads to little variation and Therefore, it may be necessary to use more
tighter norms. In agrarian cultures people need than one cultural value dimension to under-
to coordinate irrigation, plantation, and har- stand any culture. Gelfand and colleagues
vesting activities, which requires interdepend- (Gelfand et al., 2011) have mapped thirty-
ence, and so cooperation is rewarded. To three countries on these dimensions allowing
coordinate many people’s activities, rules and comparison among cultures. Intercultural
norms are needed, and thus societies with trainers should consider using the tightness-
activity interdependence become tight. Finally, looseness inventory as well as the theory in
high population density requires more rules in culture general training programs.

societies the wardrobe is more varied. In trad-

A Framework for Traditional,
itional society, people entertain themselves in
Modern, and Postmodern Values
groups, whereas in modern society there are
In a study conducted in six countries, Argen- professional entertainers whose performances
tina, Bangladesh (then East Pakistan), Chile, are broadcast on radio, television, and the
India, Israel, and Nigeria, using 6,000 male Internet. There is less emphasis on the ascrip-
respondents, seven qualities were found that tive aspects of a person like gender, race,
characterized a modern man in all cultures: family background, and so forth, and the skills
(1) openness to new experience and methods and achievement of the other person are
like birth control; (2) disregard for traditional emphasized. Mastery of the environment is
family and religious authority and acceptance reflected in people coming to work in rain and
of government, union, and cooperatives; (3) storm, and work continues despite extreme
belief in science and medicine and shift away conditions of heat and cold. Modernity is
from fate; (4) desire for education and career associated with universalism, individualism,
for self and children; (5) following clock cul- urbanism, market economy, consumerism,
ture and engaging in planning; (6) involve- democracy, and activism.
ment in community affairs and local politics; Modernity is also associated with stress
and (7) consumption of national and inter- related to time pressures as the pace of
national news (Inkeles, 1969). These charac- life increases, and it invariably leads to rise
teristics captured a shift in orientation to in depression. Modernity and time spent in
nature, time, fate, politics, women, and God, child-rearing have a negative relation. In
and contrasted a modern with a traditional traditional cultures the family environment
man. The primary cause of change was found is warm since much time is spent in raising
to be education, and every additional year of children. People in hunting and gathering
education added two to three percentage cultures are the warmest and most nurturing.
points of modernity on a scale of 0 to 100. Families in agricultural cultures are also
The workplace, that is, the factory, was the warm, though much obedience is expected
other significant contributor of modernity in of the young. In cultures where children are
all six countries, but one year of education raised in warm families, adults are found to
was three times more impactful compared to be higher in self-evaluation, emotional
one year of work experience (Smith & Inkeles, responsiveness, generosity, and positive
1966). Modernity emanating from education worldview. They are more nurturing in their
and institutionalized work environment (fac- relationship with others and less anxious
tory compared to farming) permeated both (Triandis, 1994).
attitudes and behaviors of people, and it did In modern cultures, more than 20 percent of
not cause psychic stress. families are what is called single-parent fam-
People differ in degree of modernity across ilies, and about 85 percent of them are headed
cultures as they have different degree of expos- by women. The growth of single-parent fam-
ure to information and technology like the ilies has been the largest in the industrialized
Internet, mobile phones, computers, television, counties, and in the United States more than
automobiles, airplanes, and mass transit, to 26 percent of families are of this type.
name a few. Modernity is reflected in fashion A research by Pew Research Center found that
and entertainment. In traditional societies, single-parent families grew from 9 percent to
people wear cultural attire, but in modern 19 percent to 22 percent to 26 percent from

1960 to 1980 to 2000 to 2014.1 The number be a function of cultural heritage and economic
varies significantly across ethnic groups, development of the societies (Inglehart, 1997).
19 percent for White, 29 percent for Hispanics, One of the strengths of the world value survey
and 54 percent for African-Americans. Single- is that it provided time-series data to track the
parent families may lead to neglect of children changes. It also presents a world map where
as the mothers are burdened with all the tasks cross-cultural variation across societies is meas-
at home and often do multiple jobs. This is not ured along the two dimensions of secular/
to criticize or malign the single parents, who rational versus traditional and self-expression
go on to manage their difficult situation versus survival. The change to modernity is,
bravely without much support from others however, reversible, and societies are found to
(DePaulo, 2006). Even with two parents, with move toward authoritarian nationalism and
a high divorce rate, parents are not able to rejection of the outgroup with economic swings
spend so much time with their children and (e.g., in the United States in 2016) or collapses
so they may grow to be adults who are hostile, (e.g., in Russia in the 1990s).
low in self-esteem, and poor in emotional A ten-item scale was used where half the
responsiveness. They may have a negative items captured traditional and the other half
worldview and experience much anxiety, lack captured survival values. Secular-rational
generosity and have poor nurturing skills (Tri- values are said to be opposite of traditional
andis, 1994). Thus, the value orientation of values, and self-expression values are the
modernity has its disadvantages compared to opposite of survival values. Traditional values
the traditional value orientation, which is were captured by the items: (1) God is very
important for intercultural trainers to keep in important in respondent’s life; (2) it is more
mind in developing and conducting programs. important for a child to learn obedience and
In examining changes in values related to religious faith than independence and deter-
modernization (and postmodernization), data mination; (3) abortion is never justifiable; (4)
was collected from representative samples in respondent has strong sense of national pride;
forty-three societies on all the six continents (5) respondent favors more respect for author-
during 1981–1982, 1990–1991, and 1995–1998. ity. The secular-rational value emphasized the
The countries varied in gross national product opposite. Survival values were captured by the
from $300 to more than $30,000, and the items: (1) respondents give priority to eco-
sample was representative of 75 percent of the nomic and physical security over self-
world population. About 1,400 people were expression and quality-of-life; (2) respondent
interviewed in each country, the basic thesis describes self as not very happy; (3) respondent
being that the state of economic development has not signed and would not sign a petition;
is indicative of the values of the people, which (4) homosexuality is never justifiable; (5) you
was supported in that people in the rich countries have to be very careful about trusting people.
preferred secular/rational and self-expressive Self-expression values emphasized the oppos-
values, whereas people in the economically ite. By correlating these dimensions to twenty-
developing countries chose traditional and sur- two other variables, it is argued that survival
vival values. Thus, value changes were found to versus self-expression values capture an inter-
generational shift in values from economic
and physical security (materialist) to self-
1
www.pewsocialtrends.org/2015/12/17/1-the- expression (postmaterialist), with an increasing
american-family-today/. Last accessed July 26, 2019. support for environmental protection, support

for women, and demand for decision-making Analyzing people’s ranking of values and pref-
in public life. Survival values, as opposed to erence for a political system showed that pref-
self-expression values, are correlated to low erence for political systems could be predicted
levels of subjective well-being (or happiness), by how people ranked freedom and equality.
poor health, low interpersonal trust, low For example, people who ranked freedom and
gender equality, and less tolerance of the equality as their top four or five values were
outgroup. Thus, modernity and tradition confound to support Swedish social democracy.
tinue to provide insightful perspectives on vari- Those who ranked them as their bottom four
ous societies and are useful in understanding or five values supported fascism. People who
and predicting how people communicate, and emphasized freedom but not equality sup-
can be employed in intercultural training ported the free-market system, whereas those
programs. who emphasized equality but not freedom
favored communism. Therefore, much can be
learned by comparing how people rank ter-
Value-Based Cultural Dimensions
minal and instrumental values.
Some values are general beliefs about what is Cultural value dimensions received a big
proper or not proper behavior, and are called impetus with the work of Hofstede, who factor
instrumental values. Other values are existen- analyzed thirteen items measuring the work
tial or terminal values (Rokeach, 1973). Values values of more than 116,000 employees of
are, therefore, more basic than attitudes, IBM, to identify four dimensions of work
which are related to objects and situations. values that he called power distance, uncer-
Across cultures people rank terminal and tainty avoidance, individualism (and collectiv-
instrumental values differently, which reflects ism), and masculinity (and femininity). He
difference in cultural value orientation. Ter- suggested that these dimensions are useful for
minal values include: a comfortable life, an mapping cultural differences. He likened cul-
exciting life, a sense of accomplishment, a ture to mental programming and proposed a
world at peace, a world of beauty, equality, hierarchy of programming in which universal
family security, freedom, happiness, inner har- mental programs (e.g., fight and flight
mony, mature love, national security, pleasure, responses), are at the biological level and con-
salvation, self-respect, social recognition, true sequently shared by all people, collective
friendship, and wisdom. Instrumental values mental programs are at the cultural level, and
include: ambitious, broad-minded, capable, individual-level mental programs define unique
cheerful, clean, courageous, forgiving, helpful, personality variables. He later added two other
honest, imaginative, independent, intellectual, dimensions, long-term versus short-term orien-
logical, loving, obedient, polite, responsible, tation and indulgence versus restraint by build-
and self-controlled. When content analyses of ing on the work of other researchers (Hofstede,
the speeches of leaders, such as Swedish prime 2012).
ministers, American presidents, Lenin, and Power distance concerns the extent to which
Hitler were performed, it was found that those with authority (at the top) are similar to
Swedish prime ministers used both equality or very different from those at the bottom of a
and freedom a lot. Hitler did not use freedom social structure. This dimension refers to the
and equality much. American presidents used acceptance of inequality that exists between
freedom a lot but not equality. And Lenin used people in social hierarchies. For example, a
the word equality frequently, but not freedom. senior manager may come to work late, but a

clerk may not; a high status person need not expelled after the wars of liberation in the
stand in line to be seated in a popular restaur- nineteenth century. The social class structure
ant. Inequality is accepted by both parties: still places those of European ancestry to
both the clerk and the manager think that it the top of the hierarchy, as very different from
is the privilege of the manager, but not the the natives.
clerk, to come to the office late. In a high Masculine cultures value activities per-
power distance culture like Hong Kong, a formed by men over those carried out by
superior could insult a subordinate with women. Achievement orientation, competi-
impunity, but such behavior might not be tion, and the drive to be successful are charac-
acceptable in a low power distance culture like teristics of societies that value masculinity,
Denmark. whereas nurturance, support, participation,
Venezuela, Mexico, the Philippines, and and the like are characteristics of societies that
Yugoslavia rank high on power distance, value femininity. People “work to live” in
whereas Denmark, Austria, and Israel rank feminine cultures, but “live to work” in mas-
low on this dimension. Italy and the United culine cultures. The masculinity index was
States were cultures in the middle range of this found to be high in Japan, Austria, Venezuela,
dimension. Obedience is one of the socializa- Italy, and Switzerland. The lowest scores were
tion mechanisms used to inculcate tolerance found in Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands,
for inequality, and, therefore, it is not surpris- Denmark, and Yugoslavia. In highly mascu-
ing that obedience among children is valued in line countries people define achievement in
high power distance cultures like Venezuela terms of recognition and wealth, rather than
but not in low power distance cultures like lifestyle. It appears that there is more differen-
Denmark. In high power distance countries tiation by gender in countries high on mascu-
rank has its privileges and that is widely linity. The Latin emphasis on machismo and
accepted. Low power distance countries tend marianismo, and the double standard of mor-
to have small, ethnically homogeneous popu- ality for the two sexes, are examples of greater
lations that are relatively rich, with a social differentiation on the basis of gender.
security system that allows few people to be Uncertainty avoidance refers to the creation
very rich or very poor. of rules and bureaucracy to avoid ambiguity in
In languages that have both the vous (V) and behavior. Cultures that score high on uncer-
tu (T) (Sie/Du; usted/tu) grammatical forms, tainty avoidance value conformity, and people
when there is high power distance, people use in those cultures avoid situations that do not
nonreciprocal V-T. That is, the low status have a high certainty of expected outcome.
person uses V and the high status person uses Japan and Greece ranked high on uncertainty
T. In countries with low power distance they avoidance, whereas Hong Kong, Singapore,
use reciprocal V or T, depending on the degree and Scandinavia ranked low on this dimen-
of intimacy. In high power distance countries sion. People who live in high uncertainty
one notes that the language itself reflects dis- avoidance cultures, where there are many
tance. Historical factors are also important. rules, often feel anxious that they may not be
The Spanish conquered much of the New acting in the proper way. People who live in
World and the Philippines and imposed the low uncertainty avoidance cultures, where
assumption that Europeans are intrinsically there are few rules, tend to tolerate ambiguity.
superior to the natives. This idea penetrated Individualism is reflected as the emo-
these societies, even after the Spanish were tional independence of people from others.

In collectivist cultures people are born into Minkov & Hofstede, 2013) who employed
extended families or kinship systems that pro- data from Inglehart’s world value survey
tect them in exchange for their loyalty to the (WVS). Indulgence refers to gratification of
collectives. This factor concerns, among other desires, whereas restraint refers to control of
factors, whether the goals of the individual desires. In cultures where indulgence is empha-
take precedence over the goals of the group. sized, people are happy, active in sports, lax
Countries with large gross national product about sex, remember positive emotions, and
(GNP) per capita were found to be more have control over their lives. People value free-
individualistic than those with low GNP per dom of speech, leisure, and deemphasize main-
capita, and the English-speaking countries had taining order. In cultures where restraint is
the highest score on individualism. The less emphasized, fewer people are happy or active
developed Mediterranean-derived cultures in sport, and they feel helpless. People do not
such as Latin America had the highest scores care about freedom of speech or leisure, and
on collectivism. do not recall positive emotions. There are
Bond and his colleagues (Chinese Cultural higher number of police officers to maintain
Connection, 1987; see Bond, 2010) developed order and stricter sexual norms. People are
their Chinese value survey by asking Chinese obese, unlike in indulgence cultures, and birth
scholars to list Chinese values. The researchers rate is lower than indulgence cultures.
found that the teachings of Confucius had a Hofstede’s dimensions have drawn several
tremendous influence on the formation of Chi- criticisms. First, his sample came from only
nese values and coined the term Confucian one organization, and the results may reflect
dynamism to denote these values. The rapid some unique cultural properties of that organ-
economic growth of countries in East Asia, ization. Second, the items used by him do not
where Confucianism has a long tradition, pro- have face validity and probably capitalize on
vides face validity to the construct’s influence chance. Hofstede and Pederson (1999) have
on economic development. Confucian dyna- presented intercultural training programs
mism represents a cognitive schema character- using these dimensions, which can be
ized by a long time horizon (for example, employed without much adaptation.
business executives must think long term and Robert J. House led a team of researchers
not pressure managers for short-term profit), from sixty-two countries to study leadership
the value of thrift (i.e., saving for the future across cultures. The team adopted Hofstede’s
and the next generation is a virtue), and an five dimensions. They retained the dimensions
emphasis on interdependent relationships of collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and
(i.e., relationships are to be valued even if they power distance. They relabeled long-term
are not functional). Confucianism places orientation as future orientation and masculin-
importance on delayed gratification, as numer- ity and femininity as gender egalitarianism.
ous homilies suggest. This cultural value They found two types of collectivism, institu-
dimension was adopted by Hofstede as his fifth tional collectivism (emphasis on collective dis-
dimension of long-term versus short-term tribution of resources and collective action)
orientation. and ingroup collectivism (a measure of cohe-
Hofstede adopted indulgence versus siveness in families and organizations). They
restraint as the sixth cultural dimension, which added performance orientation (rewarding
is based on the work of Minkov (Minkov, excellence), assertiveness orientation (aggres-
2012; Minkov, Blagoev, & Hofstede, 2013; siveness in social relationship), and humane

orientation (altruistic and kind to others), security, reciprocation of favors, clean, sense
giving a total of nine cultural value orienta- of belonging, healthy), (7) conformity (e.g.,
tions. They also found six dimensions of impli- obedient, self-disciplined, politeness, honoring
cit leadership that are emphasized differently parents and elders), (8) tradition (e.g., respect
across cultures. They are: charismatic (inspir- for tradition, humble, devout, accepting my
ational), team oriented (collaboration and position in life, moderate), (9) benevolence
integration), self-protective (self-centered), (e.g., helpful, loyal, forgiving, honest, respon-
participative, human orientation (modesty sible, true friendship, mature love), and (10)
and compassion for others), and autonomous universalism (e.g., broadminded, social justice,
(functioning without consultation). Thus, equality, world of peace, world of beauty,
beyond cultural dimensions, leadership could unity with nature, wisdom, protecting the
also be studied across cultures by using these environment).
leadership-specific dimensions to compare The labeling of the ten values and their
leader behavior across cultures (House, arrangement around the circle is arbitrary but
Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004). helps to understand them with respect to each
This research lends itself to training in cross- other in a meaningful way. For example, some
cultural leadership. values like benevolence and power (or self-
direction and conformity) conflict with one
another and are presented across from each
A Universal Framework of Values
other in the circle, whereas other values like
Schwartz (1992, 2012a, 2012b, 2012c) defined conformity and security (or stimulation and
values as (1) concepts or beliefs, (2) that per- hedonism) are compatible and are presented
tain to desirable end states or behaviors, (3) next to each other in the circle. Two values
that transcend specific situations, (4) guide that are close to each other in either direction
selection or evaluation of behavior and events, are said to have similar motivational underpin-
and (5) are ordered by relative importance. In nings, whereas the more distant they are the
analyzing 210 samples from sixty-seven coun- underlying motivations are likely to be
tries, using responses from 64,271 people, different.
which included at least 200 teachers and Schwartz identified collectivist clusters of
200 others (e.g., students) in each sample, it values that he called “embeddedness,” “hier-
was found that the fifty-six values gave ten archy,” and “harmony,” and individualist
clusters of motivationally different personal clusters that he named “autonomy” (“intellec-
values that are structured similarly around a tual autonomy” and “affective autonomy”),
circle across cultures. They are organized in a “egalitarianism,” and “mastery.” Embedded-
circle and are (going counterclockwise): (1) ness, hierarchy, and harmony include family
self-direction (e.g., creativity, freedom, choos- security, social order, respect for tradition,
ing own goals, curious, independent), (2) honoring parents and elders, security, and
stimulation (e.g., a varied life, an exciting life, politeness. Autonomy, egalitarianism, and
daring), (3) hedonism (e.g., pleasure, enjoying mastery include being curious, broadminded,
life), (4) achievement (e.g., ambitious, success- creative, and having an exciting and varied life
ful, capable, influential), (5) power (e.g., full of pleasures. These value clusters were
authority, wealth, social power, preserving obtained in every country. Schwartz also did
my public image, social recognition), (6) secur- a factor analysis of the values, and obtained
ity (e.g., social order, family security, national two factors that accounted for 73 percent of

the common variance. The first contrasted col- complexity using various schemes of measure-
lectivism and individualism. The second con- ments (Lomax & Berkowitz, 1972; McGuire,
trasted harmony and hierarchy on the one 1983; Murdock & Provost, 1973). Murdock
hand with mastery on the other. Two instru- and Provost (1973) presented a ten-part criter-
ments are available for measuring values, and ion, breaking each criterion into four-part
the measures converge (Schwartz, 1992, 2012a, scale (0 to 4). They included (1) writing and
2012b, 2012c). Intercultural trainers should records (indigenous systems of writing), (2)
consider using Schwartz’s short-form inven- fixity of residence (sedentary or nomadic), (3)
tory in culture general training programs. agriculture (measured by the degree of depend-
They should also consider using the frame- ence upon agriculture), (4) urbanization
work for explaining cultural differences either (population in excess of 1,000 persons living
in conjunction with individualism and collect- in an area), (5) technological specialization
ivism or by itself. (including smiths, weavers, and potters), (6)
land transportation (power driven, animal
driven and so forth), (7) money (from currency
Cultural Complexity
to barter), (8) density of population (1 to
Ecology and history of a society determine its 100 per square mile), (9) political organization
complexity. Societies that subsist on hunting, (from three levels to zero level), and (10) social
fishing, and food gathering tend to be simple, stratification (from zero to three levels). They
whereas agricultural societies tend to be com- found that cultures could be classified using
plex (Lomax & Berkowitz, 1972; McGuire, this scale meaningfully, away from the offen-
1983; Murdock & Provost, 1973). Industrial sive typology presented by Morgan (1877) –
societies tend to be more complex, and infor- savagery, barbarism, and civilized – which cat-
mation societies are the most complex (Trian- egorized non-Western societies as savages and
dis, 1990). Family structures tend to vary with barbarians, and Western societies as civilized.
complexity, following an inverted U-shaped Lomax and Berkowitz (1972) utilized
function. People in simple cultures emphasize seventy-one measures of social and perform-
nuclear families. Complex agrarian cultures ance norms. They factor analyzed these meas-
are characterized by extended families. People ures and obtained fourteen clusters, where
in industrial and information age societies are each cluster consisted of at least two measures.
found to live in nuclear families. The phenom- Most of these measures in the cluster con-
enon of single parent households has become verged on a deeper cultural attribute (work
common in modern and complex cultures, related, food related, community type, sexual
which is rare in hunting, gathering, or agricul- division of labor, and so forth) that has resem-
tural societies (Triandis, 1990). blance with Murdock and Provost’s ten criteria.
Historically, anthropologists have classified In addition to these fourteen clusters, the
cultures as simple or complex based on food factor analysis also gave five single factors,
production (producers versus gatherers), namely, type of family, size of family, segrega-
mobility (sedentary versus nomadic), education of boys, female dominance in pottery,
tion level (literate or preliterate), political weaving, and leather work, and position of
system (state builders vs. stateless societies), final note in songs. They also employed Mur-
nature of work (in stone, bronze, and iron), dock’s atlas in their research. Others have pro-
and so forth. Without falling into ethnocentric posed simpler criteria. McGuire (1983) proposed
judgment, it is possible to understand cultural employing inequality and heterogeneity as two

factors that can be employed to study cultural

Social Exchange Patterns
complexity. Haas (1998) proposed additional
factors like ethnic differentiation, emergence Fiske (1992) identified four basic dimensions
of war, and formation of multiethnic polities on which social behaviors vary across cultures.
in addition to some of the factors from Mur- These forms occur in every culture, and the
dock and Provost’s scale. key ideas of the four forms are sharing, pro-
Simple cultures are found to be pragmatic, portionality, equality, and hierarchy. The first
whereas more complex cultures are ideo- pattern is called communal sharing (CS),
logical. Industrial and information-based soci- which is commonly found in families in most
eties again return to pragmatism (Triandis, cultures. Resources are shared according to
1990, 1994). With the rise of gadgets in need without keeping a record of who contrib-
modern cultures, even survival requires some utes how much. In some cultures (e.g., native
technological sophistication, and so modernity Hawai‘ian society) land is owned collectively,
and complexity go hand in hand. As docu- and is therefore a communal resource. Com-
mented in a study of 186 cultures, Murdock munal sharing leads to the development of a
and Provost (1973) found that complexity is shared identity with a strong sense of
characterized by writing and records, stable belonging to one’s ethnic or cultural group.
residence, agriculture, urbanism, technical spe- Communal sharing is characterized by long-
cialization, modes of transportation, and use term relationships, consensus decision-
of currency for economic transactions. Com- making, caring, nurturance, selflessness, gener-
plex cultures have high population density, osity, and altruism toward the ingroup, and
complex social stratification, and elaborate indifference or hostility toward outgroups.
political systems. Growth of large empires, The second pattern is called market pricing
and the complexity that came with it, appears (MP), which is characterized by (1) the equity
to be correlated with the building of long- principle where people receive reward in pro-
lasting civilizations. For example, the Chinese, portion to their contributions, (2) social behav-
Indians, Aztecs, and Romans had complex ior is monitored by doing cost-benefit analysis,
societies. In comparison to these societies the (3) achievement is emphasized, (4) people do
culture of contemporary Pygmy groups is sim- their own thing, (5) bureaucratic structures are
pler. Complex societies use a combination of prevalent, (6) occupation defines identity, and
multiple frameworks. Complexity is character- (7) consequentialism is valued. In some cul-
ized by differentiation of work, time, and other tures MP is done with money, whereas in other
social variables (Triandis, 1990). Intercultural cultures it may be done with cows or curved-
training can easily employ the indicators noted tooth pigs. The third pattern is equality match-
above to discuss how urban people may have ing (EM), which is characterized by equal
to adapt to rural settings when carrying out distribution of resources and a tit-for-tat kind
development projects. Similarly, these indica- of reciprocity. Practices like adult suffrage, equal
tors can be employed to provide intercultural treatment in the court of law, justice, fairness,
training to rural migrant population who are and so forth capture the spirit of this pattern.
moving to small or large cities for employ- The fourth pattern is called authority
ment. The complexities of life in mega-cities ranking (AR), which is characterized by
can be presented as case studies for training resource allocation by rank, respect, deference,
people going in either from rural to urban loyalty, and obedience. In these cultures,
setting or vice versa. bosses are haughty and the followers obedient.

Authoritative ranking is reflected in the trad- Bond also posited that social axioms are
itional Chinese family: food is offered first to simply descriptive statements that show what
males in the order of age and then to women is plausible or possible (e.g., hard work leads
following similar ranking. So the grandfather to success; if we see a successful person, it is
is served first, and the youngest female last. axiomatic that he or she worked hard). They
Even in Western democratic societies there is are different from normative beliefs that con-
some authority ranking, and presidents and tain the “ought to” component (one ought to
prime ministers enjoy some privileges that respect elders; one ought to help a needy
common people do not. In every culture these person; and so forth).
four basic patterns of interpersonal relation- Social axioms have five dimensions at the
ship can be found. People construct their social individual level of analysis. Social cynicism is
behavior by combining these four basic pat- a negative perspective on the way the world
terns, according to the situation. But the spe- works and is measured by items like “powerful
cific content of each pattern is different in each people tend to exploit others” (or “it is rare to
culture. In general, in collectivist cultures see a happy ending in real life”). Social com-
people use communal sharing and authority plexity captures flexibility in interpreting out-
ranking, whereas in individualistic cultures comes and the belief that human behavior
they are more likely to use market pricing changes with the social context. It is measured
and equality matching (Triandis & Bhawuk, by items like “dealing with things in a flexible
1997), and these four social exchange patterns way leads to success” (or “one has to deal with
can be easily employed in training programs matters according to the specific circum-
for explaining intercultural differences. stances”). Reward for application captures
the mindset that persistence and effort leads
to success and is measured by items like
Social Axioms
“adversity can be overcome by effort.” Such
Most of the cultural dimensions have focused a belief leads to thinking that every problem
on values, which are guiding principles that has a solution, and hardworking people will
shape our daily behavior, and refer to what achieve more in the end. Religiosity captures
we consider important in life. Something we the belief that there is a supernatural being
find of value is worth spending effort to obtain controlling the universe (e.g., God) and is
it, and, therefore, likely to be useful, beneficial, measured by items like “religion helps one
profitable, or advantageous. Value is generally understand the meaning of life” (or “religious
associated with positive attributes like good, faith contributes to good mental health”). Fate
helpful, gainful, meritorious, and so forth. control is similar to external locus of control
Leung and Bond (2009) led an international and is a belief that events and forces external
team of researchers to study cultural variation to the person shape one’s life events, and is
using social axioms, which are based on measured by items like “fate determines one’s
beliefs, rather than values. They defined beliefs successes and failures” (or “good luck follows
as a cognition of how X is related to Y or how if one survives a disaster”). When the social
X causes Y. Such relationships are learned axiom survey (SAS) data was factor analyzed
through socialization and, therefore, are cul- at the cultural level by collapsing the data for
tural. But there is considerable difference each country to one number, that is, the mean,
across people within a culture in their beliefs only two factors emerged. The first factor,
about how things really work. Leung and societal cynicism, consisted of the items from

social cynicism, and the second factor, Research on individualism and collectivism
dynamic externality, consisted of items from started by contrasting them as opposite of each
the other four factors. Intercultural trainers other (Hofstede, 1980, 2001), often written
should consider using the SAS inventory used together and separated by a hyphen, as “indi-
for measuring social axioms in culture general vidualism-collectivism,” but these constructs
training programs. were refined into finer dimensions. The four
defining attributes of individualism and col-
lectivism and the typology of vertical and hori-
Individualism and Collectivism
zontal individualism and collectivism present
The constructs of individualism and collectiv- such refinements addressing the criticism that
ism have had a significant impact on social these are catchall concepts (Bhawuk, 2001;
science research over the last 100 years Triandis, 1995). Individualism has four univer-
(Brewer & Chen, 2007; Oyserman, Coon, & sal defining attributes that contrast with those
Kemmelmeier, 2002; Triandis, 1995). A search of collectivism. Individualists have an inde-
using Google Scholar shows that the number pendent concept of self, they have their goals
of scholarly citations for individualism and independent from their ingroups, their social
collectivism has steadily increased over the behaviors are attitude-, values-, and belief-
years, and the constructs continue to be popu- driven, and they emphasize rationality in
lar in use by social scientists. Individualism evaluating and choosing their social relation-
and collectivism are used to describe cultures, ships. On the other hand, collectivists have an
whereas at the individual or personality level interdependent concept of self, their goals are
the corresponding constructs are idiocentrism compatible with ingroups, their social behav-
and allocentrism (Triandis, 1989, 1994). iors are norm driven, and they are relational in
Research using factor analysis presents indi- their social exchange with other people (Trian-
vidualism and collectivism, as well as idio- dis, 1995). These four defining attributes are
centrism and allocentrism, as orthogonal or synthesized in a theoretical framework (see
independent factors. However, these con- Figure 4.1) in which concept of self is at the
structs may not be independent of each other, center, and the three other attributes are cap-
since at the individual or personality level tured in the interaction of self with group,
people are found to be both idiocentric and society, and other individuals (Bhawuk,
allocentric to some degree. Also, at the cul- 2001). Independent concept of self is not the
tural level it is difficult to find a pure individu- opposite of interdependent concept of self, but
alist or collectivist culture, since often cultures simply different from it and has many behav-
are found to have elements of both these con- ioral implications.
structs. Much work has been done on the In individualist cultures people view them-
measurement and further refinement of these selves as having an independent concept of
constructs, and many scales are available to self, whereas in collectivist cultures people
measure these constructs. It should be noted view themselves as having an interdependent
that individualism and collectivism are not the concept of self (Markus & Kitayama, 1991;
opposite of each other, just like women are not Triandis, 1989). Individualists’ concept of self
the opposite of men; they are complementary does not include other people, i.e., the self is
constructs, and understanding one helps under- independent of others, whereas collectivists’
stand the other (Triandis, 1995; Triandis & concept of self includes other people, namely,
Bhawuk, 1997). members of family, friends, and people from

Figure 4.1 Individualism and collectivism: The four defining attributes. Adapted from Bhawuk (1995).
the work place. People in Western cultures The concept of self can be viewed as digital
(e.g., the USA, United Kingdom, Australia, (for individualists) or analogue (for collectiv-
New Zealand, etc.) have an independent con- ists) (for a discussion see Bhawuk, 2001). Indi-
cept of self, and they feel a more pronounced vidualists view themselves in a much more
social distance between themselves and others, definitive way – “This is me, but that is not
including their immediate family. People in me.” For example, they are likely not to think
Asia, Africa, Latin America, and so forth have of their parents, spouse, children, even the
an interdependent concept of self, and social closest members of the nucleus family, as a
distance between an individual and his or her part of themselves. There is no overlap
parents, spouse, siblings, children, friends, between their selves and others’. In other
neighbors, supervisor, subordinate, and so words, their view of themselves is digital. On
forth is small (see Figure 4.2). the other hand, collectivists view people in

Figure 4.2 Independent and interdependent concepts of self. Adapted from Bhawuk (1995).
their family (e.g., parents, spouse, children, family and friends. On the other hand, people
siblings, and so forth), as a continuation of in individualist cultures usually view the self as
their selves. For example, a mother or father independent of other elements of nature. An
is likely to think of a child as a part of his or individualistic person, therefore, takes more
her self, and even adult children who have control over elements of nature or situations
their own children constitute part of their self. around himself or herself, and feels less emo-
Similar closeness is felt for other relatives, tional attachment to others (Markus &
friends, and coworkers. Thus, they have an Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 1989).
analogue self. Collectivists share material resources as well
The boundary of independent self is sharply as nonmaterial resource like time, affection,
and rigidly defined (shown by solid line), fun, etc. with people they share their selves
whereas interdependent self has a less rigid with. This resource sharing is a characteristic
and amorphous boundary (shown by a dashed of interdependent concept of self as well as a
line) (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, socialization mechanism that bolsters interde-
1989). This is a consequence of the holistic pendence among a group of people. Interde-
view of the world held by people in collectivist pendence is reflected in the correspondence of
cultures. In this view, the self is thought to be one’s own outcomes, both positive and nega-
of the same substance as other things in nature, tive, with the outcomes of others, and the feel-
and cannot be separated from the rest of ing of involvement in other’s lives. Festivals
nature. Therefore, the relationship between are often social occasions that offer the oppor-
the self and other people or elements in nature tunities for people to get involved in each
is much closer, and people not only share other’s lives and also to help each other out
interdependence but also feel an emotional by sharing resources they have. A myriad of
attachment to members of their extended communication principles are guided by the

interdependent concept of self as it provides a boundary around their self, which makes them
cognitive framework. The resource sharing approachable and friendly. However, there is
behavior also provides a behavioral frame- only so close one can get to an individualist. It
work guiding people’s daily behavior toward is almost like there is a concrete barrier that
each other through the regular exchange of cannot be broached. Behind this barrier people
resources and celebration of family events hide their proverbial skeletons. Thus, individu-
and achievements of each other. (Bhawuk, alists are likened to peaches, soft from the
2001; Triandis, 1989) outside but hard on the inside. This schematic
People in China, India, Mexico, Brazil, helps understand why individualists are
Japan, and so forth, for example, are likely to extremely friendly to talk to in a cocktail
have an interdependent concept of self, where party, which should not be misconstrued as
the self is shared with many members of the friendship. On the other hand, collectivists
extended family, family friends, and others may not be as easy to be friends with, despite
(Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 1989). their high sociability, but once a relationship is
Analyzing the words used for relationships, we established they are found to go out of their
find that in most Indian language we have way to be of help.
single words not only for members of the The second defining attribute focuses on
nucleus family, i.e., father, mother, brother, the relationship between self and groups of
and sister, but also for members of the people (Triandis, 1995; Triandis & Bhawuk,
extended family. Paternal grandfather (dada), 1997). Those with the independent concept of
maternal grandfather (nana), paternal grand- self, develop ties with other people to satisfy
mother (dadee), maternal grandmother their own needs, rather than to serve the needs
(nanee), maternal uncle (mama), paternal uncle of a particular group of people. However,
(chacha), maternal aunt (masi), paternal aunt those with interdependent concept of self, try
(bua, foofee), and so forth. Having a single to satisfy their own needs as well as those of
word indicates the value attached to the con- the members of the collective included in the
cept in the culture, and clearly, the extended self. For example, both American and Japan-
family is quite important in India, thus pre- ese children are found to be motivated to
senting face validity that people in India have learn when they are individually rewarded
the interdependent concept of self. The kinship for learning; however, unlike the American
terms often differentiate on both sides of the children, the Japanese students are motivated
family, and also mark age and gender expli- to learn even when their teacher is rewarded.
citly. This is true for other Asian and African The Japanese children are socialized to
languages also (Bhawuk, 2008). observe and respond to others’ feelings early
The solid line around the interdependent self on. So a mother may say “I am happy” or “I
in Figure 4.2 schematically captures the idea am sad” to provide positive or negative
that it is difficult to get to know collectivists reinforcement rather than directly saying
because their interpersonal needs are met by “You are right” or “You are wrong.” Thus,
the people with whom they share the self. But difference in concept of self leads to difference
if one were to succeed in breaking that hard in how people relate to their ingroup or out-
shell, one becomes a part of the collective. group. Collectivists define ingroups and
Therefore, collectivists can be likened to a outgroups quite sharply compared to individu-
coconut, hard from outside and soft inside. alists (Triandis, 1995; Triandis & Bhawuk,
On the other hand, individualists have a softer 1997).

An aspect of this interdependent self is When a certain group of people is accepted

people’s concern about how their decisions as trustworthy, collectivists cooperate with
would affect others in their collectivity, which these people, are willing to make self-sacrifices
often leads to people sacrificing something, to be part of this group, and are less likely to
such as an activity that they find interesting, indulge in social loafing. However, they are
some food item they really enjoy, or some prod- likely to indulge in exploitative exchange with
uct they really like, to accommodate the need of people who are from the community of out-
a member of the collective. For example, groups. Individualists, on the other hand, do
parents may sacrifice a promotion or opportun- not make such strong distinctions between
ity to travel so that their children’s academic ingroups and outgroups (Bhawuk, 2001).
needs are not compromised, and adult children When asked to negotiate with a friend versus
may do the same to take care of elderly parents. a stranger, collectivists were found to make a
Similarly, spouses may sacrifice for each other. special concession to their friends as opposed
Such sacrifices often remain implicit, and to strangers (see Triandis, 1995). Individual-
people avoid saying it loud. It is considered a ists, on the other hand, made no such differen-
part of one’s duty toward the collective. Not tiation between friends and strangers. For this
surprisingly, making personal sacrifice for reason, in collectivist cultures like China,
family and friends is a theme for successful films Japan, India, and Korea people approach
in collectivist cultures like India, Korea, Japan, others through a common friend for getting a
and China, to name a few. good bargain or a good service.
Closely associated with this concern for The interaction between self and groups also
others is the process of how people set goals has important implications for reward alloca-
for themselves. Collectivists are found to sub- tion. Individualists use the equity rule in
ordinate their individual goals to the goals of a reward allocation, whereas collectivists use
collective, whereas individualists pursue the the equality rule for ingroup members, but
goals that are dear to them, and even change the equity rule for outgroup members. For
their ingroups to achieve those goals (Triandis example, it is found that allocentric Koreans
& Bhawuk, 1997). Divorce results many times, favor ingroups over outgroups more than idio-
for individualists, because people are not centric Koreans. It is also found that in reward
willing to compromise their careers, whereas allocation situations, allocentrics prefer the
collectivists often sacrifice career goals to take equitable (i.e., to each according to his or her
care of their family needs (ingroup goals) and contribution) division of rewards for outgroup
derive satisfaction in doing so. The reason for members with whom they expect to have no
giving priority to the ingroup goals is the nar- interaction in the future, but not so for ingroup
rowness of the perceived boundary between members with whom they expect to interact
the individual and the others or the smaller more frequently. Equality is preferred for
social distance between self and others. These ingroup members by collectivists. However,
aspects of goal setting and making sacrifices individualists prefer equitable division for both
are related to collectivists’ perception of ingroups and outgroups (see Triandis & Bha-
common fate with their family, kin, friends, wuk, 1997 for a review).
and coworkers. When the relationship is The third defining attribute focuses on how
valued in itself, the relationship becomes a the individual interacts with the society at
superordinate goal, and it makes sense for large (Triandis, 1995; Triandis & Bhawuk,
collectivists to sacrifice other lesser goals. 1997). Those with independent concept of self,

do what they like to do, i.e., they pursue their for face saving or gaining the approval of the
individual desires, attitudes, values, and collective. Face saving (Hwang, 1987) is an
beliefs. Since this works for everybody with important construct that guides all communi-
an independent concept of self, people in indi- cations in collectivist cultures. However, in the
vidualistic cultures value doing their own individualistic cultures, people are not guided
thing. However, people with an interdepend- by face saving; it is more important for people
ent concept of self-inherit many relationships to speak their mind and tell the other person
and learn to live with these interdependencies. directly how they feel rather than hide their
Part of managing the interdependencies is to feelings to make the other person comfortable.
act properly in all kinds of social settings, The fourth defining attribute focuses on the
which requires that people follow the norm nature of social exchange between self and
rather strictly not to upset the nexus of social others (Triandis, 1995; Triandis & Bhawuk,
expectations. It is for this reason that Rama, a 1997). In individualist cultures, social
popular deity and a cultural role model for exchange is based on the principle of rational-
Indian men, always acted properly and is ity and equal exchange. People form new rela-
called maryada purushottam (or an exemplar tionships to meet their changing needs based
par excellence) (Bhawuk, 2008). on cost benefit analysis. On the other hand, in
One reason for the collectivists’ desire to collectivist cultures, where relationships are
conform results from their need to pay atten- inherited, people nurture relationships with
tion to what their extended family, friends, unequal social exchanges over a long period
colleagues, and neighbors have to say about of time. They view all relationships as long-
what they do and how they do it. A sense of term in nature and maintain them even when
duty guides them towards social norms both in they are not cost effective (Bhawuk, 2008).
the workplace and interpersonal relationships. Psychologists contrast exchange and com-
Individualists, on the other hand, are more munal relationships (Clark & Mills, 1979,
concerned about their personal attitudes, 1993; Clark, Mills, & Powell, 1986). In an
beliefs, and values. Often, in individualist cul- exchange relationship, people give a gift or
tures there are fewer norms about social and provide a service to another person with the
workplace behaviors, whereas in collectivist expectation that the other person will return
cultures there are many clear norms. It should a gift or service of about equal value within
be noted that it is not true that in individualist a short period of time. People keep a mental
cultures there are no norms, or that in collect- record of exchange of benefits and try to main-
ivist cultures people do not do what they like tain a balanced account, in an accounting
to do. Though there are exceptions, in indi- sense.
vidualistic cultures there are fewer norms, In a communal relationship, people do not
and those that exist are not severely imposed; keep an account of the exchanges taking
in contrast, in collectivist cultures, not only are place between them; one person may give a
norms tightly monitored and imposed but also gift of much higher value than the other
anti-normative behaviors are often hidden person and the two people may still maintain
from the public eye (Bhawuk, 2001, 2008; Tri- their relationship. In other words, it is the
andis, 1995; Triandis & Bhawuk, 1997). relationship that is valued and not the
Collectivists’ willingness to accept the opin- exchanges that go on between people when
ions and views of others, in other words, their they are in communal relationships (Clark &
willingness to conform, leads to their concern Mills, 1979, 1993; Clark, Mills, & Powell, 1986).

In collectivist cultures, people are found to equality matching, and authority ranking are
maintain relationships that they have inherited the four basic forms of social behavior found
from their grandparents (Bhawuk, 2008). In in every culture. These four basic behaviors
this type of relationship people feel an “equal- correspond to collectivism, individualism,
ity of affect.” In other words, when one feels horizontal, and vertical dimensions: Vertical
up the other also feels up, and when one feels individualism corresponds to market pricing
down the other also feels down. It is related to and authority ranking, vertical collectivism
the notion of having a common fate (Triandis, corresponds to communal sharing and author-
1995). ity ranking, horizontal individualism corres-
These four characteristics (Bhawuk, 2001; ponds to equality matching and market
Triandis, 1995) capture a general concern for pricing, and horizontal collectivism corres-
each other for the collectivists, which is more ponds to equality matching and communal
complex than affection or worrying about each sharing. The four defining attributes and the
other. There is a sense of oneness with each vertical/horizontal typology of individualism
other, which leads to keeping other people’s and collectivism together provide a valuable
needs and interests in mind when interacting framework for understanding social behavior
with each other. Collectivism recognizes the (Triandis & Bhawuk, 1997).
group as the basic social unit, whereas indi- Individualism and collectivism explains
vidualism views individuals as the locus of differences in communication that is also
social being. Therefore, individualists like to captured by the conceptualization of high-
take care of their own interests and progress context and low-context cultures; collectivist
through life by moving from one temporary cultures are high-context and individualist
relationship to another by transacting material cultures are low-context. Context is import-
and nonmaterial resources that serve the indi- ant in communication in collectivist cultures,
vidual interests of all parties involved. which captures not only the hierarchy and
Individualism and collectivism are of two relationships in which people are embedded,
types, vertical and horizontal, depending on but also other nuances of social settings.
whether people view their selves as “same as” A collectivist would rather make up an excuse
or “different from” others (Triandis, 1995). In or tell a lie than directly say no to an ingroup
vertical collectivism (VC) and individualism member’s request. They would use silence or
(VI), people view their selves as different from not come to the meeting to communicate a
the selves of others; India and China provide negative outcome. Not being present or not
examples of vertical collectivism, whereas the saying anything in a meeting is a part of the
USA and France exemplify vertical individual- context that others use to understand the mes-
ism. In horizontal collectivism (HC) and indi- sage. However, people in individualist cul-
vidualism (HI), people view their selves as tures say what is on their mind directly, to
equal to the selves of others; the Israeli Kib- make sure that both parties understand it
butz and Eskimo cultures provide examples of clearly. Interestingly, for the collectivists the
horizontal collectivism, whereas Sweden and indirect method is as clear as the direct com-
Australia approach horizontal individualism. munication is for the individualists (Bhawuk,
Vertical and horizontal individualism and 2018).
collectivism patterns fit well conceptually with This framework of individualism and col-
other culture theories (Triandis, 1995). For lectivism is also useful in explaining why
example, communal sharing, market pricing, people make different attributions in similar

situations. A major source of misunderstand- among individualists (Triandis, 1995). Collect-

ing in human relationships is that two individ- ivists view performance as the aggregate of
uals do not perceive similar causes for a ability and effort. In short, since individualists
specific behavior. For example, if an employee see performance as a personal quality, if the
is late for work he or she may perceive that person has no ability or expends no effort they
missing the bus was the cause of lateness, see no performance; the collectivists see per-
whereas his or her supervisor may perceive formance as a group quality, and thus it is
laziness as the cause of lateness. Isomorphic possible to succeed if one member of the group
attribution refers to a sojourner making has ability and the others expend much effort.
approximately the same judgment about the Effort is a quality that can be changed by the
cause of a behavior as do people in the host individual, while ability is less changeable.
culture. When people make isomorphic attri- Thus, it is much better to make effort attribu-
butions (Triandis, 1975), they do not impose tions, as people can be trained to make such
their own cultural perspective in deciding attributions to improve their performance
about the cause of a particular behavior. (Triandis & Bhawuk, 1997).
Instead, they use the perspective of the host The four defining attributes have received
culture in analyzing the behavior. Making less research attention than the vertical and
non-isomorphic attributions means that the horizontal typology primarily due to the lack
same behavior is seen as having very different of measurement scales for each of the four
meaning (Bhawuk, 2018). defining attributes. Development of measure-
Collectivists tend to attribute other events ment scales for each of the defining attributes
external to an individual as the cause of an will help individualism to move away from
outcome more frequently than do individual- the catch-all construct, which is one of the
ists (Triandis, 1995). Individualists attribute long standing criticisms of the constructs.
traits internal to an individual as the cause of This may also help further clarify the relation-
an outcome more frequently than do collectiv- ship between these constructs and other
ists. As a result, individualists make the “fun- theories and facilitate effective intercultural
damental attribution error” of over-stressing communication.
internal relative to external causes of behavior
more frequently than collectivists. For
Implications of Culture Theories
example, we might ask, “Why did he fail?”
The individualists are more likely to answer,
“He does not have the ability” rather than, The long intellectual history of research on cul-
“his coworkers did not give him clear instruc- tural value dimensions has provided multiple
tions.” The collectivists are more likely to see frameworks to be employed in intercultural
the environment as the cause of a behavior. interactions. This is good for both theory and
Success is attributed to the help of others practice. Hofstede’s acceptance of new dimen-
among collectivists and to one’s own ability sions proposed by other researchers (long-term
among individualists. Failure is attributed to orientation proposed by Bond and colleagues
lack of effort among collectivists but to task and indulgence versus restraint presented by
difficulty or bad luck among individualists Minkov) to enrich his first four dimensions,
(Triandis & Bhawuk, 1997). and the GLOBE team’s commitment to build
Collectivists do not view performance as the on constructs presented by Hofstede by adding
product of ability and effort, which is common other dimensions and using newer statistical

tools like hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) intercultural training at all levels – cognitive
that allows to test models at multiple levels, (through culture assimilators), affective
bode well for research on cultural value dimen- (through experiential training), and behavioral
sions. Parsons, Shils, and colleagues did present (through behavioral modification) – to help
a multilevel model of what they called pattern people develop appreciation of other cultures.
variables that were to be employed at individ- Again, employing the culture theories in the
ual, group, and cultural levels. By using HLM process of intercultural training can provide
their model can be tested and refined if neces- the trainees a deeper understanding of why
sary. There is also the possibility of synthesizing people in other cultures act the way they do,
the various models of values, social axioms, and beyond a dos and don’ts perspective (Bhawuk,
social exchange dimensions in what Triandis 2001). Culture theories are not only cognitive
called the subjective culture by focusing on tools but also help understand emotion and
roles, norms, beliefs, and also the historical behavior of people across cultures.
and ecological antecedents of target cultures. Following Kurt Lewin’s dictum that there is
Triandis and Bhawuk (1997) did synthesize nothing so practical as good theory, practi-
many of these theories with individualism and tioners can test each of the cultural value
collectivism, and efforts should be made to syn- dimensions in their intercultural interactions
thesize other theories as has been done in this and decide for themselves what works. Even
chapter to some degree. if researchers disagree, if an idea works in
Triandis (2006) presented some advice for practice, there is no reason not to employ it,
intercultural interaction that can be combined especially since the idea is meaningful both
with culture theories discussed above. First, he theoretically and has some empirical support.
advised that people should suspend judgment Despite various criticisms of individualism and
and wait for information to form a complete collectivism, it is quite clear that they have
picture to be able to appreciate the importance been present from the earliest work of Parsons
of the situation. To this one can add a rule – and colleagues to the most recent research of
reflect on the culture theories discussed above Minkov. Individualism and collectivism also
and see which one can be employed appropri- appear to be hidden as a second-level construct
ately in the situation. Employing a theoretical behind Schwartz’s ten universal value clusters.
approach to make decisions in intercultural In the work of Inkles and Smith (1974), and
contexts can facilitate the interaction process more recently in that of Inglehart (1997), what
by bringing multiple theoretical perspectives to is referred to as tradition captures many
the situation. Honing a theoretical approach aspects of collectivism that contrasts those of
can also raise the awareness of the sojourner to individualism. Researchers should continue to
scan for more information. Thus, a theoretical refine individualism and collectivism beyond
reflection can aid in both obtaining more infor- the four defining attributes, and practitioners
mation and suspending judgment, which should continue to use them in intercultural
would facilitate in better decision making. interactions to test their effectiveness.
Triandis (1990) proposed that since we all
value our own cultural practices, we are all
References
likely to be ethnocentric – our way is the best
way. This leads to categorizing people from Bar-On, R., (1996). The Emotional Quotient
other cultures and their practices in a nega- Inventory (EQ-i): A test of emotional intelligence.
tive light. Triandis (2006) recommended Toronto. Canada: Multi-Health Systems.

Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1995). The role of culture theory performance. Administrative Science Quarterly,
in cross-cultural training: A comparative 51, 1–28.
evaluation of culture-specific, culture-general, DePaulo, B. M. (2006). Singled out: How singles are
and theory-based assimilators. [Unpublished stereotyped, stigmatized, and ignored, and still
doctoral dissertation]. University of Illinois at live happily ever after. New York, NY:
Urbana-Champaign. Macmillan.
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2001). Evolution of cultural Fiske, A. P. (1992). The four elementary forms of
assimilators: Toward theory-based assimilators. sociality: Framework for a unified theory of
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, social relations. Psychological Review, 99(4),
25(2), 141–163. 689–723.
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2008). Toward an Indian Gelfand, M. J., Raver, J. L., Nishii, L., Leslie,
organizational psychology. In K. R. Rao, A. C. L. M., Lun, J., Lim, B. C., . . . & Yamaguchi, S.
Paranjpe, & A. K. Dalal (Eds.), Handbook of (2011). Differences between tight and loose
Indian psychology (pp. 471–491). New Delhi, cultures: A 33-nation study. Science 332(6033),
India: Cambridge University Press. 1100–1104.
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2018). Individualism and Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of
collectivism. In Y. Y. Kim (Gen. Ed.) & K. L. multiple intelligences. London, UK: Heinemann
McKay-Semmler (Assoc. Ed.), The international Goleman, D. (1995), Emotional intelligence
encyclopedia of intercultural communication New York, NY: Bantam Books.
(Vol. 2, pp. 920–929). Malden, MA: Wiley. Hall, E. T. (1959). The silent language. New York,
DOI: 10.1002/9781118783665. NY: Doubleday.
Bond, M. H. (Ed.). (2010). The Oxford handbook of Hall, E. T. (1966). The hidden dimension. New York,
Chinese psychology. Oxford Library of NY: Doubleday.
Psychology. Haas, J. (1998). A brief consideration of cultural
Brewer, M. B., & Chen, Y. R. (2007). Where (who) evolution: Stages, agents, and tinkering –
are collectives in collectivism? Toward Understanding and explaining complexity across
conceptual clarification of individualism and time and cultures. Complexity, 3(3), 12–21.
collectivism. Psychological Review, 114(1), Hofestede, G. (1996). Riding the waves of
133–151. DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.114.1.133 commerce. A test of Trompenaars “model” of
Chinese Cultural Collection. (1987). Chinese values national culture differences. International
and the search for culture-free dimensions of Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20(2),
culture. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 18 189–198.
(2), 143–164. Hofstede, G. (1980, 2001). Culture’s consequences:
Clark, M. S., & Mills, J. (1979). Interpersonal International differences in work-related values.
attraction in exchange and communal Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences:
Psychology, 37(1), 12–24. comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and
Clark, M. S., & Mills, J. (1993). The difference organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand
between communal and exchange relationships: Oaks, CA: Sage. First published 1980.
What it is and is not. Personality and Social Hofstede, G. (2012). Dimensionalizing cultures: The
Psychology Bulletin, 19(6), 684–691. Hofstede model in context. In S. J. Kulich,
Clark, M. S., Mills, J., & Powell, M. C. (1986). M. H. Prosser, & L. P. Weng (Eds.), Value
Keeping track of needs in communal and frameworks at the theoretical crossroads of
exchange relationships. Journal of Personality culture (pp. 183–215). Shanghai, China:
and Social Psychology, 51(2), 333–338. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Côté, S., & Miners, C. T. H. (2006). Emotional Hofstede, G. J., & Pederson, P. (1999). Synthetic
intelligence, cognitive intelligence, and job cultures: Intercultural learning through

simulation games. Simulation & Gaming, 30(4), The relationship between trait psychopathy and
415–440. DOI: 10.1177/104687819903000402 emotional intelligence: A meta-analytic review.
House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 84,
P. W., & Gupta, V. (Eds.). (2004). Culture, 198–203.
leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study Miao, C., Humphrey, R. H., Qian, S., & Pollack,
of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. J. M. (2019). The relationship between
Hwang, K. K. (1987). Face and favor: The Chinese emotional intelligence and the dark triad
power game. American Journal of Sociology, personality traits: A meta-analytic review.
92(4), 944–974. Journal of Research in Personality, 78, 189–197.
Inglehart, R. (1997). Modernization and Minkov, M. (2012). Expanding Hofstede’s model
postmodernization: Cultural, economic, and with new dimensions from the World Values
political change in 43 societies. Princeton Survey and national statistics. In S. J. Kulich,
University Press. M. H. Prosser, & L. P. Weng (Eds.), Value
Inkles, A. (1969). Making men modern: On the frameworks at the theoretical crossroads of
causes and consequences of individual change in culture (pp. 217–237). Shanghai, China:
six developing countries. American Journal of Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Sociology, 75(2), 208–222. Minkov, M., Blagoev, V., & Hofstede, G. (2013).
Inkles, A., & Smith, D. H. (1974). Becoming The boundaries of culture: Do questions about
modern: Individual change in six developing societal norms reveal cultural differences?
countries. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44(7),
Press. 1094–1106.
Kluckhohn, F. R., & Strodtbeck, F. L. (1961). Minkov, M., & Hofstede, G. (2013). Cross-cultural
Variations in value orientations. Evanston, IL: analysis: The science and art of comparing the
Row, Peterson. world’s modern societies and their cultures.
Leung, K., & Bond, M. H. (Eds.). (2009). Beliefs Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
around the world: Advancing research on social Morgan, L. L. (1877). Ancient society. New York,
axioms. New York, NY: Springer. NY: D. Appleton.
Lomax, A., & Berkowitz, N. (1972). The Murdock, G. P., & Provost, C. (1973).
evolutionary taxonomy of culture. Science, Measurement of cultural complexity. Ethnology,
177(4045), 228–239. 12(4), 379–392.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and Oyserman, D., Coon, H. M., & Kemmelmeier, M.
the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and (2002). Rethinking individualism and
motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224–253. collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.98.2.224 assumptions and meta-analyses. Psychological
Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (2016). Bulletin, 128(1), 3–72. DOI: 10.1037//0033-
The ability model of emotional intelligence: 2909.128.1.3
Principles and updates. Emotion Review, 8(4), Parsons, T., & Shils, E. (Eds.). (1951). Toward a
290–300. general theory of action: Theoretical foundations
Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1993). The intelligence for the social sciences. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
of emotional intelligence. Intelligence, 17(4), University Press.
pp. 433–442. Pelto, P. J. (1968). The differences between “tight”
McGuire, R. H. (1983). Breaking down cultural and “loose” societies. Transaction, 5(5), 37–40.
complexity: Inequality and heterogeneity. In Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values.
Advances in archaeological method and theory New York, NY: Free Press.
(pp. 91–142). Academic Press. Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional
Megías, A., Gómez-Leal, R., Gutiérrez-Cobo, M. intelligence. Imagination, cognition and
J., Cabello, R., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2018). personality, 9(3), 185–211.

Sánchez-Álvarez, N., Extremera, N., & Fernández- R. Brislin, S. Bochner, & W. Lonner (Eds.),
Berrocal, P. (2016). The relation between Cross-cultural perspectives on learning (pp.
emotional intelligence and subjective well-being: 39–77). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
A meta-analytic investigation. The Journal of Triandis, H. C. (1989). The self and social behavior
Positive Psychology, 11(3), 276–285. in differing cultural contexts. Psychological
Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content Review, 96, 506–520. DOI: 10.1037/0033-
and structure of values: Theory and empirical 295x.96.3.506
tests in 20 countries. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Triandis, H. C. (1990). Cross-cultural studies of
Advances in experimental social psychology individualism and collectivism. In J. Bremen
(Vol. 25, pp. 1–65). New York, NY: Academic (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation, 1989
Press. (pp. 41–133). Lincoln: University of Nebraska
Schwartz, S. H. (2012a). Robustness and Press.
fruitfulness of a theory of universals in individual Triandis, H. C. (1990). Theoretical concepts that are
values (The PVQ). In S. J. Kulich, M. H. applicable to the analysis of ethnocentrism.
Prosser, & L. P. Weng (Eds.), Value frameworks In R. W. Brislin (Ed.), Applied cross-cultural
at the theoretical crossroads of culture (pp. psychology (pp. 34–55). Newbury Park, CA:
295–338). Shanghai, China: Shanghai Foreign Sage.
Language Education Press. Triandis, H. C. (1994). Culture and social behavior.
Schwartz, S. H. (2012b). Mapping and interpreting New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
cultural differences around the world. In S. J. Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and
Kulich, M. H. Prosser, & L. P. Weng (Eds.), collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Value frameworks at the theoretical crossroads of Triandis, H. C. (2006). Cultural intelligence in
culture (pp. 339–379). Shanghai, China: organizations. Group & Organization
Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. Management, 31(1), 20–26.
Schwartz, S. H. (2012c). Basic human values: Their Triandis, H. C., & Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1997). Culture
content and structure across cultures. In S. J. theory and the meaning of relatedness. In P. C.
Kulich, M. H. Prosser, & L. P. Weng (Eds.), Earley & M. Erez (Eds.), New perspectives on
Value frameworks at the theoretical crossroads of international industrial/organizational psychology
culture (pp. 257–294). Shanghai, China: (pp. 13–52). New York, NY: The New
Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. Lexington Free Press.
Smith, D. H., & Inkeles, A. (1966). The OM scale: Trompenaars, F. (1985). The organization of
A comparative socio-psychological measure of meaning and the meaning of organization.
individual modernity. Sociometry, 353–377. [Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation]. The Wharton
Thorndike, E. (1911). Animal intelligence. London, School of the University of Pennsylvania.
UK: Macmillan. Trompenaars, F. (1993). Riding the waves of culture:
Triandis, H. C. (1975). Culture training, cognitive understanding cultural diversity in business.
complexity, and interpersonal attitudes. In London, UK: The Economist Books.

5 An Analysis of Methods
Sandra M. Fowler and Masahisa Yamaguchi
The world of intercultural training has no longer trainer-dependent in respect to inter-

changed in the last fifty years. Content has cultural competency where a trainer would pro-
not changed as much as delivery – which is vide a theory or a single view and the trainee
becoming more technologically sophisticated will learn only that one construct and its use.
every day. Technology has allowed trainers Technology has become a critical tool in enrich-
to have a greater reach in providing tools to ing both the trainers and trainees in the delivery
help learners achieve intercultural proficiency of a palette of constructs and theories in pro-
regardless of physical distance. Even content viding a stronger framework of intercultural
has become more precisely tailored to clients’ training.
needs and – based on research – is more scien- The lifework of an intercultural trainer is to
tifically sound. The realization that the inter- facilitate the development of intercultural
cultural agenda has become the world’s competence to promote successful, effective
agenda is truer today than ten years ago. “Cul- interactions in a variety of intercultural situ-
tural competence while sharing the planet with ations that accomplish the goals of the individ-
others is no longer merely a nicety but a neces- ual, the organization, and in some cases, the
sity,” (Bennett, 2015, xxiv). nation. Training methods for accomplishing
Technology has also shaped the way trainees that goal are part of an intercultural timeline
conceptualize intercultural situations prior to (Bennett, 2015, pp. 897–903) that began in the
experience. Trainees have access to information 1940s and 1950s (labeled the Decades of Early
of vast intercultural experiences before going Interdisciplinary Explorations). The term “cul-
through the actual training via the Internet. ture shock” was first used by Cora DuBois in
The Internet has become a medium where indi- 1951 and limited training was established in
viduals around the world not only access infor- those decades for both the public and private
mation pertaining to the culture of interest but sectors. The decade of the 1960s saw rapidly
also share and exchange their own experience expanded research and training to address
having gone through the intercultural inter- intercultural needs. Important books were
actions themselves. The sharing of experience published such as Edward T. Hall’s The
and knowledge through storytelling has existed Hidden Dimension. The US Peace Corps,
for many years but was limited to communities created in 1961, stimulated an interest in
living in close proximity. However, the developing interactive intercultural training
Internet allows individuals to freely exchange methods for their volunteers. In the 1960s,
their intercultural experiences with other people the Culture Assimilator was developed under
online regardless of physical distance between the auspices of the US Navy as was the
them. It provides trainees multiple perspectives Contrast-American Training Model (also
on an intercultural situation, which in return known as the Mr. Khan exercise), which was
accelerates their actual learning. Trainees are developed for the US Army.

An Analysis of Methods for Intercultural Training 193
Over the ensuing decades, intercultural selection of methods, and how traditional
training methods have undergone growth and methods can be updated with technology to
innovation. Methods found in other disciplines meet modern needs. Finally, we examine how
have been adapted for intercultural training. culture shapes the choice of methods and issues
Training methods are no more or no less related to training across and about cultures.
important than the content and design of a Following this, we discuss how knowledge,
training program. They are the means by skill, and attitudes shape the selection of inter-
which trainers convey the cognitive founda- cultural training methods, and also note the
tions of intercultural competence and address significance of personal and cultural preferences
the skills, attitudes, and behaviors to bridge in mediating training outcomes. The section is
cultural differences. Mastering a variety of summarized with a Venn diagram identifying
methods is essential because no single method the interaction between the desired outcomes,
will work all of the time with every client for participant data, and situational factors.
all desired outcomes. In the second section, we analyze eighteen
In the abstract, methods have no emotional intercultural methods currently being used
loading. "Methods per se are neutral. In them- including seven cognitive methods (lectures,
selves, methods are not pleasant or threatening written materials, online-based training, films,
or sentimental or idealistic – but content can self-assessment, case studies, and critical inci-
be and trainers can be" (Fowler & Mumford, dents), three active methods (role playing,
1995, p. xiv). Whatever methods a trainer simulation games, and intercultural exercises),
chooses are brought to life with the trainer's six intercultural methods (contrast culture
style. If the trainer tends to be supportive and training, culture assimilator, cross-cultural
nurturing, a role play that could be quite con- analysis, cross-cultural dialogues, areas stud-
frontational will likely end smoothly, with ies, and immersion), and two other methods
most participants feeling good about the (visual imagery and art and culture). The pur-
experience. Conversely, a nonthreatening case pose of this chapter is not to describe each
study can be acrimonious in the hands of a method in detail; there are many volumes that
trainer who is comfortable with controversy serve that purpose, such as Fowler and Mum-
and who holds that intercultural training needs ford (1995, 1999a); Gardenswartz and Rowe
to be tough to prepare participants for the real (2010); Gochenour (1993); Hofstede, Pedersen,
world. According to F. Silberstein, “no and Hofstede (2002); Kohls (1995) and Kohls
method is any better than the trainer” (per- and Knight (1994); Rae (1999); Seelye (1996);
sonal communication, February 22, 2003). Singelis (1998); and Stringer and Cassiday
The chapter is divided into two major (2003). Rather, this analysis is meant to exam-
sections. In the first section, various issues ine current trends in training, the contexts in
related to methodology and outcomes of inter- which methods are applied, and the factors
cultural training are discussed. In this section that affect the choice of one method over
the typology of intercultural training is pre- another. Specific methods will be grouped by
sented, which integrates aspects of culture- their style or purpose and analyzed individu-
specific and culture-general training with didac- ally. Each analysis provides an assessment of
tic and experiential learning styles. A brief dis- strengths and weaknesses, typical outcomes,
cussion of the process of experiential learning is adaptability, ways the methods have or could
also presented. Issues pertaining to cognitive be used, availability of the method in off-the-
affective and behavioral training are examined. shelf versions, and resources for finding out
We then discuss how context shapes the more about it.

194 sandra m. fowler and masahisa yamaguchi
Table 5.1 Typology of intercultural training

Methodology
Method and Technique Didactic Experiential
Culture- Didactic culture- Experiential
What is a method? The terms method and
General general culture-general
methodology are frequently misused.
• lecture • culture-general
A methodology is a body of methods and rules
• discussion simulations
followed in a science or profession, or the study • videotapes • self-assessments
of principles and procedures in a particular • culture-general
field. Intercultural training comprises a method- assimilators
ology. A method, on the other hand, is defined Culture- Didactic culture- Experiential
as a procedure or process for achieving an end. Specific specific culture-specific
Trainers seem to like to refer to methods as • area orientation • bicultural
methodologies, but this is incorrect usage of briefings communication
the term. They also confuse the word technique, • language workshops
which is more properly applied to the manner training • culture-specific
• culture-specific simulations
in which technical training details are handled,
assimilators • culture-specific
with the terms method and methodology. An
• culture-specific role plays
example of a technique in intercultural training
reading
is the use of triads in discussing a case study.
The method is case study, the technique is
triads, and both of them are part of intercul-
criteria, they created four categories: didactic
tural training methodology.
culture-general, didactic culture-specific, experi-
ential culture-general, and experiential culture-
specific, seen in Table 5.1.
Typology of Intercultural Training
Gudykunst et al. (1996) provide a brief over-
Methodology
view of some methods that might be used for
An integrated training program can be concep- each category. For example, under didactic
tualized as multiple layers. Although it may be culture-general, they list lecture and discussion,
difficult for novice trainers to keep all of the videotapes, and culture-general assimilators. In
layers in mind, knowing these layers becomes experiential culture-general, they cite culture-
part of the competence that experienced general simulations and self-assessments. For
trainers bring to the learning situation. culture-specific training, they list area orienta-
A list of behavioral competencies for intercul- tion briefings, language training, culture-
tural trainers developed by Paige (1993) includes specific assimilators, and culture-specific read-
the “ability to design integrated training pro- ing as didactic methods. Under experiential
grams having the appropriate mix of experien- methods, they cite bicultural communication
tial and didactic methods, culture-specific and workshops, culture-specific simulations, and
culture-general content, cognitive/affective/ culture-specific role plays.
behavioral-learning activities” (p. 185). Gudy- Another way of thinking about these dimen-
kunst, Guzley, and Hammer (1996) created a sions is that didactic and experiential refer to
typology based on two of the central issues men- the process by which training is delivered.
tioned by Paige (1993): didactic experiential and Culture-general and culture-specific refer to
culture-general–culture-specific. Using these the content of the training. Each deserves

Concrete
Experience
Active Reflective
Experimentation Observation
Abstract
Conceptualization
Figure 5.1 Kolb's learning preference cycle.
careful consideration when methods for is created through the transformation of

delivering the training are being selected after experience (Kolb, 1984, p. 43). Experiential
the needs of the trainees and the desired out- learning has been shown to overcome negative
comes of the training are established. factors such as social loafing, groupthink,
One of the mistakes being made repeatedly overdependence on a dominant leader, over-
in intercultural training is the reliance on either commitment to goals, and diffusion of respon-
didactic or experiential methods, to the exclu- sibility while improving team effectiveness
sion of the other. Effective training incorpor- when teams intentionally focus on learning
ates a blend of both. Good training adapts to (Kayes, Kayes, & Kolb, 2005). After experi-
the preferences of its audience, and Western encing a simulation, teams were found to have
culture, particularly in the United States, sup- knowledge about the functions of teams in
ports active methods. Successful training in the general, experience regarding the functions of
United States requires active methods that are its team specifically, and self-awareness of how
learner centered and highly participatory. It it learns from experience.
must be noted that even didactic training (in Many trainers use Kolb's experiential learn-
which the goal is to instruct) can be made ing cycle (Kolb, 1984; Kolb & Lewis, 1986),
lively and interactive. According to Thiagara- seen in Figure 5.1. This four-part framework
jan (2003b), “The training method that addresses the four learning styles: concrete
receives the most complaints and ridicule is experience, reflective observation, abstract
the lecture. However, it is also the most popu- conceptualization, and active experimentation.
lar training method; [it] provides the instructor Selecting training methods and techniques and
and the learners with consistency and effi- keeping this model in mind can ensure that
ciency.” Lectures can be made interactive and each learning preference is addressed.
highly motivating. Thiagarajan suggests that if Trainers can design the training process to
the trainer knows the subject and has an out- begin at any entry point, based on the predom-
line, it is relatively easy to switch from straight inant learning style preferences of the partici-
lecture to participant reflection and involve- pants. To ensure that each part of the Learning
ment and back again (see the lecture analysis Cycle is addressed, when training about cul-
later in the chapter). tures, trainers can conduct a simulation to
provide a common experience. Participants
Process of Experiential Learning. Kolb defines then examine the experience, generalize the
“learning” as “the process whereby knowledge learning (at this point, theory, information,

and models are introduced), then apply what the style they prefer and increases the chance
has been learned. This example starts the that they will engage fully in the training. If it is
learning cycle with active experimentation. known that most of the trainees prefer active
Some data have been collected about the pre- experimentation, starting with a lecture on
ferred learning styles of certain cultural groups. theory will soon result in glazed eyes, and it
For example, as a generalization, if the clients may be difficult to bring trainees’ minds back
are US American managers, the trainer might into the training room. Wherever the trainer
start with a concrete experience followed by the starts, however, the cycle must be used thor-
presentation of a model. On the other hand, if oughly. Each learning component of a program
the clients are European managers, the training should offer an opportunity for reflecting on
would probably get off to a better start if the experience, generalizing the conceptual learn-
trainer first reviewed the research, beginning the ing, actively experimenting with the ideas or
cycle with abstract conceptualization. skills, and participating in a structured experi-
Where the trainer starts in the cycle also ence that allows a discussion of feelings as well
depends on the subject matter. Multicultural as of thoughts and ideas. This is sometimes
teambuilding might begin with the trainer pre- referred to as “training around the wheel.”
senting information about team formation and What do these learning styles and methods
tasks and cultural issues as they affect teams. suggest about the qualities trainers need to be
This information is then applied to the partici- successful at each turn of Kolb's (1984) wheel?
pant’s situation through a simulated activity There are certain qualities that may make
(such as a meeting or an in-box activity) or a real trainers more effective. For example, empathy
situation the group faces, and then the group is is a quality participants appreciate from a
debriefed. This example starts with abstract con- facilitator of a training activity (concrete
ceptualization and then continues around the experience). The facilitator of reflective obser-
cycle to work with other learning styles. vation needs to be clear and patient to give
J. M. Bennett (Bennett & Bennett, 2003) has participants time and space to reflect. “Experi-
developed a list of instructional activities that ence itself does not teach, people learn from
support different aspects of the learning. “Con- reflecting on their experience” (Tjosfold, 1991,
crete Experience” draws on small group discus- p. 189). When a facilitator is presenting the
sion, examples, autobiography, trigger films, theory and concepts (abstract conceptualiz-
exercises, introductions, guided imagery, music, ing), expertise and credentials are very import-
video graphics, and peer teaching. In “Reflect- ant. And finally, active experimenters want
ive Observation,” use is made of journals, dis- enthusiasm and coaching – someone who will
cussion, brainstorming, thought questions, allow them to be self-directed. Trainers need to
reflection papers, observations, checklists, bring these personal qualities to each method
worksheets, and structured tasks. “Abstract they use in a training program.
Conceptualization” involves lectures, papers, A study has shown that cultural intelligence
projects, analogies, model building, theory con- (Ang & Van Dyne 2008; Earley & Ang, 2003),
struction, references, research, and reading. an individual’s capability to function effect-
“Active Experimentation” requires projects, ively in culturally diverse contexts, as an
fieldwork, homework, laboratory, case study, important set of learning capabilities to which
simulations and games, practice assignments, an individual translates his or her international
self-paced learning, and demonstrations. work experience into learning outcomes
The entry method is important because it through the experiential learning processes of
captures the attention of the participants in experiencing, reflecting, observing, and

experimenting (Ng, Van Dyne, & Ang, 2009). for China described by Renwick (1999) in
Individuals with high levels of cultural intelli- Volume 2 of the Intercultural Sourcebook. This
gence are better at balancing and integrating, eight-day program is filled with experience-
and at grasping and transforming experience. based activities integrated with more cognitive
They are also better able to participate actively training. It is one of the best examples of the
in the four processes of the Experiential Learn- desirable blend of active and cognitive
ing Model: Concrete experience, reflective training that has been published to date. Ren-
observation, abstract conceptualization, and wick warns that the methods, exercises, and
active experimentation. activities should not be given serious consider-
ation until a great deal of planning has
already taken place. Once a trainer has identi-
Culture-Specific and Culture-General
fied the issues of the organization, chosen host
Training
nationals who will be involved, conducted a
Culture-specific and culture-general are compli- needs assessment, determined the training
mentary types of training (Bathurst, 2015). The objectives, created the design, and selected
distinction between them is that culture specific and prepared staff, Renwick notes that the
refers to in-depth content for one culture appropriate methods almost suggest
whereas a culture-general approach organizes themselves.
the content material to promote generalizabil-
ity. It is the difference between gift-giving prac-
tices in Japan versus hospitality, generosity and
Cognitive Affective and Behavioral
gift giving in Asian, African, and North Ameri-
Training
can cultures. In other words, the purpose of
providing culture-specific training is to train The final dimension in Paige’s (1993) behav-
people to interact with people from a particular ioral competencies for designing an integrated
culture, whereas, culture-general training does program is sometimes referred to as KSAs –
not reference a particular culture but rather knowledge, skills, and attitudes. In the
sensitizes trainees to cross-cultural differences broadest sense, it is very difficult, if not impos-
and intercultural problems in general (Brislin, sible, to parse these when designing training
Cushner, Cherrie, & Yong, 1986). because any activity will involve each of the
Content can be provided with a variety of three to some extent. The key is to decide
methods. Although culture-specific area stud- which is most significant to the desired out-
ies training used to be considered a cognitive come and focus on that without ignoring the
process that is no longer the case unless the others. For example, if the goal is to teach an
goal is only to transfer information. In that intercultural negotiation skill, participants
situation, computers, tablets, and the like need to practice the skill. However, the trainer
make excellent vehicles for providing the also needs to take into account the partici-
necessary information. However, if the goal is pants’ attitudes toward negotiating across cul-
intercultural effectiveness, performance in tures and how they feel in the training setting
multicultural settings, sensitivity, and estab- when they are trying unfamiliar skills and,
lishing cross-cultural relationships, these perhaps, using a more risky or self-revealing
cannot be done by computer. Face-to-face method such as role playing. Since desired
training or coaching is required. outcomes (KSAs) deeply affect the trainer’s
An example of highly interactive culture- choice of method, they will be addressed in
specific training is the pre-departure program greater depth later in the chapter.

Contexts and Methods kinds of problems (Nickols, 1990) or a place

for people to be creative and dream big. Each
The context or circumstances surrounding a
training situation is different and will chal-
training program play a major role in which
lenge the trainer with its own mix of contextual
methods are applied and how well the training
issues that trainers need to consider in develop-
is accepted and used. Trainers are most often
ing integrated training.
working on a performance deficit – the differ-
Training materials – written manuals with
ence between actual performance and poten-
reproducible overheads and handouts, videos
tial performance – whether the trainee is an
and manuals, simulations, compilations of
educator, manager, family member, refugee,
exercises, and online training packages – are
or exchange student who needs help to live
being published at an amazing rate and most
up to his or her potential. Trainers should
recently, have become available online.
ask their clients about what is needed to make
Although these are immensely helpful to
the trainee the most effective he or she can be
trainers in providing content and methods
(C. Grove, personal communication, October
ideas, almost all trainers need to customize
14, 2002). When cultural information or cross-
commercially produced materials to meet
cultural skills are identified as needs, many
client needs. The customizing can be major
methods used and developed by intercultural-
modification or minor tweaking, but it is
ists are effective and efficient. Trainees who
almost always necessary. Paradoxically, clients
regard the training not as punishment but as
often do not want to hear that hours have been
recognition of their potential are likely to be
spent customizing a piece of training. They just
more accepting and supportive.
want the trainer to make it relevant, do it, and
Another context for which training is fre-
do it well. Consequently, a consideration for
quently requested is to solve an existing, iden-
trainers is the amount of time it is likely to take
tified problem or to prevent future problems.
to customize a training method. Adaptability
L. Gardenswartz (personal communication,
is examined later in the chapter in the analysis
October 14, 2002) reports that the diversity
of specific training methods.
training she and Anita Rowe conduct is either
proactive or reactive: Something has gone
Traditional and Modern Methods
wrong in an organization, or the organization
does not want to be left behind or face a Traditional training methods are the tried-
lawsuit. She said she feels that she is facilitat- and-true methods that have worked in many
ing the trainees’ harmonious work together, fields of endeavor for a very long time. They
like a conductor working with a symphony include such methods as lectures, case studies,
orchestra. Her training is highly experiential. role plays, simulations, and critical incidents.
She uses diagnostic tools, exercises with vari- Video, self-assessment instruments, internet-
ous sized groups, and a lot of moving around based training – anything that has been
to explore, analyze, and apply. developed more recently – could be considered
Difficulties of some kind are the motivating a modern training method. Many traditional
factors for many training programs. Whatever training methods are being brought into the
methods the trainer selects, the training should twenty-first century with technology, such as
be framed as a safe haven within which it is distance learning and streaming videos. For
permissible to remedy excusable knowledge or example, case studies can be presented on a
skill deficiencies; in other words, forgivable streaming platform or from an instructor

located remotely using a whiteboard platform known this but have occasionally erred in the
to interact with students and have them pre- direction of providing an exercise thinking that
sent their findings online. Simulations can also it is for the good of the client. Even when
be carried out online through a software pro- exercises are directly applicable, trainers have
gram and each input can be monitored and not always taken the time to make that con-
recorded where the results can be presented nection clear. The margin for tolerance of this
instantaneously at the end of the program. kind of lapse disappeared long ago.
Traditional methods have their place, but Trainers can have a powerful influence on
unless they are current, on topic, and cost leaders in business, government, and educa-
effective, they will not be a welcome part of a tion. Instilling and honing intercultural man-
training program designed for busy managers, agement and leadership skills can be
harried educators, or stressed students. transforming, but classroom training is only
In response to a need for information, the one of the methods for achieving those skills.
traditional approach might have been a lecture Increasingly the trend is for coaching, consult-
supplemented by written material. Much of ing, or advising. Sebera (2015) described the
this information transfer can be done now elements of the coaching process and con-
online. Training time can be used for integrat- cluded that the goal of intercultural coaching,
ing and applying the information that has been which is intercultural competence, can be
provided online. Training discussions provide reached when the trainee becomes competent
the space to talk through, share information, without depending on the coach.
and be clear about what the situation is and Since the learning professional is being
what is needed for the future (C. Ryffel, per- asked to take on the roles of counselor, strat-
sonal communication, August 21, 2002). egist, and coach, trainers should carry a big
In the past, discussions designed to integrate toolbox but keep it closed until it is needed.
information might well have been in small Training can be seen as a set piece and coach-
groups, dyads, or triads. However, DiSabatino ing as fluid, but many of the same skills are
and Oliver (2002) contend that many trainers needed for both (C. Grove, personal commu-
are using outdated tools. They claim that most nication, October 14, 2002). Facilitating,
managers do not want to participate in one- guiding, and putting the learner in charge are
on-one discussions of concepts and theories. keys to success, and many training methods
They need trainers to be experts, to understand offer opportunities to do just that. For
the corporate business, and to be able to relate example, a role play in which participants
to business demands. Trainers who adhere to practice a new skill such as appreciative
the traditional training worldview that insists listening will take on a life of its own once
that activities need to be used to make training the trainer puts the structure and scenario in
active or provide variety are wasting partici- place. The best thing the trainer can do at that
pants’ time. “If an activity doesn’t add abso- point is to get out of the way. The debriefing is
lute value to the session, don’t do it” the place to use facilitation and coaching skills.
(DiSabatino & Oliver, 2002, p. 16). They point
out that most managers have demanding jobs, Updating Methods to Meet Modern Needs.
and a training session is only one of their many Technology is having an impact on training
priorities. In fact, they say that unless the exer- methods. Internet-based training is improving
cise applies directly to the participants’ world, daily. There are still some drawbacks to using
it should be deleted. Trainers have always internet-based training modules. Computers

require technical knowledge and ability that learning teams. Approximately 85 percent of
not everyone has. However, technology is new teachers are white females in their twen-
taking trainers in directions they cannot even ties. There is a strong movement in American
dream of today. Online training has slowly education to place them in multiracial and
been shifting away on relying on computers multicultural schools so their learning is
to deliver content. Now tablets and smart- focused by experience.
phones are possible tools in offering the same Future learning will be a blend of the trad-
learning experience one would have in doing itional and modern. As C. Ryffel commented,
an online training on a computer. Interface has “We are not very good at it yet – we need to
become much more user friendly where key- keep getting better faster” (personal communi-
boards are no longer a key tool for interactiv- cation, August 21, 2002). A prophetic state-
ity. The use of voice or swiping of the screen ment because in the years since 2002, trainers
with one’s fingers has replaced the need to type have gotten better, technology has seen vast
out each word. The simplification of the inter- improvements, and the interconnected world
activity tools on these platforms will allow demands intercultural competence supported
computer users of all skill levels to partake in by intercultural training.
these online training programs.
More than ever before, training methods
The Impact of Culture on Choice
must have a clear relationship to the bottom
of Methods
line of not only business, but the professional
worlds that need training expertise in areas The most significant influence on intercultural
such as diplomacy, development, and educa- training is culture. The influence of culture
tion. One way this is being done is to take the affects all aspects of training, including the
trainee out of the training room, the student trainer, the participant assessment, and both
off the campus, the volunteer out of the class- the process and the content of training.
room. The US Peace Corps is using The impact of culture on communication
community-based training to prepare volun- styles is quite clear. Some Asian cultures tend
teers for service. Rather than receiving to be circular and indirect. This communica-
training at a training center with all trainees tion style works well in collective, high-context
together, a few trainees with a language cultures. In the more individualistic, low-
teacher-facilitator live in communities with context cultures, such as Canada and the
host families. They use their host families United States, the communication style is
and communities as sources of cultural infor- linear and direct. Methods may reflect these
mation and language practice, and they work differences. For example, storytelling in an
on technical training materials individually indirect, circular culture may never come to
and as a group. the point because listeners are expected to
A program that prepares teachers to teach in figure out the point for themselves – the point
overseas schools and in multicultural class- is implicit in the story. In a more direct culture,
rooms, offered at George Mason University individuals want to be sure listeners get the
(J. Levy, personal communication, November point, so they give it to them explicitly – often
21, 2002), also sends teachers off campus into at the beginning of the story.
the schools. They learn intercultural communi- US Americans prefer a detached communi-
cation by doing it, using the methods of men- cation style (“just the facts, ma’am’’), whereas
toring, action research, reflective practice, and Latin Americans are more likely to use an

attached or emotionally expressive style, with Culture’s impact is seen in so many aspects
issues being discussed with verve and emotion. of training. For example, there are cultural
Procedural and personal communication styles preferences in learning styles that may affect
are related to the differences between tight and sequencing in training programs. Other cul-
loose cultures. Triandis (1994) describes tight tural values that will affect how participants
cultures (such as that of Japan) in which people respond to training methods include respect
are expected to behave according to norms, and for authority, the emphasis on group over indi-
norms are reliably imposed so that deviation vidual (or vice versa), harmony and collabor-
from them is likely to be punished. In a loose ation or competition, time orientation, and
culture (such as that of the United States), devi- fatalism, to mention just a few. One way to
ation from norms is tolerated to a greater take culture into account when choosing
degree. In a tight culture, procedural communi- methods for a training program is to ask if a
cation is valued. It is expected that preexisting particular method is likely to offend a cultural
policies and procedures can be used to solve norm. Does it fit cultural preferences for com-
issues. Following the rules is important in both munication and learning? When the answers
society and communication. In a loose culture, are not at hand, it is important to contact a
personal communication is more the norm. cultural broker who can answer these ques-
Issues are resolved by understanding and tions. As Ramsey (1999) suggests, training is
acting in a personal, case-by-case manner. anchored in the processes in which it is pro-
These cultural communication differences are duced, and it is impossible to separate the two.
evident in how individuals play simulation She goes on to say, “If we intend our programs
games. In a tight culture, the rules are very to be of the highest quality and to speak to our
important. In a loose culture, players often audiences in ways they can receive most effect-
bend the rules or ignore them altogether. ively, then our ability to adapt our methods to
Trainers have to be secure with their method the cultural specificity of an audience is a
and flexible enough to run a simulation game matter of ethical concern” (p. 324).
where either rules are closely or loosely
followed or find an alternative that is less
Choice of Methods for Training Across
stressful for them to run.
and About Cultures
Fear of shame and loss of face are important
considerations in some cultures. When this is a Intercultural training may be training across
concern of participants in a training program, cultures, training about culture, or both.
it would be inappropriate to start training by Training across cultures occurs when the
asking for self-revelations or opinions. To be trainer is working with a group of people from
successful, training for such a group would a single other culture (e.g., a German training
likely begin with theory and models and build Chinese) or, as is most common these days, a
toward application activities. In groups where group of people from many cultures. The
issues of face are not as challenging, partici- trainer may be teaching team building or com-
pants might prefer to have a reason to learn puter programming, but the audience is from
theory and models. Starting with an experien- other cultures, which makes this training
tial activity (requiring individuals to demon- across cultures. In fact, most trainers find
strate unfamiliar behaviors) that shows the themselves in this situation in most societies
need for such knowledge would be more these days; groups of monocultural trainees
powerful for them. are rare.

Training about cultures, on the other hand, training both across and about culture. Many
teaches people the subject of intercultural readers of the chapter no doubt engage in this
relations either from a culture-general or activity daily.
culture-specific perspective or from both per-
spectives. The training may be for managers,
about cultural diversity, and approached in a
Outcomes of Intercultural Trainings
culture-general way. The follow-up sessions The choice of a method for a particular seg-
may be about understanding the managers’ ment of intercultural training must be related
Latino clients, which would be culture- to the desired outcomes. The goals are deter-
specific training about culture. In the inter- mined through needs assessment with the
national arena, this would also include client and participants, looking at filling def-
culture-specific pre-departure training, for icits or building potential. The desired out-
sojourners in business or education, about comes should be stated as behavioral
the culture within which they will be living. objectives: what the participant will be able
Training about culture may also be culture- to do after the training. Trainers and clients
general such as training for service providers must be clear about the desired outcomes
for a European nongovernmental organiza- before the training program is designed, and
tion (NGO) doing relief work for a variety be aware that personal and cultural prefer-
of countries. Of course, training a multicul- ences of the trainees also affect the outcomes
tural group about intercultural relations is of intercultural training. Table 5.2 provides
Table 5.2 Desired training outcomes, suggested methods, and evaluation activities
Desired
outcomes Training methods and activities Evaluation activities
Knowledge Readings, songs, lectures, Written exams, oral exams, application
(facts and brainstorming, TV, radio, audiotapes, in other training activities
information) videos, computer, programmed
Learner will instruction, debates, panels, interviews,
understand galleries and work stations, field trips
Skills (manual, Demonstration or instructions followed Observation on the job or in practicum
thinking, by practice with feedback to correct or role play, observation checklist
planning, etc.) mistakes; role playing, in-basket might be useful; case studies with
Learner will be exercises, drills, games, coaching, case decision making; development of
able to do studies, worksheets, simulations product: training design, newsletter,
something media materials, drama
Attitudes Discussion, role plays, role modeling, Indirectly, by observing behaviors:
Learner will values-clarification exercises, films and interpersonal relations, approaches to
adopt new videos, case studies, critical incidents, issues and problems, choices of
values, debates, games, self-analysis, feedback, activities
perspectives simulations, field trips
Source: Adapted by the Centre for Development and Population Activities (2002) from work by
M. Knowles (1970, p. 294). In addition to this version, the original also appears in Kohls (1995, p. 138).

some guidance on which methods address dif- more in-depth understanding of the informa-
ferent desired outcomes. We are reminded that tion being transmitted than if they simply
“great design begins with the end in mind by read or viewed it on their own. This is par-
answering the following question: What will ticularly salient when training about domestic
participants be able to do at the end of the diversity in the United States, where facili-
training as a specific result of having partici- tated discussion is essential.
pated in the training?” (Mikk, 2015). Acquisition of knowledge does not have to
be passive. Trainees may learn about foods
and language related to foods by visiting
Knowledge
target-culture restaurants. They can gain
If acquisition of knowledge is the desired out- information they need through interviews.
come (such as the history of race relations, the They may participate with others in viewing
economic development of a particular coun- videos, TV programs, or films from particular
try, how meetings are conducted in another points of view and discussing their
culture, or what is a culturally appropriate observations.
hostess gift when invited to someone’s home Knowledge acquisition is rarely the only
for dinner), trainees can be assigned reading, desired outcome of intercultural training.
listen to a panel, watch a video, or do research However, other factors, such as limited time
on the Internet. In pre-departure training in for training and cost to the organization, may
businesses, standard workbooks or other make it the most realistic outcome in some
written materials are often modified for the situations.
particular country and job and personalized
for accompanying family members and other
Skills
changeable factors. Foreign Affairs personnel
can visit the Overseas Briefing Center in Developing skills in intercultural training
Washington, DC, to read culture guides and requires training time and training expertise.
post files that describe housing and schools, Skills might include looking at situations
look at school yearbooks, and watch videos from more than one perspective, identifying
made at the post, to learn about life in a cultural bias in job interviews, learning how
specific country for foreign officials and their to learn in confusing situations, using more
families. (or less) direct communication in a specific
Acquisition of knowledge may or may not setting, and so on.
require hands-on training. The exact infor- Skill development requires learning what the
mation needed may not be available in writ- new skills are (through explanations, demon-
ten form or on video. A training program strations, videos, reading) and then practicing
may need to provide speakers, panels, or them with trainer feedback. Trainees may
one-on-one discussions with experts, persons observe a typical decision-making meeting in
from the target culture, employees or family the target culture and then role play chairing
members with recent experience in the target such a meeting. Negotiators may discover how
culture, or alumni of exchange programs. In cultural factors inhibit success through a simu-
these cases, there is more opportunity for lation, study key cultural differences, and
trainees to get their specific questions practice applying the knowledge in role plays.
answered, discuss issues, and perhaps gain Teachers may learn about different

communication styles and apply them to dis- Attitude changes are not easily evaluated.
cipline issues in practice-teaching situations. They may have to be observed over time in
Skills training requires the trainer to know behaviors, interpersonal relations, and
the target skills and effective ways to coach approaches to issues or problems. As such, it
and give feedback. Trainees must have time is difficult to evaluate the degree of success of
to spend in the training setting and to recog- the training at the end of the program.
nize the importance of the skills they are An example of a method addressing atti-
learning. tudes is having monolingual participants who
Language must be considered a core skill. will work with new-language learners engage
However, being skilled in a language is no in the learning and use of the Piglish language
guarantee that the person can handle the cul- (Hartley & Lapinsky, 1999). This activity was
tural nuances to be successful. Other essential developed by Youth for Understanding Inter-
skills considered to be important are: listening/ national Exchange for training volunteers and
attentiveness, observing thoughtfully, reflect- host families. The participants learn strange
ing or mindfulness, perspective taking, and vocabulary, hard-to-make sounds, and non-
communicating (both verbally and nonverbal behaviors that permit them to tell the
verbally) (Deardorff, 2015b, p. 218). story of the Three Little Pigs. It is difficult,
confusing, and sometimes embarrassing. The
debriefing after the activity helps participants
Attitudes
develop empathy for those speaking a new
If the outcome of the training is that trainees language at work, in school, or in their homes
will modify their attitudes, methods need to and develop strategies for helping second-
touch the trainees’ belief systems, often language learners.
intensely. For example, to value group process Choices of training methods must be appro-
over individual decision-making, it may be priate to the training outcomes. They must
necessary to involve trainees in an exercise in also take into consideration how much time
which the group will score higher than any of is available, how many trainees will be in the
the individual members. To understand the group, training facilities, and learning styles of
perspective of people who will not promote the trainees. For example, a particular simula-
their own self-worth and accomplishments in tion may seem like the ideal training method
a job interview, participants might watch a for a particular outcome, but if there is not
video clip and discuss the values behind the sufficient time or the requisite number of
behavior. players, or if the simulation is considered an
Four attitudes that have been found to be unacceptable training method according to the
significant for developing intercultural compe- learning styles of the company, culture, or
tence are: open mindedness curiosity, respect, participants, a different method needs to be
and tolerance (Deardorff, 2015b, p. 219). chosen.
Although studies have found attitudes to be Likewise, training outcomes desired by a
crucial to intercultural competence, they may client may be unrealistic given the particulars
be the most stubborn and difficult for the of the training requested. For example, skills
trainer to approach. Changes in attitude often training may be impossible in the time frame
take place outside the training room when the requested. Trainers may need to help the client
participant has a chance to reflect and absorb. develop more realistic goals.

Personal and Cultural Preferences classroom, but there are other communication
styles to be aware of in this additional layer of
Personal and cultural preferences also affect
training. There are linear and circular commu-
the outcomes of intercultural training. Each
nication styles and detached and attached
individual participant walks into a training
styles. Some communicators prefer intellectual
session with his or her own preferences for
confrontation to relational confrontation.
cognitive style, learning style, and communi-
Each of these patterns requires careful facilita-
cation style firmly in place, although these are
tion when training across cultures.
often unconscious. Success of training will
When dealing with people who prefer an
depend on learning as much as possible about
indirect style of communication, the trainer
the modes of personal or cultural preference of
should avoid direct questions, limit disclosure
the trainees and adapting training to fit the
and strong emotion, and give participants time
various styles represented in any training
to construct responses. In contrast, direct-style
situation.
US Americans will appreciate a fast pace,
Trainers should be aware that effectiveness
direct questions, enthusiasm, and many prob-
of intercultural training programs depend on
ably will not mind self-disclosure.
four factors (Kirkpatrick, 1960): reaction of
the trainees to the material (What was the
reaction of the client to the training?), learning Summary
the presented material (What did the client
The Venn diagram in Figure 5.2 may help
learn from the training?), behavioral change
readers to visualize the factors that go into
in the training (Did the training influence the
the choice of appropriate methods.
client’s behavior?), and organizational out-
Keeping in mind the desired outcomes, par-
comes or results (What were the results of the
ticipant considerations, and situational factors
training for the organization?).
when selecting methods for a training pro-
gram, the focus can turn to the tools of the
Cognitive Styles. How individuals gather intercultural training trade. The following
information from their environment and how section contains brief analyses of eighteen
they organize and apply this knowledge defines methods selected because they are commonly
their cognitive style. The continuum of cogni- used in intercultural training. Each analysis
tive style ranges from low abstraction to high follows the same format to make comparisons
abstraction. Some Asian cultures seem to easier. The analysis begins with a brief descrip-
employ low abstraction, some North Ameri- tion of the method, lists strengths and weak-
can cultures tend more toward a middle nesses, and provides some expected outcomes.
abstraction, and some northern European cul- The adaptability of each method is assessed,
tures prefer to think in a highly abstract way. examples of applications are given, and acces-
sibility or availability is addressed. Most
Communication Styles. Communication styles trainers have a few methods that seem to work
are defined as patterns of expression and rules best for them, and they could probably add
for interaction that reflect the values and many more items to the list of strengths and
norms of a culture (Bennett & Bennett, 2003). weaknesses for their favorite methods. This is
It might seem obvious that direct and indirect not meant to be an exhaustive analysis of each
communication styles can clash in a method but to provide clarity on what the

Desired Participant Data

Outcomes Needs assessment
Cultural norms
Personal preferences
Situational Factors
Time available
Location of participants
Budget
Trainer skills
Figure 5.2 Factors affecting training method

selection.
methods are that have proven effective over Cognitive Methods and Tools
the years, how they are used, and why.
The seven methods in this section primarily
focus on learners’ knowledge acquisition. The
Analysis of Intercultural Training methods presented are lectures, written mater-
Methods and Tools ials, internet-based training, film, self-
assessment, case studies, and critical incidents.
The training methods in the first two sections In the description, analysis, and application of
of the analysis have been categorized as either these methods, references are made to some
Cognitive or Active Methods. Cognitive ways in which the more passive methods can
Methods, which focus on content and Active be modified to be interactive and address other
(or experiential) Methods, which focus on learning domains.
process or activity, are clearly linked. S. Thia-
garajan (personal communication, July 17,
2015) explains the linkage this way, “content
Lectures
without activity is inert knowledge (which Description. Lectures or presentations are
means someone can have a lot of knowledge verbal, usually one-way communication from
but be incapable of using it), and activity the “expert” to the participants. The trainer,
without content simulates a headless guest speaker, or several panelists may give the
chicken.” Trainers need to integrate both con- lectures. It is the most commonly used and
tent and activity within their training designs. abused training technique. Lectures are useful
The Intercultural Methods that comprise the for introducing new topics, giving informa-
third category have been constructed specific- tion, presenting models, and illustrating and
ally for intercultural training rather than clarifying abstract concepts. A lecture can be
adapted from more general training tech- made interactive; it is often referred to as a
niques. The final category consists of two “talk.”
Other Methods that seem different from the Another type of lecture is the “briefing”
other categories but easily fall within the lexi- which is often done for a very specific purpose
con of intercultural training. and is by its nature brief. When there is time,

Box 5.1 Strengths and weaknesses of lectures
Strengths Weaknesses
• Allows trainers to be in control • May result in participants to be passive

• May not require extensive preparation or • May be dull or boring
materials • May result in low retention
• Can be tailored to the audience • May force trainees to move at the same pace
• Can provide information not available in • May be difficult for nonnative speakers in the
books or on the Internet group
• Can cover large amount of information in a • Attention spans limit amount of profitable
short amount of time learning time
• Can reach a large group of learners at once • Lecturer may select content by his or her per-
• Can inspire sonal passion, not needs of audience
• Can be designed in a format where trainees • Lecturer may not tailor old lectures to new
do not feel threatened by having to “do audiences.
something” • Must be tailored for target audience
• Addresses abstract conceptualization learning • Requires trainers to be knowledgeable of the
style; more inclusive of other styles with visual presentation material when presenting to the
aids target audience
• May be the acceptable method of learning in • Outcomes generally limited to increased or
some cultures new knowledge
• May fulfill training requirements of organiza-
tions or agencies to protect them from
lawsuits
the trainer can invite trainees to discuss how speakers, prior level of knowledge, and so on.
they will use the information. See Box 5.1 for a However, it is difficult to adjust a lecture to
list of the strengths and weaknesses of the multiple levels in the same audience.
lecture method.
Does It Work Across and About Cultures? It is

Expected Outcomes. Participants receive facts, most useful in teaching about cultures,
models, opinions, illustrations, and clarifica- although lectures can be used either before or
tion of abstract concepts. after active methods to present models and
explanations when participants are working
Adaptability of Content. The contents of lec- on building skills to cross cultures.
tures are highly adaptable.
Application. Lectures are used to introduce
Adaptability for Audience. The level of lan- new topics, give information, explain prin-
guage and use of visual aids can be adjusted ciples, clarify concepts, and expose partici-
to different levels: age, first or foreign language pants to experts or colleagues who have had

experiences similar to the ones participants Written Materials (Readings, Workbooks,

will face. Lectures are useful for explaining Manuals)
the relationship of theory to real-life relation-
Description. Although at one time written
ships and are good for sequencing and struc-
materials provided the backbone of many
turing content. Some of the limitations of
intercultural training programs, electronic
lectures can be addressed by using visual aids
devices have overtaken print as the means for
(maps, slides, PowerPoint, key words or dia-
supplying trainees with information. Printed
grams on flip charts) during the lecture and
material consists of books and chapters from
written materials after.
books, articles from journals, magazines or
Lectures are frequently accompanied by
newspapers, pamphlets, novels, personal jour-
PowerPoint presentations. If they provide key
nals, letters or interview notes, step-by-step
words or visuals, they may help trainees focus
instructions, workbooks, and checklists. All
and remember. If they present only the same
of these are now available electronically.
information being given by the lecturer, they
Regardless of how the trainee reads the
may simply be redundant and distracting.
material – on a tablet or a handheld device –
Sometimes handouts of the PowerPoint are
the information can be used either in lieu of or
provided, with space for participants to take
in preparation for in-person training. Trainees
notes. This appeals to those learners who need
can be encouraged to read specific materials
to write to learn and remember.
prior to or during a training program, and the
Lectures can be made interactive by various
checklists and information can be the take-
techniques, such as having groups of partici-
away material trainers refer to as a resource.
pants focus on different aspects of the infor-
Written information that supports part of
mation. Following their discussion, the trainer
training program whether provided on paper
would debrief each group. Other techniques
or online, is different from the computer-based
might involve interspersed tasks (such as a
training method, which is designed to be an
discussion with neighbor) and periodic reflect-
entity unto itself. See Box 5.2 for a list of the
ive questions or summaries (see Thiagarajan,
strengths and weaknesses of using written
1994; Thiagarajan & Thiagarajan, 1995b).
materials in training.
Availability of Off-the-Shelf Products. Lectures Expected Outcomes. Readings are generally

are most often prepared by experts for their used for providing trainees with knowledge,
own presentations. However, off-the-shelf facts, and conceptual information. They may
training products often have the content for provide comparative information or raise
lectures designed into the program. issues that may be used for analysis and prob-
lem solving. Manuals can help structure a
Resources. Techniques for interactive lectures training program and are often more than just
are available through Play for Performance accompanying text. Trainees can refer to
newsletters on www.thiagi.com (see also Thia- manuals, checklists, and workbooks and use
garajan, 1994, 2003b; Thiagarajan & Thiagar- them as resources after the program is over.
ajan, 1995b). Silverman (1995) also has a
number of suggestions in his list of 101 ways Adaptability of Content. Content can be
to make training more active. adapted in various ways. The depth or format

Box 5.2 Strengths and weaknesses of written materials
• Provides a baseline information for all • If used alone:

trainees o May require testing by trainers to verify compre-
• May be used by individuals as well as hension of information
groups o May only address knowledge outcomes
• Allows trainees to work at their own o May only address abstract conceptual learning style
pace (if used outside of training room) • Is difficulty to assess if trainees read the required
• Allows the possibility to sequence and reading in preparation for training session
structure • May be impractical method during sessions if each
• Allows flexibility in both length and trainee have different reading speeds and comprehen-
format sion levels within a given time frame
• Can be a primary source of information • May not be exactly relevant if not adapted or
• Can provide multiple perspectives on a developed by trainer
topic • May result in trainers assigning too much or not
• Selection in advance incorporate information from readings into other
• Can present large quantity, abstract training methods
information
• Addresses abstract conceptual learners
• Can help structure the program
• Can be used as post-training resources
of the written materials can be general or spe- Application: Predeparture. Written materials
cific to a training situation. are frequently area studies materials (history,
politics, economics, current affairs) of the
Adaptability for Audience. Reading materials, target country or cultural information
workbooks, and the like can be selected or (common customs, “dos and don’ts"). Often
developed for any age-group or reading level. these readings are a collection of online articles
or recommended books. Books for business
Does It Work Across and About Cultures? transferees and spouses on international
Readings about cultures are more frequently relocation and workbooks for children are
used than written materials designed to illu- commercially available. Tailored materials
minate issues across cultures. However, include the Country Notes and Post Reports
tailored materials or intercultural relations (information on schools, living arrangements,
readings can be used to address issues across etc.) provided by the US State Department,
cultures. Some trainers use authentic mater- workbooks modified for specific clients by
ials, such as examples of business letters from business trainers, and Volunteer Job Descrip-
two cultures, to create realistic application tions and Welcome Books (country-specific)
opportunities. provided to invitees to the Peace Corps.

Some pre-departure written materials are Application: Training Follow-Up. Readings

specifically prepared to keep selected person- provided after training sessions use active
nel interested and involved during a long learning and discussion. The purpose of these
waiting period for their overseas assignment. readings is to provide written content on elem-
For example, Youth for Understanding Inter- ents about which participants may be con-
national Exchange has a timed, sequenced, cerned if they are not getting lectures and
monthly pamphlet series (Horizons) that pro- taking notes during the session. These mater-
vides cross-cultural information and different ials address the needs of abstract conceptuali-
ways to get prepared, such as language learn- zers (Kolb, 1984) among the trainees who may
ing, learning about the host country, and pre- find the participatory training less comfortable
paring a family portrait. The Peace Corps has and concrete than they prefer.
designed materials for invitees that are avail-
able at the Peace Corp website. They include
Availability of Off-the-Shelf Products. The
video vignettes of volunteers in various coun-
Internet provides access to countless
tries and jobs and pre-departure cross-cul-
resources for trainers and trainees alike.
tural and language study materials. Library
There are many publications about countries
of Congress has developed a bibliography
and growing numbers of books that can help
that contains 862 books written by Peace
people cross particular cultural boundaries,
Corps volunteers and staff during 1964–2015
such as Americans doing business in Japan,
covering seventy developing countries. The
or for visitors trying to make sense of the
list is searchable using the keyword "Peace
United States. However, companies usually
Corp" and can be accessed from both the
want programs tailored to their individual
Peace Corp and the Library of Congress
employees, so business trainers adapt and
website.
modify standard materials to fit each client.
Written materials are often used for prepar-
Other materials may not be available com-
ation for face-to-face training sessions. It can
mercially: examples of certain types of corres-
include descriptions of business practices or
pondence, descriptions of cross-cultural
communication styles that would be discussed
encounters in specific job or country situ-
and practiced in the training. Further, culture-
ations, and so on. By using materials
specific readings on managing diversity in the
developed for a particular group based on
organization have also proven useful (Carr-
real incidents, the trainer enhances the rele-
Ruffino, 2002).
vance of the program for the learners.
Application: In Sessions. Readings are used to

set the stage for analysis and role playing. Case Resources. The Internet is a primary source,
studies and critical incidents (see descriptions providing access to publishers, organizational
later in the chapter) use written material to pro- (government and NGO) publication lists, and
vide data for analysis. Role plays (also described university publications and related curriculum
later in the chapter) may begin with substantial centers (such as the Stanford Program on Inter-
readings to set the stage and define roles, such as national and Cross-Cultural Education
role playing that is used for developing skills in [SPICE]). E-groups of professional organiza-
cross-cultural counseling or performance tions often are very helpful in identifying mater-
reviews across cultures, or role plays that are ials for specific needs. Cyr (1999) described how
designed to affect attitude change. to design and use intercultural training manuals.

Box 5.3 Strengths and weaknesses of internet-based training
• Allows people around the world to work • May cause discomfort by the trainees due to the
together in real time or whenever they are technology involved or with the pedagogy
available to respond • May require trainees to do training on their own
• Incorporates words, sounds, and pictures, time
appealing to various learning preferences • Requires both hard- and soft-ware to participate
• Makes training available when the partici- • Lacks human interaction with facilitator, partici-
pant is available pants
• Can be practiced by the trainees as many • Requires self-discipline since the instructor is not
times as they want physically present to monitor student’s attention
• Provides learning from peers as well as to the content
trainers • May require a tax facilitator to respond and pro-
• Can be motivating if questions addressed vide feedback to trainees for skills development
are timely and on target purposes
• Lacks privacy: Comments, papers available also to
people other than the instructor; may be intimi-
dating or even off limits (for example, for govern-
ment officials)
Internet-Based Training internet-based training best addresses know-

ledge acquisition because trainees are able to
Description. Internet-based training is a field
get it, repeat it, practice it, and apply it when
that ten years ago was in its infancy in terms of
they want. See Box 5.3 for a list of the
possibilities. Currently, internet-based training
strengths and weaknesses of the Internet-based
refers to all types of learning available through
training method.
any streaming, whiteboard, web conference or
distance learning online programs. Some
trainers and educators are trying to fit the Expected Outcomes. The most typical out-
classroom completely onto an online platform comes currently are knowledge acquisition,
and others, with the help of instructional although skills development and attitudinal
designers, are seeking new ways of looking at changes are possible.
learning and training. Blended learning
incorporates both Internet-based and face-to- Adaptability of Content. The adaptability of
face learning (Bersin, 2004; Graham, 2006). content depends on connection speed. Advance-
Some of the currently used technologies ments made in internet-based training programs
include whiteboard, discussion boards, messa- can be now carried out on any type of browser
ging software, virtual classrooms, and web as long as there is stable Internet connection.
conferences, as well as packaged training pro- These programs offer instant access without
grams on a streaming platform or as a down- being restricted by time and location. They not
loadable format. Kimball (2002) argued that only are flexible but offer greater geographical

reach. Online training courses developed by responses from the group; there is some indi-
companies or agencies can be tailored to both vidual discomfort with online disclosure; tech-
individual and organizational needs. nical and formatting issues influence effective
communications; both participant and facilita-
Adaptability for Audience. Younger people are tor expectations vary and are expressed in
more comfortable with computers and will various ways; communication differences
probably react more favorably to e-learning. between academic discourse and stories
People with less computer experience may be emerged; and explicit and implicit assumptions
reluctant to try e-learning. If possible, “reduce about time and punctuality were apparent. An
scaffolding gradually” so the difficulty of the important cross-cultural issue was also iden-
task increases as skills are learned (Horton, tified in this study. It needs to be ascertained
2002). “Participants sometimes sign on and how effective e-learning is for people who do
are passive for a while. They get engaged when not fit the cyberspace values of speed and
they see their questions raised and addressed" quick responses, debate and questions, infor-
(M. G. Berney, personal communication, mality, reach and openness.
March 3, 2003). E-learning is a worldwide
phenomenon and will continue to grow where Application. Internet-based training programs
computers with online access are available. can replace lecture and written materials that
were discussed above. Especially in blended
Does It Work Across and About Cultures? learning situations, internet-based training
Information about cultures is easily accessed may be used as pre-coursework, in blended
via the Internet. Some well-done videos can classrooms, and as post-classroom work. Pre-
provide a broad description of countries and coursework may include online needs assess-
domestic culture groups, with use of scenes ments and building basic knowledge and skills.
and sounds and historical and cultural infor- The ColorGame by Xerox and Windwalker
mation. These can be supplemented by web- Corporation teaches the fundamentals of sales,
sites for information that changes frequently. using various company databases. It is a pre-
There are excellent language and culture paratory e-learning activity. The blended
learning tapes, consisting of programmed classroom is trainer-dependent but may use
learning with video scenarios that require both media to apply skills being learned. Post-
language proficiency and cultural knowledge. classroom work may include testing, building
Other possibilities of learning across cultures on retention, applying skills, and reinforce-
via internet-based training are being explored ment and extension of attitude change (Kim-
and evaluated. ball, 2002). An example of post-classroom
A research that was conducted at the Uni- work is the US Census Bureau’s Respondent
versity of British Columbia, Certificate in Simulated Video Play, which provides practice
Intercultural Studies (Chase, Macfadyen, interviewing before actual performance (Wan-
Reeder, & Roche, 2002; Chase, Rolston, Mac- kel & Gowda, 2002). In some e-learning pro-
fadyen, & English, 2002), found these grams, learners receive feedback through their
emerging themes: An online culture based on scores, and the trainer also receives details of
the designer’s cultural assumptions is evident; the decision-making processes of the learner
identity creation of participants varies; success (Kimball, 2002).
rate of some communicators may be indicated More recently, Globalsmart, a web-based
by the frequency with which they elicit tool by Aperian Global (www.aperianglobal

.com/modes-of-delivery/globesmart/), offers learners read a self-determined amount of the

services to increase cultural competence in the material and then try a game, or, if they wish
workplace through the use of videos, webcast to see what they know before reading, they
and e-learning modules to succeed in a global may start with a game or two. The second
business environment. Based on research in approach focuses on the information the
over ninety countries, Globesmart provides learner needs to seek and learn.
instant access to information on conducting
business effectively with other cultures. Topics Availability of Off-the-Shelf Products. Search
can be customized to meet unique needs and engines can lead to numerous online intercul-
can be utilized as stand-alone learning pro- tural learning sites, and many universities offer
grams or incorporated with virtual or face-to- online courses.
face programs. Trainers can evaluate compe-
tencies critical for effective interaction with Resources. A reality of websites is that they
people from different cultures and demo- change and disappear. New ones also appear,
graphic backgrounds. so search engines are important tools for locat-
TMA Country Navigator (www.tmaworld ing current resources. Various groups such as
.com/country-navigator), a company specializ- Aperian and TMA Country Navigator special-
ing in global talent development, is another ize in online, intercultural learning and design.
web-based cross-cultural competency tool that A few more whose work is referenced in this
gives users valuable insight on how to success- analysis are Sivasailam Thiagarajan (www
fully interact with people from different cul- .thiagi.com), William Horton (www.horton
tures. Its online cultural resource tools enables .com), and Andrew Kimball (CEO, QB Inter-
users to develop cultural intelligence by national; www.qube.com). Other sources
offering access to its resource of different busi- about online interaction include reviews of
ness cultures through both a virtual and face- course tools at “thinkofit” (www.thinkofit
to-face classroom. The Country Navigator .com), and a site at which trainers can build
includes a cultural profile generator, gap an online classroom, Nicenet Internet Class-
analysis tool, country information, and a net- room Assistant (www.nicenet.org).
working tool for sharing cross-cultural experi-
ences and tips with other users.
Films
A format Thiagarajan (2003b) calls “The
Library and the Playground” in his online Description. Films, whether commercial or
newsletter can be used for designing e-learning specifically made for training, are currently
courses. The library presents the training con- available on videos, DVDs, Blu Ray, and
tent in a variety of text and graphical formats. streaming format. In training sessions, film
The material is provided in a logical organiza- segments are used to motivate, inform, dem-
tion with subheadings to permit efficient read- onstrate, and provide scenarios for analysis.
ing, but it is not divided up into educational Film segments used for interactive training
“chunks” for the learner. The playground con- generally are short (not longer than ten min-
tains a variety of games that provide practice utes) and interspersed with trainer-led activ-
opportunities. These require recall and appli- ities. Others used for information may be
cation. They are timed, and the score depends longer. Hopkins (1999) recognized that films
on both speed and accuracy of response. provide content that are difficult to reproduce
Depending on their learning preference, in classroom such as cultural clashes in actual

Box 5.4 Strengths and weaknesses of films
• Brings real-life situations into the training: • May be distracting if the production of the film is
sounds, views of low quality
• Provides imagery for trainees to ground facts • Requires trainers to properly introduce, maintain
in specific settings focus by trainees and lead a follow-up discussion
• Provides standard information to trainees in to be used as a proper learning opportunity
diverse locations • Requires trainees to be clear with the objectives
• Is not dependent on the expertise of trainers • May force trainers to use “talking heads" instead
as films provide a minimum standard of of using enacted scenes
training • May result in trainees not being able to identify
• Can capture difficult to reproduce content with film setting, characters, situation
from real world settings • Requires careful selection of film for target audi-
• Can capture difficult to reproduce real world ence
sensitive topics • Cannot be substituted for role playing in which
• Models behavior that trainees are to learn trainees actually practice behavior
• Can be Recorded during trainees’ practice • May result in trainees losing comprehension due
sessions to provide them feedback about their to language issues
behavior • May not portray cultures accurately or realistically
• Can provide factual information in an interest-
ing format (about countries, for example)
• Can raise issues, attitudes, and perspectives
about other countries and cultures
• Is a good substitute for case studies and crit-
ical incidents, as it addresses audio and visual
learners
• Can be used with self-study materials at
trainees’ convenience, taken home, and
shared with family
• Can replay segments to confirm observations,
analysis
• May appeal to all learning styles, depending
on the content and how they are used
settings, emotionally charged topics such as and are often the closest alternative to the real
abortion, child abuse, human rights abuses, thing. With both audio and visual components,
and so forth. See Box 5.4 for a list of the film settings can evoke powerful feelings in par-
strengths and weaknesses of the use of films. ticipants. Recorded practice sessions can also
be powerful in providing feedback.
Expected Outcomes. Films have the capacity to
bring experiences, ideas, emotions and people Adaptability of Content. The content of films
from different cultures into a training program cannot be changed. Preparation for viewing

and follow-up discussions can be targeted for threats. Erin Brokovich (2000) follows the
different purposes. Portions of films may be story of a single mother uncovering a corpor-
selected to make specific points. ate cover-up of illegal toxic waste disposal.
Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room (2005)
Adaptability for Audience. Visual imagery is a documentary of corporate greed and cor-
appeals to all age groups. Learning is ruption and show how an internal whistle-
enhanced when the reason for viewing is blower led to its exposure and final collapse.
clearly explained in advance. Language may Films also capture other cultures and intercul-
be an issue: accents, speed of speech, and tural issues. For example, the movie Depart-
desire to use native language and gestures ures (2008) captured the ritual of death in
may require subtitles or voice-overs. Japan. Mr. Baseball (1992), a sports comedy
film about a US baseball player in Japan,
Does It Work Across and About Cultures? shows how he dealt with cultural differences
Films are effective both across cultures and and social expectations while playing for a
about specific cultures. Using films for inter- Japanese team. Lost in Translation (2003)
cultural training has been recommended by a follows two Americans in Japan, and demon-
number of scholars (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000; strates the Japanese contemporary culture that
Champoux, 1999; Littrell, Salas, Hess, Paley, & sojourners can learn from. Therefore, films are
Riedel, 2006; Mallinger & Rossy, 2003; useful in raising awareness of cultural values
Summerfield, 1994; Varner & Beamer, 2005; that may not be possible to achieve using other
Verluyten, 2007, 2008). They can be useful in methods. Films can be used to introduce
understanding other cultures while learning trainees to the customs of a culture, and can
the nuances of cultural theories and constructs be useful especially for pre-departure training
(Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000; Cardon, 2010; Mal- because of their audio-visual richness.
linger & Rossy, 2003; Tidwell, 2001). They
also allow participants to become sensitized Application. Segments of commercial films
to issues related to intercultural conflict while may be used for selected training purposes:
learning to function effectively in different cul- behavior in another culture, value-laden per-
tural environments. sonal decision making, personal and public
Film segments can be useful in sensitizing space within a home, and so forth. For
trainees of cultural nuances that are otherwise example, the scene of the American making a
difficult to capture using other methods. For presentation to the Japanese company in Gung
example, whistleblowing is a cultural value of Ho (Howard, 1986) has been used to raise
the United States that supports people who awareness of communication and cultural dif-
take the lead to disclose unethical behavior ferences for trainees. The poignant deathbed
that is harmful to the general public. Trainees scene of the sister in El Norte (Nava, 1983) is a
may be from countries where reporting of powerful introduction to a values discussion.
unethical behavior is frowned upon. Films will Outsourced (2006), movie about a US firm
allow trainees to become aware of issues such that decides to outsource its call center to
as whistleblowing and they will be able to India, portrays intercultural differences
function effectively during their sojourn. For between American and Indian cultures. My
example, The Insider (1999) depicts an execu- Big Fat Greek Wedding (2002), a movie about
tive from a major tobacco company, who a 30-year-old woman from a conservative
exposed the harm of tobacco use despite facing Greek family who falls in love with a non-

Greek man, and Bend it Like Beckham (2002), Although it is designed primarily for the US
a movie about a teenage Pakistani girl who has volunteers, the training units are also used
grown up in Britain and wants to become a effectively overseas.
soccer player, revolve around the differences in A Different Place: The Intercultural Class-
culture as well as the influence of family cul- room is a product of the Intercultural Resource
ture. Slumdog Millionaire (2008), a movie of a Corporation (Wurzel, 1993). One film
teenager from Mumbai who becomes a consequence shows the interaction of students
testant on the Indian version of “Who Wants from various countries with an American col-
to Be a Millionaire?”, depicts cultural stereo- lege professor. The training guide helps
types. Christine Roell’s (2010) Intercultural learners focus on different learning and com-
Training with Films offers a list of useful munication styles. This is reinforced by a
movies in intercultural training, which could second film segment in which students describe
be helpful to instructors looking for appropri- their own perceptions of the classroom and
ate movies for using in their courses. their cultural values about learning. The film
Orientation of staff members and new con- is versatile in its uses, including helping
tractors preparing for field assignment is facili- teachers understand their multicultural class-
tated at the United Nations with The Agenda rooms, identifying different learning styles,
Is Peace (United Nations Secretariat, 1996), a and looking at how cultural values may influ-
film of people in the field discussing their ence classroom behavior.
expectations and the realities. The film is
accompanied by related self-study materials Availability of Off-the-Shelf Products. Films
developed by J. Blohm, including a self- that can be used in training programs are com-
assessment that can be used alone or within a mercially available in a wide range of topics,
training setting. It provides a reality check for especially for business and diversity. Segments
expectations, factual information about types of films can be put physical (e.g. DVDs) or
of missions and skills needed, and information streaming formats.
about the realities of relocation.
The Foreign Service Institute (2000) created Resources. A thorough discussion of the use of
the video Crisis Response following the films is found in the Intercultural Sourcebook,
embassy bombings in Kenya and Tanzania. Volume 2 (Fowler & Mumford, 1999a). In
It is a versatile training tool, used for intercul- addition to the introductory chapter by
tural crisis management and cross-cultural R. Hopkins (1999), several training films are
leadership training. The Peace Corps is incorp- discussed in detail. Crossing Cultures Through
orating video clips of volunteers working Film (Summerfield, 1994) and Seeing the Big
abroad in Internet preservice preparation for Picture: Exploring American Cultures on Film
cross-cultural differences. (Summerfield & Lee, 2001) are other useful
Youth for Understanding International resources.
Exchange created a national training system
for its 2,000 volunteers. Segments of the film
Self-Assessment
present common situations that volunteers
encounter with foreign students, with skills Description. The opening decades of the
practice carefully designed. The interactive twenty-first century have seen a healthy devel-
film provides high-quality standard training opment of self-assessment inventories that are
even when presented by volunteer trainers. research based. According to Deardorff

Box 5.5 Strengths and weaknesses of self-assessment
• Can motivate trainees • Can be seen as superficial

• Can teach terminology • Requires trainers to avoid the use of jargon
• May increase commitment • May produce stereotyping
• May provide relevant feedback for participants • Can be overwhelming if too much feedback is
• Can be used to surface underlying issues given
• Can be used to compare personal with group • May be potentially be misused
norms • May produce a fear from exposure
• Can assess change • May not be appropriate in all cultures
• Can promote sharing within the group
(2015a, p. 17), attention has recently focused workshops, and individual feedback and
on the assessment of intercultural competence coaching sessions. The sophisticated reports
largely resulting from global migration, a provide take-aways for future reference by
more international work place, and an trainees especially when accompanied with
increased emphasis by educators. Self- typical profiles of global leaders for compari-
assessment inventories generally use a scored son. As a training tool, self-assessment inven-
questionnaire that allows trainees to reflect on tories are best used in conjunction with other
a particular issue and systematically report activities that help trainees assimilate new
their perceptions (Brown & Knight, 1999). knowledge about themselves and offer oppor-
These instruments are not tests, nor are they tunities to use that knowledge in interacting
appropriate for therapeutic diagnosis. How- with others. These instruments can also be
ever, they introduce terms and concepts that used as an integral element in coaching. When
can trigger self-awareness in intercultural used successfully, inventories can help trainees
training programs and be useful in facilitating change maladaptive behavior, increase their
behavioral and attitudinal changes. Cross- ability to handle new situations, and relate to
cultural trainers use training tools because they others in more effective ways. This requires
have been empirically validated (Tucker, careful and extensive debriefing in regard to
1999). See Box 5.5 for a list of the strengths both the instrument and the subsequent learn-
and weaknesses of the self-assessment tools. ing activities. However, with all its advantages,
given the complexities of intercultural compe-
tence, there is not one instrument that will do
Expected Outcomes. Although assessment
everything a trainer wants (Deardorff, 2015a).
tools are often used to screen employees for
overseas assignments, compile more data for
promotion decisions, or predict an organiza- Adaptability of Content. Copyrighted instru-
tion’s degree of risk in sending an employee ments such as the Myers-Briggs Type Indica-
(and family) abroad, these instruments can tor (MBTI, Myers, 1962), cannot be modified
easily be incorporated into training programs, or changed in any way. Other self-assessment

instruments such as the Intercultural Develop- well across cultures. Individualistic cultures
ment Inventory (IDI) and the Tucker Assess- are more likely to understand and profit from
ment Profile (TAP) require a license or this approach to training. Some instruments
certification to be used. Even when the instru- can be quite effective in teaching about cul-
ment itself cannot be changed, the introduc- tures when typical profiles for people from
tion of the instrument, processing, and other cultures are available for comparison.
application of the results can be adapted to Personal levels of various traits found on an
the trainee’s needs and culture. It is also pos- instrument can be compared with those needed
sible to develop an inventory for a specific in another culture, followed by a discussion of
purpose, but that requires a valid construction why and how they are important.
process. When using such an instrument, the
content becomes extremely adaptable from Application. Intercultural trainers have
one group to another; however, the developer focused attention on global leadership devel-
will not have the advantage of extensive norms opment during the opening decades of the
or carefully researched criterion measures that twenty-first century (Tucker, personal commu-
support the published instruments that have nication, September 17, 2015). Largely due to
been used for years and even decades. global complexities there is a need for inter-
national businesses as well as many other pro-
Adaptability for Audience. Many of the inter- fessional endeavors, to develop special
cultural self-assessment instruments in general expertise to be effective across cultures. Lead-
use have been developed in English. Some ership program designers must align the right
have been back translated into other languages competencies with the right assessments and
but not all concepts translate well so it is the best training methods (Osland, 2015). In
important for trainers working in a language addition to leadership development, self-
other than English to ensure that the concepts assessments have been used in training pro-
are understood as well as the language. Instru- grams for orientation, pre-departure, and reen-
ments exist mostly for adults. In some cases try, conflict resolution, and mediation sessions.
they could be adapted for teens and younger They can also be used as pre and post meas-
children, which might mean a different sort of ures of some training programs. Some of the
administration where the items are presented instruments administered online are part of
verbally with some explanation or given as learning paths that work to increase mastery
part of a group discussion. A workbook of knowledge and skills needed in the current
format such as “Where In The World Are global environment.
You Going” (Blohm, 1996) also works for Self-assessment can play an interesting role
young people. Self-assessments are engaging in team building. Once trust is established in a
and useful for a variety of audiences including continuing group such as engineers involved in
business, government, education, community an international construction project or execu-
groups, and families. International service tives managing a new merger, they can be
organizations such as Peace Corps and the encouraged to share their profiles to see where
International Red Cross can benefit from self- the strengths are and where team members
assessments in their training programs. might need some extra support. With careful
processing, each team member can see that
Does It Work Across and About Cultures? Self- they have strengths to contribute to the team
assessment instruments do not work equally and areas where they can learn from others.

Then the team can explore together how this important instruments are the Tucker Assess-
might manifest in the work they will be doing ment Profile (TAP developed by M. Tucker);
and strategize how to effectively use the infor- the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI
mation they learned from the instrument. developed by M. Hammer based on Bennett’s
Many trainers prefer to have trainees take Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensi-
and score an instrument at the beginning or tivity [2001]); Aperian’s two instruments Glo-
even prior to the beginning of a training pro- beSmart Profile and Global Competencies
gram. They are then able to refer to the frame- Inventory. This is not an exhaustive list; there
work of the instrument throughout the are many others of note. That said each of
program. As other activities are processed, these is a good example of instruments that
trainees can be encouraged to link the new are research-based on an external prediction
learning to the instrument paradigms pre- of intercultural success, normed with a variety
sented by the instruments. Describing oneself of groups domestic and international, and
and others in terms of the inventory termin- have met validity and reliability standards.
ology and framework can provide practice in They all have analyzed their data to develop
being descriptive and nonjudgmental. categories of competence such as perception
management, relationship management, and
Availability of Off-the-Shelf Products. The self-management (GCI: Aperian) or continu-
Culture Shock Inventory, one of the earliest ous learning, interpersonal management and
intercultural self-assessment instruments was hardiness (IES: Kozai).
developed by Reddin and Rowell (1976). Trainers must be aware that many inventor-
Many other instruments have been developed ies require a license or certification to use
since that time of which some have endured them. Most instrument developers conduct
and been continually updated, while others programs to meet the requirements for license
have faded into obscurity. Although this is or certification. Some allow scoring by the user
not the place to attempt a complete list of all but many score and evaluate the responses to
reputable intercultural self-assessment instru- provide elaborate feedback packages custom-
ments a few should be acknowledged. Osland ized for each respondent, which can be useful
(2015, p. 358) offered a business-oriented list in training sessions.
of commonly used assessment measures which
included among others: the Cross-Cultural Resources. The Internet is the go-to source for
Adaptability Inventory (the CCAI developed almost everything and intercultural self-
by Kelley and Meyers [1995]); the Kozai assessment instruments are no exception. In
group of assessments including the Global addition, the self-awareness section in the
Competencies Inventory (GCI) and the Inter- Intercultural Sourcebook, Vol.2 (Fowler &
cultural Effectiveness Scale (IES); Cultural Mumford, 1995, pp. 19–72) contains an intro-
Intelligence Scale (CQS developed by L. Van duction to this training approach, as well as
Dyne, S. Ang & C. Koh); Global Competen- descriptions of several of the well-known
cies Aptitude Assessment (GCAA developed inventories mentioned here. M. Paige’s chap-
by C. Hunter, P. Singh, & T. Habick); Global ter in the third edition of the Handbook of
Mindset Inventory (developed by M. Javidan Intercultural Training is also a useful resource.
& M. Teagarden); and the Multicultural Per- Casse (1999, pp. 36–38) briefly describes the
sonality Questionnaire (MPQ developed by process for constructing a self-awareness
K. vander Zee & J. van Oudenhoven). Other inventory for trainers who want to develop

Box 5.6 Strengths and weaknesses of case studies
• Illustrate the complexity of cross-cultural • Take time to research and develop a good case
situations • Are highly cognitive; need to be used with other
• Dispel the notion that there is one right way methods if changes in attitudes or behavior are
or one correct answer goals
• Teach the need to suspend judgment • Can be frustrating for groups with little or no inter-
• Encourage appreciation of different opin- cultural experience
ions • Need to guard against stereotyping or over-gener-
• Offer the opportunity to practice analysis alizing
and decision-making skills • Require much detail for certain cultural groups
• Draw on trainees‘ knowledge and experi- • Must seem realistic to learner
ence • May be resisted by certain cultural groups because
• Encourage learning how to learn and of hypothetical analysis
motivates need to seek information
• Can be constructed to reflect trainees’
situation
• Are effective with abstract conceptualiza-
tion and reflective observation learning
styles
one themselves for a specific purpose. Alterna- process, and apply the case to their own situ-
tives to that process are also available online. ation. See Box 5.6 for a list of the strengths and
weaknesses of the case studies method.
Case Studies Expected Outcomes. Most case studies are

Description. A case study is an account of a quite engaging. Trainees quickly become
situation that includes enough detail to assess involved in the case, considering options and
the problems involved and determine possible assessing strategies. They are reacting to a
solutions. Case studies challenge trainees to real-world situation and dealing with a con-
analyze character, context, actions, and pos- crete problem typical of those encountered in
sible outcomes. In training they are most often cross-cultural or ethnically diverse situations.
trainer led but can be developed for computers Case studies can strongly motivate trainees to
or self-paced workbooks. This approach learn more about the culture and how others
requires the case itself, any supporting docu- have solved problems in that culture.
mentation, and questions about the case.
Trainees discuss the case in small or large Adaptability of Content. Case studies are
groups. The case study can conclude by taking highly adaptable in terms of content and some-
the group through the experiential learning what adaptable in terms of process. Case stud-
cycle and asking them to reflect on the case, ies are useful when the focus is on real-world
draw conclusions from the content and situations or when trying to understand a

social phenomenon in a nuanced manner. For Case studies can be used at any point in a
example, an option for processing is to have a training program. They can be used at the
cultural informant placed in each group for beginning to spark interest and at the end to
group members to test out their ideas. The see how much trainees have absorbed. Often
process can also be altered by having trainees the case will depend on the trainees already
construct their own cases. Lacey and Trow- having certain concepts or resources, so a cer-
bridge (1995) noted that having trainees or tain amount of presentation should precede
students develop their own case studies pro- the case study.
vides an opportunity for them to develop
cross-cultural skills and intercultural insights. Availability of Off-the-Shelf-Products. Samples
of case studies with a cross-cultural emphasis
Adaptability for Audience. Case studies work can be found in Kohls and Knight (1994),
well with adult groups; many professionals will Lane and DiStefano (1988), Moran, Braaten,
be familiar with the case study method from and Walsh (1994), and Singelis (1998).
other training programs. Case studies are Trainers often find it necessary to create their
equally useful for cross-cultural and diversity own cases that are relevant to the audience,
training. while keeping details and identities
confidential.
Does It Work Across and About Cultures? This
is an excellent tool to use both across and Resources. Interviews are a primary source for
about cultures. Case study materials can case material. Newspaper and magazine art-
reflect cultural issues and commonality. These icles can provide support. Training manuals
studies allow participants to examine the on the same or similar topics can be a rich
larger underlying societal issues, expose them source.
to different cultural lenses, and apply those Lacey and Trowbridge (1995) recommended
lessons to their work/organizations. In most American Telephone & Telegraphic Trainers
cases, cognitive training is not considered Library, Volume 3 (1987), as a resource on the
very threatening, and people are more likely development of instructor-led and self-paced
to speak up in small groups. Exposure to case studies (see also Alden & Kirkhorn,
multiple cultural perspectives is possible when 1996; Pfeiffer & Ballew, 1988).
the case study is discussed in groups that
include people from several cultures. The
Critical Incidents
trainer can determine the content, so it is
possible to target the culture about which Description. Flanagan (1954) defined the crit-
trainees need to know. ical incident as "a set of first paragraph pro-
cedures for collecting direct observations of
Application. Case studies have been used for human behavior in such a way as to facilitate
more than a century in training lawyers and their potential usefulness in solving practical
business executives. For many decades, problems and developing broad psychological
anthropologists have used case or field studies principles" (p. 327). Critical incidents capture
to teach about other cultures. Interculturalists brief descriptions of situations in which there is
have been using case studies since the early a problem of cross-cultural adaptation or a
days of the Peace Corps. Currently, case stud- misunderstanding. They may also deal with
ies are adaptable to computer technology. problem or conflict arising from cultural

Box 5.7 Strengths and weaknesses of critical incidents
• Can engage participants at a personal level in • Provides too little information

examining attitudes and behavior that will be crit- • Requires time and effort to develop
ical to their effectiveness • Is most effective if individual reflection is
• Can be written for a variety of situation discussed in small groups of fewer than
• Requires analysis, reflection, and decision making eight
• Is shorter than case studies and can be read in a • Can be frustrating for abstract conceptual-
short amount of time; participants can move ization learners
quickly into reflection • Requires host country resource persons for
• Can be used for individuals or groups to illustrate culture-specific training
concepts or processes
• Can lead to role playing and situational exercises to
provide practice
• Appeals to concrete experience and reflective
observation learning styles
differences between interacting parties. They con- Expected Outcomes. Effective use of critical
stitute a standard training tool in the fields of incidents can increase participants’ under-
intercultural and cross-cultural communication standing of their own cultural and personal
(Arthur, 2001; Baxter & Ramsey, 1996; Brislin, attitudes and beliefs as well as those of others.
1993; Cushner & Brislin, 1996, 1997). Each inci- Critical incidents can identify cultural differ-
dent gives only enough information to set the ences that may contribute to misunderstand-
stage, describe what happened, and possibly pro- ings and conflicts. They also assist participants
vide the feelings and reactions of the parties in understanding the diversity among members
involved. It does not describe the cultural differ- of each culture, and normative differences
ences that the parties bring to the situation. These between cultures (Wight, 1995). Participants
are discovered or revealed as a part of the exercise can develop skills in analysis of cross-cultural
(Wight, 1995). Therefore incidents need to be situations, leading to more appropriate
carefully written, revised, or selected to make behavior. When used early in a program,
desired point. critical incidents raise awareness of the
Critical incidents are shorter than case stud- need to learn more to deal effectively in the
ies and focus on different actors and different new environment. Used later in a program,
situations. When several incidents are taken they provide opportunities to apply
together, they make a point rather than pro- learning about differences and reinforcement
viding the deeper, systemic investigation of a of ideas.
specific context as with case studies. They may
involve situations to be resolved or decisions to Adaptability of Content. Critical incidents are
be evaluated and analyzed by the learner. See easily adapted to many situations. The content
Box 5.7 for a list of the strengths and weak- of cultural incidents is often tailored to each
nesses of critical incidents. cultural group.

Adaptability for Audience. Critical incidents when confronted with cultural differences
are often written for different populations. among their employees (Arthur, 2001).
For example nurses going from the Philippines Critical incident exercises can be applied to
to the USA would be given one set of critical issues of intercultural communication and nego-
incidents, whereas managers or students going tiation. In Bennett’s (1995) critical incidents in
from the Philippines to the USA would be an intercultural conflict-resolution exercise, typ-
given a different set of critical incidents. Some ical conflict situations from an organizational
critical incidents such as dealing with immigra- context were modified for intercultural situ-
tion, buying grocery, or traffic rules may be ations to help participants gain awareness of
used across population. cultural as well as personal differences in style.
Critical incidents may be learner generated.
The Experiment in International Living, now
Does It Work Across and About Cultures? Crit-
called World Learning, Inc. (Batchelder,
ical incidents are particularly effective for
1993), uses critical incidents for student reflec-
identifying cultural differences and are, there-
tion and learning. Students living abroad take
fore, useful for working across cultures. If used
an incident that has happened to them (per-
for culture-specific information, resource per-
haps noted in their journal) and write a
sons from the culture need to participate in the
description and analysis of it, indicating what
reflection and analysis.
important learning came from it. The analysis
is reviewed by and discussed with a trainer.
Application. Single critical incidents can Another example of this use of learner-
motivate participants in cross-cultural training generated critical incidents (Dant, 1995) can
sessions. For example, an incident about unex- be found in Volume 1 of the Intercultural
pected and upsetting behaviors of a guest Sourcebook (Fowler & Mumford, 1995).
attending a dinner party abroad may be motiv- In a research study of Canadian postsecond-
ating to business and diplomatic spouses. ary students during a seven-week cross-cul-
Groups of critical incidents focused on a par- tural seminar in Vietnam, critical incidents
ticular theme are often used in intercultural were used to track both the common and
training sessions. They are first addressed by unique experiences of students. Specific critical
individuals, then discussed by small groups incidents were collected from students at vari-
that try to reach consensus on a solution to ous points, regarding experiences that were
the incidents, and finally shared in plenary stressful, selected coping strategies, use of
sessions where common decisions are identi- social support, shifting views of self, and per-
fied (Wight, 1995). For example, In Where in spectives about international development.
the World Are You Going? (Blohm, 1996), chil- Results suggested that reactions to cross-
dren read short incidents that involve behav- cultural stresses are not the same at different
iors differing from typical American behaviors times. The incidents also provided information
to raise their awareness of cultural differences. about pre-departure preparation and use of
They are encouraged to think about what their critical incidents as a tool for understanding
reaction might be and what they might do in cross-cultural transitions (Arthur, 2001).
those situations. In incidents included in a
supervisor’s in-box activity, trainees use refer- Availability of Off-the-Shelf-Products. Critical
ences to government regulations and their own incidents are often included in off-the-shelf
experiences to determine appropriate behavior training manuals and packets.

Resources. A discussion of critical incidents in sense of identifiable skills, and how such skills
general and several applications are found in operate in interpersonal situations (McCaf-
the Intercultural Sourcebook, Volume 1 frey, 1995). They see the impact of effective
(Fowler & Mumford, 1995); see also Arthur and ineffective interaction. They also have an
(2001); Wang, Brislin, Wang, Williams, and opportunity to feel what it is like to try out new
Chao (2000). skills in real situations. If done correctly, role
playing is a method that will generate much
interest.
Active Methods
Three methods are presented in this section: Adaptability of Content and Process. Role
role plays, simulation games, and exercises. playing must be tailored to specific situations.
Each of them can also be considered a tool If the focus is on content, participants pay
when used in a session to compliment another attention to what is said, the skills used, and
method. These methods have active elements the facts that emerge. If the focus is on process,
to them, as discussed in the analysis and appli- observations revolve around the manner in
cations headings of the descriptions. By their which the situation is dealt with or responded
very structure, however, role playing and to. There are several variations of role playing.
simulation games actively involve trainees in In multiple role plays, sometimes called “skills
some tasks. Intercultural trainers have shown practice,” all participants are players and
great creativity in constructing activities and observers. Roles are played in triads or small
exercises that capture the interest of trainees groups while an assigned person observes.
and at the same time allow them to learn and After the role play, the observer provides
practice essential aspects of intercultural feedback.
communication. Then the roles are rotated so the observer
becomes a player, and the cycle continues
until everyone has played each role. This is
Role Playing
particularly useful for large or apprehensive
Description. Role playing is unrehearsed groups. In single role play, roles are played by
action in a real-life situation. Participants play two or more participants in front of the
the roles of themselves or others in a new group. This is good for exploring problem
situation (interviewing, counseling, decision solving and provides a shared experience the
making, reentering their organization after entire group can discuss and perhaps replay.
time away, etc.) for a clearly defined purpose. It singles out people, which may be inappro-
Selected situations should be typical of or crit- priate. It should be used only by volunteers in
ical to the trainee’s job or situation. Done groups where a level of trust has been
carefully and skillfully, role playing provides developed. The “fishbowl” variation involves
a dress rehearsal in a safe and supportive single role play with others observing. This is
environment, with feedback and a chance to good for very large groups. In role play with
replay the situation or see others do it differ- rotation, the role play begins and participants
ently. See Box 5.8 for a list of the strengths and can step in and take over roles, trying new
weaknesses of the role-playing method. behaviors. Players may be able to step in
whenever they want to, or the role play may
Expected Outcomes. Trainers influence the be stopped, discussed, and then someone else
expected outcomes. Participants get a clear steps into one or more roles to continue or

Box 5.8 Strengths and weaknesses of the role-playing method
• Offers the opportunity to apply behaviors previ- • May surprise, shock, or embarrass trainees
ously discussed • May cause participants to shy away
• Offers the opportunity to practice skills • May cause emotional toll which reduces learn-
• Develops on-the-spot thinking, communication, ing
and decision making • May be culturally inappropriate to single out
• Makes it possible to experience the role of specific people (either for cultural reasons or
someone else to develop empathy and under- within an organization to be exposed in front
standing of superiors, colleagues, or subordinates)
• Trainees learn by doing (active experimenter • Is dependent on participants’ efforts
learning style), by imitation of experts (concrete • May not be taken seriously – participants over-
experience), by observation and feedback act or act absurdly
(reflective observation), and by analysis and • May require a skilled trainer to deal with unex-
conceptualization (abstract conceptualization) pected behaviors and emotions
through repeated role plays • Is time-consuming because of need for prepar-
• May be performed in triads with everyone ation and debriefing
practicing or receiving feedback through a • Has differential learning outcomes for
rotation system participants
• May bring out different attitudes and abilities
of participants
• May be used for evaluation
replay the action. This is effective for exposed. Learning potential may be dimin-
problem-solving scenarios in which partici- ished because of the emotional toll it takes on
pants can practice various solutions. Role nervous trainees. If trainees have been in pre-
reversal is a variation in which role play vious training where role playing was ineffect-
begins and, part ways through participants ively used, either because of poor design and
are asked to switch roles. This technique is facilitation or because it was used to shock or
useful in developing dual perspectives and embarrass, they may refuse to participate. In
attitude change. In spontaneous role play, some cultures, it may be inappropriate to
the trainer elicits a situation from participants single out participants. It also may not be
and sets up a role-play scenario on the spot, appropriate if employees and their supervisors
perhaps based on a discussion of a critical are in the same training.
incident. This is useful in helping participants
gain insight into their own attitudes and
Does It Work Across and About Cultures? It
behaviors and those of others.
can be useful across cultures if the role of a
host-country national can be played by some-
Adaptability for Audience. Role playing is not one from that culture. If the focus is about
appropriate for all audiences and situations. cultures, a live or video dramatization may
Many adults do not like it because they feel be more accurate and useful for discussion. It

may even be undesirable to have individuals or elders. The technique may be used as a
role-play members of other cultures because rehearsal for something that will happen to
this is likely to result in stereotypes. the participants; for example, conducting a
With that caveat in mind, role plays meeting in a setting with different cultural
employing roles from other cultures can work norms, or reentering one’s organization after
especially when part of the debriefing brings up attending intensive training or an overseas
the issue of stereotyping. For example, Brief assignment.
Encounters is an activity developed for Building Participants can develop an understanding
Bridges: A Peace Corps Classroom Guide to of the feelings and attitudes of others by
Cross-Cultural Understanding (2003d). Partici- playing their roles. In a simulated experience
pants role play two different cultures, Pandya called Archie Bunkers Neighborhood (Schin-
and Chispa, who interact with each other. gen, 2002), participants play roles of dominant
Throughout the activity, participants explore and non-dominant group members seeking to
the interaction of two cultures, one outgoing get building permits. In playing out the roles,
and casual, the other more reserved and formal, participants experience the other groups’
with very different social norms. Then the experiences of meeting with defenses and
group discusses how cultural differences can stereotypical responses, as well as discrimin-
be misinterpreted. This would also be the time atory behavior. Once again, caution is neces-
to raise the issue of stereotyping. sary in having individuals playing the part of
members of other cultures because unaccept-
Application. Role plays are often used to prac- able stereotypes can emerge.
tice information learned through other
methods. Role play may be the only way to Availability of Off-the-Shelf Products. Role
manage supervised practice. Examples include plays appropriate to the training topic are
interviewing or feedback techniques that take often included in off-the-shelf training pro-
into account diverse cultural values and coun- grams. They usually need to be tailored to
seling situations. Practice sessions may use the specific participant group to make sure
multiple role-play formats so that all partici- they are relevant. Most role plays are
pants can practice. For example, in Youth for developed for specific training programs and
Understanding’s Volunteers in Intercultural participants by the trainer.
Programs training, large groups of volunteers
are trained with the use of facilitated video Resources. A thorough discussion of role
training. After watching and analyzing playing, including critical trainer preparation
examples of unsuccessful and successful feed- and facilitation, is found in the Intercultural
back between volunteers and students and a Sourcebook, Volume 1 (Fowler & Mumford,
discussion of what makes feedback successful, 1995, pp. 17–35). Two examples of role plays
volunteers form triads to practice. Each person are also presented in detail. Thiagarajan (1991,
has a chance to be the student, the volunteer, 2003a) discusses multiple variations on the
and an observer (Youth for Understanding, role-play techniques in his materials.
1985, 1995).
Role playing provides opportunities to try
Simulation Games
different problem-solving techniques and get
reactions to them. An effective use of this is Description. A simulation game is a training
with teens facing difficult situations with peers activity that combines game-like elements

Box 5.9 Strengths and weaknesses of the simulation games method
• Provides opportunity to practice new • May take 3 hours or longer

behaviors in a safe haven • May require a lot of props and artifacts
• Eliminates the gap between learning and • May require a minimum number of participants
applying • Requires skillful debriefing
• Establishes a sense of community • May not be effective with learners who prefer reflect-
• Can be used with a large number of ive observation or abstract conceptualization
people • May not be well received in some cultures
• Provides experience that stays with
trainees
• Is best for learning styles of active experi-
mentation and concrete experience
• Is highly versatile
(goals, payoffs, constraints, and winning that Adaptability of Content. A frame game is a
depends on players’ decisions) with the repli- generic game shell or template. It allows the
cation (to some degree) of a system, process, or trainer to plug in new content specific to the
operating model of the real world. See Box 5.9 needs of the group. Consensus-building games
for a list of the strengths and weaknesses of the and survival games are examples of frame
simulation games method. games. It is difficult but not impossible to
change the content of many games. By altering
the introduction and debriefing of a game,
Expected Outcomes. Simulation games exped-
trainers can provide a different context or
ite the acquisition of intercultural competence
orientation. For example, when BaFá BaFá
(Fowler, 2015). A trainer would choose to
(Shirts, 1974, 1995) is played with medical
include a simulation game to challenge
students, they might be debriefed in terms of
assumptions, introduce new perspectives, and
Alpha and Beta doctors and Alpha and Beta
encourage change. A skillfully facilitated dis-
patients.
cussion following the simulation game can
Current events often stimulate the develop-
lead to a deeper understanding of self, culture
ment of games to help people understand what
and how it works, and the role of perceptions
might be going on in the world. An example is
and emotions in intercultural interactions. Sisk
a game debuted at the 2015 SIETAR Europa
(1995) identified that simulations games facili-
Congress called On the Road with Migrants,
tate the development of knowledge and skills,
created by Caritas France, the Association des
such as critical thinking, personal responsibil-
Cités du Secours Catholique or ACSC. This
ity, and motivation. These games also help to
board game engages participants in the human
learn on many levels and function effectively in
crises experienced by people fleeing the Middle
groups. Trainees are also able to grasp clarifi-
East. Trainers can download the instructions
cation of social values and understand the role
at no cost and are able to produce their own
of chance in life.

game materials. Similarly, many intercultural after trust has been built and a few simpler
simulation games are being used to develop an participative exercises, case studies, and the
environment of inclusion as part of diversity like have been done successfully.
training in the corporate sector. Trainers can
apply learning from intercultural simulation Does It Work Across and About Cultures?
games such as Barnga to such corporate issues Simulation games have been used in various
as reactions to change, corporate culture, and cultures with varying degrees of success.
understanding the role of rules in the Almost all simulation games are culture-
organization. general, not culture-specific. However, an
exception is a game that was designed to be
Adaptability for Audience. They have been more culture-specific. In the game Markhall
used and are effective in a variety of contexts (Blohm, 1995) two companies are created
from the military to international service where one is based on the American and the
organizations, medicine to prisons, colleges to other on the Japanese corporate model.
elementary schools, and business executives to
diplomats. However, it must be recognized Application. The versatility of simulation
that to be effective, simulation games used in games makes them a rich method for many
training must fit the context and culture of the trainers. For example, BaFá BaFá (Shirts,
sponsoring organization and its objectives 1974, 1995) is typically used in training for
(Fowler & Pusch, 2011). Fortunately most people who are going to be crossing cultures
simulation games are easily adapted to be and need to know about culture shock, com-
appropriate for individuals at any age. Some munication barriers, cultural baggage, value
games, such as RaFá RaFá (Shirts, 1976), differences, and so on. It has also been used
have been developed specifically for children. to train executives who were hosting an inter-
They can be used in many professional con- national consortium, in a drug rehabilitation
texts and work particularly well with primary center to help the patients and staff recognize
and secondary educators. When used with their differing cultural values and communica-
families, they are great levelers. For example, tion issues, and with medical students who
the game Piglish (Hartley & Lapinsky, 1999) need to confront their reaction to difference.
can result in parents realizing that their chil- In each case, the goals were different, the
dren may learn the language more quickly introduction was customized, and the deb-
than they do and with less self-consciousness. riefing was tailored to the specific needs of
The whole family learns how to operate as a the groups. Barnga (Thiagarajan & Stein-
group and to support each other. wachs, 1990), a game essentially about cultural
Simulation games work best in cultures that rules, has been used to train staff members of
have an interactive, egalitarian education charitable organization and the federal judi-
system. Persons from hierarchical, authoritar- ciary. Simulation games are only limited to
ian education systems in which students are the imagination of the trainers using them.
expected to listen but not participate may have Simulation games have been used as ice-
a more difficult time with the seemingly free- breakers, creating a way for trainees to mingle
form, no-one-in-charge simulation game and get to know one another. Used at the
approach. Some simulation games will work beginning, they can also create a sense of
in traditional cultures, but they are best left to needing to know more. They are used in the
the very end of a course or training program middle of programs to expand on a theory or

Box 5.10 Strengths and weaknesses of the intercultural exercises
• May involve participants in the content • Require more time than expected to introduce, com-
• Is low-risk to participants plete, and deconstruct
• Can be applied toward adult learning • Require good facilitator to avoid insufficient debriefing
principles of valuing experience and solidify learning
• May add variety to the session • May be seen as “waste of time” by participants
• May effectively introduce topics and • May not appeal to trainees with abstract conceptual
motivate learning style
• May provide practice, application • May be affected by negative, aggressive, or otherwise
• May appeal to active experimenter uncooperative participants in group settings
learning style
concept. They are effective at the end of pro- Volume 1 (Fowler & Mumford, 1995), has a
grams when trainees have a lot of material to section on simulation games. For simulation
assimilate. game aficionados, subscribing to Simulation &
Gaming: An Interdisciplinary Journal of
Availability of Off-the-Shelf Products. Most Theory, Practice and Research (Sage) is worth-
intercultural simulation games are available while (see also Thiagarajan, 2003a) as is Diver-
at reasonable cost. Ecotonos (Nipporica Asso- sity Simulation Games: Exploring and
ciates, 1993), Barnga (Thiagarajan & Stein- Celebrating Differences (Thiagarajan & Thia-
wachs, 1990), Randomia Balloon Factory garajan, 1995a).
(Grove & Hallowell, 2001), and An Alien
Among Us (Powers, 1999) are available from
Intercultural Exercises
the Intercultural Press. Simulation Training
Systems is the source for BaFá BaFá (Shirts. Description. Intercultural exercise may be a
1974, 1995), StarPower (Shirts, 1970, 1993), paper-and-pencil assignment, a small group
and Pumping the Colors (Shirts, 1992). Games discussion, or a physical response. It is often
that have not been published are often dis- a combination of two or more techniques. To
covered at conferences, such as the annual be effective, tasks must be appropriately intro-
conference of the North American Simulation duced and efficiently carried out, and the par-
and Gaming Association (NASAGA) and the ticipants must be debriefed to address learning
US Society for Intercultural Education, objectives. See Box 5.10 for a list of the
Training and Research (SIETAR USA), in strengths and weaknesses of the intercultural
the library of the Intercultural Communica- exercises.
tion Institute, or on the Thiagarajan Web site
(www.thiagi.com). Expected Outcomes. Intercultural exercises
address both content and process and synergis-
Resources. Some resources have been men- tic results are intended. The group outcome is
tioned above. The Intercultural Sourcebook, greater than the participants could have

achieved individually (Fowler & Mumford, study. For example, The Cocktail Party
1999b). They heighten the sense of individual (Blohm, 1997), which uses several non-verbal
involvement and provide opportunities to behaviors unfamiliar and even uncomfortable
learn from peers (Kohls, 1999b). to US Americans, was designed for the
opening of a training session on dimensions
Adaptability of Content. The structure or proof communication.
cess of many exercises is easily adapted to Some exercises take an hour or more and are
different content. In fact, many exercises are the heart of the session. Examples include
referred to as “frame games” because the Abu-Zak, a worldview exercise (Fantini,
structure and process can be used for various 1995); Consensus, an exercise on stereotypes
topics. A good example is a card-sorting activ- (Kohls, 1999b); and The Malonarian Cultural
ity that Thiagarajan and Thiagarajan (2000) Expedition Team (McCaig, 1999).
call Group Grope and Kohls (1999b) describes Exercises can be used to change the pace
in an exercise called Values Options. The and offer an opportunity to apply the content
premise is the same: Participants have to or to practice skills. For example, in the For-
evaluate a series of words or statements related eign Service Institute’s Going Overseas
to the topic under discussion, exchange items Training Workshops (overseas preparation
with others, and have consensus discussions. for families), after a brief talk on stress during
Because exercises are so adaptable, resource transitions, women, men, and children form
books provide endless possibilities. small groups. The adult groups talk about
their own stress reactions and reduction strat-
Adaptability for Audience. Exercises can be egies. Children draw and list, with a facilitator,
used effectively with all age-groups and cul- what stress looks like in their parents and
tures. Trainers need to be sensitive in how they themselves. In the plenary session, each group
introduce and use within the specific training shares its work. Some exercises can even be
setting. For example, starting a session with an done in an auditorium setting by pairing or
exercise may not be a wise choice in certain forming people sitting next to each other.
organizations or cultures in which learners Asking participants in small groups to come
expect to hear from the expert. to consensus on the most valuable part of the
day’s training forces all participants to review
Do They Work Across and About Cultures? the day’s content, determine how they would
Exercises are most often used to develop apply the content, and explain the value of the
awareness of cultural differences and strategies learning.
to work in different environments. If the
desired outcome is learning about another cul- Availability of Off-the-Shelf Products. There
ture, the exercises would need to be conducted are numerous sources of intercultural exer-
in the new cultural environment or with cul- cises. Many other general training ideas can
tural resource people in the training room. also be adapted to intercultural topics.
Application. Exercises may open training ses- Resources. There are many collections of
sions for the purpose of introducing topics, excellent exercises that trainers can draw from
giving the trainer a sense of the depth of know- to effectively teach about intercultural issues.
ledge and motivation of the group, and These include Cushner and Brislin (1996),
developing a common framework for further Fantini and Richards (1997), Fennes and

Box 5.11 Strengths and weaknesses of the contrast culture training method
• Can be used with 1–40 trainees • Only one trainee to participate at a time; learning
• Offers the opportunity to practice communi- may vary for those watching instead of participating
cating with someone from another culture • Requires an experienced actor
• Has high impact value • Needs enough time to deconstruct adequately
• Is adaptable to the intercultural awareness • Challenges trainer’s facilitating skills
level of the trainees • Can create frustration on the part of the role players
• Provides interpretive and analytical tools for and audience
responding in a similar situation • Creates a we–they dichotomy and stereotyping
Hapgood (1997), Fowler and Mumford idea of cultural differences and promote cul-
(1999b), Gochenour (1993), Hofstede, Peder- tural self-awareness. In addition, trainees are
sen, and Hofstede (2002), Pusch (1979), Seelye introduced to analytical and interpretive skills
(1996), Singelis (1998), Stringer and Cassiday they can use to better understand the intercul-
(2003), and Thiagarajan (2003a). tural interaction. A trainee usually volunteers
to be Mr. or Ms. Smith, who interacts with an
actor named Mr. Khan, who is trained to
Intercultural Methods and Tools provide a cultural contrast and to engage in a
The following six methods are designed spe- controlled dialogue that elicits American
cifically for intercultural learning. The under- assumptions, values, and patterns of thinking
lying theories in the construction of these (DeMello, 1995). A scenario provides a reason
methods make them unmistakably useful for for the cross-cultural encounter. The scenarios
cross-cultural and intercultural training. Each typically used with this method deal with
method contributes directly to goals such as issues such as publicity, work delays, and other
cultural self-awareness, cross-cultural compe- business issues. This method has largely been
tence, or intercultural effectiveness. The con- used in the United States, where it has also
trast culture, culture assimilator, and cross- been known as the Contrast American
cultural dialogue are research based. Culture method; however, it could be modified to be
analysis and community-based immersion used with any culture as the referent culture.
were developed for the Peace Corps training. See Box 5.11 for a list of the strengths and
Area studies began in academic departments weaknesses of the contrast culture training
teaching about specific parts of the world. method.
Expected Outcomes. In the interaction with

Contrast Culture Training
Mr. Khan, trainees are confronted with their
Description. Contrast culture is a research- own cultural assumptions, raising their level of
based method that uses an experienced actor cultural self-awareness. Trainees also gain an
as a foreign counterpart in a role-playing situ- understanding of how their culture is perceived
ation to introduce, teach, and reinforce the by members of other cultures. Strategizing for

future cross-cultural encounters makes the as the world has changed. Recently a younger
communication process itself part of the version of Mr. Khan, referred to by Weaver
learning. (personal communication, October 11, 2015)
as “Son of Khan” has been trained and new
Adaptability of Content. The contrast culture scenarios developed. They have added multi-
exercise can be adapted by changing the scen- party negotiations and conflict situations. Pre-
arios to be the ones most likely to be encoun- vious attempts to film the Contrast Culture
tered by the trainees – for instance, business or were not effective, but a studio filming has
education. Mr. Khan can be a business leader, proved more effective than in the past and this
a government official, or a school principal, online version is the centerpiece of a Master’s
depending on the context. Whatever profes- Degree in International Relations at the
sional role Khan is playing, his response must American University. Weaver facilitates the
remain consistent with the script. As the role presentation in the film and asks questions at
plays are not scripted, the dialogue will be the end which trainees can discuss with an in-
spontaneous, but the goal remains the same: person trainer or instructor.
to raise the level of cultural self-awareness on This method can be used at the beginning of
the part of members of the referent culture by a program to illustrate the complexity of com-
providing a mirror image of their values, municating with foreigners and to open
assumptions, and behaviors and to provide trainees to future learning. Used at the begin-
the tools to analyze and interpret the intercul- ning, it provides a referent for the remainder of
tural situation. the program. However, when used at the
beginning the facilitator has to be careful not
Adaptability for Audience. This method works to push the issues too far so that the volunteer
well with all ages except the very young. It is does not feel set up. It is very difficult to get a
easiest to facilitate the exercise if all trainees second volunteer if the first one feels uncom-
are at about the same stage of intercultural fortable and embarrassed. At the end of
awareness. training, it can be used to integrate the rest of
the program.
Does It Work Across and About Cultures? This Kimmel (1995) recommends that the trainer
method has been used almost totally in the prepare trainees for the contrast culture ses-
United States because Americans respond well sion with a discussion of culture, cultural dif-
to it. It also works in other cultures, with the ferences and their origins, and intercultural
Mr. Khan character using an appropriate set communication. This provides context for the
of cultural characteristics depending on the exercise and allows the trainer to assess the
setting. level of the trainees’ experience and know-
ledge. Country-specific follow-up is advisable.
Application: This method was created in the Because Mr. Khan plays a culture-general
late 1960s to be used with military advisors role, it is effective to include sessions with
but since then has been adapted for other con- people from the country to which the trainees
texts. Contrast culture works well as part of a are going.
pre-departure training program that is prepar-
ing people to be advisers to foreign counter- Availability of Off-the-Shelf Products. This
parts. This exercise has evolved over the years method is available to anyone who reads the

Box 5.12 Strengths and weaknesses of the cultural assimilators or intercultural

sensitizers
• Available for both culture-general and • May not work as well for people who prefer more
culture-specific assimilators to exist active learning since it is a cognitive instrument
• Are a well-researched and theory-based • May cause saturation and trainees may experience
method cognitive overload before they reach the end
• Introduce a wide variety of situations in • Require much effort in constructing the instrument
target culture and the cost may be high
• Are efficient; typically gives trainee grasp • May provide weak or less meaningful cultural
of many issues in just a few hours explanations
• Are proven to be effective
• Are generally available electronically
• Can be easily administered and are
portable
background material and is willing to put in Culture Assimilator or Intercultural

the work to train an actor to play Mr. Khan. Sensitizer (ICS)
Can anyone play Mr. Khan? Probably, but
Description. This method focuses on differences
this exercise is almost always run with Cajetan
in perceptions and interpretations of behavior
DeMello of Washington, DC, who has made a
that are not obvious. A culture assimilator or
career of playing Mr. Khan. DeMello (1995)
intercultural sensitizer (ICS) is an instrument
describes his involvement in the original
that comprises critical incidents, involving per-
research and developments he has added to
sons from the trainees’ culture and from the
meet the demands of the user marketplace. It
target culture, which often result in a problem
is well worth using this fine actor if this method
or misunderstanding. This research-based
meets the needs of a training program. The
method (Fiedler, Mitchell, & Triandis, 1971)
online version that has been developed by
provides alternative attributions or interpret-
American University may be made available
ations for the situation which is followed by
to the public in the future.
explanations or feedback to the trainees reading
the culture assimilator. One response is most
Resources. The original research can be exam- often preferred by people from the target cul-
ined in HumRRO’s technical report 69-7 ture. The incidents capture how people in the
(Stewart, Danielian, & Foster, 1969). Also, target culture think about certain themes or
Volume 1 of the Intercultural Sourcebook issues and help trainees understand cultural dif-
(Fowler & Mumford, 1995) contains add- ferences in realistic settings. See Box 5.12 for a
itional information about this method describ- list of the strengths and weaknesses of the cul-
ing the history, development, facilitating, and ture assimilator method.
acting.

Expected Outcomes. The culture assimilator, concerns behavior. The process of working
or ICS, is the most researched intercultural through an assimilator also simulates the
training method. Among others, Albert uncertainty of going into a new culture and
(1995) listed such proven outcomes as helping finding out what things mean. This method
trainees develop more accurate expectations works quite well across all learning styles,
in interactions, interact more effectively with although it is perhaps best with people who
persons from the target culture, improve have a preference for reflective observation
knowledge and application of intercultural and abstract conceptualization. Brislin (1995)
communication concepts, enhance the adjust- suggested that trainees who bring an intellec-
ment of sojourners, and improve the task tual interest to the training will enjoy working
performance of trainees when they are over- with the assimilator material. Cushner (1989)
seas (see also Bhawuk, 1998, 2001; Bhawuk & has shown that the assimilator is effective in
Brislin, 2000) preparing high school students for better
adjustment and improved interpersonal prob-
Adaptability of Content. If one of the existing lem solving.
culture assimilators is not appropriate, trainers Culture assimilator used for training pur-
can construct their own assimilator. This proposes has been presented in the development
vides great specificity because various factors of a number of culture-specific assimilators
such as gender, social class, ethnicity, and pro- over the years (Albert, 1983; Ito & Triandis,
fession can be taken into account. It is import- 1989; Landis & Miller, 1973; Tolbert, 1990;
ant to take advantage of the empirical research Triandis, 1995; Vink, 1989; Worchel & Mitch-
on this method and consult with a trainer or ell, 1972). Culture general assimilator has also
researcher experienced in constructing assimi- been developed to sensitize people to cross-
lators. Triandis (1995) provided a brief cultural differences (Brislin, Cushner, Cherrie,
description of how to construct an assimilator, & Yong, 1986; Cushner & Brislin, 1996). Bha-
and more detailed information can be found in wuk (1998) examined if culture theory-based
Albert (1983). Bhawuk (2009) provided a assimilator can be an effective cross-cultural
framework to enrich intercultural trainers by training tool. Results indicate theory-based
capturing economy-based differences that can assimilator not only being effective but having
help orient participants to the differences significant advantage over the culture-specific
beyond cultural differences in work values. and culture-general assimilators.
Participants are assigned to groups where they
are trained to develop an understanding of Does It Work Across and About Cultures? The
several characteristics of economically culture assimilators dealing with specific cul-
developing and developed societies, followed tures (for example, Americans interacting with
by a discussion on ways to deal with various Arabs, Greeks, Chinese, Hondurans, Iranians,
related communication barriers emerging from or Thais) teach about culture (Wang et al.,
them. Critical incidents were also developed in 2000). There is evidence that this method
capturing key economy-based cultural differ- works for other cultures as well. For example,
ences illustrated by this framework (Bhawuk, assimilators have been developed for Hispanic
Munusamy, & Sakuda, 2010). students interacting with Anglo-American
teachers, for Japanese visitors to the United
Adaptability for Audience. Although this is States, and for Australians interacting with
considered a cognitive method, the content Japanese. There is also a culture-general

assimilator developed by Brislin and col- and US American interaction (Wang et al.,
leagues (Brislin, Cushner, Cherrie, & Yong, 2000).
1986; Cushner & Brislin, 1996).
Cross-Cultural Analysis (CCA)

Application: There are several types of assimi-
Description. Cross-cultural analysis (CCA)
lators: those for people who will be (or are)
was developed in 1966 for use in Peace Corps
interacting with people from a specific other
programs, is an instrumented, experiential
culture, those for people from a dominant cul-
exercise in which trainees respond to a series
ture interacting with members of a non-
of contrasting values or cultural orientations
dominant group, a culture-general assimilator
from the point of view of their own culture and
for people who engage in extensive multicul-
that of one or more target cultures (Wight,
tural contact, and a theory-based culture
1995, 1999). The individual analysis is
assimilator proposed by Bhawuk (2001) using
followed by a group analysis and discussion
individualism and collectivism. The culture-
among the trainees and with a resource person
general assimilator is constructed using eight-
from the target culture. In the intervening
een themes (Brislin, Cushner, Cherrie, &
years, the cultural dimensions have been
Yong, 1986; Cushner & Brislin, 1996). These
expanded and refined to include (in addition
themes can be used to structure presentations
to values) important differences in beliefs, atti-
by culture-specific resource people.
tudes, assumptions, expectations, and behav-
The culture assimilator instrument is per-
iors between cultures. As currently used in
haps the best way to teach trainees the value
business and industry, dimensions include dif-
of being able to make isomorphic attributions
ferences in management practices, organiza-
(Triandis, 1995), to understand how people
tional culture, decision-making styles and
different from themselves perceive the world.
gender equity. See Box 5.13 for a list of the
Assimilators are useful for trainers who do not
strengths and weaknesses of the cross-cultural
know a great deal about the target culture. In
analysis method.
that case, it would be helpful to have a
resource person from the target culture to
Expected Outcomes. For naïve trainees, this
expand on the issues in the assimilator
may be the first time they realize that what
incidents.
they had assumed to be universal is actually
Assimilators are useful as pre-training prep-
culturally determined. The exercise encourages
aration that can be discussed in a training
trainees to develop cultural self-awareness and
session. The critical incidents and explanations
an awareness of different worldviews. The dis-
are quite brief and can be supported with add-
cussions with resource persons can be a rich
itional material. They lend themselves to small
source of important cultural information
group discussions. They can also be used as
because this exercise opens trainees to the con-
basic structures for role plays.
cept of cultural differences and how such dif-
ferences affect interaction.
Availability of Off-the-Shelf Products. Culture
assimilators are not always easy to find. See Adaptability of Content and Process. Both con-
Albert (1983, 1995) to locate many of the tent and process are highly adaptable. Because
existing assimilators or sensitizers. There is trainers select the dimensions that are most
more readily available assimilator for Chinese important to the trainees, they can rewrite the

Box 5.13 Strengths and weaknesses of cross-cultural analysis
• Is not dependent on a trained actor, • Can require the knowledge of target culture to know
though similar to the culture-contrast which dimensions are the most critical
method • May not work for trainees who work more slowly
• Is based on real cultures than others as they may not complete the individual
• Can be customized in content to meet the analysis
needs of the trainees • Takes time and research to develop an effective
program
worksheet (instrument) to meet the specific asked to place themselves, someone typical of
needs of the group and to reflect the particular their own culture, and someone from the other
contrasts that are important to the intercul- culture on the line between them but not to
tural interaction. An example of a social write anything about this. A similar group
dimension is the attitude toward friendship analysis can ensue from this individual
and commitment. The contrasting positions analysis.
might be that in some cultures people value
being friendly and having a wide circle of Adaptability for Audience. This cognitive
friends, and deep commitments to others are approach works well with adults. It has been
rare. In other cultures, strong loyalty to a used primarily in the United States to prepare
small number of close personal friends is the Americans to work and live in other cultures
rule, friendship is based on trust and depend- but could be adapted to use in any culture.
ability, and little effort is made to be friendly
toward people in general. Does It Work Across and About Cultures? This
One variation is to ask trainees to rewrite method works very well in teaching about cul-
the contrasting statements to more accurately tures (own and other). It is primarily a cogni-
reflect the two cultures as they understand tive method and usually nonthreatening. It has
them. This needs to be followed up in the the potential to work well across cultures. The
debriefing if it is part of the instructions for perspectives in multicultural groups add rich-
the individual work. ness to the discussion and counteract
The process is well structured but can be stereotyping.
modified. The original design calls for trainees
to write the position of their culture for each Application: Because this exercise is engaging,
dimension in regard to the contrasting pos- personal, and meaningful, it can be used as the
itions presented in the instrument. Then they foundation on which other sessions build. It
write their perception of the target culture. can be used to motivate trainees to learn more
Finally they are asked to note where they about target cultures. Wight (1999) suggested
themselves fall. Sometimes these dimensions that in a short program this exercise is more
are presented as continua and trainees are useful than many others.

Box 5.14 Strengths and weaknesses of cross-cultural dialogues
• Show that culture is real and shows up in casual • Pose a problem when trainees deny to play their
conversation as well as in business discussions part in the dialogue
• Present some contrasting cultural norms • Pose a problem when people miss the point of
• Offer flexibility; can be used in any kind of the dialogue
training to increase awareness of how people • Pose a problem when trainees object to the
and cultures differ characterization of their own culture or the
other culture
This method has the potential for continued by experts such as Stewart and Bennett
learning. The dimensions provide a framework (1991) (see also Bennett in Chapter 21 of this
for understanding interactions with members volume). The Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck
of other cultures. Following this exercise with (1961) model also provides basic value orien-
role plays or case studies that require trainees tation differences.
to apply what they have learned is especially
helpful.
Cross-Cultural Dialogues
Availability of Off-the-Shelf Products. Some Description. Cross-cultural dialogues are brief
CCA instruments already exist but are difficult conversational excerpts between two people of
to find. Most CCAs have been developed by different cultures, used to increase cultural
trainers for specific uses. A method called The self-awareness and to dramatize subtle differ-
Culture Compass (Chu, 1996) resembles a ences between cultures. In each dialogue, the
CCA design and is accessible is readily avail- speakers reveal differing values, attitudes, or
able. However, the best way to use this method views of the world, but the dialogues are writ-
is to construct the instrument to meet specific ten in a subtle way that makes it difficult to
client needs, based on dimensions that are spot the differences. This method was pion-
important. It is possible to compile a large eered by Kraemer (1999) and refined by Storti
number of contrasting dimensions from the (1994, 1999). In the past decade cross-cultural
literature on another culture, from interviews dialogues have become an accepted method
with members of that culture, and from others used by many for intercultural training. See
who spent time in that culture. Resource per- Box 5.14 for a list of the strengths and weak-
sons can help to determine which dimensions nesses of cross-cultural dialogues.
represent the most fundamental differences
between the two cultures. Expected Outcomes. Each cross-cultural dia-
logue contains a mistaken assumption and
Resources. The first step in developing a CCA the seeds of a possible offense. The mistakes
instrument is to become familiar with the types are not obvious. Trainees are struck by the
of cultural dimensions considered important subtlety and depth of their own cultural

conditioning when confronted with a series of who are more experienced. Storti (1994) con-
these cross-cultural dialogues. They realize tends that the method works best with people
that they need to monitor their own words who do not really believe that others are truly
and behavior more closely and make adjust- all that different from themselves. As he says,
ments accordingly. What was missing from the “Dialogues leave people who do not believe in
original development of this method was the culture with no place to hide" (Storti, 1999,
“fix” according to Storti (personal communi- p. 206).
cation, October 12, 2015). He has since
addressed the issue of what to do to keep the Does It Work Across and About Cultures?
misunderstandings from happening in the first Although this method is designed to raise cul-
place. tural self-awareness, it can be used to teach
trainees about other cultures as well. The
Adaptability of Content and Process. Both con- explanations are quite thorough and touch on
tent and process are adaptable. Trainers can deeply rooted cultural themes. When the
write their own dialogues or use the ones pro- trainer writes dialogues for a specific culture,
vided by Storti (1994). Storti presents the dia- the themes provide a basis for assessing cul-
logues by context (social settings, the tural differences. Most of the dialogues in
workplace, and the world of business) and Storti's book involve a US American and a
has indexed the dialogues by country or person from a contrasting culture, but dia-
region. Trainers can add their own practical logues could be written for any two cultures.
solutions or “fix” to this exercise to help
trainees further. For example, business persons Application: Ways It Has Been or Can Be
whose natural communication style is very Used. The dialogues are motivating. The pro-
direct can be shown the value of reading cess by which they are presented can be varied
between the lines, monitoring non-verbal somewhat, with small group discussions, home-
behavior, and counting to ten before respond- work assignments, or role plays. Because they
ing. People whose natural style is indirect can do not take very long to present or deconstruct,
be shown that it is often more effective to be dialogues can be inserted into almost any pro-
more blunt in their responses and that it is not gram. Once trainees are familiar with the cross-
likely to offend someone who is a direct com- cultural dialogues, they can be encouraged to
municator; it is appreciated. write their own, especially after they have had
their own intercultural encounters.
Adaptability for Audience. This is a cognitive
exercise most appropriate for professionals who Availability of Off-the-Shelf Products.
will be interacting with people from a culture A collection of dialogues bridging cultural dif-
different from their own, whether at home or ferences between the United Kingdom,
abroad. It has been used in business, govern- France, Germany, and the United States, are
ment, education, and not-for-profit organiza- available from the Intercultural Press (Storti
tions. It has been used mostly with US 1994, 2001).
Americans, but other nationals are also able
to decode the dialogues and seem to enjoy
Area Studies
seeing themselves represented. This method is
useful both with naïve trainees with limited Description. Area studies focus on a specific
exposure to other cultures and with people culture. Otherwise many elements remain the

Box 5.15 Strengths and weaknesses of area studies
• Meets the expectations and needs of people who will • May fail to present valid information
be living and working with another cultural group • May be time-consuming to keep data
• Provides a guide for understanding and interacting current
with people from a specific culture • May overuse lectures and reading to pre-
• Builds expertise about a specific culture sent information
• Information is available on the Web • Needs to avoid lists of dos and don’ts
• Offers an opportunity to practice interaction in an • May lead to information overload
active hands-on program • Tends to use passive knowledge acquisi-
tion method especially using the internet
• May be perceived as overgeneralizing the
presented information
same: The values, norms, assumptions, pat- Expected Outcomes. In a well-designed area
terns of behavior, language, and communica- studies program, participants learn how to dis-
tion patterns are all appropriate elements in cover proper patterns for a particular behav-
area-specific training for intercultural compe- ior, such as apologies, recognition, courtesies,
tence. In addition, area studies often present and the like. Trainees learn to make genuine
geographic, political, economic, historical, adaptation to the culture group with which
religious, and aesthetic information, material they will be working and give them knowledge
not generally included in intercultural compe- they will need to interact successfully. This
tence training. It is this specific content that method can help trainees avoid negative biases
makes area studies different. Although many and inappropriate behavior in the target
methods are used to present the content in an culture.
area studies program, trainers must prepare
the information, present it, and sequence it.
Adaptability of Content and Process. The con-
The term “area studies” often refers to coun-
tent of this form of training is determined by
try-specific training. Kohls (1999a) prefers
the area or culture for which trainees are being
“country/area studies” to acknowledge both.
prepared. However, there is a great deal of
Professionals who work with particular groups
latitude in what and how much is presented.
such as psychologists who work with different
Kohls (1999a) recommended seven broad cat-
cultural groups or social workers in low-
egories of information: factual background
income districts, benefit from training focused
data, deep cultural programming, business
on the domestic cultural groups they encounter
practices, living logistics, famous people and
in their daily work. This is an area-studies
places in the country or culture, problems
adaptation and most typically called culture-
faced by the group, and integration problems
specific training. See Box 5.15 for a list of the
faced by those interacting in the culture.
strengths and weaknesses of the area studies
Trainers can be creative in presenting the
method.

information. Films, videos, lecturettes, games, for overseas, it eliminates one of the most
field trips, critical incidents, case studies, and important aspects of area studies training. To
discussions with biculturals, expatriates, or prepare people to interact with people in
cultural informants are all ways to engage the another culture, they need to have practice
interest and build the knowledge base of interacting and have experience in situations
trainees. where it does not matter if they make a mis-
take. They need to have the opportunity to
Adaptability for Audience. Employees in the apply what they have learned about the target
public and private sector, families, and singles culture.
all benefit from receiving area study training.
Children and singles going overseas have Application. Any time an individual or a group
special concerns, so they should be factored has a motive for learning about another cul-
into the training design. Culture and area stud- ture, culture and area studies training may be
ies have been used frequently for government the appropriate response. Typical inter-
and multinational corporations. They are national contexts include transferees moving
especially important when the target culture overseas, host families, refugee service pro-
is considered difficult for the trainees; for viders, international relief workers, exchange
example, many Americans going to the Middle students, or human resource professionals. In
East find differences of a magnitude that the United States, individuals who may seek
makes cultural adjustment a challenge. Coun- knowledge of a culture and its history include
try and area studies can make a significant faculty members, primary educators, counsel-
difference in how quickly and how well the ors, managers, healthcare providers, social
adjustment takes place. In the United States, workers, and government personnel. Area
healthcare professionals now frequently studies programs are also increasingly used to
receive training on the cultural patterns of educate social service personnel, educators,
specific groups to whom they provide care. and managers in multinational corporations
about the multicultural groups whom
Does It Work Across and About Cultures? This they serve.
approach is perhaps the most frequently used The sequencing of culture-specific informa-
strategy to prepare people for living in another tion in a training program is important. An
country because it teaches them specifically effective plan is to begin with culture-general
about that culture. Culture-specific studies principles and cultural-awareness learning
programs began in academic departments in activities, then to increase trainees’ under-
the United States but have long since moved standing of their own culture, and finally to
out into the training community. Area studies examine the target culture, emphasizing those
in some form are found in many countries as aspects that are most challenging (Bhawuk,
diplomats, business executives, educators, and 2009). In situations where trainees are not all
students prepare to go to another culture or as going to experience the same culture, there are
they prepare for hosting refugees and immi- creative ways to have them research aspects of
grants. As this information is increasingly different cultures and present their reports to
found on the Internet or in interactive com- the whole group. Including sessions with
puter programs, classroom time is being cut. resource persons from each of the target cul-
Although this may mean that more people will tures is recommended. Pre-departure pro-
get at least some information before leaving grams for sojourners can easily take a week

to ten days. In the United States, culture- Ireland, Sweden, Nepal, Indonesia, Pakistan,
specific area studies are frequently included in Venezuela, Laos, Austria, Spain, Ukraine,
two- to three-day programs. China, Greece, Egypt, Hungary, Burma,
Many global companies have found that Ecuador, Cuba, Sri Lanka, Rome, Singapore,
follow-up training after about six months in- Czech, Portugal, and Bolivia.
country makes a big difference. By then, there
will have been successes and failures and many
Immersion
questions will have been raised. People who
were not especially interested to learn about Description. In immersion programs, learning
their new culture are likely to be motivated. takes place in the situation (or a similar situ-
The follow-up training does not have to be as ation) in which the person will be living,
long as the initial preparation but is well worth studying, and working. Sometimes the visit
the time and money spent. In the United is short, such as a field trip or a site visit, but
States, refresher courses keep learners engaged often the person has relocated to a new coun-
in cultural diversity issues. try, and their training makes use of the reality
around them. Paige (1993) described immer-
Availability of Off-the-Shelf Products. Most of sion as having intensity that influences the
the materials used for area studies are avail- adjustment process of sojourners (p. 445).
able off the shelf and online. A good bibliog- Since total immersion can be stressful,
raphy for a specific country or area can be trainees are often prepared for the experience.
built in a few days. The three chapters in They are provided breaks from the culture in
Volume 2 of the Intercultural Sourcebook the form of training sessions. They have meet-
(Fowler & Mumford, 1999a) contain good ings with mentors who serve as cultural
suggestions for where to start. The chapters bridges. Providing guided discussions with
by Kohls (1999a) and Renwick (1999) also other expatriates who are having a similar
provide sample designs for area and country experience also facilitates the lessons learned
programs. Culture-specific books from the from immersion. See Box 5.16 for a list of the
Intercultural Press such as The Culture Shock strengths and weaknesses of the immersion
series from Graphic Arts Center provides method.
readers a guide about the stereotypes and mis-
information that often precede when visiting a Expected Outcomes. Immersion provides
foreign land. Topics include: the rules of intensive learning experiences. Trainees clarify
driving, monetary systems, religious practices, their needs, build confidence, improve skills,
and how to make friends. Each book offers and learn how to learn in a new environment.
tips on political traditions, building business According to Berney (1999), a field trip lets
relationships, and the intricacies of living or participants discover how they respond to a
working there. Locations covered by the series real-world, cross-cultural encounter rather
are Belgium, Germany, Japan, Thailand, Viet- than one created in a classroom where taking
nam, United States, Switzerland, Syria, New a break to use the lavatory can provide an
Zealand, Norway, France, Argentina, Brazil, escape from the training.
Netherlands, United Kingdom, United Arab
Emirates, Costa Rica, Korea, Scotland, Adaptability. Each living and working situ-
Moscow, Italy, Barcelona, Finland, Morocco, ation is unique, depending on the assignment
Turkey, Iran, Mexico, Israel, Denmark, (business, Peace Corps, community service,

Box 5.16 Strengths and weaknesses of immersion
• Motivates learners • Lacks insufficient support and coaching

• Offers learners to determine what they need to • Can overwhelm too many new stimuli
learn • Can cause employees to find little time for
• Encourages the use of “learning how to learn” training as they are busy “doing”
models • Requires participants to dedicate a signifi-
• Offer understandable resources for self-study cant amount of time for training
• Offers opportunity to test and refine new know- • May be costly
ledge, skills, and attitudes immediately • May not help a group of trainees to build
relationships with host nationals
foreign study programs). Language and cul- the trainees need to learn to be successful in
tural studies are usually a part of all programs. the new situation.
Technical training depends on the type of Before and after relocation, business
work or study being undertaken. employees often work with coaches on a one-
to-one basis, where their training is tailored to
Does It Work Across and About Cultures? The their specific needs. Unless the training is
focus is both on learning the cultures of specific to their position and family, trainees
immersion and working in that culture. may see it as irrelevant.
Trainees learn about the various aspects of The Peace Corps has used the host country
immersion culture and at the same time they or a neighboring country as the venue for its
also develop the skills and attitudes that will pre-service training of new volunteers for
make it possible for them to be effective in that many years. Follow-up training addresses inte-
culture. gration into the host country by providing
additional language training, technical
Application. Short immersion periods include training, capacity building, and so on.
field trips and site visits. Training groups Resources such as Culture Matters: The Peace
may visit restaurants, grocery stores, and Corps Cross-Cultural Workbook (Storti &
ethnic neighborhoods before individuals Bennhold-Samaan, 1997) serve as self-study
engage in an intercultural assignment. Site support.
visits to a new assignment provide time for The US Peace Corps has worked to move
people to explore their new reality and to get training out of centers where trainees spend
a feel for the office, housing, shopping, most of their time with each other even if they
driving, sights, and sounds. Visits should are living with host families. Community-
help them establish some local contacts and based training places small groups (three to
get some questions answered. The greatest five trainees) in towns with a language and
learning in all short immersion programs cross-cultural facilitator. Living with host fam-
may be an increased awareness of how much ilies provides daily reinforcement of cultural

norms, and daily language classes provide pro- reflection on the skills they are learning and
gressive opportunities to learn more on their how these skills influence their future civic
own. New training materials have been and work life.
developed that trainees can use on their own International education programs range
and in discussion with their small group and from students going alone, university-
facilitator. The Roles of the Volunteer in sponsored study abroad, and leader-led study
Development: Tools for Building Capacity programs to professional study tours sponsored
(Peace Corps, 2003b), for example, is a series by the government. Types of preparation and
of toolkits for the roles of learner, change support include self-directed research and learn-
agent, cotrainer, coplanner, and so on. Other ing, online preparation materials, pre-departure
Peace Corps training modules addressing tech- orientation programs and classes, and in-
nical skills, such as Community Economic country orientations, advisors, and team
Development (Peace Corps, 2003a) and leaders. For example, the University of the
Working With NGOs (Peace Corps, 2003c), Pacific in Stockton, California, has a required
are similarly developed. Reading sections, with course in preparation for study abroad and an
concepts and models and comparative reflec- optional reentry course on return.
tion between home and host country, are
followed by activities that can be carried out
Availability of Off-the-Shelf Products. Many
at the training site. Trainer notes are available
training manuals from government entities
for the self-study units. Those needing other
and nonprofit educational programs are avail-
types of technical skills, such as teachers, go to
able through the government printing office or
central sites on weekends for further technical
online.
skill training.
For example, the Peace Corps has an online
Another immersion technique is used in the
library where manuals can be downloaded
United States by the Corporation for
(https://pclive.peacecorps.gov/pclive/). Refor-
National and Community Service. Several
estation in the Pacific Islands, Participatory
of the corporation’s programs are based on
Analysis for Community Action (PACA)
service learning, but the National Civilian
Training Manual, Gender and Development
Community Corps (NCCC) volunteers have
Training and Girls Education, ESP Teaching
a particularly intense intercultural experi-
English for Specific Purposes are some of the
ence. Selected as multiethnic teams of about
manuals that are available for download.
sixteen members ranging in age from eighteen
to twenty-four, they live together on a
campus or at a project site and work on Resources. The Internet is a primary source,
community projects. They are responsible providing access to organizational (govern-
for investigating the information they need ment and NGO) publication lists. Manuals
to know before starting a specific project, on topics such as international procurement,
and their personal learning is framed around agricultural, fruit and vegetable safety, are
the experiential learning cycle as they reflect available at the World Trade Organization
on what they have done. They learn investi- website (www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_
gation and technical skills, intercultural e/library_e/elec_res_e.htm). Interaction is
teamwork, community building, and writing another NGO that has a website with
and presentation skills. They also do personal resources on course materials, e-learning tools

Box 5.17 Strengths and weaknesses of visual imagery
• Helps anticipate a future situation • May not be always clearly linked to the learning objectives
• Focuses on feelings and the senses • Can be emotionally charged; the facilitator needs to be
• Can increase self-understanding able to deal with trainees who become upset
• May lead to personal insights • Can be difficult for some participants doubting in the
• Provides a change of pace technique
and other materials to help international NGO powerful practice for relieving the stress of an
professionals in their work (www.interaction overseas experience and to help clear the mind
.org/resources). that is full of a jumbled array of new sights,
sounds, smells, and behaviors. See Box 5.17
for a list of the strengths and weaknesses of
Other Methods the visual imagery method.
The two methods included here are examples
of methods that have found a unique niche in Expected Outcomes. Guided imagery on a
intercultural training but do not fit easily in theme common to the whole group can pro-
any of the other categories. The use of visual vide focus. It can help trainees plan, prepare,
imagery and fine arts to teach various subjects and take responsibility for many aspects of an
has a fairly long history, but using art for intercultural experience. It can recall an inter-
intercultural communication training is cultural experience in totality: how it looked,
quite new. smelled, felt, tasted, and sounded. The mater-
ial that is raised in trainees’ memories can lead
to insights and understanding not known
Visual Imagery before. It has immediate impact.
Description. A relaxation exercise usually pre- During a visual imagery exercise, the trainer
cedes the visual imagery. Guided visual acts as a guide, calling on the resources each
imagery encourages trainees to personalize trainee brings to the program. Visual imagery
their learning experiences and can enrich and exercises encourage spontaneity, respect
deepen training effects. Keys to using visual choice, and show appreciation for the inner
imagery are establishing a warm, relaxed, safe life, which supports the trainee in new situ-
environment, clear guidance throughout, and ations; these exercises are a reminder that we
a targeted debriefing. The imagery in this are often our own best resource.
method is in the mind's eye; the visual images
are conjured up by thinking about them. Even Adaptability of Content. The content of guided
though the relaxation piece of this method is imagery is adaptable by the trainer. Before
more like meditation than visual imagery, it is attempting a guided imagery exercise, it is
important in its own right. Meditation can be a important to think through the reason for

using this method and become very clear about that are better shared with only one or two
the desired outcome. others.
Perhaps because this method taps into per-
Adaptability for Audience. This method is sonal depths, it frequently seems to cause par-
effective with adults and adolescents. It will ticipants to become emotional. Of course, this
work with people who have had intercultural can happen with almost any method: Simula-
experiences as well as those who have not. tion games, dialogues, self-assessment, case
studies, role plays, sensitizers, and immersion
Does It Work Across and About Cultures? This can readily elicit strong feeling requiring par-
can be a powerful training tool in a culture- ticularly professional expertise to turn the
specific program. Visualization about past emotional experience into a learning oppor-
cross-cultural encounters can be used as motiv- tunity. In follow-up training, trainers should
ation to learn how to learn across cultures. work separately with trainees who have
Toward the end of a program, after the become emotional during the guided imagery
trainees have seen visual images of their new to help them understand their experience.
country or city and after they have learned
about it, letting them close their eyes and visu- Availability of Off-the-Shelf Products. Guided
alize being there gives them a chance to imagery tapes are readily available. Develop-
rehearse the experience. Silberstein and Sisk ing a guided imagery script is relatively easy,
(1999) noted that if participants rehearse and it is the best way to focus the exercise on
behaviors by imaging different roles, ideas, specific training needs.
and attitudes in their mind, they may become
more effective when being in that situation
later on. There is little risk since one is using Resources. Silberstein and Sisk (1999) pre-
his or her imagination. sented a list of resources is at the end of the
chapter on visual imagery.
Application: Guided imagery has been used in
programs for relocation, reentry, and orienta-
Art and Culture
tion. It can be powerful in reentry programs
because it is a fresh reminder of the overseas Description. Art is the central focus in this
experience. It has also been used for preparing method. It is about learning to look at art to
professionals to provide services to a multicul- gain insight into what is significant in cultures
tural population. throughout the world. It is not about art his-
Guided imagery sessions can address culture tory but rather uses the fine arts to sharpen the
shock, problem solving in specific situations, skills of observation and inquiry. It is about
goal setting, ethnocentrism, values clarifica- entering into communication with art, becom-
tion, and morality in cross-cultural contexts. ing alert to nuance, and seeing beyond the
It can be used for empathy building, culture- surface (Fowler & Silberstein, 2001; Silber-
specific preparation, and general cultural stein, 2020). Art was a part of Hall's (1959)
awareness. The guided imagery is best “silent language” and he noted that artists
followed by small group discussion or talking show their society what it may overlook. See
with a partner prior to a large group discus- Box 5.18 for a list of the strengths and weak-
sion, in case some personal issues are raised nesses of the arts and culture method.

Box 5.18 Strengths and weaknesses of arts and culture
• Enrich understanding of cultural differences • Can be difficult for trainers who are reluctant to
• Provide an opportunity to view through the eyes use this method if they do not know a lot about
of another art (although this need not interfere, as the
• Underline the importance of context goals are to develop skills of observation and
• Can be portable; slides are easy to carry and art inquiry)
postcards do not take up much space or weigh • Can lead to stereotyping if not used carefully
much
• Appeal to all learning styles
Expected Outcomes. Art can increase aware- One tool for trainers who choose to use art in
ness of cultural influences and at the same time their work is VisualsSpeak developed by
can expand understanding of the familiar. Art Christine Martell and Tom Tiernan in 2004.
slows the communication process and asks the Using their set of photographs, trainers are
viewer to think and feel when looking. The able to better understand trainees who connect
visual arts provide both a conceptual base deeply and rapidly to the images, regardless of
and a meaningful verbal and nonverbal the topic of the training program. Many
vocabulary, which stimulates cross-cultural trainees find that they are able to talk more
discussion among trainees who bring varied openly about experiences and better under-
learning styles and life experiences to the stand both themselves and other team
training program. members at a deeper level. (personal commu-
Lippard (1990) noted that art provides a nication, Christine Martell and Tom Tiernan,
new way of looking at shared experience and 2004)
allows one to connect with people like and
unlike oneself. It is this visceral impact that Adaptability of Content. The content in art and
begins as a private individual reaction and culture sessions is highly adaptable. The actual
often continues in public discussion and analy- works chosen by the trainer can be customized
sis that makes art such a powerful tool in to the objectives of the session and the context
intercultural training programs. Because art is of the trainees. Linking the arts to intercultural
highly contextualized, it helps trainees under- theory enables trainers to select those aspects
stand the role of context in intercultural of intercultural communication that are going
encounters. to help their trainees gain insight into them-
One of the outcomes of using art and culture selves and others. Notions of time, space, per-
that is most appreciated by trainers is that it spective, or the differences between
revitalizes their teaching with material that individualism and collectivism can be illus-
stimulates insight in trainees in such a way that trated using art.
they are encouraged to continue learning inde-
pendently. Deeper dialogues, greater insights, Adaptability for Audience. Art can be used
emotional connections are all part of using art. with any age-group, including preschool

children, to help increase an understanding of has personal meaning to each member of the
the individual’s own culture and of different team as well as a response to a question such
cultures. Trainers can train around Kolb’s as, what will this international project be like
(1984) cycle of learning using art. Whether in five years? or What might leadership look
taking a field trip to an art museum (good for like in this international merger? In a struc-
concrete experience and active experimenta- tured debriefing, the trainer helps participants
tion) or working in small groups with art post- see connections between the images, to recog-
cards (reflective observation and abstract nize patterns, and it is not unusual for commu-
conceptualization), trainers can design exer- nication barriers to begin breaking down.
cises that appeal to all learning styles.
Application. Art has been used for introduc-
Does It Work Across and About Cultures? Art tions, in icebreakers, and as the centerpiece
works equally well across cultures and in for sessions on values using such models as the
teaching about cultures. All cultures produce Kluckhohn model (Kluckholm & Strodtbeck,
art that can be used in training. People learn 1961). A field trip to an art museum can be
well from contrasts, and thus an effective way enlightening, as trainees are able to stand
to use art is to contrast art from one culture before original works. Art can be used to help
with that of another. This can also be done people understand the role of the viewer in
regionally; for example, one can contrast the completing a work of art, and the analogy
hero or archetypal male and female in the between viewing ambiguous art and the role
traditional art of the East with that of of viewing unexplained behaviors while being
the West. the foreigner in another culture.
Application: Ways It Has Been or Can Availability of Off-the-Shelf Products. The

Be Used. Trainers who use art in their training materials needed to use art in the classroom
programs have developed a variety of or workshop are available through museum
approaches. Among other things, art can be bookstores, self-made slides, and various
used to illustrate a model, to teach an inter- sources for art slides such as Sandak Slides in
cultural concept, to provide practice in an Stamford, Connecticut. Slides, videos, posters,
intercultural process, to contrast cultures, and art postcards, and art books are all available,
to teach about a specific culture. Art has been many at reasonable cost and often on sale at
used in conflict mediation training to help bookstores. Many returned Peace Corps vol-
trainees remain open to the unfamiliar and unteer networks have photographs online for
different. use by the public. VisualsSpeak is available as
Art has been used with the DIE (Describe, a hard copy set of images or online. Trainees
Interpret, Evaluate) exercise for many years. can select images of their choice with the
Another specific example is using the Visuals- option to alter the size of the images.
Speak image set of 200 hundred photographs, According to Susanne Johnson of Visuals-
which provides images of people, nature, Speak, the ability to change the size of an
things, and life itself. Each picture tells a image through an online tool allows greater
story – but a different story to each person – insight for trainers. Previous tools were limited
and trainees select visual images that have in their ability to enhance images that were
meaning for them. A framing question starts small in file size, making it difficult to develop
trainees on their quest to build a collage that a collage. Now, trainees can alter images in

Table 5.3 Quick reference to methods and considerations for use
Considerations
Useful with
Training About or
Methods outcomes across cultures Learning styles Adaptability Accessibility Groups Individuals
Lecture Knowledge About cultures Abstract conceptualization High Low Yes
Written Knowledge About cultures Abstract conceptualization Low if using High Yes Yes
materials primarily existing text
Web-based Knowledge, About cultures Active experimentation High Medium Yes Yes
training skills
Film Knowledge, Both Concrete experience High Medium Yes Yes
skills, attitudes
Self- Knowledge About cultures Abstract conceptualization Medium High Of 30 or Yes
assessment fewer
Case studies Knowledge, Both Concrete experience High Low Of 30 or Yes
skills fewer
Critical Knowledge, Across cultures Concrete experience High Low Of 30 or Yes
incidents skills, attitudes fewer
Simulations Knowledge, Across cultures Active experimentation High High Of more
and games skills, attitudes than 10
Role play Skills, attitudes Across cultures Active experimentation; High Low Yes
concrete experience
Culture Attitudes Both All High High Yes
contrast
Culture Knowledge, Both Concrete experience Low Low Of 30 or Yes
sensitizer skills, attitudes fewer
Culture Knowledge, About cultures Reflective observation High Low Yes Yes
analysis skills
Cross-cultural Both Concrete experience High High Of 30 or Yes
dialogues fewer
Area studies Knowledge About cultures Abstract conceptualization High High Yes Yes
Immersion Knowledge, Both Active experimentation High High Yes Yes
skills, attitudes
Exercises Knowledge, Across cultures Active experimentation, High High Yes Yes
skills concrete experience
Visual imagery Knowledge, Both Reflective observation High Low Yes Yes
attitudes
Art and culture Knowledge, Both Reflective observation High High Yes Yes
skills, attitudes
creating a collage without any interaction References

while the trainer monitors their actions
Albert, R. D. (1983). The intercultural sensitizer
(retrieved October 10, 2015, from www
or culture assimilator: A cognitive approach.
.visualsspeak.com).
In D. Landis & R. Brislin (Eds.), Handbook of
intercultural training: Issues in training
Resources. Art is available from many sources methodologies (Vol. 2, pp. 186–217). Elmsford,
such as art museums, galleries, and online, but NY: Pergamon.
Albert, R. D. (1995). The intercultural sensitizer/
finding information on exercises using art for
culture assimilator as a cross-cultural training
intercultural training is more difficult. Most
method. In S. M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford
trainers have an idea of how to incorporate
(Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural
art into exercises they use and are willing to training methods (Vol. 1, pp. 157–167).
experiment with it. Perhaps the best resource is Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
tapping into the experience of a trainer who Alden, J., & Kirkhorn, J. (1996). Case studies. In R.
uses art and finding out what works and what L. Craig (Ed.), The ASTD training and
does not. Information on VisualsSpeak is development handbook. A guide to human
available online. resource development (4th ed., pp. 497–516).
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Ang, S., & Van Dyne, L., (2008). Conceptualization
of cultural intelligence: Definition,
Summary and Conclusion distinctiveness, and nomological network.
In S. Ang, & L. Van Dyne (Eds.), Handbook on
This chapter provides a platform for research- cultural intelligence: Theory, measurement and
ers and trainers to appreciate and work with applications (pp. 3–15). Armonk, NY: M. E.
an array of intercultural training methods. Sharpe
Trainers may find inspiration in developing Arthur, N. (2001). Using critical incidents to
new methods different from the eighteen cur- investigate cross-cultural transitions.
rently used methods listed in this chapter based International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
on current and emerging issues. Since no one 25(1), 41–53.
Batchelder, D. (1993). Using critical incidents.
method will always work well, trainers need a
In T. Gochenour (Ed.), Beyond experience: The
large tool kit to meet the challenges of each
experiential approach to cross-cultural education
training situation. It is our hope that trainers
(2nd ed., pp. 101–112). Yarmouth, ME:
will use this chapter as a guide for developing Intercultural Press.
intercultural training programs. The utility of Bathurst, L. A. (2015). Culture specific/culture
the eighteen methods analyzed here is sum- general. In J. M. Bennett (Ed.), The Sage
marized in Table 5.3. The goal of this chapter encyclopedia of intercultural competence (Vol. 1.,
has been to encourage trainers to broaden their pp. 210–212). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
own choice of methods and support the cre- Baxter, J., & Ramsey, S. (1996). Improvising
ation of integrated training programs that Critical Incidents. In Seelye, N. H. (Ed.).
employ culture-specific, culture-general, cogni- Experiential activities for intercultural learning
tive, affective, and behavioral training. These (Vol. 1., pp. 211–218). Yarmouth, ME:
Intercultural Press.
are the elements that an intercultural trainer
Bennett, J. M. (Ed.). (2015). The Sage encyclopedia
needs to be able to facilitate the development
of intercultural competence (Vols. 1–2). Los
of intercultural competence.
Angeles, CA: Sage.

Bennett, J. M., & Bennett, M. J. (2003). Becoming a sourcebook: Cross-cultural training methods
skillful intercultural facilitator [Training (Vol. 1, pp. 109–115). Yarmouth, ME:
material]. Portland, OR: Summer Institute for Intercultural Press.
Intercultural Communication. Blohm, J. M. (1996). Where in the world are you
Bennett, M. J. (1995). Critical incidents in an going? Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
intercultural conflict-resolution exercise. In S. Blohm, J. M. (1997). The cocktail party: Exploring
M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford (Eds.), nonverbal communication. In J. C. Richards
Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural training (Series Ed.) & A. E. Fantini (Vol. Ed.), New
methods (Vol. 1, pp. 147–156). Yarmouth, ME: ways in teaching culture. New ways in TESOL
Intercultural Press. Series 11: Innovative classroom techniques.
Berney, M. G. (1999). Field studies: Individual and Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
group trips, expeditions, and hunts. In S. M. Boyle, D. (Director), & Colson, C. (Producer),
Fowler & M. G. Mumford (Eds.), Intercultural (2008). Slumdog Millionaire [Motion picture].
sourcebook: Cross-cultural training methods United States: 20th Century Fox Home
(Vol. 2, pp. 175– 183). Yarmouth, ME: Entertainment.
Intercultural Press. Brislin, R. W. (1993). Understanding culture's
Bersin, J. (2004). The blended learning book: Best influence on behavior. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt
practices, proven methodologies, and lessons Brace Jovanovich.
learned. Wiley. Brislin, R. W. (1995). The culture-general
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1998). The role of culture theory assimilator. In S. M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford
in cross-cultural training: A multimethod study (Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural
of culture-specific, culture-general, and culture training methods (Vol. 1, pp. 169–177).
theory-based assimilators. Journal of Cross- Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
Cultural Psychology, 29(5), 630–655. Brislin, R. W., Cushner, K., Cherrie, C., & Yong,
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2001). Evolution of culture M. (1986). Intercultural interactions: A practical
assimilators: Toward theory-based assimilators. guide. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, Brown, C., & Knight, K. (1999). Introduction to
25(2), 141–163. self-awareness inventories. In S. M. Fowler & M.
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2009). Intercultural G. Mumford (Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook:
communication in a dynamic environment: Cross-cultural training methods (Vol. 2,
Preparing managers of developing and pp. 19–30). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
developed countries using cultural standards. Cardon, P. W. (2010). Using films to learn about the
Psychology and Developing Societies, 21(2), nature of cross-cultural stereotypes in cross-
161–181. cultural business communication
Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Brislin, R. W. (2000). Cross- courses. Business Communication Quarterly, 73
cultural training: A review. Applied Psychology: (2), 150–165.
An International Review, 49, 162–191. Carr-Ruffino, N. (2002). Managing diversity: People
Bhawuk, D. P. S., Munusamy, V. P., & Sakuda, K. skills for a multicultural workplace (5th ed.).
H. (2010). Preparing Managers for Intercultural Needham Heights, MA: Pearson Custom.
Leadership: Application of an Economy-Based Casse, P. (1999). The four-value orientation exercise
Theoretical Framework. In C. H. Leong & J. W. using a self-awareness inventory. In S. M.
Berry (Eds.), Intercultural Relations In Asia: Fowler & M. G. Mumford (Eds.), Intercultural
Migration and Work Effectiveness (pp. 69–103). sourcebook: Cross-cultural training methods
Singapore: World Scientific. (Vol. 2, pp. 31–44). Yarmouth, ME:
Blohm, J. M. (1995). Markhall: A comparative Intercultural Press.
corporate-culture simulation. In S. M. Fowler & Chadha, G. (Director), & Nayer, D. (Producer),
M. G. Mumford (Eds.), Intercultural (2002). Bend It Like Beckham [Motion picture].

United States: 20th Century Fox Home The Sage encyclopedia of intercultural
Entertainment. competence (Vol. 1, pp. 17–20). Thousand Oaks,
Champoux, J. (1999). Film as a teaching resource. CA: Sage.
Journal of Management Inquiry, 8, 206–217. Deardorff, R. K. (2015b). Definitions: Knowledge,
Chase, M., Macfadyen, L., Reeder, K., & Roche, J. skills, attitudes. In J. M. Bennett (Ed.), The Sage
(2002, August). Intercultural challenges in encyclopedia of intercultural competence (Vol. 1,
networked learning: Hard technologies meet soft pp. 217–220). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
skills. First Monday, 7(8). Retrieved August 20, DeMello, C. (1995). Acting the culture contrast. In
2003, from http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue S. M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford (Eds.),
7_8/chase/index.html Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural training
Chase, M., Rolston, K., Macfadyen, L., & English, methods (Vol. 1, pp. 59–68). Yarmouth, ME:
A. (2002, November). Designing and Intercultural Press.
moderating online intercultural courses. Paper DiSabatino, J., & Oliver, J. (2002, July). Training
presented at the annual meeting of the Society 101. Training + Development, pp. 15–16.
for Intercultural Education, Training and Earley, P. C., & Ang, S. (2003). Cultural
Research (SIETAR-USA), Portland, OR. intelligence: Individual interactions across
Chu, P. (1996). The culture compass. In H. N. cultures. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University
Seelye (Ed.), Experiential activities for Press.
intercultural learning (pp. 155–170). Yarmouth, Fantini, A. E. (1995). Aba-Zak: A worldview
ME: Intercultural Press. exercise. International Journal of Intercultural
Cushner, K. (1989). Assessing the impact of a Relations, 19(2), 297–302.
culture-general assimilator: An approach to Fantini, A. E. (Vol. Ed.), & Richards, J. C. (Series
cross cultural training. International Journal of Ed.). (1997). New ways in teaching culture. New
Intercultural Relations, 13(2), 125–146. ways in TESOL Series II: Innovative classroom
Cushner, K., & Brislin, R. W. (1996). Intercultural techniques. Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
interactions: A practical guide (2nd ed.). Fennes, H., & Hapgood, K. (1997). Intercultural
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. learning in the classroom. London, UK: Cassell.
Cushner, K., & Brislin, R. W. (1997). Key concepts Fiedler, F., Mitchell, T., & Triandis, H. (1971). The
in the field of cross-cultural training: An culture assimilator: An approach to cross-
introduction. In K. Cushner & W. Brislin (Eds.), cultural training. Journal of Applied Psychology,
Improving intercultural interactions: Modules for 55, 95–102.
cross-cultural training programs (Vol. 2, Flanagan, J. C. 1954. The critical incident
pp. 1–20). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51(4),
Cyr, R. (1999). A primer for designing and using 327–358.
participant training manuals. In S. M. Fowler & Foreign Service Institute (Producer). (2000). Crisis
M. G. Mumford (Eds.), Intercultural Response [Motion picture]. Washington, DC:
sourcebook: Cross-cultural training methods Overseas Briefing Center, US Department of State.
(Vol. 2, pp. 195–202). Yarmouth, ME: Fowler, S. M. (2015). Simulations and games. In J.
Intercultural Press. M. Bennett (Ed.), The Sage encyclopedia of
Dant, W. (1995). Using critical incidents as a tool intercultural competence (Vol. 2, pp. 755–756).
for reflection. In S. M. Fowler & M. G. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Mumford (Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook: Fowler, S. M., & Mumford, M. G. (Eds.). (1995).
Cross-cultural training methods (Vol. 1, Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural training
pp. 141–146). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural methods (Vol. 1). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural
Press. Press.
Deardorff, R. K. (2015a). Assessments of Fowler, S. M., & Mumford, M. G. (Eds.). (1999a).
intercultural competence. In J. M. Bennett (Ed.), Intercultural sourcebook. Cross-cultural training

methods (Vol. 2). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural training methods
Press. (Vol. 2, pp. 131–141). Yarmouth, ME:
Fowler, S. M., & Mumford, M. G. (1999b). Small Intercultural Press.
group exercises as intercultural training tools. In Hofstede, G. J., Pedersen, P. B., & Hofstede, G. H.
S. M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford (Eds.), (2002). Exploring culture: Exercises, stories and
Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural training synthetic cultures. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural
methods (Vol. 2, pp. 113–121). Yarmouth, ME: Press.
Intercultural Press. Hopkins, R. S. (1999). Using videos as training
Fowler, S. M., & Pusch, M. (2011). Intercultural tools. In S. M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford (Eds.),
simulation games: State of the art in the United Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural training
States (and beyond). Simulation & Gaming, 41 methods (Vol. 2, pp. 73–112). Yarmouth, ME:
(1), 94–115. Intercultural Press.
Fowler, S. M., & Silberstein, F. J. (2001, July). Art Horton, W. (2002, November). Horseless carriage
and culture [Training material]. Portland, OR: thinking. Paper presented at the annual meeting
Summer Institute for Intercultural of the North American Simulation and Gaming
Communication. Association, San Diego, CA. Available at www
Gardenswartz, L., & Rowe, A. (2010). Managing .horton.com
diversity: A complete desk reference & planning Howard, R. (Director Executive Producer), Ganz,
guide (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Society for T. (Producer), & Blum, D. (Producer). (1986).
Human Resource Management. Gung Ho [Motion picture]. United States:
Gochenour, T. (Ed.). (1993). Beyond Experience: Paramount Pictures.
The experiential approach to cross-cultural Ito, K., & Triandis, H. C. (1989). Culture assimilator
education (2nd ed.). Yarmouth, ME: for Japanese visiting the United States.
Intercultural Press. Department of Psychology, University of Illinois.
Graham, C. R. (2006). Blended learning systems. In Jeffcoat, J. (Director), & Gorai, T. (Producer).
C. J. Bonk & C. R. Graham (Eds.), The (2006). Outsourced [Motion picture]. United
handbook of blended learning: Global States: ShadowCatcher Entertainment.
perspectives, local designs (pp. 3–21). San Kayes, D. C., Kayes, A., & Kolb, D. A. (2005)
Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer Publishing. Experiential learning in teams, Simulation &
Grove, C., & Hallowell, W. (2001). Randömia Gaming, 36(3):330–354.
Balloon Factory: A unique simulation for working Kelley, C., & Meyers, J. (1995). The cross-cultural
across the cultural divide. Yarmouth, ME: adaptability inventory: Self-assessment.
Intercultural Press. Minneapolis, MN: NCS Pearson.
Gudykunst, W. B., Guzley, R. M., & Hammer, M. Kimball, A. (2002, November). Blended learning.
R. (1996). Designing intercultural training. In D. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
Landis & R. S. Bhagat (Eds.), Handbook of North American Simulation and Gaming
intercultural training (2nd ed., pp. 61–80). Association, San Diego, CA. Retrieved March 3,
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 2003, from www.qube.com
Hall, E. T. (1959). The silent language. Greenwich, Kimmel, P. R. (1995). Facilitating the contrast-
CT: Fawcett. culture method. In S. M. Fowler & M. G.
Hammer, M. R., & Bennett, M. J. (2001). The Mumford (Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook:
Intercultural Development Inventory Cross-cultural training methods (Vol. 1,
[Instrument]. Portland, OR: Intercultural pp. 69–79). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
Communication Institute. Kirkpatrick, D. L. (1960). Techniques for
Hartley, C., & Lapinsky, T. (1999). Piglish: evaluating training programs. Journal of the
A language learning simulation. In S. M. Fowler American Society of Training Directors, 14(1),
& M. G. Mumford (Eds.), Intercultural 13–18, 28–32.

Kluckhohn, R., & Strodtbeck, R. (1961). Variations Lippard, L. (1990). Mixed blessings: Art in
in value orientation. Westport, CT: Greenwood multicultural America. New York, NY: Pantheon.
Press. Littrell, L. N., Salas, E., Hess, K. P., Paley, M., &
Knowles, M. (1970). The modern practice of adult Riedel, S. (2006). Expatriate preparation:
education. Chicago, IL: Associated Press. A critical analysis of 25 years of cross-cultural
Kohls. L. R. (with Brussow, H. L.). (1995). Training training research. Human Resource Development
know-how for cross-cultural and diversity trainers. Review, 5, 355–388.
Duncanville, TX: Adult Learning Systems. Mallinger, M., & Rossy, G. (2003). Film as lens for
Kohls, L. R. (1999a). Conceptual model for country/ teaching culture: Balancing concepts, ambiguity,
area studies. In S. M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford and paradox. Journal of Management Education,
(Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural 27, 608–624.
training methods (Vol. 2, pp. 273–284). McCaffery, J. A. (1995). The role play: A powerful
Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. but difficult training tool. In S. M. Fowler & M.
Kohls, L. R. (1999b). A selection of small group G. Mumford (Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook:
exercises. In S. M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford Cross-cultural training methods (Vol. 1,
(Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural pp. 17–25). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
training methods (Vol. 2, pp. 143–153). McCaig, N. M. (1999). The Malonarian cultural
Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. expedition team: Exploring behavioral
Kohls, L. R., & Knight, J. M. (1994). Developing reflections of mainstream U.S. values. In S. M.
intercultural awareness: A cross-cultural training Fowler & M. G. Mumford (Eds.), Intercultural
handbook (2nd ed.). Yarmouth, ME: sourcebook: Cross-cultural training methods
Intercultural Press. (Vol. 2, pp. 155–166). Yarmouth, ME:
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning. Intercultural Press.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Mikk, B. K. (2015). Training intercultural trainers.
Kolb, D. A., & Lewis, L. H. (1986). Facilitating In J.M. Bennett (Ed.), The Sage encyclopedia of
experiential learning: Observations and intercultural competence (Vol. 2, pp. 814–818).
reflections. In L. H. Lewis (Ed.), Experiential Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
and simulation techniques for teaching adults (pp. Moran, R. T., Braaten, D. O., & Walsh, J. E. (Eds.).
99–107). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. (1994). International business case studies for the
Kraemer, A. J. (1999). A method for developing multicultural marketplace. Houston, TX: Gulf.
deep cultural self-awareness through intensive Myers, I. B. (1962). The Myers-Briggs Type
practice. In S. M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford Indicator. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting
(Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural Psychologists Press.
training methods (Vol. 2, pp. 225–239). Nava, G. (Director), & Thomas, A. (Producer).
Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. (1983). El Norte [Motion picture]. United States:
Lacey, L., & Trowbridge, J. (1995). In S. M. Fowler American Playhouse.
& M. G. Mumford (Eds.), Intercultural Ng, K.Y., Van Dyne, L., & Ang, S. (2009). From
sourcebook: Cross-cultural training methods experience to experiential learning: Cultural
(Vol. 1, pp. 187–195). Yarmouth, ME: intelligence as a learning capability for global
Intercultural Press. leader development. Academy of Management of
Landis, D., & Miller, A. (1973). The army culture Management Learning and Education, 8, 511–526.
assimilator: Interaction with black soldiers. Nickols, F. W. (1990, January). Why those darned
Philadelphia, PA: Center for Social training problems won't go away. Performance &
Development Instruction, pp. 13–15.
Lane, H. W., & DiStefano, J. J. (1988). International Nipporica Associates. (1993). Ecotonos:
management behavior: From policy to practice. A multicultural problem-solving simulation.
Scarborough, Ontario, Canada: Nelson. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.

Osland, J. S. (2015). Global leadership training methods (Vol. 2, pp. 285–321).

development. In J. M. Bennett (Ed.), The Sage Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
encyclopedia of intercultural competence (Vol. 1, Roell, C. (2010). Intercultural Training with Films.
pp. 17–20). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. English Teaching Forum, v48 n2 p2–15 2010
Paige, R. M. (Ed.). (1993). Education for the (http://exchanges.state.gov/englishteaching/
intercultural experience (2nd ed.). Yarmouth, forum/archives/docs/files-folder111111/48_2-etf-
ME: Intercultural Press. intercultural-training-with-films.pdf)
Peace Corps. (2003a). A community economic Schingen, K. M. (2002). Archie Bunkers
development (CED) training guide for Peace neighborhood. Simulation conducted at the 3rd
Corps volunteers. Retrieved August 21, 2003, annual meeting of the Society for Intercultural
from www.peace.corps.gov/library/pdf/M0069 Education, Training, and Research USA
cedeomplete.pdf (SUSA), Portland, OR.
Peace Corps. (2003b). The roles of the volunteer in Sebera, G. T. (2015). Coaching for intercultural
development. Available from Peace Corps competence. In J. M. Bennett (Ed.), The Sage
Online Library Web site, www.peace.corps.gov/ encyclopedia of intercultural competence (Vol. 1,
library/pdf/TO005 rvidcomplete.pdf pp. 54–58). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Peace Corps, (2003c). Working with NGOs. Seelye, H. N. (Ed.). (1996). Experiential activities for
Washington, DC: Peace Corps, Information intercultural learning. Yarmouth, ME:
Collection and Exchange. Intercultural Press.
Peace Corps. (2003d). Building Bridges: A Peace Shirts, R. G. (1970). StarPower. Del Mar, CA:
Corps Classroom Guide to Cross-Cultural Simile II.
Understanding. Retrieved October 11, 2015, Shirts, R. G. (1974). BaFá BaFá: A cross-cultural
from http://files.peacecorps.gov/wws/pdf/ simulation. Del Mar, CA: Simile II.
BuildingBridges.pdf Shirts, R. G. (1976). RaFá RaFá: A cross-cultural
Pfeiffer, J. W., & Ballew, A. C. (1988). Using case simulation. Del Mar, CA: Simile II.
studies, simulations, and games in human resource Shirts, R. G. (1992). Pumping the colors. Del Mar,
development (UA Training Technologies Series CA: Simulation Training Systems.
5). San Diego, CA: University Associates. Shirts, R. G. (1993). StarPower. Del Mar, CA:
Powers, R. B. (1999). An alien among us: A diversity Simulation Training Systems.
game. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Shirts, R. G. (1995). Beyond ethnocentrism:
Pusch, M. D. (Ed.). (1979). Multicultural education: Promoting cross-cultural understanding with
A cross-cultural training approach. Yarmouth, BaFá BaFá. In S. M. Fowler (Ed.), Intercultural
ME: Intercultural Press. sourcebook: Cross-cultural training methods
Rae, L. (1999). Using activities in training and (Vol. 1, pp. 93–100). Yarmouth, ME:
development (2nd ed.). Sterling, VA: Stylus. Intercultural Press.
Ramsey, S. (1999). Adapting intercultural methods Silberstein, F. (2020). Art inSight. Chicago, IL:
for training across cultures. In S. M. Fowler & Intellectual Press.
M. G. Mumford (Eds.). Intercultural Silberstein, F. J., & Sisk, D. A. (1999). Visual imagery
sourcebook: Cross-cultural training methods as a training tool. In S. M. Fowler & M. G.
(Vol. 2, pp. 323–332). Yarmouth, ME: Mumford (Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-
Intercultural Press. cultural training methods (Vol. 2, pp. 185–194).
Reddin, W., & Rowell, K. (1976). Culture Shock Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
Inventory [Instrument]. Fredericton, New Silverman, M. (1995). 101 ways to make training
Brunswick: Organizational Tests. active. San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer.
Renwick, G. W. (1999). Culture-specific training: Singelis, T. M. (Ed.). (1998). Teaching about culture,
China. In S. M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford ethnicity und diversity: Exercises and planned
(Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural activities. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Sisk, D. A. (1995). Simulation games as training August 19, 2003, from www.thiagi .com/pfp/
tools. In S. M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford (Eds.), Genericomarch 2003.html#E-Learning
Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural training Thiagarajan, S., & Steinwachs, B. (1990). Barnga:
methods (Vol. 1, pp. 81–92). Yarmouth, ME: A simulation game on cultural clashes.
Intercultural Press. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
Stewart, E. C., & Bennett, M. J. (1991). American Thiagarajan, S., & Thiagarajan, R. (1995a). Diversity
cultural patterns: A cross-cultural simulation games: Exploring and celebrating
perspective (Rev. ed.). Yarmouth, ME: differences. Amherst, MA: HRD Press.
Intercultural Press. Thiagarajan, S., & Thiagarajan, R. (1995b).
Stewart, E. C., Danielian, J., & Foster, R. J. (1969). Interactive lectures: Add participation to your
Simulating intercultural communication through presentation. Amherst, MA: HRD Press.
role-playing (TR 69-7). Alexandria, VA: Thiagarajan, S., & Thiagarajan, R. (2000). Frame
Human Resources Research Organization. games by Thiagi. Bloomington, IN: Workshops
Storti, C. (1994). Cross-cultural dialogues: 74 brief by Thiagi.
encounters with cultural difference. Yarmouth, Tidwell, C. H., Jr. (2001, November). Fools rush in:
ME: Intercultural Press. Developing cross-cultural sensitivity using ilm-
Storti, C. (1999). Cross-cultural dialogues. In S. M. based group projects. Paper presented at the
Fowler & M. G. Mumford (Eds.), Intercultural annual meeting of the National Communication
sourcebook: Cross-cultural training methods Association, Atlanta, GA.
(Vol. 2, pp. 203–209). Yarmouth, ME: Tolbert, A. S. S. (1990). Venezuelan culture
Intercultural Press. assimilator: Incidents designed for training US
Storti, C. (2001). Old world/new world. Yarmouth, professionals conducting business in Venezuela.
ME: Intercultural Press. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University
Storti, C., & Bennhold-Samaan, L. (1997). Culture of Minnesota.
matters: The Peace Corps cross-cultural Tjosvold, D. (1991). Team organization. An
workbook (ICE Pub. No. TOO87). Washington, enduring competitive advantage. Chichester, UK:
DC: Peace Corps, Information Collection and Wiley.
Exchange. Triandis, H. (1994). Culture and social behavior.
Stringer, D., & Cassiday, P. (2003). 52 activities for New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
exploring values differences. Yarmouth, ME: Triandis, H. (1995). Culture-specific assimilators. In
Intercultural Press. S. M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford (Eds.),
Summerfield, E. (1994). Crossing cultures through Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural training
film. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. methods (Vol. 2, pp. 179–186). Yarmouth. ME:
Summerfield. E., & Lee, S. (2001). Seeing the big Intercultural Press.
picture: Exploring American cultures on film. Tucker, M. F. (1999). Self-awareness and
Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. development using the Overseas Assignment
Thiagarajan, S. (1991). Games by Thiagi. Inventory. In S. M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford
Bloomington, IN: Workshops by Thiagi. (Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural
Thiagarajan, S. (1994). Lecture games: From passive training methods (Vol. 2, pp. 45–52). Yarmouth,
presentations to interactive instruction. Amherst, ME: Intercultural Press.
MA: HRD Press. United Nation Secretariat, Office of Human
Thiagarajan, S. (with Thiagarajan, R.). (2003a). Resources Management (Producer) (1996). The
Design your own games and activities: Thiagi's Agenda Is Peace [Motion picture for internal use
templates for performance improvement. San only]. New York.
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Varner, I., & Beamer, L. (2005). Intercultural
Thiagarajan, S. (2003b, March). The library and the communication in the global workplace (3rd ed.).
playground. Play for Performance. Retrieved Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Verluyten, S. P. (2007). Cultures: From observation Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural training

to understanding. Leuven, Belgium: ACCO. methods (Vol. 1, pp. 127–140). Yarmouth, ME:
Verluyten, S. P. (2008, October). The use of video Intercultural Press.
excerpts in intercultural training. Paper Wight, A. (1999). Cross-cultural analysis as a
presented at the 73rd Annual Convention of the training tool. In S. M. Fowler & M. G.
Association for Business Communication, Lake Mumford (Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook:
Tahoe, NV. Cross-cultural training methods (Vol. 2,
Vink, C. D. (1989). Development of an intercultural pp. 211–224). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural
sensitizer training program for Americans going Press.
to China. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Worchel, S., & Mitchell, T. R. (1972). An
Temple University. evaluation of the effectiveness of the culture
Wang, M. M., Brislin, R. W., Wang, W., Williams, assimilator in Thailand and Greece. Journal of
D., & Chao, J. H. (2000). Turning bricks into Applied Psychology, 56, 472–479
jade: Critical incidents for mutual understanding Wurzel, J. (Producer). (1993). A Different Place:
among Chinese and Americans. Yarmouth, ME: The Intercultural Classroom (Parts 1–2)
Intercultural Press. [Motion picture]. Newtonville, MA:
Wankel, M. J., & Gowda, S. (2002, November). Intercultural Resource Corporation.
Implementing strategies for blended e-learning Youth for Understanding. (1985, 1995). Volunteers
with gaming simulations. Paper presented at the in Intercultural Programs [Training manual
annual meeting of the North American Simulation series]. J. Bethesda, MD.
and Gaming Association, San Diego, CA. Zwick, J. (Director), & Wilson, R. (Producer).
Wight, A. (1995). The critical incident as a training (2002). My Big Fat Greek Wedding [Motion
tool. In S. M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford (Eds.), picture]. United States: HBO Films.

6 Intercultural Simulations
Theory and Practice
Michael B. Salzman
“Culture” has become a central focus of study and minimize those factors, like misunder-
across virtually all disciplines in the social sci- standing, that may produce conflict.
ences. The importance of culture as a mediat- The causes of ethno-cultural conflict are
ing and/or moderating variable in education, multiple. Considering the vital psychological
psychology, human relations, business, and functions of culture (Salzman, 2001a; 2001b;
virtually all human experience has been 2003), we are challenged to study and consider
acknowledged. Cultures address essential how culturally diverse peoples can coexist in
needs embedded in the human condition itself. mutually enriching ways rather than descend-
All cultural groups have rules guiding and ing into misunderstanding and even bloody
governing behavior, but these rules and conflict based on such factors as misattribution
guiding norms often tend to differ across cul- of intentions, alternative constructions of real-
tures because humans need to know how to act ity, competition for material or psychological
and be based on what is necessary to adapt to resources, and efforts to manage anxiety
the demands of a particular ecological niche or through ingroup identification and outgroup
context, thus fulfilling an adaptive function by demonization.
tending to make survival more probable. Inter- Culture is a critical determinant and medi-
cultural relations can be challenging, enrich- ator of conflict in disputes between individuals,
ing, or conflictual. communities, and nations. Culture can be con-
The economy and harmony of every nation sidered both a source of conflict and an essen-
depends on how effectively and respectfully tial means of its resolution (Salzman, 2012).
internationally and culturally diverse peoples Marsella (2005) emphasized the role of culture
within national boundaries interact with each in conflict and offers the following common
other. Misunderstandings that might produce cultural pathways to conflict and violence. He
conflict, ill feelings, and anxiety may occur in proposed the conscious construction of cul-
cross-cultural interactions with no bad inten- tures of peace. Implicit in such constructions
tion resulting in what Brislin (1993) called is the recognition of cultural differences, the
well-meaning conflict. The potential for such validity of human variation, and the develop-
outcomes is embedded in the nature of culture, ment of cultural empathy through increased
intercultural interactions, and the human con- understanding among culturally diverse
dition itself. We are, in the present political peoples. Intercultural training designed to sup-
climate, preoccupied with the positive and port these qualities and outcomes can make
negative potentials of intercultural relations important contributions to the construction
and the realities of intercultural conflict. of “cultures of peace.” Common culturally
Effective intercultural training can maximize mediated pathways to conflict include (Mar-
the positive potentials of intercultural relations sella, 2005):

Intercultural Simulations: Theory and Practice 259
• Perception of danger to national or group • Attribution Training: The attribution

survival, identity, well-being approach focuses on explanations of behav-
• Perception of the “other” as evil dangerous, ior from the host’s point of view (i.e., to
threatening development isomorphic attributions).
• Perception of situation as unjust, unequal, Trainees read short passages which summar-
unfair, humiliating, punishing ize cross-cultural interactional problems that
• Perception of self as self-righteous, moral, commonly occur when members of the host
justified, and “good” by virtue of religion, culture and guests interact (or when majority
history, identity (e.g.,” American and minority group members interact within
Exceptionalism). the USA). After studying a large number of
such passages, trainees may develop intern-
Intercultural contact is certainly not new in
alized standards that will allow them to
human history. The contexts of these contacts,
understand many aspects of the host culture
however, varies. Intercultural contact has
without imposing their own standards. It
followed in the wake of empire, domination
teaches trainees to make attributions iso-
and exploitation where power was asymmet-
morphic to those of the hosts concerning
rical. Conversely, intercultural contact and
the meaning of particular behaviors and situ-
relations have occurred on the basis of mutual
ations. An example of attribution training is
respect, and relative situational equality in the
the Intercultural Sensitizer also known as a
spirit of cooperation in the service of achieving
Cultural Assimilator (Albert, 1983; Cushner
common goals and high aspirations. The
& Landis, 1996). A well-constructed Inter-
potential outcomes vary and numerous
cultural Sensitizer or Culture Assimilator
attempts to maximize positive outcomes
may also be considered experiential as the
through increased knowledge, attitude and
learner is asked to experience (virtually) the
awareness change, skill development, under-
attributional perspectives of members of
standing, and empathy have been undertaken.
another culture in relation to difficult situ-
In order to meet the challenges of intercultural
ations that may produce misunderstanding
relations various models and typologies of
or conflict.
intercultural training have been developed
along particular dimensions such as didactic- • Cultural Awareness: By studying the behav-
ior and values that are common in one’s own
experiential, culture specific-culture general,
culture trainees are acquainted with basic
degree of trainee involvement, and cognitive
ideas about cross-cultural relations. The goal
behavioral orientations. These approaches
of the training is to introduce knowledge
overlap but offer a conceptual framework to
about culture by asking trainees to study
inform our interventions. One early frame-
their own, and to prepare them for life in
work describing six basic approaches to inter-
other cultures by introducing the nature of
cultural training was offered by Brislin,
cultural differences.
Landis, and Brandt (1983). These are:
• Cognitive Behavior modification: In this
• Informational or fact-oriented training: method well-documented principles of learn-
Trainees are presented with facts and infor- ing are applied to problems of adjustment to
mation about the host culture (i.e., climate other cultures. For example trainees might
economic organization, etc.). There is a con- be asked to list what they find rewarding and
cern that the facts may not be organized into punishing in their own culture and then
a meaningful whole. query the host to determine how the rewards

260 michael b. salzman
can be obtained and the punishments training programs and will focus on intercul-
avoided. tural simulations as a method used to replicate
• Experiential Learning: The key difference real intercultural interactions in a game-like
between experiential learning (e.g., simula- context to provide an experiential understand-
tions) and other forms of cross-cultural ing of the nature of culture and the sources of
training is that the trainees are maximally error embedded in the dynamics of intercul-
involved as participants. The goal of experi- tural interactions.
ential learning is to introduce the nature of Simulations can be described as a general
life in another culture or a functional simu- term that refers to the construction of an oper-
lation of it. Experiential learning such as ational model of real processes or political,
intercultural simulations allow for partici- cultural, economic, or environmental systems
pants to experience and reflect upon poten- (Sisk, 1995). Simulations are designed to repli-
tially sensitive issues in a relatively safe, cate real world processes and environments
educational context. It can be argued that and to provide opportunities to interact with
attribution training is a non-emotional form these contexts in ways that may change atti-
of the use of simulations. tudes, heighten awareness, increase their
• The interaction Approach: People interact knowledge, and/or acquire new skills. Broadly
with host nationals or “old hands” during considered, simulations clearly fit into “experi-
the training. The assumption is that if people ential” category, but they also may affect or
can learn to become comfortable with hosts address cognitive processes such as attribu-
during training, and if they can learn from tions through the all-important debriefing pro-
“old hands” then they will be able to begin cess. Other typologies vary according to
productive work much earlier during the whether the exercise focuses on culture in gen-
actual assignment. eral or culturally specific knowledge, whether
the simulation is explicitly informed by theory
Additionally, it becomes imperative that we (e.g., Hofstede, Pedersen, & Hofstede, 2002) or
grasp the sources of confounding perceptual not, the degree of trainer and trainee involve-
and interpretative error that may produce con- ment and when the training is best experienced
flict or impede the development of positive (e.g., prior to departure or during being in
intercultural interactions and cross cultural country).. All methods of intercultural training
relationships. The consequences of such error have their potential strengths and weaknesses
may range from misunderstanding and failure suggesting the benefit of integrating multiple
to accomplish shared goals to murderous vio- methods and approaches in a coherent training
lence. While the negative potentials for inter- program. Specific strengths of simulations
cultural interactions exist such contact and (Fowler & Bloom, 2004) include the opportun-
engagement may also produce opportunities ity to experience and practice new behaviors in
for mutual enrichment, shared knowledge, a relatively safe environment, the reduction of
and a range of solutions to the problems and the gap between learning and applying new
promises of being human. knowledge, and by offering a real experience
In order to address the challenges and posi- to reflect on and discuss. Weaknesses cited
tive possibilities inherent in intercultural inter- include the time needed to complete the exer-
actions a variety of training methods have cise as some simulations may take up to three
been developed. This chapter will briefly hours and sometimes considerably longer, the
survey the field of intercultural sensitivity minimum number of participants needed, and

the variability of learning styles and cultural Fowler and Blohm. A complete description
compatibility. An example of cultural incom- of each method is beyond the scope of this
patibility may be variability in the acceptabil- chapter, and the reader is referred to their
ity of touch and physical distance. In a recent elaboration (Fowler & Bloom, 2004) of these
exercise in Hawai‘i one synthetic culture had a methods, their desired outcomes, adaptability,
cultural norms supporting touch, close phys- and utility: The cognitive methods that focus
ical proximity, and hugging. A Native Ameri- on knowledge acquisition include lectures,
can participant found this to be very written materials, computer-based training,
uncomfortable while participants from Films, DVDs, videos, self-assessment, case
Hawai‘i found touch and close physical prox- studies, and critical incidents. The active
imity quite compatible with their cultures. methods that focus on actively involving
These differing reactions to touch and hugging trainees in some tasks include role playing,
were perhaps reflective of the norms of the simulation games, and intercultural exercises
participant’s culture(s) of origin that were (trainees are involved in a task related to ses-
manifested in the simulation. In the BaFá- sion content). Finally, intercultural methods
BaFá simulation participants may experience that are designed for intercultural learning,
rejection and exclusion if cultural norms are self-awareness, and competence building
inadvertently violated. In another case the lone include contrast culture (Stewart, 1966), the
African-American participant in the simula- culture assimilator or intercultural sensitizer
tion was excluded and asked to leave for inad- (Fiedler, Mitchell, & Triandis, 1971), cross-
vertently violating the gender norms of a cultural analysis (Wight, 1999), cross-cultural
synthetic patriarchal culture. The excluded dialogues (Kraemer, 1999), area studies
student had a negative affective reaction that (Kohls, 1999a), and immersion (Berney,
may well have been influenced by a historical 1999). The intercultural sensitizer or culture
context of racism, exclusion, and segregation. assimilator is a well-researched attribution
In general, rejection and exclusion are power- training approach that provides the learner
ful aversive experiences, and participant’s with the opportunity to see problematic inter-
reactions need to be monitored and addressed. actions through the eyes of culturally different
It is also noted that simulations may not be interactants. The resultant ability to access,
compatible with learners who prefer reflective but not necessarily agree with, the perspectives
observation or abstract conceptualization. of culturally different “others” may be con-
sidered an expression of cultural empathy.
Cultural empathy may represent a high level
Intercultural Simulations in the
of that elusive quality referred to as cultural
Broader Context of Intercultural
competency.
Training
These methods may be used in combination
Fowler and Blohm (2004), in the previous edi- to effect desired outcomes. It is, of course,
tion of this handbook, described and analyzed imperative to be clear on what outcomes are
various methods used in intercultural training. hoped to be achieved through the training
They described intercultural training methods experience. These outcomes may include the
and categorized simulations as primarily resid- acquisition of new knowledge, new skills, or
ing in the cognitive, active, or intercultural changed attitudes (i.e., from ethnocentric to
methods categories. The methods are listed ethno-relative or culturally relative). The
below under the categorization suggested by desired outcomes might be proximal or distal.

A proximal outcome such as skill development situate intercultural training programs along
may seem desirable but the skills may be used specific dimensions. Triandis (1977), for
in service of a negative distal outcome such as example, has suggested a classification system
economic exploitation or colonization. based on whether the program’s focus is cul-
Bhawuk (1990) suggested that the ultimate ture-specific or culture-general and whether it is
goal of cross-cultural orientations and inter- primarily cognitively, affectively or behavior-
cultural training is to make the interaction a ally oriented. Culture-specific programs
“success.” Importantly, he notes that for any attempt to prepare the learner for successful
interaction to be considered successful both interactions with people from a specific target
parties “must think and feel positively about culture while culture-general programs are
the interaction (p. 327).” Indeed, the term intended to provide the behavioral and cogni-
“successful” bears some examination as “suc- tive tools needed to interact successfully with
cess” for one party may lead to the exploit- members of different cultural orientation or
ation or effective domination of the other. The cultures “in general” that differ from one’s own.
interculturally knowledgeable and sophisti- Gudykunst and Hammer (1983) developed
cated missionary or insidious colonial/settler a typology that distinguished between methods
may use cultural knowledge of the “other” in that were primarily didactic or experiential
ways that may be disadvantageous or harmful and whether the content of the training is cul-
to the missionized, colonized, or exploited. As ture general or culture specific. Brislin (1989)
with all knowledge, intercultural knowledge developed a typology on the basis of low,
maybe used for various purposes. The power moderate, or high trainee involvement and
dynamics existing between the members of the whether the focus of the training was primarily
two interacting cultures and the intent of both cognitive, affective, or behavioral leading to
parties cannot be ignored, as the purpose of nine cells where different training methods
the training must benefit both parties. It is the may be placed and conceptualized. Bhawuk
author’s contention that intercultural inter- (1990) proposed a classification system differ-
actions need to be based on mutual respect entiated on three axes: trainee involvement
and the equalization of status and power in varying from low to high, trainer involvement
the situation (Allport, 1954, Pettigrew, 1998) varying from low to high, and the content of
in order to produce “success” where each party the orientation varying from a narrow
benefits. Such an equalization of power rela- (culture-specific) to a broad (culture-general)
tions in intercultural context may contribute to focus. In his system, Bhawuk locates intercul-
the construction of a more just world and, in tural simulations in both cultural-specific and
Marsella’s (2005) terms, “cultures of peace.” culture-general and high trainer and trainee
Inequalities in power relationships invite abuse involvement types of methods.
and oppression. Although simulations are experiential in
nature, a skillful facilitator can lead partici-
pants new knowledge, insight, an increase in
Some Existing Typologies of
one’s behavioral repertoire, and the ability to
Intercultural Training Programs
recognize, identify, and overcome such sources
As noted, numerous other typologies have of error as the fundamental attribution error
been proposed to classify existing intercultural (Ross, 1977), ethno-centric and self-serving
training and orientation programs. Bhawuk bias, attributional bias (Salzman, 1995), the
(1990) summarized various typologies that homogeneity bias (Linville, 1998), and the

nature of ingroup/outgroup dynamics (Tajfel, and spiritual suppression. A training system

1970). Cultural variables manifest and embed- that includes access to the historical and cul-
ded in simulations such as BaFá BaFá may be tural contexts of a behavior would enlighten
explored during the debriefing at relatively the observer to the meaning of the behavior
superficial or profound levels. This may and make an accurate attribution more likely.
include the tendency to evaluate behaviors The panel of cultural consultants used in the
according to one’s own system of values and construction of an ICS may be invaluable in
attributions. A relatively profound level dis- providing the relevant cultural and historical
cussion may be the limits of cultural relativism contexts that may inform the learner as to the
itself. A suggested debriefing question is the meaning of a behavior or reaction. A negative
description of two cultures (e.g. cultures “m” reaction to the term “cultural assimilator”
and “o”), one in which there are norms and becomes understandable when considering
values supporting the full recognition of the the historical resonance of the term.
human potentials of girls and women (culture Albert (1983) and Cushner and Landis
“o”) and, in contrast, a culture (“m”), which (1996) summarized a substantial body of
supports such practices as female genital muti- research and found evidence that an ICS (cul-
lation. The question asks what one should do ture specific) is effective in imparting cultural
when evaluating and responding to culture. information, for increasing the isomorphic
Does one accommodate, attempt to change, attributions (i.e., convergent with the host cul-
or remain silent? Are there “bottom lines?” ture) of the learners and for facilitating inter-
Such questions and resultant discussion may personal relations between trainees and
lead to a profound exploration of the nature members of the target culture. These authors
and function of culture(s), universality and also found that the ICS could positively affect
cultural relativity, human rights, intergroup task performance.
relations, and respect for cultural differences. The construction of these instruments is
The “cultural assimilator” or “intercultural labor intensive, empirically based, and system-
sensitizer”(described earlier) is an example of a atic. The first step (Albert, 1983) is to identify
cognitively oriented approach that offers an critical incidents where the culturally different
interactive experience with critical incidents interactants experience bad feelings or misun-
of problematic intercultural interactions that derstandings that may lead to conflict when
allow access to the attributional tendencies there is in fact no bad intentions, just differen-
and perspectives of the target culture that the tial attributions of the meanings of the behav-
learner hopes to understand better in order to iors or situations. Numerous culture specific
relate positively with members of the target assimilators have been developed (see Albert,
culture. The terms “intercultural sensitizer” 1983, for a review), and one culture general
and “cultural assimilator,” while used inter- assimilator with 100 critical incidents has been
changeably here, provoke different reactions constructed. The culture general assimilator is
from specific populations such as Native based on eighteen themes common to intercul-
Americans who have had negative experiences tural interactions have been identified and
with government policies that promoted the used for three decades (Brislin, Cushner,
“assimilation” of Native peoples to dominant Cherie, & Yong, 1986; Cushner & Brislin,
US culture. The boarding schools were so 1996). These two types of ICSs, culture-specific
designed, and people suffered negative conse- and culture-general, could be classified as a
quences such as culture loss, language loss, cognitively based interactive approach that

serves to equip the learner with the ability to organized to review the raw incidents and pro-
make isomorphic attributions or attributions vide a cultural or historical context for the
of meaning consistent with how target culture observed behavior or situations. This is a crit-
members tend to interpret behaviors, situ- ical stage. In the case of “A Navajo Intercul-
ations, and interactions. The ICS, as with a tural Sensitizer” the bilingual, bicultural
skillfully processed simulation, might provide Navajo panel consisting of educators, a trad-
a means to overcome several sources of error itional spiritual and cultural consultant, an
such as the fundamental attribution error iden- elected community leader, and a leader of the
tified by Ross (1977), where the observer tends American Indian Movement (AIM). Decisions
to attribute cause to the actor from his or her were reached by consensus following intense
own cultural perspective while missing the cul- examination and often emotional discussion.
tural context of the host culture that calls for a The panel was given veto power over what
different behavior in the same situation. they wished to share of their culture (Salzman,
History is context. Narratives and stories 1991) given the unfortunate history of western
transmitted across generations are context. research “on” (not with) indigenous peoples
Worldviews and descriptions of reality are (Smith, 2012). Next, attributions are elicited.
context. The bicultural Navajo panel assem- The task here is to identify the attributions
bled for the construction of “A Navajo Inter- given by the two cultural samples. Questions
cultural Sensitizer” (Salzman, 1990) provided to elicit the attributions focus on the thoughts,
essential historical and cultural contexts for feelings, and behaviors of the participants in
the accurate interpretations of Navajo the incident.
responses presented to the critical incidents The elicited attributions are then empirically
they reviewed. For example, they identified tested to determine if the elicited attributions
the use of Boarding Schools and traumatic differentiate the cultural groups, and which
events such as the “Long Walk” as instruments attributions each group more frequently pre-
of cultural and physical oppression as ferred. Those incidents that differentiated the
informing current worldviews that include per- groups are included in the ICS. The final ICS
ceptions of powerlessness and feelings of infer- consists of each episode (CI) followed by a
iority. A well-constructed ICS (Albert, 1983) question concerning the likely thoughts, feel-
has the ability to make context salient to the ings, or behaviors of the participants. The
observer thereby reducing the potency of the question is followed by four or five alternative
fundamental attribution error. Albert (1983) attributions where one each of the attributions
outlined the following stages of the develop- represent the most frequently chosen by the
ment of an ICS. host culture members and the trainee’s culture
Generation of Episodes: this is the critical members. The other choices capture issues that
incident (CI) technique developed by Flana- are less pertinent to the situation. Following
gan (1954). A CI is an incident that captures each response choice relevant (provided by
misunderstanding, problems, confusion, or panel) cultural and historical context that illu-
conflict between people from two different cul- minates the meaning of the behavior is
tures. A CI is sufficiently complete to permit presented.
inferences about the meaning of the behaviors The author constructed a Navajo Intercul-
or situations. tural Sensitizer (Salzman, 1991) focusing on
In order to construct and select productive problematic interactions between Navajo and
and appropriate CIs, a bi-cultural panel is Non-Navajo school personnel and Navajo

students, and advised on the construction of a created two cultures that differ on these dimen-
Hawaiian ICS targeting interactions between sions and task the participants with interacting
Native Hawaiian students and non-Hawaiian with each other in order to simulate real cul-
professors. Therefore, this method has further tural differences and how they might influence
explored the cultural and historical contexts the interactions and the results of the inter-
from which the incidents emerged and its cogni- actions. Hofstede, Pedersen, and Hofstede
tive, affective, and behavioral effects. For (2002), in his seminal work on national com-
example, “A Navajo Intercultural Sensitizer” parisons of values, behaviors, institutions, and
(Salzman, 1991) allows the learner access to organizations, identified the following cultural
essential historical contexts that are not univer- (national level) dimensions. A brief description
sally shared, such as the experience of dehuman- of each is offered (Brislin, 1993):
izing racism, but the historical context made
salient provides an interpretive lens through Individualism–Collectivism: In individualistic
which the meaning of behaviors may be attrib- cultures, personal goals and identity are
uted more accurately. The cultural and histor- emphasized, and consideration of individ-
ical feedback offered by the bilingual and ual goals takes precedence over group
bicultural panel can provide the necessary con- goals. The United States is considered to
text through which isomorphic attributions can be a highly individualistic national culture.
be accomplished thereby reducing the confound- In collectivist cultures identity and goals
ing effects of the fundamental attribution error. are related to group membership.
The well-constructed ICS may illuminate, for A Native American colleague once stated
example, the meaning and function of “small to the author “I am my relations.” When
talk” in the two cultures. In the Navajo ICS interacting in collectivist cultures people
incidents revealed the meaning of gestures (i.e., are not just seen as just individuals, but
pointing with lips not fingers because pointing also as members of some group.
with finger might indicate an accusation of Power Distance: Refers to cultures based on
witchcraft); restrictions on the use of “touch”; more or less equality. It is the relative
taboos (i.e., talking or joking about death); spir- amount of power high-status groups have
itual beliefs; the sacred meaning of “the land”; relative to low-status groups. In low
the respect shown to the thoughts of children; power distance cultures people feel free
and meaning of silence and pause. In order to to disagree and laws and norms that make
avoid stereotyping, within group variation was power differences as minimal as possible
reported in percentages, and statistical proced- guide behavior. The USA is considered to
ures were used to test group differences. be a low power distance national culture.
Masculinity–Femininity: In general, values
such as aggressiveness, assertiveness, and
Intercultural Simulations
competitiveness are considered “mascu-
Simulations are training activities that may line” and concern with relationships,
include game-like elements such as goals, pay- cooperation, tenderness, and taking other
offs, and constraints (Fowler & Blohm, 2004). people’s feelings into account are con-
They may be organized around known dimen- sidered “feminine” values. In “feminine”
sions that tend to vary across cultures (Hof- national cultures there is more of a ten-
stede, 2001; Hofstede, Pedersen, & Hofstede, dency for genders to share power and for
2002). Some intercultural simulations have women to develop an effective political

voice. Gender roles are less rigid. Scandi- intercultural interactions. Sources of percep-
navian national cultures tend to be more tual error and their behavioral consequences
“feminine,” and Japan is highly mascu- may be abstracted from the experiential nature
line as men hold power. of simulations. One predictable source of error
Uncertainty-Avoidance: Although all cul- is the fundamental attribution error (FAE). It is
tures are concerned with uncertainty, thought by some (Ross, 1977) to form the
national cultures that are high in “uncer- conceptual bedrock for the field of social
tainty avoidance” (UA) have large psychology. The FAE describes the cognitive
numbers of rules, and people are social- tendency to predominantly over-value disposi-
ized to believe that uncertainty about the tional (factors within the actor) personality-
future is best dealt with if everyone based explanations for the observed behaviors
behaves according to widely accepted of others, thereby under-valuing or failing to
guidelines and norms. High UA national acknowledge the potential power of situational
cultures have many rules and norms to attributions or situational explanations for the
reduce uncertainty. behavioral motives of others. In other words,
Long-Term/Short-Term Orientation: Hof- the power of the situation is overlooked and
stede et al. (2002) called the synthetic cul- cause is presumed to be located within the
tural dimensions identity, hierarchy, actor we observe. The situation is context.
gender, truth, and virtue. In 2007, Hof- History is context. Culture is context. Intercul-
stede added yet another dimension called tural training may be effective to the degree
Indulgence versus Restraint. that context is made salient and that predict-
able errors and attributional biases are
Effective intercultural simulations can be
addressed and overcome. The fundamental
seen to reflect and embed a number of these
attribution error has been identified (Salzman,
dimensions in the exercise (i.e., individualism–
1995) as the tendency to attribute cause to
collectivism, power distance, masculinity–
dispositional factors within the actor, while
femininity). Although simulations are experien-
contextual factors such as history and culture
tial in nature, a skillful facilitator can lead par-
are not considered or fade into the distant
ticipants to new knowledge, insight, an increase
background. One explanation for this ten-
in one’s behavioral repertoire, and the ability to
dency is that actors and observers differ in
recognize, identify, and overcome such sources
their points of view. The situation (i.e., culture,
of error as the fundamental attribution error
history) is salient to the actor, but the actor is
(Ross, 1977), ethno-centric and self-serving bias
salient to the observer, leading to a tendency to
(Greenberg & Rosenberg, 1979; Greenberg,
attribute different meanings to the behavior.
Pyszczynski, & Solomon, 1982), attributional
A number of “de-biasing” techniques have
bias (Salzman, 1995), the homogeneity bias
been found effective in reducing the effect of
(Linville, 1998) and the nature of ingroup/out-
the FAE. These include noting consensus
group dynamics (Tajfel, 1970).
information. If most people in a group behave
in the same way when put in the same situ-
ation, then the situation is more likely to be the
Sources of Perceptional Bias and
primary cause of the behavior. Therefore,
Cognitive Error
attributing cause to the actor may contribute
Intercultural simulations may reveal import- to perceptual and attributional error. In add-
ant, potentially confounding aspects of actual ition, one would be well advised to look for

unseen causes and less immediately salient variability among their outgroups than among
factors such as culture. A skilled facilitator, their comparable ingroups. This outgroup
conducting an intercultural simulation, can homogeneity effect provides a sense of predict-
bring this and other sources of error to saliency ability but is a source of error through stereo-
and insight. The skill and effectiveness of the typical overgeneralization that may preclude
instructor is of central importance in the accurate judgments. The relative difference
debriefing phase of simulations (Sisk, 1995) between perceived heterogeneity of ingroups
as the processing of the experience has great and outgroups (Simon, 1992) has been referred
potential for insight, knowledge acquisition, to as the “outgroup homogeneity effect.” This
skill development, and attitude change. tendency nourishes the perception that “we are
Other sources of error may develop out of a diverse but you are all alike” or “they all look
need to satisfy and defend the self-esteem alike.”
motive. The ethno-centric and self-serving Tajfel (1970) has illuminated the power of
biases derive from the need to protect or ingroup/outgroup dynamics that associated
enhance one’s private image. In the case of with the need for self-identity and differenti-
the self-serving bias, there is a tendency to ation from others. The Minimal Group Para-
attribute more responsibility to the self for digm is a term used in social psychology
favorable outcomes than for unfavorable out- experiments (e.g. Sherif, Harvey, White, &
comes (Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, Sherif, 1954; Tajfel, 1970) where people are
1982). Consequently when an intercultural randomly assigned to groups. These studies
interaction fails and produces negative affect have shown that simply being randomly
the “other” is held responsible. When the inter- assigned to be a member of a group is enough
action succeeds the opposite attribution tends to change behavior. The Robber's Cave experi-
to occur. In the case of the several studies (e.g., ment (Sherif et al., 1954) is one of social psy-
Greenberg & Rosenfield, 1979) have shown chology's most cited studies dealing with
that there is a bias in the attributions used to differentiation, showing how easily opposing
explain the behavior of ingroup and outgroup ingroups and group hostilities can form.
members. That is, when an ingroup member A phenomenon occurs where group members
does something well it is explained in terms of will begin to associate superiority to their
some underlying trait such as intelligence, group over and above other outgroups.
while if an outgroup member does something Ingroup members associate their self-esteem
equally well the performance tends to be through positive social comparisons with other
attributed to such situational factors as luck. groups where their group is seen as superior.
The opposite tends to be true of negative The insights offered by Social Identity Theory
behaviors or performance as the outgroup (Tajfel, 1970), concerning people’s tendencies
member’s behavior is explained in terms of to derive and enhance self-esteem by identify-
stable and enduring traits (i.e., “that’s just ing with specific social groups and to divide the
how they are”). A “failed” intercultural inter- social world into “us” and “them,” suggest a
action that may result in negative affect and powerful psychological motivation that must
threaten self-esteem may increase the tendency be acknowledged and addressed if positive
for the ethno-centric and self-serving bias to intercultural relations are to be developed.
occur. For the barriers to positive intercultural
The homogeneity bias (Linville, 1998) refers relations represented by these sources or error
to the tendency of people to perceive less to be overcome, it is necessary to acknowledge,

understand, and address them. It is necessary students to address which of these themes they
to consider their contributions to our judg- experienced in the simulation. They include:
ments about ourselves and “others” as the
consequences of error may range from the • Anxiety: How we respond to the state of anx-
trivial to the destructive. Intercultural training iety is consequential. Social psychology has
needs to account for these factors provided evidence (Greenberg, Solomon, &
These sources of error may be brought to Pyszczynski, 1997; Salzman, 2001a,b, 2003)
salience through intercultural simulations by a that culture may serve as an anxiety buffer
skillful facilitation of the debriefings and dis- against the terror inherent in human existence
cussion following the experiential exercise. In by making anxiety-buffering self-esteem avail-
the BaFá-BaFá example, during the debrief- able to its adherents and “believers.” Conse-
ing, the Alpha and Beta cultural groups are quently, especially under certain conditions
asked to describe their impressions of the (i.e., mortality salience), cultural differences
“other.” The responses tend to be value laden maybe inherently threatening because they call
and decontextualized (i.e., “they are rude, into question the absolute “truth” of one’s
pushy, primitive, etc.” Then when each is worldview and belief system. Anxiety is
asked to explain their behaviors as cultural embedded in the human condition. It is an
norms rooted in sources of self-esteem, and aversive state that may be exacerbated by
survival behaviors in their ecological niche, threats to a person’s meaning system that is
the behaviors tend to be understood and interculturally mediated and constructed.
preted differently and more accurately. Here is • Disconfirmed expectations: People from the
where skillful facilitation is required to move “other” culture may respond to one’s behavior
the observer beyond the limits of one’s value in unpredictable ways. Our expectations are,
system and attributional tendencies. to a great extent, culturally shaped. We, anx-
iety prone human creatures, seek predictabil-
ity for security and anxiety management. We
Strengths and Weaknesses of
need to know, for the sake of survival, how
Intercultural Simulations
people are likely to react to our behaviors.
Fowler and Bloom (2004) identified strengths • Belonging: To feel included and a sense of
and challenges of the simulation method of belonging is a human need and rejection due
intercultural training. They note that simula- to culturally inappropriate behavior that is mis-
tions may take time (three or more hours) and understood may be extremely aversive. In the
preparation of materials. Most importantly, the course of the BaFá-BaFá exercise it is likely that
debriefing, which is key to the success of the someone will experience exclusion and rejection
exercise, requires a skillful facilitation to bring due to well-meaning behaviors (Brislin, 1993)
out the essential lessons of the experience. that violate cultural norms and protocols. The
Strengths include the opportunity to practice processing of this experience needs to be
new skills, reflect on their experience, process handled with care and sensitivity in order to
their emotions, and achieve insight. In addition reduce defensiveness and maximize insight.
to the sources of perceptual and attributional • Ambiguity: The messages one receives may
error previously mentioned, themes may be not be accurately interpreted and guidance
identified that are common in intercultural for acceptable behaviors may not be clear.
interactions. Cushner and Brislin (1996) identi- One cannot be sure what responses our
fied eighteen such themes. The author requires behaviors might elicit.

• Confrontations with one’s prejudices: When .html) on line and a brief review of some exam-
one applies values and appraisals from one’s ples of these follows.
own culture to intercultural interactions nega-
tive judgments about the “other” are likely.
Aid to Minorians (Intercultural Source
• Ingroup/Outgroup distinction: People
Book, 1995)
entering another culture need to be sensitive
to the fact that they will often be outgroup Participants are divided into two groups: The
members and subject to the ingroup/out- Minorians are a poor and underdeveloped soci-
group dynamics described earlier. Social ety, while the Majorians are wealthy and are
identity theory (Tajfel, 1970) and exercises trying to plan a project to help the Minorians.
using a minimal group paradigm, as in ran- Cultural assumptions and the relationship
domly assigning students into an “Alpha” or between donor and receiving parties are exam-
“Beta” culture in the BaFá-BaFá exercise, ined. Issues of class and privilege become salient.
indicate how our self-esteem is connected to This exercise is relevant for development workers,
the social groups we identify with. Peace Corps volunteers, United Nations volun-
• Attribution: The meanings attributed to teers, and others working in developing countries,
behaviors and situations may differ across as it addresses essential dimensions of class and
cultures. A skillful facilitator of intercultural development inequalities and their impact on
simulations can reveal the attributional ten- intercultural contact and relations.
dencies that may produce bad feelings, mis-
understandings, or conflict.
The Albatross (Gochenour, 1977a)
Fowler and Bloom (2004) suggest that one of
This is a nonverbal role-playing exercise that
the real strengths of simulations is their versatil-
may include a variety of themes such as male-
ity. They can reveal value differences, sources of
female relationships and the issue of privilege.
perceptual and attributional error, communica-
Participants are asked to watch a brief role-
tion barriers, the logic of the rules and norms of
play and then describe what they saw. Most
the “other” culture in the context of history and
will interpret what they saw and judge what
ecology, and the error inherent in applying judg-
they saw having not heard anything in this
ments based on one’s own cultural framework to
non-verbal role-play. This simulation offers
a people who may in fact live in a totally differ-
the opportunity to appreciate how we give
ent social reality. The author had this experience
meaning to events based on our own experi-
when he journeyed from his community to an
ence as we superimpose our experience to new
impoverished racially tense inner city commu-
observations. This may be a source of error.
nity in Brooklyn. It became clear to the young
teacher (the author) that his students and their
families lived in a social reality that the young Barnga: (Steinwachs,1995; Thiagaraja,
teacher was quite clueless about. 1990)
This simulation provides an opportunity to
consider difficulties in communicating across
Examples of Existing Intercultural
cultures where the rules are different from
Simulations
familiar ones but no one knows they are dif-
A list of intercultural simulations is available ferent. A nonverbal game in which partici-
(www.carla.umn.edu/culture/resources/exercises pants are divided into groups to learn a card

game based on a number of simple rules. The differences may allow for some group
participants do not know that each group’s set members to contribute to group problem-
of rules is slightly different, so when they begin solving while others are alienated and disen-
to play the game with the others conflict franchised. Desired outcomes of this exercise
develops. It is interesting to note that the rules include the seeking of solutions that prevent
are only slightly different but sufficient to such power imbalances thus improving group
cause frustration and even conflict; when one productivity and strengthening member’s self-
expects similarities even small differences can esteem and commitment to the group and its
confound communications. Perhaps the cen- tasks. The exercise is designed to offer an
tral realization is that cultural differences opportunity for participants to experience the
may exist in more or less subtle forms. Of realities attempting a task in a multicultural
course, in reality cultures have differing rules group. Ecotonos, then, is a multicultural
and norms, and this is reflected in the Barnga problem-solving simulation that follows three
simulation. Barnga, as well as other simula- steps: acculturation, mono-cultural group
tions provides a powerful experience in a safe problem solving, and multicultural group
environment. Once again the skill of the problem-solving. The debriefing process
instructor in constructing a safe environment first focuses on the emotions aroused and then
is a key factor in the success of simulations. on the processes and skills for solving
This simulation demonstrates how quickly problems in multicultural groups. Participants
ingroup–outgroup dynamics form. Barnga is are assigned to one the culture groups
proposed as an entry-level intercultural (usually three) that are defined by one of “cul-
training method that is effective in stimulating ture badges” that indicate the rules of the cul-
misperception and consequent communication ture. These rules are discussed and considered.
difficulties, and examining strategies used to Once “acculturated” the same task is assigned
overcome the barriers that exist in intercultural to all of the culture groups and the mono-
communication. A central point is that the cultural groups work on the task. They are
barriers may be greater when the differences then stopped in the middle of their mono-
are unexpected. cultural efforts to complete the task and re-
assigned to form a multicultural composed of
members of the mono-cultural groups. The
Ecotonos: (Safiere, 1995)
multicultural groups then continue to work
Participants take on roles as members of dif- on the task while attending to the processes
ferent cultural groups and are then asked to employed. The composition of the multicul-
interact with the others to solve a problem. tural may vary in terms of majority–
This simulation looks at how homogenous minority or balanced representation. The
and heterogeneous groups work and the debriefing follows to help participants discuss
assumptions made about decision-making pro- and consider their experience in problem
cesses and how to address a problem. This may solving in both the mono and multicultural
reveal how our unspoken assumptions groups.
guide problem-solving behaviors. This simula- Ecotonos was designed for business applica-
tion provides the opportunity for participants tions but may be used in a variety of settings. It
to learn how power imbalances may be created has been used to prepare students preparing
by differing values, communication styles, and for foreign programs, and all manner of multi-
expectations in group problem-solving. Such cultural experiences requiring the recognition

of the power of expectations, assumptions and considered both a culturally specific and cul-
culturally guided behaviors. ture general approach to intercultural training.
Grocery Store: (Eun & Patton, 1996) Starpower: (Shirts, 2013) Simulation
This exercise simulates a diverse neighborhood
Training Systems
in the inner city where tensions arise between Participants form groups with different eco-
diverse culture groups. A critical incident nomic statuses and seek to trade with each
occurs and is interpreted differently by each other to improve their economic statuses. The
party. This simulation focuses on race rela- most economically viable group is allowed to
tions, cultural diversity and the different cul- alter the rules. Alliances develop, and
tural meanings attributed to different ingroup–outgroup dynamics are manifested,
behaviors. A good debriefing of this exercise and assumptions about the uses and abuses
might reveal the relevant cultural and histor- of power may be revealed. This simulation
ical contexts that inform these attributions. focuses, not on specific cultures but on class
differences and inequality and their effects on
intergroup relations and the effects of power
IDE-GO: (Fowler & Mumford, 1995) imbalances, abuses of power, and social strati-
Participants separate into two groups; one fication. It is designed to provoke consider-
simulates North American culture while the ation of participants’ assumptions about the
other simulates South American culture. The uses and abuses of power. An important learn-
game is designed to provide insight into the ing that may occur is that for behavior to
interaction processes and behaviors of these change it may be necessary to change the
two groups. This is a culture-specific system that may have encouraged or produced
approach. This simulation, then may be con- the behavior. Like, the previously discussed
sidered to be a “culture-specific” intervention. “Aid to Minorians,” inequalities in power
and wealth are addressed. “Star Power” is
more explicit in the effects of power and
Markhall: A Comparative Corporate- wealth imbalances on human interactions and
Culture Simulation (Blohm, 1995) is particularly effective in its attention to the
effects of the abuse of power.
In this simulation two corporations are con-
structed from Japanese and American corpor-
ate cultures but given neutral names. The task
The Owl: (Gochenour,1977b)
is to create products for market. The simula-
tion is designed to have participants explore This simulation involves a group of reporters
different management styles, communication on assignment to interview members of
styles, decision making, and organizational another country and, if they act appropriately,
values. The simulation was designed for US they will gain access to a mysterious cultural
students returning from Japan to help them event. If they are successful they have their
process and contextualize their experience. story. However, communication problems
Assisting re-entering US students in identify- arise and the “reporters” face the dilemma of
ing various dimensions of corporate and needing information while searching for cul-
organizational culture. Thus it may be turally appropriate ways to ask for it.

Hofstede, Pedersen, & Hofstede, of culture-based university courses, and his

(Exploring cultures: Exercises, stories experience with it inform this chapter. As pre-
and synthetic cultures, 2002) viously stated in the introduction, BaFá BaFá
was probably the first intercultural simulation
Hofstede, Pedersen, and Hofstede (2002) pro-
developed and was made available in 1974.
posed exercises, stories, and synthetic cultures
Subsequently other simulations have been
in their volume that revealed and replicated the
developed but all owe some credit for inspir-
challenge of intercultural interactions. They pre-
ation to BaFá BaFá. It is the classic (Pusch,
sented intercultural training that utilizes all of
2004) that has provided a model for those that
Hofstede’s dimension of cultural variability as
followed and shall be a primary focus into this
previously described. It constructs ten “synthetic
inquiry of intercultural simulations and their
cultures.” These cultures consist of the attitudes,
utility in addressing essential themes, sources
values, norms, rules, and self-definitions typic-
of error, learning opportunities, and the poten-
ally found at the extreme poles of each of the five
tials for confusion, conflict, and enrichment
Hofstede dimensions thus producing ten syn-
inherent in the nature of intercultural
thetic cultures. The exercises suggested in their
interactions.
volume are firmly rooted in Geert Hofstede’s
The classic simulation BaFá BaFá can,
work on national cultures, linking theory and
with skillful facilitation, reveal a number of
practice through the use of the synthetic cultures
Hofstede, Pedersen, and Hofstede’s (2002)
as well as through stories and exercises. These
dimensions of cultural variability (i.e.,
interventions, using Hofstedian dimensions of
individualism–collectivism, power distance,
cultural variability, may be categorized as
masculinity–femininity) as well as typical
theory-based intercultural training. Important
sources of error that may confound positive
lessons that can be gleaned from this exercise
intercultural interactions, create prejudice,
include the realization that when observing a
and promote ineffective behaviors. Although
situation or a behavior one cannot be confident
simulations are experiential in nature, a skillful
of what is actually happening because we bring
facilitator can lead participants new know-
our own cultural frame of interpretation to any
ledge, insight, an increase in one’s behavioral
situation, and that accurate interpretation
repertoire, and the ability to recognize, iden-
requires accessing the cultural frame of reference
tify, and overcome such sources of perceptual
of both interactants. In addition, we further filter
and attributional error as the fundamental
our interpretation through our own unique his-
attribution error (Ross, 1977), ethno-centric
tory, personality, and internalized sampling of
and self-serving bias (Greenberg et al., 1982),
culture. A key principle one may extract from
attributional bias (Salzman, 1995), the homo-
this approach is the importance of being able to
geneity bias (Linville, 1998) and the nature of
separate observation from interpretation and to
ingroup/outgroup dynamics (Tajfel, 1970).
suspend attribution of the meaning of the behav-
A skillful facilitator may, in the debriefing
ior until the observer has access the culture of the
following the experience of the simulation,
interactants and the nature of the situation.
help participants see how intercultural inter-
actions may be affected by cultural variation
in norms, values, and sources of self-esteem. In
BaFá BaFá: A Specific Example
addition, it is both possible and advisable to
The simulation known as BaFá BaFá has been identify essential psychological functions of
used by the author of this chapter in a variety culture such as the prescriptive pathways to

self-esteem construction through a belief in the Hofstede’s dimensions of cultural variability,

cultural worldview and seeing oneself as meet- students are provided with the eighteen themes
ing the standards of value prescribed by the in intercultural interactions identified by Cush-
culture. This aspect of culture suggests that, ner and Brislin (1996), and are directed to
while self-esteem (defined as seeing oneself as indicate which of these were observed or
having value in a meaningful world) is a uni- experienced. The students are given the assign-
versal psychological need, it is constructed dif- ment to write a reaction/reflection paper
ferently across cultures. Each of these will be describing their experience in the light of the
examined. Self-esteem, often trivialized, is a issues presented above.
vital psychological resource that represents The BaFá-BaFá simulation begins with the
powerful human motivation. Indeed, Becker construction of two cultures that differ on a
(1971) called it the dominant human motiv- number of attributes of cultural variation
ation. Alfred Adler is quoted as follows: “The including norms, values, behavioral expect-
supreme law of (life) is this: the sense of worth ations, protocols, customs, and sources of
of the self shall not be allowed to be dimin- self-esteem. The cultures are named Alpha
ished” (in Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1946, and Beta. Students are randomly assigned to
p. 358). In BaFá BaFá the sources of self- either Alpha or Beta cultures and acculturated
esteem are different and motivating. Students into the values, rules, and expectations of their
are asked to assess the sources of self-esteem in assigned culture. This process surprisingly
the Alpha (i.e., warm relationships, behavioral takes only about twenty minutes. Once partici-
protocols) and Beta (i.e. trading ability and pants seem comfortable with their “new cul-
acquisition of points) cultures. A key aware- ture” observers are exchanged for a brief visit
ness generated is that the motive to achieve a where they observe “their” ways and behav-
sense of value in the cultural drama is powerful iors. The observers are charged with conduct-
and that self-esteem is a cultural construction. ing a non-verbal observation to assess and
The author has had extensive experience hypothesized how “they” are and how best to
with this simulation and has utilized it in a interact with “them” “successfully.” The
variety of courses where culture is a focal con- observers then report back to their home cul-
cern. In courses such as “Clinical Work with tures and share their hypotheses with them. At
Diverse Populations,” “Cross-Cultural Coun- this point visitors are exchanged, given the
seling,” and “A Psychology of Culture” the artifacts needed in the visited culture, and
author has used this simulation early in the instructed to observe and then attempt inter-
semester to bring to salience the impact of actions based on their and the observers’
culture on individuals, groups, and intercul- observations. When all of the visits are com-
tural interactions over a period of twenty-three pleted, the groups are given a break with the
years. Following a brief description of the instruction that on returning to the main room
exercise, I will describe what aspects of inter- they should sit together with their home cul-
cultural relations are possible to identify and tures on opposite sides of the room.
experience in the BaFá-BaFá simulation. Stu- A debriefing then is conducted to bring out
dents, at the outset of the simulation, are the insights possible from the simulation. They
instructed to pay close attention to their feel- are assigned the reaction/reflection paper.
ings, thoughts, and behaviors in the course of Alpha and Beta cultures are quite different
the exercise. In addition to common sources of in ways replicating real cultural differences
perceptual and attributional error and that exist in the world. Alphas are relaxed

and value intimacy in their relations with valuing touch, personal contact, and intimacy
fellow Alphas within a sexist, patriarchal within a very rigid hierarchical, patriarchal
structure. There are rigid protocols for these structure. The sexist nature of this culture, as
interactions that are strictly enforced. The warm as it appears, is explicit in the cultural
quality of the personal interactions in support orientation of the Alphas. They are told that
of cultural values is much more valued than “women are considered to be the property of
material gain. Betas, on the other hand, value men” and that “the men are honored and
success in the marketplace and material women are considered to be the property of
rewards. They tend to be egalitarian and com- men. Accordingly, men may approach either
petitive where status is gained by accumulating sex but women may only approach other
the most “points” in their trading system. We women” (Shirts, 1974, p. 29). There is a rigid
can see here how self-esteem is pursued be both protocol to follow upon greeting a fellow
Alphas and Betas, but constructed differently. Alpha. The “patriarch” formally signs in all
This is but one of the important insights that Alphas to the new culture. If there are non-
may be gained from this and other Alphans visiting Alpha culture, they will not
simulations. know of this requirement or the protocols of
interaction (e.g., standing close, touching,
talking about male relative in hierarchical
Guiding Questions for the Debriefing
order, then playing a game where winning
The developer of the simulation (Shirts, 1995) was not an objective but that the joyous qual-
offers recommendations for questions to be ity of the interaction was the culture-affirming
explored during the debriefing. These are goal). Alphas are instructed that if any male
designed to explore the feelings, anxieties, not approved of by the patriarch approaches
and counterproductive attitudes of people an Alpha female, then the values of Alpha
who, by choice or circumstance, are required culture and the “manhood of each male is
to interact with people from another culture. threatened.” Such a violation requires that
After the actual exercise, the two cultures the offender be isolated and expelled from the
assemble in one room, with each (Alpha and Alpha world. It is almost inevitable that an
Beta) sitting on opposite sides of the room, and unsuspecting Beta visitor will make this error
the following basic questions are asked with and be expelled.
more in-depth explorations to follow in order The Alphas may be considered a vertical
to engage with the issues embedded in the collectivist culture (Triandis, 1995), where the
exercise and to address local variability of the group is most important, and upholding the
participants. cultural drama (Becker, 1971) and its proto-
BaFá BaFá has embedded within it several cols is of paramount importance. “Winning”
of Hofstede’s dimensions of cultural variabil- the game is not important; it is the quality of
ity. The exercise begins with an orientation the relationship and the interaction that wins
that describes the procedures of the simula- approval and acceptance. In Cushner and Bri-
tion. Students are randomly assigned to one slin’s (1996) description of eighteen themes
of the two cultures and are oriented to their common in intercultural interactions, they
new culture. This cultural orientation is given note that the desire and need to feel a sense
in separate rooms and includes a description of of belonging is often difficult due to the status
the values expectation and custom of the two of an outsider who violates cultural norms.
cultures. Alpha culture is described as relaxed When an unsuspecting Beta is expelled from

Alpha land for approaching an Alpha female, question may open up a discussion about
his emotions become engaged, which may how we tend to evaluate difference in terms
inflame negative cognitions and even behavior. of our value system, thereby producing the
This scenario requires the facilitator to moni- possibility of error. The responses to these
tor this interaction and provide appropriate questions may be used to explore ethno-
explanations in the debriefing. centric and self-serving biases in response to
Beta culture provides a different pathway to the negative evaluative tendencies we protect
self-esteem. They trade with each other to ourselves with when interactions “fail” or
accumulate points and resultant status. There produce anxiety and discomfort.
are few rules as they compete for the points • Participants are then asked to “explain” the
that motivate them. It is a competitive rather other culture, to explain their behaviors and
egalitarian culture that is only interested in their meanings. The explanations of the
accumulations and not human relationship. “other” tend to be based on the culturally
In Hofstedian terms the Betas might be con- informed framework of the observer, not the
sidered Individualistic. The two cultures also actor. Later, each group is asked to explain
differ along the Power-Distance continuum. their cultures and the meanings of their
Alphas, being sexist and patriarchical, would behaviors to the other culture. Their explan-
rate as high Power-Distance, while the rela- ations tend to explain the behavior in terms
tively equal status Betas might be described of the actor’s cultural framework. Thus,
as a low Power-Distance culture. The Betas taken together these questions and the dis-
also have their own language that will seem cussion that follows can reveal the funda-
strange to the visitors as they try to interact mental attribution error where the cultural
“successfully” with Betas. A skillful facilitator and historical context of the behavior is not
strives to extract the “gems” from the experi- available or apparent to the observer who is
ence during the debriefing. likely to attribute meanings to the behavior
that emanate from the cultural and historical
framework of the observer. The explanation
Examples of suggested guiding questions
of the behavior from the actor’s point of
• Ask Beta members to describe the “other” view reveals the cultural context of the
(Alphas) with specific words (i.e., “lazy,” behavior. This awareness allows for a more
“friendly but superficial,” “clannish,” etc. ). accurate understanding of the behavior of
The facilitator writes the descriptors on the the “other,” thereby reducing the likelihood
board without comment under the heading of evaluative error. Indeed, one of the goals
of “Alphas are . . .” Some of these descrip- of intercultural training is the development of
tors are likely to be judgmental and pejora- the skills that promote observation and
tive as the process proceeds. description prior to the evaluation of behav-
• Ask Alphas to suggest words that describe iors that are decontextualized.
the Betas. The facilitator writes these on the
board under the heading of “Betas are . . .” The fundamental attribution error may be
These descriptors, as the process proceeds, revealed through the debriefing questions sug-
are also likely to be value-laden and gested, by asking members of each culture to
pejorative describe (i.e., Alphas are . . ., Betas are . . .) the
• Is it possible to talk about another culture “other.” This is followed by asking both cul-
without using evaluative terms? This tures to explain themselves and their behaviors

in terms of their cultural norms and values. By question of ingroup loyalty. It has impressed
bringing the culture to salience the learners can the author how quickly this develops as has
realize that what seems irrational, confusing, been shown in the minimal group paradigm
contradictory, or unimportant may seem (Tajfel, 1970) studies. In the reaction papers,
rational, consistent, and affirming to persons such loyalty is often expressed in terms such as
in the “other” culture. As previously stated, “Alphas rule.” It seems clear that when groups
behavior may be incomprehensible or misin- are formed they exert a powerful influence on
terpreted if de-contextualized from the culture behavior, cognitions, and affect. Thus, by
it emerges from. making culture salient the trainees can appreci-
The debriefing begins with each cultural ate the power of culture on behavior and the
group sitting together on opposite sides of the meanings that tend to be attributed to specific
common room describing the “other.” This behaviors.
provides an opportunity to consider the ethno- One “gem” that may be extracted from the
centric and self-serving biases as the facilitator simulation is the issue of cultural relativity and
takes note of the value-laden terms used by the its limits: What is truly universal, and what is
two groups to describe each other, and this can culturally specific and adaptive to particular
be used to reveal the “gem” that one is likely to ecological requirements. There is much to be
seriously misinterpret the behavior of culturally gleaned from this exercise. Cultural practices
different “others” if one evaluates “them” only that may make sense in a particularly ecological
in terms of one’s own values, expectations, and context may be horrifying to an observer from
behavior. Importantly, the simulation provides outside of that context. This issue produces
an opportunity to reveal the attributional biases important and sensitive questions and chal-
(Salzman, 1995) that may confound intercul- lenges both the facilitator and participants
tural interactions because different cultures explore the limits of cultural relativity. Can
often interpret the same events differently. The any practice be justified because it is “cultural,”
Intercultural Sensitizer is designed to overcome or are there bottom lines that are universal? The
attributional errors by making culture salient. Universal Declaration of Human Rights is an
By making the culture salient the fundamental attempt to establish such bottom lines, but has
attribution error may be revealed and an been criticized as a Western imposition (Salz-
important lesson taught. The ethno-centric and man, 2006). The question of the limits of cul-
self-serving biases may serve self-esteem protect- tural relativity is addressed by one of the
ive functions and emerge from the ingroup/out- debriefing questions suggested by Shirts (1974):
group dynamics described earlier. When
interactions “fail” or produce bad feelings and If culture “z” met the needs and aspirations of its
misunderstandings, the “other” is likely to be members better than Culture “y” met the needs
of its members, would culture “z” be a better
held responsible and oneself relatively blame-
culture than culture “y”?
less. One of the debriefing questions suggested
is to ask members of each group which group This question might be followed by what may
they would prefer to belong to if there was a be the most disturbing dilemma for cultural
choice. Most often, in the author’s experience, relativists:
Alphas tend to prefer being Alpha and Betas
prefer to be Betas. Surprisingly this is often true Suppose the members of culture “m” believed
of Alpha females even though it is an explicitly that it was good to mutilate young female
sexist, patriarchal culture. This may be a children and their cultural norms and mores

made it possible for this “good” to be realized. identification and outgroup demonization. It is
Would it be a better or worse culture than culture a serious challenge. Cultural differences may
“o” in which all members of the society were create and fuel deadly conflict (Marsella, 2005)
encouraged to grow intellectually, socially, and or even a “clash of civilizations” (Huntington,
physically as much as they could and the cultural 1996). Such conflicts, as with most phenom-
norms and mores made it possible for these goals
ena, have multiple and interactive causes.
to be realized?
Some of these have been described in this
The participants are further challenged by the chapter. The challenge of multiculturalism is
question: to maximize its positive potentials and to rec-
ognize the sources and potentials for conflict.
How should a visitor react to culture “m”? Try to
Intercultural training and the specific methods
reform it, adapt to it, tolerate it?
described in this chapter are an attempt to
The development of multiculturalism marked reveal the nature, promise, and perils of inter-
a well-justified movement and reaction to the cultural relations. Becker (1971) described cul-
imposition of Western “pseudo-etics” on culture as the highest form of human adaptation.
turally diverse populations. Now we consider It presents solutions to the problems of living
the limits of that reaction. Is anything okay if as human beings in the varied ecological niches
it is “cultural”? Are all cultures of equivalent from which they arise. It can be argued that
validity and value? These are difficult ques- cultural diversity, like bio-diversity, makes sur-
tions to address as we consider intercultural vival more probable. Life is hard and humans
relations, multiculturalism, and the possible are challenged to meet its demands. We need
limits of cultural relativity. These questions access to all the solutions that are available to
can only be adequately addressed while address the challenges of being human. Cul-
looking deeply into the nature of culture itself, tures may be viewed as offering possible solu-
its adaptive function in specific ecological con- tions to existential questions such as how to be
texts, and its psychological functions for and how to act in order to make survival more
anxiety-prone human beings. Intercultural probable, as well as to the most important
simulations such as BaFá BaFá can provide question survive as what? This is the challenge
powerful tools in revealing the issues embed- and promise of multiculturalism.
ded in intercultural contact, and that may pro-
duce misunderstandings and conflict, or
References
positive growth and development.
Albert, R. D. (1983). The intercultural sensitizer or
culture assimilator: A cognitive approach. In
Discussion and Conclusions D. Landis & R. W. Brislin (Eds.), Handbook of
As stated in the introduction, we are chal- intercultural training: Issues in training
methodology (Vol. 2, pp. 186–217). New York:
lenged to study and consider how culturally
Pergamon.
diverse peoples can coexist in mutually enrich-
Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice.
ing ways, rather than descending into misun-
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
derstanding, and even bloody conflict, based Ansbacher, H., & Ansbacher, R. (1946). The
on such factors as misattribution of intentions, individual psychology of Alfred Adler. New York,
alternative constructions of reality, competi- NY: Basic Books.
tion for material or psychological resources, Becker, E. (1971). The birth and death of meaning
and efforts to manage anxiety through ingroup (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Free Press.

Berney, M. G. (1999). Field studies: Individual and Landis, J. M. Bennett, & M. J. Bennett (Eds.),
group trips, expeditions and hunts. In S. M. Handbook of intercultural training (3rd ed.,
Fowler & M. G. Mumford (Eds.), Intercultural pp. 37–86). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
sourcebook: Cross-cultural training methods Fowler, S. M., & Mumford, M. G. (1995).
(Vol. 2, pp. 175–183). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural training
Intercultural Press. methods. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1990). Cross-cultural orientation Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Solomon, S.
programs. In R. Brislin (Ed.), Applied cross- (1982). The self-serving attribution bias: Beyond
cultural psychology (pp. 325–346). Thousand self-presentation. Journal of Experimental Social
Oaks, CA: Sage. Psychology, 14, 172–179.
Blohm, J. M. (1995). Markhall: A comparative Greenberg, J., & Rosenfield, D. (1979). Whites
corporate-culture simulation. In Fowler, S. M. & ethnocentrism and their attributions for the
Mumford, M.G. (Eds.), Intercultural behavior of Blacks: A motivational bias. Journal
sourcebook: Cross-cultural training method of Personality and Social Psychology, 47,
(pp.109–116). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural 643–657.
Press. Greenberg, J., Solomon,S., & Pyszczynski, T.
Brislin, R. W. (1989). Intercultural communication (1997). Terror management theory of self-esteem
training. In M. K. Asante, W. B. Gudykunst, & and cultural worldviews: Empirical assessments
E. Newmark (Eds.), Handbook of international and conceptual refinements. In M. P. Zanna
and intercultural communication. Beverly Hills, (Ed.), Advances in experimental social
CA: Sage. psychology, 29. San Diego, CA: Academic Press,
Brislin, R. W. (1993). Understanding culture’s Inc.
influence on behavior. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Gochenour, T. (1977a). The albatross. In D.
Brace Jovanovich. Batchelder & E. G. Warner (Eds.), Beyond
Brislin, R. W., Cushner, K., Cherrie, C., & Yong, experience: The experiential approach to cross-
M. (1986). Intercultural interactions: A practical cultural education (pp. 131–136). Brattleboro,
guide. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. VT: Experiment Press.
Brislin, R. W., Landis, D., & Brandt, M. E. (1983). Gochenour, T. (1977b). The owl. In D. Batchelder &
Conceptualization of intercultural behavior and E. G. Warner (Eds.), Beyond experience: The
training. In D. Landis & R. W. Brislin (Eds.), experiential approach to cross-cultural education
Handbook of intercultural training. Oxford, U.K. (pp. 125–130). Brattleboro, VT: Experiment Press.
Cushner, K., & Brislin, R. W. (1996). Intercultural Gudykunst, W. B., & Hammer, M. R. (1983). Basic
interactions: A practical guide (2nd ed.). training design: Approaches to Intercultural
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. training. Handbook of intercultural training,
Cushner, K., & Landis, D. (1996). Handbook of 118–154. DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-08-027533-
intercultural training. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 8.50011-7
Eun, D., & Patton, B. (1996). The grocery store. Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences:
Program on Negotiation. Cambridge, MA: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and
Harvard Law School. organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand
Fiedler, F. E., Mitchell, T. R., & Triandis, H. C. Oaks, CA: Sage.
(1971). The culture assimilator: An approach to Hofstede, G., Pedersen, P. B., & Hofstede, G. H.
cross-cultural training. Journal of Applied (2002). Exploring culture: Exercises, stories and
Psychology, 55, 95–102. synthetic cultures. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural
Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The critical incident Press.
technique. Psychological bulletin, 51, 327–358. Huntington, S. P. (1996).The clash of civilizations:
Fowler, S. M., & Blohm, J. M. (2004). An analysis Remaking of world order. New York, NY:
of methods of intercultural training. In D. Touchstone.

Kohls, L. R. (1999a). Conceptual model for Cultural Studies College of Rural Alaska,
country/area studies. In S. M. Fowler & M. G. University of Alaska Fairbanks.
Mumford (Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook: Salzman, M. (1995). Attributional discrepancies
Cross-cultural training methods (Vol. 2, and biases in cross-cultural interactions. The
pp. 143–153).Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Journal of Multicultural Counseling and
Press. Development, 23, 181–193.
Kraemer, A. J. (1999). A method for developing Salzman, M. (2001a). Cultural trauma and
deep cultural self-awareness through intensive recovery: Perspectives from terror management
practice. In S. M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford theory. Trauma, Violence & Abuse: A Review
(Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural Journal, 2(2), 172–191.
Training Methods (Vol. 2, pp. 225–239). Salzman, M. (2001b). Globalization, culture &
Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press Activities anxiety. Journal of Social Distress and the
and Multicultural Counseling Competence Homeless, 10(4), 337–352.
Training. Salzman, M. (2003). Existential anxiety, religious
Linville, P. W. (1998). The heterogeneity of fundamentalism, the “clash of civilizations” and
homogeneity. In J. M. Darley & J. Cooper terror management theory. Cross Cultural
(Eds.), Attribution and social interaction: The Psychology Bulletin 37(3), 10–16.
legacy of Edward E. Jones (pp. 423–462). Salzman, M. (2006, July). Multiculturalism and the
Washington, DC: American Psychological limits of cultural relativism. In D. P. S. Bhawuk
Association. (Convenor), Hawaii as a Model of
Marsella, A. J. (2005). Culture and conflict. Multiculturalism for the Global Village: Issues
Understanding, negotiating, and reconciling and Prospects. Symposium conducted at the
conflicting constructions of reality. International XVII International Congress International
Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29, 651–673. Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology.
Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup contact theory. Spetses, Greece.
Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 65–85. Salzman, M. (2012). Ethno-cultural conflict and
Pusch, M. D. (2004). Intercultural training in cooperation in Hawai‘i. In D. Landis & R.
historical perspective. In J. M. Bennett, M. J. Albert (Eds.), Handbook of ethno-political
Bennett, & D. Landis (Eds.), Handbook of conflict (pp. 21–44). New York, NY: Springer.
intercultural training (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, Sherif, M., Harvey, O. J., White B. J., Hood, W. R., &
CA: Sage. Sherif, C. W. (1954). Experimental study of positive
Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his and negative intergroup attitudes between
shortcomings: Distortion in the attribution experimentally produced groups. Robber’s Cave
process. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.). Advances in Study. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
experimental social psychology (Vol. 10). New Shirts, G. (1974). BAFA-BAFA: A cross-cultural
York, NY: Academic Press. simulation. Del Mar, CA: Simile II.
Safiere, D. M. H. (1995). Ecotonos: A multicultural Shirts, G. (2013). Starpower. Del Mar, CA:
problem-solving simulation. In S. M. Fowler & Simile II.
M. G. Mumford (Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook Simon B. (1992). The perception of ingroup
cross-cultural training methods (Vol. 1, homogeneity: Reintroducing the intergroup
pp. 83–91). Boston, MA: Intercultural Press. context. European Review of Social Psychology.
Salzman, M. (1990). The construction of an 3(1), 1–30.
intercultural sensitizer for training non-Navajo Sisk (1995). Simulation games as training tools. In
personnel. The Journal of American Indian S. M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford (Eds.),
Education, 30, 25–33. Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural training
Salzman, M. (1991). A Navajo intercultural methods (pp. 81–92). Yarmouth, ME:
Sensitizer. Fairbanks, AK: Center for Cross- Intercultural Press.

Smith, L. T. (2012). Decolonizing methodologies: Thiagaraja, S. (1990). Barnga. Yarmouth, ME:

Research and indigenous peoples (2nd ed.). Intercultural Press.
London & New York: Zen Books. Triandis, H. C. (1977). Theoretical framework for
Steinwachs, B. (1995). Barnga: A game for all evaluation of cross-cultural training
seasons. In S. M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford effectiveness. International Journal of
(Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural Intercultural Relations, 1, 19–45.
training methods. Boston, MA: Intercultural Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and
Press. collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Stewart, E. C. (1966). The simulation of cultural Wight, A. (1999). Cross-cultural analysis as a
differences. Journal of Communication, 16(4), training tool. In S. M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford
291–305. (Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural
Tajfel, H. (1970). Experiments in intergroup training methods (Vol. 1, pp. 127–140).
discrimination. Scientific American, 223, 96–102. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.

7 Toward a Social Network
Theory of Reentry
Ruobing Chi and Judith N. Martin
of theories in reentry research lags behind and

Introduction
does not reflect adequately such a trend, yet
Reentry, also termed as cross-cultural resocia- (Pitts, 2016).
lization, readjustment, or re-acculturation, is a Martin and Harrell (2004) also pointed out
research topic going hand in hand with accul- that the blurred cultural boundaries would
turation. Early definitions of reentry acknow- profoundly impact inquiries into acculturation
ledge three key features of this phenomenon: and reentry. This contextual change chal-
(1) it is a cultural transition; (2) it occurs after lenged fundamentally the theoretical concep-
an intensive and extended stay in a foreign tualizations and research practices. It is
culture; and (3) its goal is reintegration back becoming increasingly questionable to classify
into home cultural contexts (Adler, 1981; Gul- cultures in host or home countries simply and
lahorn & Gullahorn, 1963; Koester, 1984; easily into homogeneous groups. Moreover,
Martin, 1984; Sussman, 1986). the continuous debates on the psychometric
In their chapter on reentry in the last edition problems of measurements used in accultur-
of this handbook, Martin and Harrell (2004) ation research also cloud the prospects of
pointed out the emergence of the critical para- traditional methodological approaches to cul-
digm and anticipated its influence. Five years tural transition (Demes & Geeraert, 2014;
later, the International Journal of Intercultural Sussman, 2002; Van de Vijver, Berry, & Cel-
Relations published a special issue on critical enk, 2016).
acculturation psychology (Chirkov, 2009). To address these issues, we employ perspec-
These theoretical dialogues highlighted the tives and methods from social network analy-
need for researchers to move beyond trad- sis (SNA) in this chapter and propose a
itional models, theories, and methods in their network theory of reentry. Bringing in a set
scholarship. The legacy of such advocates is of innovative techniques and methods and coe-
that researchers become more aware of the volving with technical advances of ITs, SNA
sociocultural contexts where their research is enables us to shift research focus from individ-
conducted or would be applied. With the same ual attributes to social relations and relational
spirit, the sociotechnical contexts where reen- structure. Thus, in this chapter, we unite
try takes place are gaining more attention as research literature on acculturation and reen-
we witness and experience fast changes in try from a relational and network perspective
information and communication technologies to set a stage for further discussions. We then
(IT). The use of social media and other IT propose the Integrated Network Theory of
tools during sojourn and reentry might be the Reentry and specify research questions that can
most noticeable change in human interactions help address and list specific propositions for
since their review. However, the development future testing. Finally, we apply the theoretical

282 ruobing chi and judith n. martin
framework to training practices and elaborate we need to think how such a continuity
on how it informs reentry training design and between and inseparable nature of the two
implementation. The authors believe that this cultural transition experiences affect our the-
network theory provides additional insights oretical assumptions, research and training
for understanding previous theories and find- design about reentry.
ings about cultural transition, generating new Secondly, reentry experience is intrinsically
hypotheses, and guiding training program marked by reciprocal influence between the
design in this digital age in particular. returnees and their home culture. On the one
hand, returnees’ personal and social character-
istics, and their preparedness for return deter-
Reentry and Social Network mine how they adapt. On the other hand, their
Analysis (SNA) readjustment is subject to acceptance by, com-
munication with, and support from their home
Reentry as Acculturation
culture (Martin & Harrell, 2004). Theoretic-
The defining features of reentry remind us of ally and empirically, it has been continuously
its close relationship with “acculturation.” documented that outcomes of reentry are the
Both imply the crossing of sociocultural result of the interplay between individuals and
boundaries and a need to adjust. Thus, it is their home cultures.
not surprising to see previous literature about Finally, cultural identity changes of return-
reentry follow the mainstream acculturation ees and socio-cultural changes in home coun-
studies closely in many aspects. Sam and Berry tries are documented as major causes of
(2006) summarize “contact, reciprocal influ- reverse culture shock that hinders readjust-
ence, and change” as the building blocks for ment (Adler, 1981; Martin & Harrell, 2004;
conceptualizing acculturation and point out Ward, Okura, Kennedy, & Kojima, 1998).
that directionality and dimensionality are the Moreover, returnees, such as repatriates and
two fundamental theoretical considerations of student sojourners, are expected to come home
acculturation. These foci are also identifiable with proficient foreign language, advanced
in research literature about reentry. degrees, or international visions. Such changes
To begin with, the contact point of reentry is are perceived as desirable results of their inter-
normally set on the date of physical arrival of cultural experience and expected to have
returnees as illustrated in the “W-curve” impacts on their work or life after return
hypothesis following the same logic of the U- (Dai, 2013; Hao & Welch, 2012; Li, 2016).
curve model. Yet, from the perspective of com- Despite the similarities, reentry is a type of
munication, reentry should not be defined as a cultural transition that is unique and distinct-
static status starting from a specific temporal ive from acculturation (Adler, 1981; Black,
point (Martin, 1986a). This is especially true Gregersen, & Mendenhall, 1992; Sussman,
now when contact is no longer dependent on 2000). By definition, returning home is going
face-to-face communication (Demes & Geer- back to familiar surroundings. Except for
aert, 2015). IT has helped sojourners and extreme cases, the extent of change in home
immigrants keep in constant contact with culture is not comparable to the degree of
people in their home cultures during their “strangeness” that a host culture presents to
sojourn. Even for immigrants and refugees, sojourners. A period of absence from home
reentry has become an integral part of their culture is the critical factor leading to the need
experience (Long & Oxfeld, 2004). Therefore, for readjustment. Since reentry may have

Toward a Social Network Theory of Reentry 283
serious consequences, well-informed and examples of training activities and content sug-
theoretically designed training programs are gestions for each stage.
in great need. Szkudlarek (2010) organized her review by
Given the widely documented difficulties the process, people, and practices of reentry.
experienced by returnees, theoretical and For the process, she reviewed various theoret-
empirical efforts have explored why the pro- ical models, different reentry modes, and indi-
cess is problematic and how research findings vidual and situational factors (e.g., gender,
can help inform and guide relevant practices. age, personality, religion, cultural distance,
Critical variables have been identified and contact) that are relevant to reentry adjust-
reviewed regarding (1) the problems encoun- ment. Her review covers a wide range of home
tered by various types of people returning and host cultures, and she also identified
home; (2) the demographics of returnees in unique issues facing various returnee groups,
relation to the problems they encountered; (3) such as expatriates and their spouses, mission-
the developmental stages and affective modes aries and their families, Peace Corps volun-
of the process; and (4) the mechanisms teers, Third Culture Kids, and returned
explaining the ups and downs of reentry. There migrants. Her review highlighted a few issues
have been several comprehensive literature that are still relevant today. First, there is a
reviews focusing on different types of returnees lack of interlinking between reentry literatures
published so far since the first one of its kind about different returnee groups, thus the frag-
(Martin, 1984). We will summarize the key mented findings are hard to integrate. Second,
points of these reviews hereafter and interested the individual-centered approach dominated
readers can refer to the original articles for the field, and there is a need for incorporating
more details. the social aspects and the interrelatedness of
Martin and Harrell (2004) is an updated individuals in future research efforts.
version of their review chapter in 1996, both Besides the returned international students
of which focused on returning sojourners and and expatriates, returned migrants constitute
students. They highlighted the affective (psy- another unique portion of reentry literature, as
chological well-being), cognitive (expectation they tend to have more exposure to and stay in
and identity), and behavioral (cultural learn- the host culture for a longer time. Cassarino
ing) aspects of reentry experience and summar- (2004) thoroughly reviewed past studies on the
ized relevant theories and empirical evidence magnitude and dynamics of returned migra-
for each. They then integrated the three tion on origin countries and categorized them
aspects into a systems theory framework, qualitatively into five analytical frameworks.
which consists of five categorizes of variables: They are the neoclassical economics, the new
sojourner characteristics, host environment economics of labor migration, structuralism,
characteristics, home (reentry) environment transnationalism, and social network theory.
characteristics, communication during reentry, He then argued that motivations for return is
and re-adaptation outcomes. Applying this an important contextual factor to be investi-
framework to training design, they proposed gated thoroughly using multiple theoretical
a four-stage model for student and profes- perspectives. Furthermore, returnees’ pre-
sional trainees: the predeparture stage, the paredness and resource-mobilization ability
overseas experience stage, the pre-reentry are two promising constructs that may help
stage, and the repatriation and reentry stage. us understand how and why returnees may
They concluded their reviews with specific contribute to societal development. Following

the same line of inquiry, Kunuroglu, van de environment. The W-curve hypothesis (Gulla-
Vijver, and Yagmur (2016) discussed how eco- horn & Gullahorn, 1963) is an extension of the
nomic and sociocultural approaches help U-curve. It posits that the same high-and-low
explain remigration experiences. In addition, experience of stress recurs and characterizes
they reviewed psychological theories on how reentry process in a similar fashion (thus
the experience of stress and identity change adding a repeated u-shape). This model
affect remigrants’ adjustment back home. appeals intuitively to the general public and is
They used Turkish returned migrants as a case often used in training and educational con-
to illustrate the insights gained from analysis texts. However, empirical testing continuously
using different theoretical approaches. They challenged the accuracy and predictability of
also pointed out that a comprehensive model the original U-curve model (Demes & Geer-
is still needed to better explain the different aert, 2015; Szkudlarek, 2010; Ward, Okura,
experience of remigrants from that of their Kennedy, & Kojima, 1998). In fact, Demes
migration and account for the experience of and Geeraert (2015) argue that a one-size-fit-
second generation migrants’ return. all model is not sufficient to capture the com-
To summarize, reentry research has plex stress levels experienced during accultur-
developed theoretical models and identified ation and their longitudinal study identified
empirically many factors that can help explain statistically five distinct trajectories. Similarly,
why returning home is difficult and what out- the W-curve model is also found to be not
comes may result from reentry. Much of litera- accurate nor predictive empirically and it
ture concerns the returned international cannot differentiate the reentry experience
students, repatriates, and remigrants. from acculturation, either (Onwumechili,
Although the historic and sociocultural con- Nwosu, Jackson, & James-Hughes, 2003).
texts for their return experience differ consid- Expectation is another focal construct in
erably, a few theories have been applied reentry theories, especially in business and cor-
consistently to most of the studies. In the next porate contexts. The Basic Framework of
section, we review the most commonly used Repatriation Adjustment (Black, Gregersen,
reentry theories and make our argument that & Mendenhall, 1992) outlines the multi-facets
a relational focus and network framework for of reentry from the perspective of individual
future theoretical development is desirable. control theories. It argues that uncertainty
avoidance and repatriation anticipation are
the major mechanisms that explain reentry
Reentry Theories
outcomes of expatriates. Later empirical tests
In this section, we highlight the central con- suggest that there is no simple relation between
structs that are used in major reentry theories expectation and repatriate adjustment, but the
and review them respectively. They are stress, direction of discrepancy in expectation (i.e.,
expectation, identity, behavioral change, and unmet or overmet expectations) may result in
communication. psychological adjustment difficulty (Rogers &
Stress-coping is a central theme in both Ward, 1993). In the Repatriate Adjustment and
acculturation and reentry research. One of Turnover Model, Cox, Khan, and Armani
the most widely acknowledged theory is Lys- (2013) propose that an employee’s work
gaard’s U-curve model (1955), which depicts expectation and perception upon reentry are
how stress levels fluctuate as people experience critical factors influencing their job satisfaction
“culture shock” and adjust in their new and turnover intention after return. But the

general sociocultural context of reentry is not identity strength is negatively related to repat-
explicitly dealt with in such theoretical models, riation distress (Sussman, 2001, 2002).
compared to corporation-specific context. Behavioral change and how it is related to
Thus, they are mainly applied to repatriates adjustment is what the Cultural Learning
than other types of returnees. Theory (Furnham & Bochner, 1986; Ward,
As for identity, Berry’s bi-dimensional Bochner, & Furnham, 2001) focuses on. It
framework (1997, 1999, 2003) is the most posits that people learn, unlearn, and relearn
acknowledged model in acculturation social skills and their behavioral responses to
research. In this model, sojourners and immi- social interactions change as a result of their
grants are to make two decisions: whether to acculturation or reentry experiences. It is often
adopt host cultural identity and whether to used to describe, explain, and predict social
maintain home cultural identity. These options difficulties caused by cultural transition.
are theorized to be two independent dimen- Empirical findings suggest that fairly well
sions and the combination of difference adaptation in the host culture tends to result
choices lead to four types of acculturation in more social difficulties back home (Brabant,
strategies: to integrate (i.e., identify with both Palmer, & Gramling, 1990). Kidder (1992)
cultures), to assimilate (i.e., identify with host categorized changes of returnees into physical,
but not home culture), to separate (i.e., iden- behavioral, and identity transformations. Her
tify with home but not host cultures), and to interviews of those returned students to Japan
marginalize (i.e., identify with neither). revealed that changes like appearance and
Although this model is not intended to explain walking posture could be readjusted to fit back
reentry adjustment, it has influenced conceptu- in, but others such as interpersonal styles and
alization of identity in reentry research. For manners of speaking were hard to control and
example, Cox (2004) empirically identified could result in social difficulties. Chang (2009)
four patterns of identities (i.e., integrated, found that mothers of international students
host-favored, home-favored, and disintegrated reported stress and tension when communicat-
identity). His results showed that the inte- ing with the students returning home from
grated and home-favored identity types were their study abroad program, because their
related to lower depression and social diffi- communication style was transformed by their
culty. This finding is consistent with results of acculturation experience.
Berry’s model regarding acculturation out- The System Theory of Intercultural Reentry
comes. Sussman (2000) proposed the Cultural (Martin, 1993; Martin & Harrell, 2004; Pitts,
Identity Model specifically for research about 2016), like the W-Curve hypothesis, is also an
repatriation. It posits that cultural transition extended conceptualization from acculturation
leads to salience of cultural identity and the to reentry. It adapted Kim (2001)’s integrative
repatriation experience is mediated by cultural theory of communication and cross-cultural
identity. It argues that there exists a cyclical adaptation to the reentry context. It covers a
relationship between identity salience, socio- wider base of relevant variables including both
cultural adaptation, and self-concept – cultural antecedents and outcomes. They are grouped
identity during cultural transition and their into five components: sojourner characteris-
interactions lead to various repatriation out- tics, host environment characteristics; home
comes. In further attempts to test this model, environment characteristics, communication
she found that adaptation level did not relate of the returning sojourner, and re-adaptation
directly to reentry outcome, and home-culture outcomes. The first three are concerned with

contextual influence on reentry. The third returnees’ social network may be a critical
component highlights the importance of com- but missing component in the curve models
munication. The last one splits the conse- and may help account for the multiple trajec-
quences into aspects of mental health, tories identified. For example, the drops and
functionality, expectations, and identity rises of the curves likely coincide with major
changes. This theory provides a holistic picture changes in social network structure such as
of critical variables that influence reentry cutting off a large number of social relations
experience. It is instrumental for designing or reconstructing from scratch new relations.
comprehensive research projects or training Such dramatic changes are not so frequent
programs. given today’s interconnected society and it
The above review illustrates what core con- becomes much easier to maintain a fair
structs reentry theories have focused on and number of connections during cultural transi-
what relations have been hypothesized or tions. Thus, most of the empirically identified
tested. To contemplate why, after over half a trajectories of stress in acculturation showed
century’s attempts, the field is still fragmented only mild fluctuations.
and desperately needs systematic research to Expectations are partially formed through
build theories (Szkudlarek, 2010), we contend communication and social interactions. Thus,
that one possible breakthrough might be made individual social network enables information
by giving social relations and relational net- exchange that moderates expectation. Previous
works the central attention in theorizing. expectation models found empirical support in
Our reasoning is that most behavior is that unmet or overmet expectations lead to
closely embedded in a network of personal more reentry difficulties. But the theories did
relationships (Granovetter, 1985) and cultural not identify any functional construct that can
transition is no exception. Returnees need to moderate the expectation–reality discrepancy.
maintain, create, or revive social relations If we incorporate into the theoretical frame-
through communication and interaction prior, work, social relation and network as a mech-
during, and after reentry (Martin & Harrell, anism for expectation formation, we might be
2004; Pitts, 2016). Given their embeddedness able to better explain and facilitate reentry
in social networks, their attitudes, cognition, adjustment from social influence and social
and behavior shall be the combined function comparison perspectives.
of their personal traits, network positions, and Researchers argue that cultural identity is
social connections. An approach, like social related to social networks (Repke & Benet-
network analysis, that takes these individual Martinez, 2017; Smith, 1999). Thus, it is pos-
and structural attributes into consideration sible to operationalize identity strategies and
will be promising to integrate and expand our types in previous theories using relational and
understanding of the reentry phenomenon. network-based measures. This may be an
Before we introduce SNA formally and effective way to avoid the difficulty of psycho-
explain how it can help unite and systematize metric issues notoriously noted for accultur-
reentry research, we would like to attempt to ation research (Demes & Geeraert, 2014;
link previous theoretical models to SNA’s core Rudmin & Ahmadzadeh, 2001; Sussman,
constructs – relationship and relational 2001; Ward & Rana-Deuba, 1999).
network. Following the tenets of social learning, cul-
With regard to the stress-coping aspect of ture learning theory emphasizes the role of
reentry, we speculate that the dynamics of intercultural interaction on cross-cultural

adjustment. In this model, contact with host Melano first used sociogram to visualize and
nationals is perceived as a source of instrumen- analyze social influence through networks
tal support and models for learning (Wilson, (Freeman, 2004). But it did not gain much
Ward, & Fischer, 2013). Such interaction- momentum until technological advances made
based behavioral research is an important analytical tools widely available. Nowadays,
topic in the field of SNA and the combination network analysis scholarship has revolution-
of methods and findings from both fields may ized thinking in both natural and social sci-
breed new theories in the future. ences (Borgatti & Foster, 2003; Borgatti,
Theorizing from a communication perspec- Mehra, Brass, & Labianca, 2009; Otte &
tive has the most intimate connection with a Rousseaur, 2002).
network approach. Thus, the list of elements in Social network analysis, also known as net-
the System Theory of Intercultural Reentry can work science, models social phenomena with
be directly mapped to different levels of net- networks consisting of actors and ties between
work analysis and centers theoretical explan- them. It takes relationship as the basic unit of
ation on interactions that lead to construction analysis and allows for visual representation
of social networks. In addition, the critical role and mathematical calculations of sociological
of social media and social networking sites in constructs. It provides a set of research tools
communication during reentry (Pitts, 2016), and methods that can quantify relational
which is not explicitly stated in this model, structure of networks, which is an upgrade of
can be elaborated and represented in network the metaphorical use of the network concept.
modeling. It mainly focuses on the constraints and
Apparently, social relation and network are opportunities placed by the embeddedness in
present in or relevant to, more or less, the a social network (Marsden, 1990). The affect-
existing reentry theories. However, compared ive, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes of net-
to social network analysis, these models and work connections and structure can all be
theories still base explanation on individual studied. Moreover, the temporal and geo-
attributes instead of relational structure. This graphical attributes of relations can also be
ignores potentially richer information embed- incorporated in such analysis.
ded in the network structure. Thus, we believe According to Wellman (1983), the basic
that applying SNA to reentry research will explanatory mechanism of SNA differs greatly
help advance theoretical and methodological from normative approaches often found in
scholarship. To further support our argument, sociological analysis. Normative explanations,
the next section summarizes the development which treats shared and internalized social
of SNA as a field and its conceptual and meth- norms as the motives and causes for similar
odological uniqueness with regard to its poten- behavior, are common in psychology. SNA
tial for theoretical advancement. sees access to resources as more structurally
determined, thus leaving less room for per-
sonal choices or motives.
Social Network Analysis
Methodologically, reducing explanation of
The concept of social relations as forming social phenomenon to decisions and actions
dynamic networks and shaping human actions of individuals without taking into consider-
in reverse is not new. It has roots in Simmel’s ation relational structure is another factor that
idea that society consists of a web of patterned is prevalent in traditional social sciences but
interactions. In the 1930s, psychologist criticized by network analysts (Haines, 1988).

Social categories that lump people together hubs, bridges, and isolates. This is especially
according to their individual attributes are useful for trainers to identify issues quickly
commonly used variables in social science and to demonstrate to clients the problem.
research. SNA analysts do not impose a priori A second type of analysis makes more use of
grouping labels but rely on the structure itself the network structure by decomposing the cor-
to reveal the groups. This allows for discovery respondent adjacent matrix. Measures on tri-
of social structure and detection of resource adic closure, transitivity or degree-
flows that may not be visible with nominally assortativeness can be derived from networks
defined groups. Many techniques have been and provide more information about the social
developed to identify groups (i.e., community phenomena. A last approach is testing models
detection in network term) in social networks or hypotheses by using non-standard probabil-
based on relational structure rather than labels ity distributions as network data violates the
(Fortunato, 2010). assumption of independent observations.
Moreover, SNA treats dyads and triads as SNA has been successfully used as a
qualitatively different from individuals. Trad- paradigm-shifting approach in physics and
itional approaches analyze dyadic relations in biology and applied to social scientific research
isolation without considering other actors and (Borgatti, Mehra, Brass, & Labianca, 2009).
ties that are connected to the dyads in a larger For example, the topics that have been innova-
context. In SNA, the existence of a dyad or a tively investigated under the SNA paradigm
triad is not independent and are believed to include social and online learning (Aşkar,
affect and be affected by other dyads and 2011; Molano & Polo, 2015), social capital
triads, and by the overall network structure (Lin, 2001), racial segregation (Schelling, 2006);
as well. and organizational studies (Borgatti & Foster,
Compared to using social relation as an 2003; Brass, Labianca, Mehra, Halgin, & Bor-
individual-based measure, social network gatti, 2014; Burt, 1992).
analysis brings in more structural indicators For acculturation research in particular,
and can represent different relations at the SNA has been used to illustrate and explain
same time (i.e., multiplexity). It allows for intercultural friendship patterns (Hendrickson,
conceptualization of macro-, meso-, and Rosen, & Aune, 2011), refugee’s identity trans-
micro-levels of analyses as overlapping and formation (Smith, 2013), bicultural identifica-
embedded, thus capturing better a phenom- tion (Repke & Benet-Martinez, 2017), second
enon of interest than do single-level designs language communication and stress (Doucer-
(Emirbayer, 1997). Moreover, it is not just a ain, Varnaamkhaasti, Segalowitz, & Ryder,
methodological approach complementary to 2015), and expatriates’ job performance
conventional methods, but an alternative per- (Osman-Gani & Rockstuhl, 2008).
spective with sound theoretical foundations In previous sections, we reviewed core con-
and a rich set of measurement (Robins, 2015). structs in reentry theories and relevant empir-
Analysis of networks can take three ical findings and linked them to SNA
approaches, each addressing one type of perspective by highlighting the role of social
research question according to van Duijn and relation and relational networks in those
Vermunt (2006). Describing network proper- models. Although these are crucial constructs
ties through visualization is the most attractive to reentry as source of social support and
and intuitive way. Literally, relations are social capital, as well as the channels for trans-
mapped out and reveal information about action and communication, what is missing

from the academic discussion is an overarch- influence on adaptation strategies and out-
ing framework that can organize properties of comes (Au and Fukuda, 2002; Hendrickson,
relations and relational network together with Rosen, & Aune, 2011). But, this line of inquiry
individual attributes in a systematic way. We is still missing in reentry research. The review
argue that under the SNA paradigm, it is indicates that it is not that social relations or
promising to develop a comprehensive theory networks are not considered important for
for reentry that can unify and systematize this reentry, but that there is a need for systematic
field of research and deepen our understanding network thinking and methods to organize and
of cultural transitions. Below our reasons are integrate relevant research efforts and findings.
presented. For example, our affect, behavior, and cog-
First, SNA views social relations as more nition can all be affected by that of people who
important than individual characteristics and are socially connected to us (e.g., learning,
structure even more influential than relations physical health, knowledge transfer). This con-
(Freeman, 2000). In most studies reviewed textual and disseminating nature of social net-
earlier, the unit of analysis is individual. Even works is not well captured in studies focusing
when relationship or network is used as a vari- on individuals. Traditional methods could
able, it is often operationalized as an attribute identify a relationship between the accuracy
attached to individuals, which leads to the loss of repatriates’ expectations for reentry and
of information at dyadic, triadic, and network the frequency of their communication with
levels. While in SNA, relationship itself is of people at home. But it does not offer insights
research interest, so is network. Adding a third about how the expectations are related to
actor to a bilateral relationship induces quality those of people who are in the returnees’ social
change to the pre-existing relations and makes circle. While, SNA brings in a relational and
the smallest network structure. These effects holistic perspective that can highlight such
are rarely studied in reentry research. contextual influences and evaluate them with
In previous reentry studies, social networks standardized network measures as well.
are sometimes referred to in a metaphorical Methodologically speaking, social relations
manner. For example, Haines (2013) describes in reentry research are seldom analyzed separ-
acculturation and reentry as a process of ately from people who form these relations.
removing people from, inserting or reinserting Most of our social ties have multiple functions.
people into existing social networks. There are Thus, the traditional way of categorizing func-
also acculturation studies that use characteris- tions of social relations based on the actors’
tics of personal networks and communication identities can be problematic. In network
with individuals in host culture as independent analysis, actors and ties are two distinct con-
variables to explain adaptation (Kim, 2005, cepts and can be treated separately or jointly.
2008). Wang and Kanungo (2004) found that The concept of multiplexity in network study
expatriates’ social relations have impacts on is able to deal with this issue by separating
their psychological well-being. Mao and Shen different functions of the same relation in
(2015) argued that strong ties in dense net- visual representation and analysis.
works are conducive for expatriates to retain/ Similarly, the temporal nature is an import-
maintain their national identity, while diver- ant quality of social relations and may hold the
sity in the network prompts cultural identity key to understanding acculturation and reen-
change. The size and composition of sojourn- try as a continuous and cyclic process. We
er’s social network are also believed to have an could differentiate acculturation and reentry

by looking at the network changes resulting existing relational or communicational net-

from such transitions. Has one’s social network can be discussed side by side, and in
work been condensed or expanded before or addition to the influence of individual and rela-
after cultural transition? To what extent? What tional factors. For example, two network-level
relations evolve, disappear, or get reactivated? variables, the dynamics and resilience of social
When and for how long? Why and why not? networks as the result of reentry, are promising
What are the changes in one’s social network variables to be included in future research.
proceeding and following cultural transitions? The advance of IT makes it easier and less
Are these changes visible from the social media costly for individuals to maintain social net-
profiles of returnees? Does visibility of social works when going from one culture to another
network change make a difference to reentry (Kramer, 2010). This has changed dramatic-
outcomes? Answers to such questions might ally the ecological environment of cultural
broaden our horizon with innovative perspec- transition (Pitts, 2016). If the stability of social
tives applicable to this new media age and lead network is a key but hidden variable behind
to deeper understanding of reentry as a con- the U- and W-curve model, the trajectory of
tinuous but distinct process from the predicted path might be different with the
acculturation. advent of IT. Similarly, if the expectations are
The general and broad sociocultural con- set mainly through interpersonal contacts,
texts where reentry occurs influence the whole how does the wide use of IT affect expectation
experience and its outcomes as well. For for reentry? These are questions that can be
example, Giuffre (2013) argued that commu- further explored through a network
nities and we are formed by each other. When framework.
taken only as background variables, we are The visibility of social networks and per-
unable to assess such profound impacts of the sonal profiles on online social networking sites
immediate communities on reentry. The find- (SNS) also provides sojourners and returnees
ings from a study about reentry after an inter- the opportunity to generate social support
cultural expedition on the sea indicate the from existing networks. It may also trigger
effects of a close community on reentry. implicit judgments about one’s social circles,
Returnees from different cruises formed one thus affecting acculturation and reentry strat-
alumni network and the relationship between egies. The public display of social relations at
them is so strong that they try to spend as online SNSs leads to both larger networks and
much time together as possible. Similarly, better affordance of weaker ties to be estab-
Chi’s study (2018) about a multicultural stu- lished and maintained (Donath & Boyd, 2004).
dent community also suggested students estab- Rosen, Barnett, and Kim (2001) argued that
lished relations with previously returned SNA and information science develop in a
students from the same community long parallel manner and each serves as the drive
before their sojourn and such relations exert for the other’s advance. Nowadays, IT has
profound impacts on their perception of the become an intrinsic part of the ecology of
community and adaptation locally. However, reentry, so it can be expected that network
there is still a lack of concern about the overall thinking and methods will be a suitable and
characteristics of community or organization desirable approach.
level networks on reentry adjustment. When In summary, social relations is often a hidden
complete network analysis is employed, the construct in reentry theories and empirical
opportunities and constraints offered by an studies. It has been an influential explanatory

factor for both acculturation and reentry out- psychometric approach. Gudykunst and Kim
comes. However, it has not taken a central and (1984) posit that the ties with host nationals
binding role in theories, yet. Even when social are instrumental to all aspects of cultural
relations is used as a critical variable, it is the adaptation and thus should be paid particular
individual, rather than the relation itself or the attention. Kim (2001) later proposes several
network formed by it, that is more likely given theorems using social network features as indi-
the most light in conceptualization and meas- cators of different levels of host cultural com-
urement. Since Smith (1999) proposed the first munication competence and adaptation.
network theory for acculturation, not many According to her, sojourners’ host communi-
studies have followed this line until very cation competence and adaptation is related to
recently. A major reason might be the lag in how many native ties they have established,
the development of computational software whether the natives they know occupy a cen-
for mathematical and graphical analysis of tral place in their network, and how strong
network data. As SNA develops, more user- these ties are (Kim, 1978, 2001, 2005, 2008;
friendly analytical and visualization tools, Kim & McKay-Semmler, 2013).
such as UCINET (Borgatti, Everett, & Free- Based on extensive case studies, Smith
man, 2002), Pajek (Batagelj & Mrvar, 1996), (1997, 1999) proposed an intercultural net-
and Gephi (Bastian, Heymann, & Jacomy, work theory. In this theory, he predicted that
2009) are available now. Thus, it is time to the general intercultural network structure will
reconsider theorizing about cultural transition reflect differences in identity preferences, cul-
with a focus on social relation informed and tural perceptions, and interpersonal relation-
facilitated by network science. ship types (Propositions 1, 2, and 7). He also
specified network measures that may be
related to or indicative of acculturation modes
An Integrated Network Theory of
and adjustment in terms of the nodes’ hetero-
Reentry
geneity, change rate in network composition,
In this section, we begin with an overview of overall network size and density (Propositions
earlier attempts to theorize about cultural 3–6). However, few follow-up studies have
transition from a network perspective as the put these theoretical propositions to test
foundation for our proposed network theory (Gudykunst, 2002).
of reentry. In a recent review of research on expatriates’
In the early 1980s, Rogers and Kincaid social networks, Osman-Gani and Rockstuhl
(1981) and Anderson and Christie (1982) con- (2008) found that: (1) the explanatory mechan-
tended that the network approach offered an ism centers mainly on the resources provided
impetus for new research and initiatives about through network; (2) all reviewed studies ana-
assimilation and integration in ethnic studies. lyzed networks of individuals (i.e., ego-
Young Yun Kim’s acculturation studies and network approach) rather than networks of a
theory building on communication, intergroup of people (i.e., full/complete-network
action, and relationship development preluded approach); (3) results about the function of
later network approaches in acculturation and social networks are inconsistent with regard
reentry research. She argues that the types and to expatriation outcomes; and (4) not much is
nature of ties in a communication network investigated about the antecedents of social
offers complementary and insightful explan- networks. All these indicate that many appli-
ations in addition to the dominant cations of SNA in acculturation research are

still sporadic and individual-centered. To fully What impacts do returnees’ social networks
embrace this paradigm, we need to develop a have on their reentry?
comprehensive framework. It states that reentry outcomes are
Farh, Bartol, Shapiro, and Shin (2010) pro- accounted for by a combination of returnees’
posed a five-stage process model of accultur- individual attributes, the social relations, and
ation in an effort to theorize acculturation the structure of the networks they form during
networks. It depicts the motivation in seeking reentry. The interplay of these constructs
tie formation, selecting of sources, offering creates dynamic contexts that are either con-
support, and utilizing and finalizing the ducive to or constraining reentry.
bonding tie. Each of the stages is explained Figure 7.1 illustrates the analytical levels
by purposeful attempts made by the expatri- and components in this theoretical framework.
ates to acquire desired social support for better It depicts a typical social network with a
adjustment. This adds a valuable dimension – number of returnees (i.e., nodes/actors) con-
dyadic level of analysis on social tie forma- nected by a number of social relationships
tion – to the current literature. Although this (i.e., ties/edges). As suggested by Qiu and Qiao
model looks complex, it treats social network (2018), network research is generally con-
simply as a proxy for social support and fails cerned about three types of variables: node’s
to bring out the full potential of an SNA social attributes, node’s structural attributes,
paradigm. and features of tie. In this model, personal
SNA has a broader theoretical and meth- characteristics and demographic data about
odological body of work. Descriptions of net- individual returnees are treated as node’s
works can use measures based on standard social attributes. These include many variables
mathematical definitions. Statistical packages often measured in acculturation and reentry
to test network related hypotheses and visual- research, such as gender, age, past intercul-
ization tools have become more sophisticated tural experience, and second language profi-
and can be done using specially developed ciency. How each returnee is positioned and
network software, thanks to the fast develop- connected with regards to others in the net-
ment of digital technology and computer sci- work (i.e. alters) are marked as node’s struc-
ence (Rosen, Barnett, & Kim, 2011). Thus, it is tural attributes. For example, degree centrality
time to fully embrace the network perspective (number of connections a node has) and struc-
and its strength, to put the theories into prac- tural hole (a position that bridges two sub-
tice. We hope that the proposed theory would groups that are otherwise not connected,
shed light on our understanding of reentry in Burt, 1992) can be indexes for a returnees’
this networked society in Castell’s term and susceptibility to changes and value for know-
link findings from reentry more readily with ledge transfer. Social relationship represented
those from acculturation research. by the network can be characterized by four
The Integrated Network Theory for Reentry features: (1) whether it is a strong or weak tie
assumes that social network is formed through (hereby tie strength is jointly defined by the
communication, can affect and be affected by amount of time, the emotional intensity, the
cultural transitions. It can guide research to intimacy and the reciprocity, Grenovetter,
address three types of questions in general: 1973, 1983); (2) whether it conveys positive
(1) What characterizes the social networks of or negative affect; (3) how well it connects
reentry? (2) What mechanisms account for the the network; and (4) whether it is used for
structure of returnees’ social networks? (3) distributing information or exerting influence.

Figure 7.1 An illustrative graph for reentry network.

Node R in the middle represents the returnee in focus and Nodes
A to F are alters connected directly or indirectly to it. Ties connecting
nodes represent relationships between a dyad. Node color, shape, tie
strength, and arrows of direction can be differentiated and defined by
different attributes of nodes or ties.
The theory consists of three levels of analy- There are two means to address this ques-
sis: nodes, relational ties, and network struction in the network analysis framework. Net-
tures. At nodal level, how returnee’s social work visualization can help present research
attributes and structural attributes interact findings in an effective and appealing manner.
and coinfluence the network configuration It can also facilitate exploratory analysis of
and reentry outcomes is a direction largely in salient network structures and the dynamics
line with previous reentry research but with of relations (Robins, 2015). This is particularly
added values of relational measures. At dyadic useful for getting a sense of the overall density,
and triadic levels, different functions of strong connectivity, and grouping patterns in multi-
and weak ties on reentry adjustment and cul- cultural networks of interest (Chi, 2018). Thus,
tural identification are worth exploring. At culture is no longer a claimed label (pre-
network level, temporal changes of the overall defined demographics or self-reported identifi-
network configuration can capture the dynam- cation), but an observable trait (identified by
ics between returnees, their social relations, algorithm based on network connections).
and the resulting reentry networks. Furthermore, general network measures can
Next, we elaborate on how this analytical be calculated to quantify the observed features
framework expands the scope and offers new from visualization. In the literature of SNA,
directions for addressing each type of research such measures have precise mathematical def-
questions stated earlier. initions and are consistent and comparable
across studies (see Wasserman & Faust, 1994,
(1) What characterizes the social networks of
for a comprehensive list of classic definitions of
reentry?

network measures). This makes it possible to bonded by their shared love for Europe and
unite future research efforts to investigate sys- common experience of having lived abroad.
tematically the similarities and differences of Thus, we propose two propositions for
reentry networks in various contexts. future testing regarding the homophily effect
Last, network measures, such as centrality, and preferential attachment mechanisms for
reciprocity, assortativity, and cohesion, can network formation:
capture structural features at different levels.
Proposition 1. Controlling demographics, the
So psychological and sociological concepts can
extent of similarities in sojourn
be operationalized and mapped to network
experience predicts the likeli-
measures accordingly and facilitate multilevel
hood of two returnees being
modeling (Monge & Contractor, 2003). For
connected. (homophily effect)
example, assortativity, or assortative mixing,
originally refers to the more likelihood of a Proposition 2. The returnees are more likely
well-connected node to be linked with other to establish contacts and rela-
well-connected ones in a network (Newman, tionships with other returnees
2002). Later it is extended to the preferential than with other actors in the
tendency of network nodes to be attached to same network. (preferential
others that are like them in some way (New- attachment)
man, 2003). Applying this definition to reentry Given the node and tie attributes specified in
research, we can explore what types of assorta- the framework, researchers can look for other
tive mixing exist in reentry networks. mechanisms for tie formation and continue to
develop propositions for testing. Knowing
(2) What mechanisms account for the struc- how and why returnees connect socially with
ture of returnees’ social networks? others in their network is beneficial for identi-
For the formation mechanism of reentry fying effective strategies to develop a support
networks, actors’ attributes, such as gender, or resource network for readjustment.
age, personality, religious belief, and marital (3) What impacts do returnees’ social net-
status, can be used separately or together to works have on their reentry?
test the hypothesis of homophily effect (i.e., a
tendency to connect with those who share the Returnees’ social attributes have been
same attribute). This is the most identified net- related to various reentry outcomes as
work mechanism in nature and human society reviewed earlier. But this framework provides
(Kossinets & Watts, 2009; McPherson, Smith- additional structure-based variables for con-
Lovin, & Cook, 2001; Qiu & Qiao, 2018). sideration from other levels of analysis. For
Besides demographic similarities, those who example, Doucerain, Varnaamkhaasti, Segalo-
have undergone sojourn and reentry share simi- witz, and Ryder (2015) researched how per-
lar feelings and can normally relate and bond sonal L2 communication network’s size,
with each other. If the returnees happen to be in density, and interconnectedness affect
the same host culture or from the same home communication-related acculturative stress.
culture, such bonding might be stronger. For Chi and Suthers (2015) studied how in-degree
example, Gullahorn and Gullahorn (1963) centrality, eigenvector centrality, and host-/
noticed that groups in American universities conational connectivity helped account for
that consists of returnees from the Europe were variances in sociocultural adaptation. Other
common and members in such groups were structural measures, such as higher rates of

reciprocity, transitivity, and structural hole measures at nodal and tie levels. Thus, we
could be promising explanatory factors for propose one additional proposition:
knowledge transfer or work satisfaction of
Proposition 4. Reentry outcome is a com-
repatriates. As there are many structural vari-
bined function of individual
ables that can be used in such studies, we
characteristics, relational type
propose a general proposition hereby:
and strength of returnees, and
Proposition 3. Regardless of returnees’ social the overall network structure
attributes, their network struc- of the immediate community
tural attributes exert add- for reentry.
itional effects on their reentry
Finally, from a dynamic network perspec-
outcomes.
tive, social relationships formed during the
In acculturation and reentry research litera- sojourn are not necessarily cut off at the point
ture, social network is often treated as commu- of reentry, especially in this age of social and
nicational channels or source of social support interactive media. Intercultural friendship is
or social capital. For example, studies show often an important outcome of cultural
that most returnees have to face on return the encounters and transitions and can be sus-
loss of previous interpersonal relationships due tained after people return home. Although an
to physical absence in home culture (Cheng, earlier study found no relationship between
2016; Kartoshkina, 2015; Kauffmann, Martin, contact with host-country nationals and repat-
Weaver & Weaver, 1992; Wielkiewicz & Tur- riation (Hammer, Hart, & Rogan, 1998), the
kowski, 2010; Zuo, 2014). Kinship and close effects of such relationships are still worth
friendship are found to offer tangible resources investigating as IT makes the maintenance of
and psychological comfort (Martin, 1986a, long-distance relationship increasingly easier.
1986b; Smith, 2002; Tomlin et al., 2014). Rela- Thus, we propose the last proposition:
tionship with coworkers at home company or
Proposition 5. Personal network structure of
organization is important for forming realistic
reentry (time 2) is a function of
and accurate expectation for reentry (Cox,
their previous network struc-
et al., 2013). The level and frequency of con-
ture of acculturation (time 1).
tact, and connectivity through communication
technology have positive impacts on inter- An additional value of this network theory
national students’ reentry (Kartoshkina, is that researchers can design studies that
2015; Kostohryz, et al., 2014; Pitts, 2016). involve both hypothesis testing and computa-
Maintaining relationships with people still tional simulation of network dynamics.
residing in the host culture also constitutes a Computer-aided simulation has special value
special type of connection in returnees’ social for studies about intercultural issues when
networks, but there has not been systematic manipulation of certain variables is unrealistic
study about their influence, yet. or unethical. One of the earliest attempts of
Overall, these studies tend to view different this kind is Schelling’s classic study of racial
relationship types as serving different func- segregation in 1981. Through simulating
tions. However, it is arguable whether such people’s moving behavior, he demonstrated
an assumption is accurate in all contexts. This that a slight individual preference to have
model can help address this issue by teasing neighbors of the same race eventually led to
out the effects of each respectively using completely segregated populations in the

neighborhoods (Schelling, 2006). Repke and chapter is intended to serve as the theoretical
Benet-Martinez (2017)’s study on bicultural pinning for designing and implementing
identification offers another good example. network-centered reentry training (see
They first collected information from a Latino Table 7.1). In this section, we will explain the
community in America and then used real-life diagnostic and evaluative values of this theory
data to feed simulation of network dynamics for training design and implementation.
resulting from multiple identity negotiation Corporate trainers and others who teach
and management mechanisms. Similarly, culture are sometimes accused of supplanting
researchers in the future can tap into the “sophisticated stereotypes” for generic ones
dynamics of relationship changes and their because of the stripping of local contexts and
consequences on reentry outcomes within the the dualism in western thinking (Gao, 1995;
proposed theoretical framework. Osland & Bird, 2000). Network thinking can
To conclude, a good theory needs to be able help deal with such a paradox. Trainers need
to describe accurately, explain insightfully, and network thinking to deliver more effective
predict reliably the phenomenon of interest. We training, so do trainees to appreciate this
hope that future studies applying the proposed approach. Network thinking helps trainers to
integrated network theory of reentry will dem- see the relationship between individuals and
onstrate such qualities. It is worth noting that cultures as partial and plural instead of cat-
the current version of this theoretical framework egorical (Morris, Chiu, & Liu, 2015). This
captures mainly micro- and meso-level analysis understanding of reentry as a continuous,
and does not include history or policy factors interactive, and inter-connected process of cul-
that may have effects on the nature of the net- tural transition is crucial for trainers to appre-
work. But as network is such a robust construct ciate options outside of traditional bi-
that its operationalization is not limited to indi- dimensional models. Thus, it is important for
vidual or organization only. Future theoretical trainers to implement network thinking in
development on the macro-level network mech- their training design and raise trainees’ aware-
anisms and dynamics can be linked back to this ness of such an approach as well. It is recom-
model to assist a comprehensive understanding mended that trainers include a brief session
of reentry from network perspective. In a word, introducing social network analysis at the
compared to the salient-variable approach of beginning of the training. Network compon-
other theories, this framework is more coherent ents and constructs that are specified in the
and focused, parsimonious but extensible, so theoretical model should be explained expli-
there shall be greater potential for its application citly with regard to their functions for man-
by researchers and practitioners, especially in aging reentry adjustment.
this digital, big-data era. Moreover, trainers can also recruit potential
trainees other than the returnees. Reentry dif-
ficulties are partially related to misunderstand-
Implications for Training
ing of the returning personnel by their family,
Martin and Harrell (1996) rightfully pointed friends, or companies at the receiving end. So a
out that theoretical and research endeavors comprehensive training program that target
should be rooted in intercultural realities and key players in the returnees’ social networks
that training should be guided by theories. The might be more effective and efficient.
reasoning still holds today. The Integrated As for the contents of training, Fontaine
Network Theory of Reentry proposed in this (1986, 1996) proposed a training module that

Table 7.1 Aligning intercultural training design with the Integrated Network Theory of Reentry
Theoretical
underpinning Network structure ! Network synergy ! Network strategy
Training Training design ! Training content ! Training outcome
Goals • To train returnees’ • To help trainees • To encourage trainees to
ability to think from a understand the synergic explore and develop
network perspective functions of individual strategies for mobilizing
• To help returnees attributes, relationships resources through
understand the contexts and relational networks relations and networks
of reentry from a on reentry outcomes to cope with reentry
network perspective difficulty
Means • Introduce network • Present relevant network • Evaluate trainees’
thinking, SNA, and its visualizations to assist reentry strategy from a
core constructs to understanding of reentry network perspective
trainees networks • Track and document
• Design training • Explain the network trainees’ network
programs that include theory and research development before,
individuals, their findings with real-life during, and after their
relational partners, and examples reentry
community members • Demonstrate using
computer-assisted
simulations the network
synergy resulting from
individual motives and
relationship dynamics
and its functions on
reentry outcome
incorporates additional components to assist practices. Bhawuk, Landis, and Lo (2006) also
trainees develop appropriate social support pointed out that social support is an important
systems for their overseas adjustment. Its but under-researched variable that moderate
uniqueness lies in the postulation of social sup- sojourners’ acculturation outcomes. They
port systems as both a content area of and a emphasized in particular the critical roles that
context for the training. Training programs are marital relationship and intimate personal net-
developed and implemented to help trainees work play for adaptation.
understand the impact of sojourning on their The same principles apply to reentry
social support systems and mobilize new sup- training. Informed and guided by the theory,
port resources. He also suggested that the basic trainers can emphasize the significance of
unit for training should go beyond “individ- social networks to the trainees and use visual-
ual-level social skills” and focus more on other ization or computer-assisted simulation to
“more meaningful social units” such as the demonstrate the synergic impacts of personal
cohort, the work, and the family units. This is attributes, relationships, and relational net-
one of the earliest attempts to applying social works. The theory specifies variables in each
network perspective in intercultural training category and trainers can incorporate them

into their contents by introducing relevant aim at coaching trainees to explore and
research findings and real-life examples. The develop network strategies for mobilizing and
theory-driven approach allows trainers to capitalizing on their social connections. Imme-
demonstrate the relationship between social diate evaluation of the training program could
network and reentry in a structured and sys- be done by measuring trainees’ ability to think
tematic manner. about reentry from a network perspective and
Kostohryz and his colleagues (2014) recom- by qualitatively assessing their planned net-
mend that counselors who work with reentry work strategies to manage reentry experience.
clients can use artistic representations to Long-term evaluation may involve follow-up
convey more complex ideas. Network visual- data collection to track and document how
ization allows trainers to inform trainees of the well returnees’ network strategies work in
issues they encounter in an informal and real-life situations.
attractive manner. As network data collection In sum, the Network Theory of Reentry
and visualization software is easily available, offers intercultural trainers innovative perspec-
trainers can collect trainees’ networking infor- tives and practical guidance to design pro-
mation at different time points of training to grams and evaluate training results for
construct illustrative network visualization returnees.
that convey straightforwardly to the trainees
what might be causing their depression, home-
Discussion and Summary
sickness, or a sense of alienation. It could also
bring home the point that they occupy presti- In a networked world, IT is becoming more
gious positions that bridge people who are and more important in shaping social life
otherwise not related. The awareness of one’s (Greenwood, Perrin, & Duggan, 2016; Smith,
boundary-spanning position can be an effect- 2017). Altogether the technology in use and
ive motivation for returnees to capitalize on the social world form a socio-technical net-
their intercultural relations. work, which affords, and confines at the same
Similarly, on-site computer-assisted simula- time, communication and interaction. Concur-
tions are another effective and economical rently, network science starts to take lead in
means that trainers can employ to demonstrate many different disciplines. Its interdisciplinar-
the network synergy cocreated by individual ity and compatibility with IT adds additional
motives and relationship dynamics and its value to theories developed from a network
functions on reentry outcome. By setting dif- logic. Reentry is studied from economic, polit-
ferent parameters for network simulation, ical, institutional, social, and psychological
trainers can help trainees see a wide range of perspectives (Kunuroglu, van de Vijver, &
outcomes of reentry, thus appreciating more Yagmur, 2016) and a network theory of reen-
the value of taking a network perspective to try has the potential to bridge diverse views
understand and manage reentry experience. and integrate findings in different fields of
Finally, the theory can also guide the evalu- study. Moreover, compared to previous theor-
ation of training outcomes at multiple levels. ies about reentry, it has a better chance to
For the individual level, there have been capture the influence of IT on reentry process
enough discussions (see Szkudlarek & Sump- and outcomes holistically and technically.
ter, 2014) and they remain valid and useful The proposed Integrated Network Theory
within the network framework. For the rela- of Reentry based on reviews of previous reen-
tional and network levels, reentry training can try literature and theories is a unique

contribution of this chapter to the field of complementary network perspective and a uni-
research and intercultural training. It is in line fied and embedded framework to organize
with the trend predicted by Morris, Chiu, and these variables.
Liu (2015) in their contemplation of a para- To conclude, in this chapter, we reviewed
digm shift from culturalist to polyculturalist reentry literature using social relations as the
perspectives in cultural psychology. The binding theme. Both theories and empirical
former sees cultural influence on human findings suggest that a social network perspec-
behavior as categorical and steady, but the tive is desirable and necessary. Then, we pro-
latter perceives such influence as partial, posed the Integrated Network Theory of
plural, dynamic, and situated. These distinc- Reentry based on principles of social network
tions have profound effects on ideologies and analysis and explained how it complements and
policies that set the boundaries and conditions extends previous theories and research. The
for cultural transition. Thus, it is important for implications of applying such a theoretical
researchers to adopt such a standing and test framework to intercultural training was also
theories in this realm. Moreover, the theory discussed. It is argued that this network theory
invites unique contributions to reentry on cultural transition can help advance our
research from indigenous psychology in Asia understanding of acculturation and reentry
as Robins and Kashima (2008) argues that within a unified framework, generate new
methodological relationalism counterbalances hypotheses to test, and help link research and
and complements the mainstream recognition training practice in innovative ways.
in social psychology of individuals as motiv-
ated cognitive agents. SNA’s relational focus is
consistent with Asian researchers’ cultural References
practices of guanxi. Since reentry literature still
Adler, N. J. (1981). Re-entry: Managing cross-
lacks voice from non-Western perspectives, a
cultural transitions. Group & Organization
network theory seems desirable at this point. Studies, 6(3), 341–356.
Besides fitting the social and academic Anderson, G. M., & Christie, T. L. (1982).
trends, the proposed network theory of reentry Networks: The impetus for new research
can also be used in combination of other the- initiatives. Research in Race and Ethnic
ories. For example, the Cultural Identity Relations, 3, 207–225.
Model (Sussman, 2000, 2002) can be used Aşkar, P. (2011). Social network analysis for e-
together with this network theory to comple- learning environments. Procedia – Social and
ment each other. The four types of identity Behavioral Sciences, 28, 992. DOI: 10.1016/j
types (i.e., affirmative, subtractive, addictive, .sbspro.2011.11.183
Au, K. Y., & Fukuda, J. (2002). Boundary spanning
and global identities) depicted in Sussman’s
behaviors of expatriates. Journal of World
model can be mapped to relational and net-
Business, 37(4), 285–296.
work characteristics of individuals, thus
Bastian, M., Heymann, S., & Jacomy, M. (2009).
adding a dimension to the original conceptual- Gephi: An open source software for exploring
ization and measurement. Last but not the and manipulating networks. International AAAI
least, Martin and Harrell’s Systems Theory of Conference on Weblogs and Social Media.
Intercultural Reentry (2004) matches well with Batagelj, V., & Mrvar, A. (1996). Pajek – Program
the network framework as well. The former for large network analysis. Ljubljana, Slovenia:
provides five dimensions, each with a detailed University of Ljubljana. Retrieved from http://
list of variables, and the latter offers a vlado.fmf.uni-lj.si/pub/networks/pajek/

Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, migrants revisited. International Journal on

and adaptation. Applied Psychology: An Multicultural Societies (UNESCO), 6(2),
International Review, 46(1), 5–34. 253–279.
Berry, J. W. (1999). Intercultural relations in plural Chang, Y. (2009). A qualitative study of temporary
societies. Canadian Psychology, 40(1), 12–21. reentry from significant others’ perspective.
DOI: 10.1037/h0086823 International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
Berry, J. W. (2003). Conceptual approaches to 33(3), 259–263. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2009.
acculturation. In K. M. Chun, P. B. Organista, 02.002
& G. Marin (Eds.), Acculturation: Advances in Cheng, J. (2016). Reentry adaptation of young
theory, measurement, and applied research (pp. returned migrant workers: A case study of City
17–37). Washington, DC: American L in Yanbian State (Jilin Province). Youth
Psychological Association. Exploration 3, 56–65 (in Chinese).
Bhawuk, D. P. S., Landis, D., & Lo, K. D. (2006). Chi, R. (2018). Toward a network theory of
Intercultural training. In D. L. Sam & J. W. acculturation. Shanghai, China: Shanghai Jiao
Berry (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of Tong University Press.
acculturation psychology (pp. 504–524). New Chi, R., & Suthers, D. (2015). Assessing
York, NY: Cambridge University Press. intercultural communication competence as a
Black, J. S., Gregersen, H. B., & Mendenhall, M. E. relational construct using social network
(1992). Toward a theoretical framework of analysis. International Journal of Intercultural
repatriation adjustment. Journal of International Relations, 48, 108–119. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijintrel
Business Studies, 23(4), 737. .2015.03.011
Borgatti, S. P., Everett, M. G., & Freeman, L. C. Chirkov, V. (2009). Critical psychology of
(2002). Ucinet for Windows: Software for social acculturation: What do we study and how do we
network analysis. Harvard, MA: Analytic study it, when we investigate acculturation?
Technologies. International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
Borgatti, S. P., & Foster, P. C. (2003). The network 33(2), 94–105.
paradigm in organizational research: A review Cox, J. B. (2004). The role of communication,
and typology. Journal of Management, 29(6), technology, and cultural identity in repatriation
991–1013. adjustment. International Journal of Intercultural
Borgatti, S. P., Mehra, A., Brass, D. J., & Labianca, Relations, 28(3–4), 201–219. DOI: 10.1016/j
G. (2009). Network analysis in the social .ijintrel.2004.06.005
sciences. Science, 323(5916), 892–895. Cox, P. L., Khan, R. H., & Armani, K. A. (2013).
Brabant, S., Palmer, C. E., & Gramling, R. (1990). Repatriate adjustment and turnover: The role of
Returning home: An empirical investigation of expectations and perceptions. Review of Business
cross-cultural reentry. International Journal of & Finance Studies, 4(1), 1–15.
Intercultural Relations, 14(4), 387–404. DOI: Dai, Y. (2013). Survey of status of young faculty
10.1016/0147-1767(90)90027-T with oversea degrees in higher education and
Brass, D. J., Labianca, G., Mehra, A., Halgin, D. policy suggestions. Journal of Donghua
S., & Borgatti, S. P. (Eds.). (2014). University (Social Science), 13(4), 234–237 (in
Contemporary perspectives on organizational Chinese).
social networks (Vol. 40). Emerald Group Demes, K. A., & Geeraert, N. (2014). Measures
Publishing Limited. matter: Scales for adaptation, cultural distance,
Burt, R. S. 1992. Structural holes: The social and acculturation orientation revisited. Journal
structure of competition. Cambridge, MA: of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45(1), 91–109.
Harvard University Press. DOI: 10.1177/0022022113487590
Cassarino, J.-P. (2004). Theorising return Demes, K. A., & Geeraert, N. (2015). The highs and
migration: The conceptual approach to return lows of a cultural transition: A longitudinal

analysis of sojourner stress and adaptation Granovetter, M. S. (1973). The strength of weak
across 50 countries. Journal of Personality and ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78(6),
Social Psychology, 109(2), 316–337. 1360–1380.
Doucerain, M. M., Varnaamkhaasti, R. S., Granovetter, M. S. (1983). The strength of weak
Segalowitz, N., & Ryder, A. G. (2015). Second ties: a network theory revisited. Sociological
language social networks and communication- Theory, 1, 201–233.
related acculturative stress: The role of Granovetter, M. S. (1985). Economic action and
interconnectedness. Frontiers in Psychology, 6. social structure: The problem of embeddedness.
DOI:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01111 The American Journal of Sociology, 91(3),
Emirbayer, M. (1997). Manifesto for a relational 481–510.
sociology. The American Journal of Sociology, Greenwood, S., Perrin, A., & Duggan, M.
103(2), 281–317. (November 11, 2016 ). Social Media Update
Farh, C. I. C., Bartol, K. M., Shapiro, D. L., & 2016. Pew Research Report (www.pewinternet
Shin, J. (2010). Networking abroad: A process .org/2016/11/11/social-media-update-2016/)
model of how expatriates form support ties to Gudykunst, W. B., & Kim, Y. Y. (1984).
facilitate adjustment. The Academy of Communicating with strangers: An approach to
Management Review, 35(3), 434–454. intercultural communication. Reading, MA:
Fontaine, G. (1986). Roles of social support systems Addison-Wesley Publishers.
in overseas relocation: Implications for Gullahorn, J. T., & Gullahorn, J. E. (1963). An
intercultural training. International Journal of extension of the U-curve hypothesis. Journal of
Intercultural Relations, 10(3), 361–378. Social Issues, 19(3), 33–47. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-
Fontaine, G. (1996). Social support and the 4560.1963.tb00447.x
challenges of international assignments. In D. Haines, D. (2013). “More Aware of Everything”:
Landis & R. Bhagat (Eds.), Handbook of Exploring the returnee experience in American
intercultural training (2nd ed., pp. 264–282). higher education. Journal of Studies in
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. International Education, 17(1), 19–38. DOI:
Fortunato, S. (2010). Community detection in 10.1177/1028315311433207
graphs. Physics Reports, 486(3–5), 75–174. DOI: Haines, V. A. (1988). Social network analysis,
10.1016/j.physrep.2009.11.002 structuration theory and the holism-
Freeman, L. C. (2000). Social network analysis: individualism debate. Social Networks, 10(2),
Definition and history, Encyclopedia of 157–182. DOI: 10.1016/0378-8733(88)90020-2
psychology (Vol. 7, pp. 350–351). New York, Hammer, M. R., Hart, W., & Rogan, R. (1998).
NY: Oxford University Press. Can you go home again? An analysis of the
Freeman, L. C. (2004). The development of social repatriation of corporate managers and
network analysis: A study In the sociology of spouses. Management International Review, 38
science. Vancouver, Canada: CreateSpace. (1), 67–86.
Furnham, A., & Bochner, S. (1986). Culture shock: Hao, J., & Welch, A. (2012). A tale of sea turtles:
Psychological reactions to unfamiliar Job-seeking experiences of Hai Gui (high-skilled
environments. London, UK: Methuen. returnees) in China. Higher Education Policy, 25
Gao, Y. (1995). Paradox of cross-cultural (2), 243–260. DOI: 10.1057/hep.2012.4
communication. Foreign Language Teaching and Hendrickson, B., Rosen, D., & Aune, R. K. (2011).
Research, 2, 35–42 (in Chinese). An analysis of friendship networks, social
Giuffre, K. (2013). Communities and networks : Using connectedness, homesickness, and satisfaction
social network analysis to rethink urban and levels of international students. International
community studies. Retrieved from http://QUT Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35(3),
.eblib.com.au/patron/FullRecord.aspx?p= 281–295. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.08.001
1171793

Kartoshkina, Y. (2015). Bitter-sweet reentry after Exploring the impact of reentry for international
studying abroad. International Journal of sojourners. Journal of Mental Health Counseling,
Intercultural Relations, 44, 35–45. DOI: 36(4), 315–327.
10.1016/j.ijintrel.2014.11.001 Kramer, E. M. (2010). Immigration. In I. R. L.
Kauffmann, N., Martin, J. N., Weaver, H., & Jackson (Ed.), Encyclopedia of identity (pp.
Weaver, J. (1992). Students abroad, strangers at 384–389). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
home. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Kunuroglu, F., van de Vijver, F. J. R., & Yagmur,
Kidder, L. H. (1992). Requirements for being K. (2016). Return migration. Online Readings in
“Japanese.” International Journal of Intercultural Psychology and Culture, 8(2). DOI: 10.9707/
Relations, 16(4), 383–393. DOI: 10.1016/0147- 2307-0919.1143
1767(92)90029-T Li, Y. (2016). The research on the challenge and
Kim, Y. Y. (1978). A communication approach to path of cultural adaptation about the high-level
the acculturation process: A study of Korean overseas Chinese talents in colleges and
immigrants in Chicago. International Journal of universities. Journal of Higher Education
Intercultural Relations, 2(2), 197–224. Management, 10(2), 40–46 (in Chinese).
Kim, Y. Y. (2001). Becoming intercultural: An Lin, N. (2001). Social capital: A theory of social
integrative theory of communication and cross- structure and action. Cambridge, UK:
cultural adaptation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Cambridge University Press.
Kim, Y. Y. (2005). Adapting to a new culture: An Long, L., & Oxfeld, E. (Eds.). (2004). Coming home:
integrative communication theory. In W. B. Refugees, migrants, and those who stayed behind.
Gudykunst (Ed.), Theorizing about intercultural Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania
communication (pp. 375–400). Thousand Oaks, Press.
CA: Sage. Mao, J., & Shen, Y. (2015). Cultural identity change
Kim, Y. Y. (2008). Intercultural personhood: in expatriates: A social network perspective.
Globalization and a way of being. In Y. Kim & Human Relations, 68(10), 1533–1556. DOI:
D. Bhawuk (Eds.), Globalization and diversity: 10.1177/0018726714561699
Theoretical and applied perspectives [Special Marsden, P. V. (1990). Network data and
Issue]. International Journal of Intercultural measurement. Annual Review of Sociology, 16
Relations, 32(4), 359–368. (1), 435–463.
Kim, Y. Y., & McKay-Semmler, K. (2013). Social Martin, J. N. (1984). The intercultural reentry:
engagement and cross-cultural adaptation: An Conceptualization and directions for future
examination of direct- and mediated research. International Journal of Intercultural
interpersonal communication activities of Relations, 8(2), 115–134. DOI: 10.1016/0147-
educated non-natives in the United States. 1767(84)90035-X
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, Martin, J. N. (1986a). Communication in the
37(1), 99–112. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2012.04. intercultural reentry: Student sojourners'
015 04 perceptions of change in reentry relationship.
Koester, J. (1984). Communication and the International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
intercultural reentry: A course proposal. 10(1), 1–22. DOI: 10.1016/0147-1767(86)90031-3
Communication Education, 33(3), 251–256. DOI: Martin, J. N. (1986b). Patterns of communication in
10.1080/03634528409384749 three types of reentry relationships: An
Kossinets, G., & Watts, D. J. (2009). Origins of exploratory study. Western Journal of Speech
Homophily in an evolving social network. Communication, 50(2), 183–199. DOI: 10.1080/
American Journal of Sociology, 115(2), 405–450. 10570318609374224
DOI: 10.1086/599247 Martin, J. N. (1993). The intercultural reentry of
Kostohryz, K., Wells, P. C., Wathen, C. C., & student sojourners: Recent contributions to
Wilson, D. S. (2014). More than a vacation: theory, research, and training. In R. M. Paige

(Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience Pitts, M. J. (2016). Sojourner reentry: A grounded
(pp. 301–328). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural elaboration of the integrative theory of
Press. communication and cross-cultural adaptation.
Martin, J. N., & Harrell, T. (2004). Intercultural Communication Monographs, 83(4), 419–445.
reentry of students and professionals: Theory DOI: 10.1080/03637751.2015.1128557
and practice. In Handbook of Intercultural Qiu, Z., & Qiao, T. (2018). Weak ties, strong ties, or
Training (3rd ed., pp. 309–337). Thousand Oaks, the homophily based on social attributes?
CA: SAGE. Sociological Review of China, 6(1), 3–20 (in
McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Cook, J. M. Chinese).
(2001). Birds of a feather: Homophily in social Repke, L., & Benet-Martinez, V. (2017).
networks. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, Conceptualizing the dynamics between
415–444. bicultural identification and personal social
Molano, S., & Polo, A. (2015). Social network networks. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 469–488.
analysis in a learning community. Procedia – DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00469
Social and Behavioral Sciences, 185, 339–345. Robins, G. (2015). Doing social network research:
DOI: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.03.381 Network-based research design – for social
Monge, P. R., & Contractor, N. S. (2003). Theories scientists. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
of communication networks. New York, NY: Robins, G., & Kashima, Y. (2008). Social
Oxford University Press. psychology and social networks: Individuals and
Morris, M.W., Chiu, C.Y., & Liu, Z. (2015). social systems. Asian Journal of Social
Polycultural psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 11(1), 1–12.
Psychology, 66, 631–659. Rogers, E. M., & Kincaid, D. L. (1981).
Newman, M. E. J. (2002). Assortative mixing in Communication networks: Toward a new paradigm
networks. Physical Review Letters, 89(20), 208701. for research. New York, NY: Free Press.
Newman, M. E. J. (2003). Mixing patterns in Rogers, J., & Ward, C. (1993). Expectation-
networks. Physical Review E, 67(2), 026126. experience discrepancies and psychological
Onwumechili, C., Nwosu, P. O., Jackson, R. L., & adjustment during cross-cultural reentry.
James-Hughes, J. (2003). In the deep valley with International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
mountains to climb: Exploring identity and 17(2), 185–196.
multiple reacculturation. International Journal of Rosen, D., Barnett, G. A., & Kim, J. H. (2011).
Intercultural Relations, 27(1), 41–62. DOI: 10 Social networks and online environments:
.1016/S0147-1767(02)00063-9 When science and practice co-evolve.
Osland, J.S., & Bird, A. (2000). Beyond Social Network Analysis and Mining, 1(1),
sophisticated stereotyping: Cultural sensemaking 27–42.
in context. Academy of Management Executive, Rudmin, F. W., & Ahmadzadeh, V. (2001).
14(1), 65–77. Psychometric critique of acculturation
Osman-Gani, A. M., & Rockstuhl, T. (2008). psychology: The case of Iranian migrants in
Antecedents and consequences of social network Norway. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 42
characteristics for expatriate adjustment and (1), 41–56.
performance in overseas assignments: Sam, D. L., & Berry, J. W. (2006). The Cambridge
Implications for HRD. Human Resource handbook of acculturation psychology. New
Development Review, 7(1), 32–57. York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Otte, E., & Rousseau, R. (2002). Social network Schelling, T. C. (2006). Micromotives and
analysis: A powerful strategy, also for the macrobehavior (Revised ed.). W. W. Norton &
information sciences. Journal of Information Company.
Science, 28(6), 441–453. DOI: 10.1177/ Smith, A. (2017, January 12). Record shares of
016555150202800601 Americans now own smartphones, have home

broadband. Pew Research Report (www Szkudlarek, B., & Sumpter, D. M. (2014). What,
.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/01/12/ when, and with whom?: Investigating expatriate
evolution-of-technology/). reentry training with a proximal approach.
Smith, L. R. (1997). Intercultural social support Human Resource Management, n/a–n/a. DOI:
networks: A socio-structural description of 10.1002/hrm.21647
expatriate adjustment and communicative Tomlin, C. R., Miller, M. L., Schellhase, E., New,
competence. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation], G., Karwa, R., & Nabwire Ouma, M. (2014).
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Assessing reverse culture shock following an
Smith, L. R. (1999). Intercultural network theory: international pharmacy practice experience.
A cross-paradigmatic approach to acculturation. Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning,
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 6(1), 106–113. DOI: 10.1016/j.cptl.2013.09.015
23(4), 629–658. Van de Vijver, J. J. R., Berry, J. W., & Celenk, O.
Smith, L. R. (2013). Female refugee networks: (2016). Assessment of acculturations. In D. L.
Rebuilding post-conflict identity. International Sam & J. W. Berry (Eds.). The Cambridge
Journal of Intercultural Relations, 37(1), 11–27. handbook of acculturation psychology (pp.
DOI: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2012.04.011 93–112). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
Smith, S. L. (2002). The cycle of cross-cultural University Press.
adaptation and reentry. In J. N. Martin, T. K. van Duijn, M. A. J., & Vermunt, J. K. (2006).
Nakayama, & L. A. Flores (Eds.), Readings in What is special about social network analysis.
intercultural communication: Experiences and Methodology, 2(1), 2–6.
contexts (2nd ed., pp. 246–259). Belmont, CA: Wang, X., & Kanungo, R. (2004). Nationality,
Mayfield. social network and psychological well-being:
Sussman, N. M. (1986). Re-entry research and Expatriates in China. The International Journal of
training: Methods and implications. Human Resource Management, 15(4–5), 775–793.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, Ward, C., Bochner, S., & Furnham, A. (2001). The
10(2), 235–254. DOI: 10.1016/0147-1767(86) psychology of culture shock (2nd ed.). London,
90008-8 UK: Routledge.
Sussman, N. M. (2000). The dynamic nature Ward, C., Okura, Y., Kennedy, A., & Kojima, T.
of cultural identity throughout cultural (1998). The U-curve on trial: A longitudinal
transitions: why home is not so sweet. study of psychological and sociocultural
Personality and Social Psychology Review, adjustment during cross-cultural transition.
4(4), 355–373. International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
Sussman, N. M. (2001). Repatriation transitions: 22(3), 277–291. DOI: 10.1016/s0147-1767(98)
psychological preparedness, cultural identity, 00008-x
and attributions among American managers. Ward, C. & Rana-Deuba, A. (1999). Acculturation
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, and adaptation revisited. Journal of Cross-
25(2), 109–123. DOI: 10.1016/S0147-1767(00) Cultural Psychology, 30(4), 422–442.
00046-8 Wasserman, S., & Faust, K. (1994). Social network
Sussman, N. M. (2002). Testing the cultural analysis: Methods and applications. Cambridge,
identity model of the cultural transition cycle: UK: Cambridge University Press.
sojourners return home. International Journal of Wellman, B. (1983). Network analysis: Some
Intercultural Relations, 26(4), 391–408. DOI: 10 basic principles. Sociological Theory, 1(1),
.1016/S0147-1767(02)00013-5 155–200.
Szkudlarek, B. (2010). Reentry – A review of the Wielkiewicz, R. M., & Turkowski, L. W. (2010).
literature. International Journal of Intercultural Reentry issues upon returning from study
Relations, 34(1), 1–21. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijintrel. abroad programs. Journal of College Student
2009.06.006 Development, 51(6), 649–664.

Wilson, J., Ward, C., & Fischer, R. (2013). Beyond Zuo, C. (2014). Cultural readjustment: Impacts of
culture learning theory: What can personality reverse culture shock on overseas returning
tell us about cultural competence? Journal of teachers in higher education. Journal of
Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44(6), 900–927. Mudanjiang University, 5, 163–165, 170
DOI:10.1177/0022022113492889 (in Chinese).

8 Intractable Conflict, Delegitimization,
Meytal Nasie and Daniel Bar-Tal
Conflicts, defined as a situation in which two needs, and/or values that are regarded as indis-
or more parties perceive their goals, intentions, pensable for the society’s existence and/or
and/or actions as being mutually incompatible survival.
and act in accordance to this perception, are
an inseparable part of every intergroup rela- They are perceived as irresolvable. Society
tion, and they take place continuously and members involved in intractable conflict do
constantly on a large scale through all millen- not perceive a possibility of resolving the con-
niums. Of special importance are intractable flict peacefully.
conflicts that first of all have determinative
effect on the well-being of the societies Intractable conflicts are violent. Intractable
involved, but often also have influence on the conflicts involve physical violence in which
security and welfare of the international com- society members (soldiers and civilians) are
munity. These conflicts last for a long period killed and wounded in either wars, small-scale
of time because the real disagreements over military engagements or terrorist attacks.
goals and interests are fueled by the socio-
psychological repertoire that is well grounded
Intractable conflicts are perceived as being of
in the culture of the engaged societies. That is,
zero sum nature. Intractable conflicts are all-
in longstanding, violent, and vicious intract-
out conflicts, without willingness to comprom-
able conflicts, societies evolve a culture of con-
ise and with adherence to all the original goals.
flict that has tremendous influence on the way
these conflicts are managed, because it pro-
vides important foundations for their continu- They are central. Intractable conflicts occupy
ation and prevention to resolve them a central place in the lives of the individual
peacefully. Conflicts in the Middle East, Sri society members and the society as a whole.
Lanka, Kashmir, or Chechnya provide good Members of the society are involved con-
example of this type of conflict. stantly and continuously with the conflict.
They demand extensive investment. Parties

Intractable Conflicts engaged in an intractable conflict make vast
The following seven features were proposed to material (i.e., military, technological, and eco-
characterize intractable interethnic conflicts nomic) and psychological investments in order
(Bar-Tal, 1998, 2007a; Kriesberg, 1993, 1998). to cope successfully with the situation.
They are total. Intractable conflicts are per- They are protracted. Intractable conflicts per-
ceived as being about essential and basic goals, sist for a long time, at least a generation, which

Intractable Conflict, Delegitimization, and Intercultural Training 307
means that at least one generation did not The basic premise of the conception is that
know another reality. in order to meet the above challenges, societies
in conflict develop functional socio-
psychological repertoire that includes shared
Challenges of Intractable Conflicts beliefs, attitudes, motivations, and emotions
that provide the necessary ingredients for suc-
The described characteristics of intractable
cessful adaptation to the context of intractable
conflicts clearly imply that these conflicts
conflict.1 This repertoire provides a number of
inflict severe negative experiences such as
important requisites for the adaptation –
threat, stress, pain, exhaustion, grief, traumas,
among them, a meaningful picture of the con-
misery, hardship, and cost, both in human and
flict situation, justification for the behavior of
material terms (see for example, Cairns, 1996;
the society, facilitation of the mobilization for
de Jong, 2002; Robben & Suarez, 2000). Also,
participation in the conflict, differentiation
during intractable conflicts collective life is
between the ingroup and the rival, and main-
marked by continuous confrontation that
tenance of positive social identity and self-
requires mobilization and sacrifice of the soci-
collective image. Furthermore, we suggest that
ety members. This situation is chronic, as it
these elements of the socio-psychological
persists for a long time (see for example, Hob-
repertoire on the individual and collective
foll & deVries, 1995; Lavi & Bar-Tal, 2015;
levels gradually crystallize into a well-
Shalev, Yehuda, & McFarlane, 2000). Thus,
organized system of societal shared beliefs,2
members must adapt to the conditions in both
attitudes, and emotions that penetrates into
their individual and collective lives by meeting
institutions and communication channels of
three basic challenges.
the society, and become part of the socio-
First, it is necessary to satisfy needs that
psychological infrastructure. This socio-
remain deprived during intractable conflicts,
psychological infrastructure includes collective
like, for example, psychological needs of
memories of conflict, ethos of conflicts, and
knowing, mastery, safety, positive identity,
collective emotional orientation3 that are all
and so on (Burton, 1990; Staub, 2003; Taj-
fel, 1982). If people are to function properly
as individuals and society members, their
needs must be fulfilled (Maslow, 1954). 1
This idea is based on conceptual and empirical
Second, it is necessary to learn to cope with literature which suggests that successful coping with
the stress, fears, and other negative psycho- threatening and stressful conditions requires
logical phenomena that accompany intract- construction of a meaningful world view (e.g.,
Antonovsky, 1987; Frankl, 1963; Janoff-Bulman,
able conflict situations. Third, adaptation 1992; Taylor, 1983)
requires development of socio-psychological 2
Societal beliefs are the building block of narratives.
conditions that will be conducive to success- They are defined as shared cognitions by the society
members that address themes and issues that the
fully withstanding the rival group, that is, to
society members are particularly occupied with, and
attempts to win the conflict or, at least, not which contribute to their sense of uniqueness (Bar-
to lose it. This challenge requires constant Tal, 2000).
3
Collective emotional orientation refers to societal
mobilization of society members to support
characterization of an emotion that is reflected on
the conflict and actively take part in it, even individual and collective level in socio-psychological
to the extent of the willingness to sacrifice repertoire, as well as in tangible and intangible
their own lives. societal symbols such as cultural products or
ceremonies (Bar-Tal, 2001, 2013).

308 meytal nasie and daniel bar-tal
mutually interrelated – they provide the 2000, 2013).4 They include: Societal beliefs
major narratives, motivators, orientations, about the justness of own goals, which first of
and goals that society members need in order all outline the goals in conflict, indicate their
to carry their life under the harsh conditions of crucial importance, and provide their justifica-
intractable conflict and support its tion and rationale. Every society has goals,
continuation. and they have to be perceived as justified by
Collective memory consists of societal society members because otherwise they will
beliefs that present the history of the con- not act collectively to achieve them. But in
flict to society members (Cairns, & Roe, the situation of intractable conflict the justifi-
2003; Connerton, 1989; Halbwachs, 1992; cation and rationale play a crucial motivating
Paez & Liu, 2011; Wertsch, 2002). This role because of the demanded sacrifices from
narrative develops over time, and the soci- the collective, including sacrifice of life. In
etal beliefs describe the conflict’s begin- addition, the societal beliefs negate and delegi-
ning and its course, providing a coherent timize the goals of the other group. These
and meaningful picture (Devine-Wright, societal beliefs motivate the society members
2003). to struggle and fight for these goals and help
In addition to the narrative of collective them endure and bear the losses, stress, and
memory, societies also evolve a narrative costs of the intractable conflict.
about the present – this is called an ethos. Societal beliefs about security refer to the
Ethos is defined as “the configuration of importance of personal safety and national
central shared societal beliefs that provide a survival, and outline the conditions for their
particular dominant orientation to a society achievement. In the context of intractable con-
at present and for the future” (Bar-Tal, flict, beliefs about maintenance of security in
2000). Ethos supplies the epistemic basis for its widest terms, including military mobiliza-
the hegemonic social consciousness of the tion, volunteerism, and heroism are of special
society and serves as one of the foundations importance (see for example, Bar-Tal, Jacob-
of societal life. It binds the members of son, & Klieman, 1998). These beliefs are essen-
society together, connects between the tial when the intractable conflict involves
present and the goals and aspirations that violence in the form of acts of hostility and
impel them toward the future, and gives mean- wars, and poses threats to the life of individ-
ing to the societal life (see for example, uals, collective existence, economic well-being,
McClosky & Zaller, 1984, who analyze beliefs and even to central values.
about democracy and capitalism in the US Societal beliefs of positive collective self-
ethos). image concern the ethnocentric tendency to
It has been suggested that under prolonged attribute positive traits, values, and behavior
intractable conflict societies develop a particu-
lar ethos-ethos of conflict, which gives a gen-
4
eral orientation and direction and provides a The detection of the eight themes is based on
extensive systematic studies in the Israeli Jewish
clear picture of the conflict, its goals, its condi-
society involved in intractable conflict (see Bar-Tal,
tions, requirements, and images of the own 2007b; Oren 2005, 2009). In addition these themes
society and of the rival (Bar-Tal, 2000, were found to be dominant in other societies engaged
2007a, 2013). In addition, it was suggested that in intractable conflict such as among Serbs,
Kosovars, Albanians, Croats, and Bosnians
collective memory of conflict and ethos of con- (MacDonald, 2002), and among Hutus in Rwanda
flict consist of eight themes (Bar-Tal, 1998, (Slocum-Bradley, 2008).

to own society. In times of intractable conflict, external threat. These beliefs strengthen the
characteristics related to courage, heroism, or society from within, develop a consensus and
endurance, and, on the other hand, character- a sense of belonging, increase solidarity, and
istics related to humaneness, morality, fair- allow directing society's forces and energy to
ness, trustworthiness, and progress are coping with the enemy.
propagated with special intensity. The enemy Societal beliefs of peace refer to peace as the
is presented in stark contrast allowing for a ultimate desire of the society. They present
clear differentiation between the two parties peace as an ultimate goal of the society in
(Sande, Goethals, Ferrari, & Worth, 1989). idyllic, utopic, and amorphic way and society
Moreover, these beliefs supply moral strength members as peace loving. Such beliefs have the
and a sense of own superiority. role of inspiring optimism. They strengthen
Societal beliefs of own victimization concern positive self-image and positive self-
self-presentation as a victim, especially in the presentation to the outside world.
context of the intractable conflict (Mack, 1990; Finally we would like to introduce societal
Volkan, 1997; Vollhardt, 2012). Bar-Tal, beliefs of delegitimizing the opponent, which
Chernyak-Hai, Schori, and Gundar (2009) are the focus of the present paper. They are
defined self-perceived collective victimhood as defined as the categorization of the rival group
“a mindset shared by group members that “into extreme negative social categories which
results from a perceived intentional harm with are exclude it, or them, from the sphere of
severe and lasting consequences inflicted on a human groups that act within the limits of
collective by another group or groups, a harm acceptable norms and/or values, since these
that is viewed as undeserved, unjust, and groups are viewed as violating human or
immoral and one that the group was not able values and therefore deserving maltreatment”
to prevent” (p. 238). The focus of these beliefs (see Bar-Tal, 1989, 1990, 2013; Bar-Tal &
is on the unjust harm, evil deeds, and atrocities Hammack, 2012, p. 30). These beliefs serve
perpetrated by the adversary. They provide the as psychological authorization and justifica-
moral incentive to seek justice and oppose the tion to harm the rival group, as well as explain
opponent, as well as to mobilize moral, polit- the causes of the conflict's outbreak, its con-
ical, and material support from the inter- tinuation, and the violence of the opponent.
national community.
Societal beliefs of patriotism generate attach-
Delegitimization
ment to the country and society, by propagat-
ing loyalty, love, care, and sacrifice (Bar-Tal, Delegitimization may be viewed as a type of
1993; Bar-Tal & Staub, 1997; Somerville, moral exclusion, which according to Opotow
1981). Patriotic beliefs increase social cohe- (1990) leads individuals or groups “outside the
siveness and dedication, and serve an import- boundary in which moral values, rules, and
ant function for mobilizing the society considerations of fairness apply. Those who
members to active participation in the conflict are morally excluded are perceived as nonen-
and endurance of hardship and difficulties, to tities, expendable, or undeserving; conse-
the point of sacrificing their life for the society. quently, harming them appears acceptable,
Societal beliefs of unity refer to the import- appropriate, or just” (p. 1). Delegitimization,
ance of ignoring internal conflicts and dis- as an extreme case of negative stereotyping,
agreements during intractable conflict in does not appear in every intergroup conflict.
order to unite the forces in the face of the It tends to appear when the negated goals are

perceived as far-reaching, unjustified, endan- biological/zoological/medical labels such as

gering the fundamental goals of the group, and monkeys, snakes, worms, cancer, or microbes
when threats to take violent steps are (Boccato, Capozza, Falvo, & Durante, 2008;
expressed. These conditions indicate that Goff, Eberhardt, Williams, & Jackson, 2008;
intractable conflicts usually involve delegitimi- Savage, 2006, 2007); (3) demonizing terms
zation. The above implies that the conflictive such as “demons,” “monsters,” “devils,” or
context in which delegitimization evolves is ones who control the world economy or even
stable and salient in its threatening and violent drink blood (see Wistrich, 1999); or (4) mech-
nature, concerns all society members, and anistic terms such as being without emotions,
plays central role in their lives. Also the two or cognitive openness (Haslam, 2006). Out-
groups engaged in intractable conflict are casting involves rhetorical categorization into
physically and socially separated, even if they groups that are considered violators of pivotal
live in the same geographical area as, for social norms, such as murderers, thieves, psy-
example, Protestants and Catholics in North- chopaths, terrorists, or maniacs (Bar-Tal,
ern Ireland, or Jews and Palestinians in the 1988). Trait characterization involves the rhet-
Middle East. There is usually little social con- orical attribution of traits considered
tact between members of the two groups, and extremely negative and unacceptable in a
sometimes they are actually separated by real given society. Traits such as aggressors or bru-
borders. Most of the information that they tals exemplify this type of delegitimization
receive about each other is dominated by con- (Bialer, 1985; Dallin, 1973; English & Hal-
flict themes that present the malevolent acts of perin, 1987; Ugolnik, 1983).
the other side. In such contexts, it is not sur- A fourth form of delegitimization involves
prising that the persistent use of delegitimiza- the use of political labels, which denote polit-
tion evolves. Moreover the described ical groups that are absolutely rejected by the
delegitimization as one of the major themes values of the delegitimizing group. These
of the socio-psychological infrastructure serves labels are culturally bound and their use
as a barrier that prevents information process- depends on society’s cultural ideology, polit-
ing that opens new perspectives and may facili- ical goals, or values. Nazis, fascists, imperial-
tate peacemaking process (Bar-Tal & ists, colonialists, capitalists, Zionists, and
Halperin, 2011; Halperin & Bar-Tal, 2011). communists are examples of this type of dele-
Dehumanization, out-casting, negative trait gitimization (Bronfenbrenner, 1961; White,
characterization, political labeling, and group 1984). Finally, delegitimization by group com-
comparison are among the most commonly parison occurs when a group is labeled as a
used contents in delegitimization. category that traditionally serves as an
In the past, a number of forms of delegiti- example of negativity, such as “Vandals” or
mization were proposed (Bar-Tal, 1989, 1990, “Huns.”
2000), which represent rhetorical strategies of As an example we can provide the delegiti-
categorization intended to authorize harm mization of the Tutsi in Rwanda as it appeared
toward the delegitimized group. Dehumaniza- in an article published in March 1993 in an
tion involves categorizing a group as non- influential anti-Tutsi propaganda newspaper
human. It is manifested in discourse by using Kangura: “We began by saying that a cock-
(1) subhuman epithets such as “uncivilized roach cannot give birth to a butterfly. It is true.
savages” or “primitives” (see Constantine, A cockroach gives birth to another
1966; Jahoda, 1999; Myrdal, 1964); (2) cockroach . . . The history of Rwanda shows

us clearly that a Tutsi stays always exactly the group’s repertoire of characterization of other
same, that he has never changed” (Des Forges, groups; (2) it has the purpose of denying the
1999, pp. 73–74). delegitimized group’s humanity; (3) it magni-
These forms may not be exhaustive and they fies the difference between the groups in con-
are clearly culturally bound, but they provide flict; (4) it homogenizes the delegitimized
illustrative examples of the type of rhetoric group as one evil entity, not allowing individu-
used to construct delegitimized social alization of its members or differentiation
categories. among its subgroups; (5) it is accompanied by
While many groups are categorized into intense negative emotions of rejection such as
negative categories and/or negatively stereo- hatred, anger, despise, fear, or disgust; (6) it
typed or experience prejudice, they may con- appears automatically because of the under-
tinue to be considered as part of the society lying emotional and teleological nature; (7) it
(for example, Americans of Mexican origin in implies that the delegitimized group has the
the United States, or Jews in France). Delegi- potential for negative behavior that could
timization, by contrast, as a societal phenom- endanger the delegitimizing group; (8) it has
enon is exclusionary and indicates that the behavioral implications for the delegitimizing
delegitimized group exists outside the bound- group, suggesting that the delegitimized group
aries of commonly accepted groups. does not deserve being treated humanely, and
A delegitimized group is excluded from the implying that measures should be taken to
scope of justice, norms and values that ordin- prevent harm that may be inflicted by the dele-
arily govern social relations (see Opotow, gitimized group; and (9) it provides rigid,
1990). But the significant part of our concep- durable categories that are unlikely to change
tion is the psychological permit that delegitimi- while the intractable conflict lasts, and most
zation provides: Delegitimization provides the probably long after.
socio-psychological rationale, the moral and
the discursive basis to harm the delegitimized
Examples of Delegitimization
group, even in the most inhumane ways. Thus,
categorization into the extreme negative cat- Different instances of mutual delegitimization
egories does not constitute merely exclusion. in situations of intractable conflict have been
Rather, it has the purposive function of licens- noted. An example of mutual delegitimization
ing harm of an out group. Our conception can be found in the case of intractable conflict
identifies the phenomenon at the collective in Northern Ireland between Protestants and
level of societal discourse, promulgated in soci- Catholics, who have clashed over British con-
etal and cultural institutions such as the media trol of Ireland for hundreds of years. In the
and education, and at the individual level of an present conflict in Northern Ireland, the Cath-
internalized narrative of social categories that olic minority aspires to unite with the Irish
provides group members with the moral Republic, while the Protestant majority prefers
license to commit violence (see Bar-Tal & to remain part of Great Britain. These are two
Hammack, 2012). irreconcilable goals that lead to violent con-
Delegitimization has determinative influ- frontations between the two communities.
ences on intergroup relations in the context of Through the years, both societies developed
intractable conflict because of its following mutual negative stereotypes, including the use
features: (1) It consists of extremely negative of delegitimizing characteristics (see Darby,
labels, that are salient and unique in the 1976; Harris, 1972). Cecil (1993) reported that

Protestants view Catholics as “lazy, priest- Liberation Organization (PLO), established

ridden, untidy, and potentially treacherous” in 1964, which eventually came to express the
(p.152), whereas Catholics perceive Protest- aspiration of the great majority of the Pales-
ants as “bigoted, mean, and lacking in culture” tinians. Thus delegitimization of the PLO was
(p.152). Also, both societies emphasize the ter- in effect delegitimization of the Palestinians. In
rorist nature of the other side, as a major the first ten years of the PLO's existence, liter-
delegitimizing characteristic. Hunter, Stringer, ally almost all the Israeli Jews negated the
and Watson (1991) found that Catholics and existence of this organization (Tessler, 2000).
Protestants tended to attribute their own After 1974, when the PLO opened a small
group’s violence to external causes, whereas window for possible conflict resolution, indi-
they ascribed the opponent’s violence to vidual Israeli Jews opened a dialogue with
internal delegitimizing characteristics such as PLO representatives. These contacts slowly
“psychopaths” or “bloodthirsty.” increased, and therefore in 1986 the Knesset
Another example of mutual delegitimization decided to prohibit meetings with PLO repre-
can be found in the case of intractable conflict sentatives by legislating the law of “Order for
in the Middle East between Israeli Jews and the Prevention of Terror.” The law was
Palestinians (see Oren & Bar-Tal, 2007). Jews changed in January 1993, thus making the
arriving in Palestine from the early twentieth Oslo talks and mutual recognition between
century in waves of Zionist immigrations, ini- Israel and the PLO legal. But even after the
tially viewed Arabs residing in the region Oslo Accord and endless negotiations, Pales-
ethnocentrically being primitive, dirty, stupid, tinians are viewed un-trustful, violent, primi-
easily agitated, and aggressive. As the conflict tive, and dishonest with little regard for human
evolved and became violent, Arabs were per- life, practicing terrorism.
ceived as killers, a blood-thirsty mob, rioters, In many aspects, the Palestinian delegitimi-
treacherous, untrustworthy, cowards, cruel, zation of Jews is a mirror image in terms of its
and wicked. Of special interest is the label of content to the Israeli delegitimization of Pales-
“Arabs,” which did not differentiate the popu- tinians (see Bar-Tal, 1988); in general, Jews
lation of Palestine from that of other Arab were viewed almost from the start of Zionist
countries. In fact, for decades the great major- immigration as colonialists who came to settle
ity of the Jews did not recognize the Palestin- Palestinian land and expel the Palestinian
ian entity as a nation. During the pre-state population. They were stereotyped as
period, Arab residents of Palestine opposing strangers, crusaders, unwanted, and enemies.
Jewish immigration and settlement were Also, Jews were attributed with labels such as
viewed as being violent and intransigent by deceitful, treacherous, thieves, and disloyal,
refusing to accept any compromises, and being and were seen as aggressors and robbers. In
easily agitated by the extremist leaders addition, they were perceived as colonialists,
(Gorny, 1987; Shapira, 1992; Tessler, 2000). racists, fascists, and imperialists, and they were
The delegitimization of the Palestinians con- even compared to the Nazis. The term Zion-
tinued after the establishment of the state of ism itself became a delegitimizing label as it
Israel. They continued to be perceived as was considered a colonialist ideology. The war
primitive and violent and their national iden- of 1948 was viewed as a Naqba (disaster)
tity was denied, as well as their right to self- caused by Jewish aggression and expansionism
determination. A special effort was made over (Hadawi, 1968; Khalidi, 1997; Said, 1979;
the decades to delegitimize the Palestinian Sayigh, 1997).

This line of delegitimization continued or individuals) they like and unfavorable char-
through decades. The national Covenant of acteristics to those they dislike” (p. 82). Indeed
the Palestine Liberation Organization, the relationship between beliefs of a stereotype
approved in 1964, stated in its article 19: “Zion- and prejudice (i.e., an attitude) is explained
ism is a colonialist movement in its inception, and predicted by the various theories of cogni-
aggressive and expansionist in is goals, racist tive consistency (e.g., Abelson, Aronson,
and segregationist in its configuration, and fas- McGuire, Newcomb, Rosenberg, & Tannen-
cist in its means and aims.” Since almost all the baum, 1968). Individuals tend to form consist-
Jews in Israel viewed themselves as Zionists, the ent beliefs and attitudes.
delegitimizing label was applied to the Jewish Stephan and Stephan (1993, 1996) developed
entity as a whole. In November 1988 the PNC, a radial network model which proposes that
meeting in Algiers, adopted two documents – negative affective responses toward a group
the Political Program and the Declaration of (including both evaluative and emotional reac-
Independence – which officially accepted the tions) and cognitive responses are related
1947 UN partition plan, thus recognizing the through networks associated with group label
two-state solution of the conflict. Finally, in and the traits linked to them. Frequent acti-
September 1993, Yasser Arafat , Head of the vation of the networks, as in the case of an
PLO, and Yitzhak Rabin, the Prime Minister enemy in intractable conflict, increases consist-
of Israel, signed an accord granting mutual ency by strengthening the links in the networks.
recognition between the two parties. Neverthe- Also Stephan and Stephan (2000) pointed out
less, since the negotiations have failed, Israeli that in situations of conflict, when group
Jews are viewed as occupiers, untrustworthy, members experience threat, they develop preju-
unfair, colonialists, dishonest, brutal, violent, dice toward the rival group. The prejudice is
and so on. not only a result of perceived threat to the well-
being of the ingroup in the larger sense, but also
a result of used negative stereotyping that indi-
Affective Aspects of Delegitimization
cates potential harm to the ingroup from the
In addition to delegitimization as an extreme stereotyped outgroup. In addition, in times of
form of stereotypic beliefs, the psychological intractable conflict, negative attitudes and gen-
intergroup repertoire in situations of intract- eral dislike are related to specific negative emo-
able conflict includes negative attitude (i.e., tions, which are part of the negative
prejudice), negative affect of dislike, and nega- psychological intergroup repertoire (Bar-Tal &
tive emotions. It seems obvious that, in the Avrahamzon, 2017). Violence, human losses,
threatening and stressful situation of intract- material damage, hardship, and suffering,
able conflict, when the other party is delegiti- which are inevitable part of intractable conflict
mized, group members also develop strong lead to threat, stress, pain, frustration, and
negative evaluations and affect toward the grief. All these factors instigate negative emo-
opponent. This relationship was observed tions, but particularly hatred, fear, and anger
years ago by Scott (1965), who pointed out toward the enemy.
that, “A considerable body of research evi-
dence on national and ethnic attitudes con-
Functions of Delegitimization
firms the association of affect with cognitive
attributes of images. People tend to attribute Now is the time to elaborate on the functions
favorable characteristics to nations (or groups of delegitimization. First, as already noted, the

delegitimization fulfills the epistemic function Second, in their epistemic function, delegiti-
of illuminating different aspects of the conflict mizing beliefs also serve to justify the violence
situation. As other stereotypes, they provide and destruction inflicted on the adversary by
information and explanations about the social the delegitimizing group (Tajfel, 1981). They
world (Stangor & Schaller, 1996; Tajfel, 1981; provide justification for the individuals and for
Yzerbyt, Rocher, & Schadron, 1997). In the the social system as a whole to intentionally
context of conflict delegitimizing stereotypes harm the rival, and for continuing to institu-
explain the nature of the conflict, why it tionalize aggression toward the enemy (Jost &
erupted, why it continues, and why it is violent. Banaji, 1994). This is an important function
Since societies involved in intractable conflicts that resolves feelings of dissonance, guilt, and
view their own goals as justified and perceive shame. Normally, human beings do not usu-
themselves in a positive light, they attribute all ally willingly harm other human beings. The
responsibility for the conflict to the characteris- sanctity of life is perhaps one of the most
tics and nature of the opponent: the enemy. sacred values in modern societies. Killing or
Delegitimization labels (i.e., blood-thirsty, mur- even hurting other human beings is considered
derer, terrorist, cruel, oppressive, savage, the most serious violation of the moral code
vandal, or Nazi) help explain the opponent’s (Donagan, 1979; Kleinig, 1991). However in
goals and present them as “far reaching,” intractable conflict, groups hurt each other in
“irrational,” and “malevolent” goals, which most severe ways, even resorting to atrocities,
threaten to negate the goals of the delegitimiz- ethnic cleansing, and genocide. Delegitimiza-
ing society. They also explain why the adver- tion, by denying the adversary group human-
sary is intransigent, irreconcilable, and ity and attributing him threatening
precluding any possible peaceful solution; characteristics, allows moral disengagement
therefore, the conflict cannot be resolved (Bar- and such violence (Bandura, 1999). It provides
Tal, 1990). In addition, delegitimizing beliefs justification for carrying out the most immoral
provide an explanation for the opponent’s vio- acts and channels the attribution of one’s own
lence, aggression, cruelty, lack of concern for immoral behavior to external factors. The
human life, and viciousness (Finlay, Holsti, & punishment of terrorists, murderers, or Huns,
Fagen, 1967). They help explain how it is pos- and Nazis who by their disposition, intentions,
sible that an adversary can behave in such an and behavior trigger the negative acts against
inhumane and immoral way. Moreover, the them is thus justified. As one Iraqi military
situation of intractable conflict is extremely commander reported in a publicized statement
threatening and accompanied by stress, vulner- to Saddam Hussein during the Iran–Iraq war:
ability, uncertainty, and fear (Lieberman, “We gladly inform you of the annihilation of
1964). As such it raises the need for structure thousands of harmful magi insects . . . We . . .
that allows quick explanations, understanding, will turn what is left of these harmful insects
and predictions (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). into food for the birds of the wilderness and
Delegitimization labels fulfill these needs. the fish of the marshes” (Bengio, 1986, p. 475).
A black and white approach, without gray It is the cognitive framing of the adversary
shades, enables fast, parsimonious, unequivo- group with delegitimizing labels that frees the
cal, moralistic, and simple understanding of framers from moral restraints, by providing
the situation. It provides absolute clarity as to them with an epistemic justification, and
which group should be blamed for the conflict turning them into killers (Bandura, 1999; Kel-
and violence, pointing at the delegitimized one. man, 1973; Staub, 1989).

Third, delegitimizing beliefs have the func- threat. Vengeance is a norm in many societies
tion of reflecting a shared reality for group and may even be considered a moral require-
members (Oakes, Haslam, & Turner, 1994). ment (Turney-High, 1949). That is, in some
They express the nature of the conflict rela- societies members think that in retribution for
tions between rival groups and indicate that it the suffered violence they have an obligation
is an intractable conflict. In essence, according to physically harm members of the rival group.
to Oakes et al. (1994), their expression is a The delegitimizing labels constantly remind
political act of the group revealing the norms group members about the violent acts per-
and values to which group members are formed against them and indicate that such
expected to subscribe. This may be viewed as acts may recur. They, thus, imply that their
the expressive function of attitudes and opin- violent acts could prevent possible harm by
ions suggested by Katz (1960) aiming, in this the enemy.
case, to express the common perception of Finally, as a sixth function, delegitimizing
reality in the context of the intractable conflict. beliefs serve as motivators for mobilization.
Holding shared views about the rival group They supply information that implies threat
reflects common fate, provides important con- and danger to the group. Therefore, group
tent for the societal repertoire, and reaffirms members are required to take all necessary
identification with the group. steps, in order to cope successfully with the
Fourth, delegitimizing beliefs create a sense other group. Withstanding the enemy and
of differentiation and superiority (Tajfel, 1978, averting the danger of delegitimized groups
1981) to the extent of totally excluding the such as “murderers,” “Nazis,” “terrorists,” or
delegitimized group from the community of “psychopaths” requires full mobilization. In
groups considered as acting within accepted intractable conflicts, delegitimizing labels serve
range of norms and values. Since the rival as cues to remind the ingroup about the threats
group is perceived not only as an enemy but and the mobilizing steps that have to be taken
also as being delegitimized and viewed as to counter the threatening outgroup.
belonging to lower category, the demarcated The above functions indicate that delegiti-
boundaries between the groups are not pene- mization operates circularly (see Bar-Tal,
trable. The delegitimized group is perceived as 1990). On the one hand, delegitimization is a
completely different, especially in view of the result of the particular nature of the intractable
fact that the ingroup ascribes to itself positive conflict and its threatening implications. In
characteristics. This extends the differentiation this capacity delegitimization provides an effi-
and emphasizes feelings of superiority. In the cient, simplistic, and un-ambiguous explan-
situation of an intractable conflict, when both ation of the nature of the conflict and its
sides engage in violence, often performing threatening nature. This explanation, in turn,
immoral acts, feelings of superiority are of leads to group mobilization for coping with
special importance. the threat and harming the opponent as a
Fifth, delegitimizing beliefs have a motivat- preventive or retributional act. However, the
ing function. On the one hand, they indicate to need to justify the violence carried out and the
group members that the delegitimizing group harm inflicted strengthen the delegitimization.
should be avenged for the violent acts per- In other words, once a group performs violent
formed against them and, on the other hand, acts, it needs a justification for them. Delegiti-
they imply a need to initiate violent acts to mization is applied not only to justify behav-
prevent the perceived potential danger and ior, but also to strengthen the perception of

threat and the threatening nature of the rival the years of confrontation to illustrate institu-
group. That is, the delegitimizing labels imply tionalization, as this situation was very mean-
that the other group has the disposition to ingful in the American collective memory and
carry out evil, mal-intentional, and malevolent has been widely studied (e.g., Brands, 1993;
acts, thus seeing them as threatening and Whitfield, 1991).
experiencing threat are obvious reactions. In
the same way, performed acts of mobilization Extensive sharing. The attitudes toward the
are justified by the threatening nature of the opponent, the stereotype formed, and the
rival group, and then mobilization of the accompanying emotions are widely held by
group strengthens the perception of threat. society members. This also applies to delegiti-
mizing stereotypes and the label enemy, which
are endorsed by the majority of society
Institutionalization of the
members. Stereotypes, prejudice, and collect-
Delegitimization
ive emotions, as a defining repertoire of a given
In intractable conflicts that last for decades, society, form a cultural phenomenon. Society
delegitimizing societal beliefs about the rival members acquire and store this repertoire, as
are institutionalized. Institutionalized beliefs part of their socialization, from an early age.
are beliefs that have been transmitted and dis- For example, Americans held widely shared
seminated among society members through negative beliefs about the Soviets, who were
various societal channels of communication in conflict with them for a long period of time,
in a systematic, consistent, and continuous with a short break between 1941–1945, when
way. On the one hand, it reflects the fact that both nations joined forces to fight the common
these beliefs are widely shared, becoming even enemy. Before War World II, the Soviet Union
part of ethos of conflict and, on the other was evaluated as the most disliked country by
hand, it suggests that society makes an effort the American public (Gallup, 1972), especially
to maintain them by continuously presenting in the view of the “Red Scare” which domin-
them to society members. Moreover, institu- ated in the United States at that time. As
tionalization indicates that delegitimization conflict between the United States and Soviet
has hegemony and provides the prism through Union began to grow in 1946, public polls
which the majority of society members view consistently and continuously reported that
various issues that are focal for the society. Americans held negative beliefs about the
The institutionalization therefore is the perfect Soviet communists who were viewed as expan-
basis for mobilization of society members to sionist, threatening, and “the enemy” (Gallup,
activities implied by the institutionalized soci- 1972, 1978; Wolfe, 1983). Yatani and Bramel
etal beliefs (Gamson, 1988). In our case, insti- (1989) showed data indicating that between
tutionalization of delegitimizing beliefs serves 1953 and 1988 the majority of the Americans
as a basis for mobilizing society to support the expressed unfavorable attitudes toward the
continuation of the intractable conflict and Soviet Union. With the exception of the early
carry violent course of action against the 1970s, when only about 50 percent of the
enemy. Americans expressed a negative attitude, in
We propose a number of criteria for the all other periods the percentage varied
institutionalization of delegitimizing beliefs between 70 percent and 90 percent. Analyzing
during intractable conflicts. We will use the the data, they came to the conclusion that
American delegitimization of Soviets during the anti-Soviet attitudes did not express

anti-communist feelings, but were related to communist party members everywhere in the
the perceived rivalry between the nations. world. These party members have despotic
political power in Russia and elsewhere. They
believe that it is their duty to extend that power
Wide use. Institutionalization of beliefs means to all the world. They believe it is right to use
that the delegitimizing beliefs and the negative fraud, terrorism, and violence, and any other
attitudes toward the rival are also actively means that will promote their ends. They treat as
used. They surface in daily conversations, are enemies all who oppose their will (Dulles, 1950,
expressed by leaders, and by the societal chan- pp. 5–6).
nels of mass communication. They become
Later, at the end of the conflict era, George
part of everyday language (Maass & Arcuri,
Schultz, Secretary of State in the mid-1980s,
1996) and are used in descriptions of the rival’s
described the Russians in a similar way
past deeds, in the analyses of the conflict, and
attacking them for using “terrorist groups for
in the justification of own past, present, and
their own purposes, and their goal is always
intended future behavior. In the case of the
the same: to weaken liberal democracy and
conflict between the United States and the
undermine world stability” (June 25, 1984,
Soviet Union, all the American presidents
New York Times, p.1).
between 1917 and 1990 expressed beliefs
The analysis of mass media contents in dif-
describing the conflictive relations with the
ferent periods suggests unequivocally that the
Soviets and referred to the negative stereotypes
Soviets were systematically and continuously
of communists, or the Soviets in general
stereotyped negatively (Silverstein & Flamen-
(Bowie, 1984; Grayson, 1978). For example,
baum, 1989). For example, Kriesberg (1946)
President Hoover referred to the Bolsheviks as
analyzed every page of the New York Times
resorting “to terror, bloodshed, and murder”
that carried news about the Soviet Union in six
and, in 1983, President Reagan labeled the
important periods of Soviet–American rela-
Soviet Union as an “evil empire.” Moreover,
tions (1918, 1935, 1937, 1939, 1942, and
delegitimizing perceptions of threat and the
1945–46). The results showed that in most of
attribution of mal-intent were explicitly used
the analyzed pages there was negative refer-
by American officials throughout the decades
ence to the Soviet Union. The attitudes
of conflict to explain and justify their own
expressed were dependent on the correspond-
policy and actions in many internal and in
ence between the aims and goals of the United
almost all foreign matters (White, 1984). The
States and of the Soviet Union. During their
views of the US Secretary of State, John Foster
alliance, between 1942 and 1945, the attitudes
Dulles, who set the tone at the beginning of the
were favorable. During other periods, the
Cold War, illustrate the extreme expression of
study found that the New York Times not only
these institutionalized beliefs. In a book by
expressed unfavorable attitudes toward the
Finlay, Holsti, and Fagen (1967), analyzing
Soviet Union, but also used highly emotive
the conflict in a chapter entitled “Know your
negative tone of writing. Kriesberg (1946) con-
enemy,” Dulles wrote:
cluded the study by suggesting that the readers
The ‘enemy’ – the self-proclaimed enemy – is the of the newspaper were unequivocally directed
relatively small, fanatical Soviet Communist toward an adverse opinion about the Soviet
Party. Stalin is its leader, and the Politburo is the Union and convinced that the conflict with
principal source of the decisions which command the Soviet Union was justified. In a later study,
the blind obedience of the hard core of loyal as the Cold War began, Smith, Bruner, and

White (1956) reported that almost all news- of USA, or Rocky IV). In these films, commun-
papers articles published in 1947 about the ist party members, Soviet officials or soldiers,
Soviet Union described it unfavorably. Cor- and the Russian people in general were por-
coran (1983) analyzed descriptions of the trayed as brutal, cruel, oppressive, aggressive,
Soviets found in three major American news ruthless, cold-blooded, dogmatic, drunk,
magazines Time, Newsweek, and US News & primitive, stupid, communist, imperialists,
World during times of conflict, in three etc. (Cogley, 1956; Hann, 1983; Perkovich,
periods: 1953, 1971, and 1982. She found that 1987; Roffman & Pardy, 1981). Even as
the general tone of these magazines conveyed recently as 1984, the film Red dawn presents
an intense dislike for Russians and the words the Russians, Cubans, and Nicaraguans as dis-
most often used to characterize them were: playing absolutely immoral violent behavior.
savages, dupes, adventurers, despots, and bar- In the film the troops of the three nations
barians, while their behavior was described as invade the United States and exhibit shooting
brutal, treacherous, conniving, unmanly, in a school, murdering citizens and abducting
aggressive, and animalistic. Depersonalized men to take them to concentration camps.
images were used to express a “Russo-phobic The same themes appeared in popular
world view.” American literature. Various fiction and non-
fiction books deal with American–Soviet con-
Expression in cultural products. The institu- flict as the main theme or as a background for
tionalization of delegitimizing beliefs is also another story, and in almost all of them the
expressed in cultural products such as films, Russians are the villain, or the enemy, identi-
TV programs, books, theatrical plays, etc. fied and described by means of delegitimizing
They are part of a society’s cultural repertoire, labels. For instance, Seed (1999) noted a devel-
relaying societal views and shaping society opment of fiction genre during the Cold War
members’ attitudes toward the rival group. that focused on imagined conquest of United
Through these channels the beliefs are widely States by the Soviet Union. Theodora Dubois’
disseminated and can reach every sector of the (1951) novel Solution T-25, Jerry Sohl’s (1955)
public. The role of films in transmitting beliefs book Point ultimate, Robert Shafer’s (1955)
about the rival is of special note as they reach The conquered place and C. M. Kornbluth’s
audiences of different age and strata. Indeed, (1955) Not this August are examples of this
during the period of intractable conflict genre. In all these books Russians were
between the United States and the Soviet depicted as brutal, violent, and ruthless.
Union, excluding the short period of cooper-
ation during World War II, the American film Appearance in educational materials. Delegiti-
industry portrayed Russians in an extremely mizing beliefs appear in the textbooks used in
negative way. Fyne (1985) pointed out that schools as part of the socialization process.
anti-Soviet films were already made following This element of institutionalization is of
the Bolshevik revolution (Sammy in Siberia, special importance because the beliefs pre-
1919, or Bavu, 1923). However, between sented in the school textbooks reach the whole
1927–1941, and again after 1947, dozens of younger generation of a society. Moreover,
films made in the United States portrayed Rus- because of the perceived epistemic authority
sians using delegitimizing stereotypes (e.g., of school textbooks, they are often considered
Red salute, Espionage, Comrade X, Iron cur- to express truth and facts. Also, because of
tain, The red menace, Red dawn, The invasion compulsory attendance in schools in almost

all societies, all new generations are exposed to context in which society members live. The
and learn from these books. During an intract- channels of communication and the societal
able conflict, children, adolescents, and young institutions maintain and support this reper-
adults learn a particular delegitimizing view of toire by repeatedly communicating it. Institu-
the opponent that shapes their beliefs, atti- tionalization consolidates the repertoire and
tudes, and the accompanying emotions. facilitates its perseverance and durability, even
Carlson (1985) analyzed ten popular history in the face of contradictory information. The
textbooks of secondary schools to examine contradictory information is rejected and the
their presentation of the United States–Soviet society uses control mechanisms to ensure that
Union relations. He found that the majority of society members do not express alternative
the schoolbooks devoted considerable place to beliefs. The institutionalized repertoire is a
ideological analysis, which presented the frozen and rigid repertoire, which resists
struggle between the United States and the change.
Soviet Union in terms of “right and wrong, The discussion of delegitimization indicates
freedom and totalitarianism, us and them.” that it plays an important role in the psycho-
This presentation according to Carlson “sim- logical dynamics of the intractable conflict. It
plify and distort social reality in such a way evolves as one of its serious consequences, but
that without engaging in direct falsehood, they with time it begins to feedback and becomes
consistently support one side of an issue or one of the fueling factors in the intractable
dispute and discredit or ignore opposing view- nature of the conflict. The use of delegitimiza-
points. Ideological portrayals of history deal tion indicates that an opponent group is evil
with stereotypes and clichés, and appeal select- and, therefore, the conflict must be sustained
ively to common-sense beliefs, national pride, as the enemy cannot be trusted and has to be
and fear of the enemy” (p. 57). Specifically, the contained. When the negative psychological
textbooks stress the intentions of the Soviet intergroup repertoire, together with the delegi-
Union to dominate the world, describe their timizing beliefs, is stored in the minds of soci-
evil practices in different countries, portray ety members, it exerts considerable influence
negatively Soviet leaders, and stereotype on the way they process information. We shall
Soviet people with pejorative labels. In now elaborate on these psychological conse-
another study, Walker (1995) noted the quences of the psychological intergroup
changes that took place in the American col- repertoire.
lege history textbooks with regard to their pre-
sentation of the Cold War. During the first two
Consequences of Delegitimization
decades of the Cold War the textbooks
regarded the conflict as a result of Soviet In situations of intractable conflict, delegitimi-
aggression, expansion, and desire to dominate zation, with the accompanying affects and
the world. In these textbooks the Soviets were emotions, is constantly activated in view of
presented simplistically and one sided as the fact that conflict is central to the life of
aggressive, malevolent, and ungrateful in con- the group and is institutionalized. The conflict
trast to defensive, well-meaning, and generous situation constitutes a permanent, salient, and
Americans. relevant context for group members, in which
In sum, institutionalization of delegitimiza- the adversary group features prominently in
tion implies that it is stable and easily available the information provided by the communica-
in the society. It becomes part of the cultural tion channels of the ingroup. In other words,

there is a continuous and constant exposure to negative stereotypes and prejudice started as
information about the rival group. In such soon as the study of these two psychological
contexts, delegitimizing labels with affect and phenomena was established. Researchers real-
emotions are frequently used by society ized that negative stereotyping and prejudice
members, and thus become permanently contribute to negative behaviors, especially
accessible. This repertoire provides the prism discrimination and violence. But within this
through which group members perceive, evalu- line, the change of delegitimization in situ-
ate, and eventually act. It defines the situation ations of intractable conflict is especially
for them and construes their reality. We pro- important, after years of homogenous label-
pose that this repertoire can be viewed as a ing, prejudice, fear, hatred, and all this in con-
syndrome of animosity, since it leads to a tinuous violence that projects threat and
number of symptoms, all associated with hos- insecurity with a very clear direction of blame –
tile relationship toward the rival group. Specif- the rival.
ically, it leads to selective collection of Thus, before presenting our proposal for
information, which means that group using an intercultural training approach in
members tend to search and absorb informa- order to unfreeze and change delegitimizing
tion that is in line with the repertoire and omit beliefs of societies who live in the context of
contradictory information. But, even when intractable conflict, we would like to suggest
ambiguous or contradictory information is that there are significant challenges in imple-
absorbed, it is encoded and cognitively pro- menting this approach because of the unique
cessed to be in accordance with the held reper- conditions of this context. The intercultural
toire through bias, addition, and distortion. training approach was designated originally
Bias leads to focus on the consistent part of for groups of sojourners, including business
the absorbed information, disregarding the people, tourists, missioners, students, and
inconsistent part, or to interpretation of advisors visiting other cultures or reentering
ambiguous information in line with the held their own cultures (Landis, Bennet, & Bennet,
repertoire. Addition leads to going beyond the 2004). The goal for this training is mainly to
absorbed information to add parts from the prepare sojourners with information and skills
held repertoire that turn the information to so that they experience less stress than they
be consistent with the repertoire. Distortion would experience while performing similar
indicates a change of the absorbed informa- roles and tasks in their own country (Brislin
tion, even when it is unambiguous, to adapt & Yoshida, 1994). Over the years, intercultural
it to the contents of the held repertoire (see training has been expanded to other kinds of
Bar-Tal & Halperin, 2011). intercultural contacts and it helps not only to
prepare people for visiting other cultures or
reentry to own culture, but also to prepare
Intercultural Training for Changing
people within their own country to interact
Delegitimization: Cases of Intractable
effectively with people who are from another
Conflict
culture (Brislin & Horvath, 1997; Landis, Ben-
The challenge of changing the repertoire of net, & Bennet, 2004; Perry & Southwell, 2011).
delegitimization has been of focal interest for In any case, this approach was not designated
social sciences in academia and for practition- to train people from different cultures who
ers who are involved with processes of peace experience serious, violent, and prolonged con-
building. In fact, the research about change of flictive relations. Hence, intercultural training

is particularly suitable for and applicable in Thus, societies involved in intractable conflicts
situations where groups are living in stable form selective, biased, and distorting conflict-
peace, under the conditions of tractable con- supporting narratives with the delegitimizing
flict, even mild conflict. Moreover, this societal beliefs that illuminate and justify their
approach is suitable for people who are willing intergroup conflicts and own line of action
to know the other and are expressing interest (Bar-Tal, 2007a; Hadjipavlou, 2007; MacDo-
and curiosity toward the culture of the other. nald, 2002; Papadakis, 2008; Slocum-Bradley,
We argue that intractable conflicts are charac- 2008; Torsti, 2007). Societies hold them with
terized by unique, complex, and harsh condi- high confidence and adhere to them, while fully
tions that make it difficult for this approach to negating the adversary’s narrative. Therefore,
be implemented, and therefore there are ser- this repertoire is posed as a significant barrier to
ious challenges for intercultural training that any attempt to implement intercultural training
need to be addressed in the attempt to use it. to change delegitimizing beliefs. It means that
The first challenge refers to the development any attempt to change the delegitimized view of
of the described socio-psychological infra- the rival is met with not only objection but also
structure during intractable conflict, in which active resistance by both society members and
delegitimization of the rival stands as its core. the formal authorities that try to maintain the
This socio-psychological infrastructure with hegemony of the culture of conflict.
the delegitimizing societal beliefs enjoys hege- The second challenge is the absence of a
monic status in public discourse, governmental daily contact between the rival groups. In
institutions and leaders decisions, education intractable conflicts, any contact with the dele-
system, cultural products, and channels of gitimized group is usually undesirable by the
mass communication, and becomes part of society members and sometimes formally for-
the society’s culture of conflict. The elements bidden by the government. Still, there have
of this infrastructure are internalized already been positive attempts to create contact
in early age, constitute part of society between rivals groups in conflict context. For
members’ general worldviews, and remain example, in Northern Ireland, Sri Lanka, and
relatively constant across time (Bar-Tal & Israel, large-scale people-to-people projects
Teichman, 2005; Nasie, Diamond, & Bar- were carried out to facilitate intergroup
Tal, 2016). These elements became an integral encounters and thereby to promote tolerance,
part of the struggle between the rival groups, empathy, and acceptance of cultural and polit-
meaning that those are not only the disagree- ical differences among groups in conflict (see
ments themselves over the major goals that are for example, Cairns, Dunn, & Giles, 1992;
crucial in conflicts, but also the socio- Malhotra & Liyanage, 2005; Maoz, 2004a,
psychological repertoire that includes rigid 2004b). However, these are not daily and fre-
societal beliefs against the rival, hatred, anger, quent contacts, but sporadic, and usually
mistrust, and indefatigable attempts to delegi- include limited scope of society members who
timize the other. Indeed, each group involved initially tend to express openness, recognize
in conflict makes extreme efforts to keep their the need to get to know the other, and some-
own repertoire without change, since it serves times even feel a sort of sympathy toward the
the basic group needs, goals, and justifications other side. Moreover, usually these attempts
that underlie the motivation to maintain it and are not initiated or supported by the govern-
help the society to cope with the conflict chal- ment and not widely applied, and therefore
lenges (Bar-Tal, Oren, & Nets-Zehngut, 2013). their scope is limited. Often, even those who

carry these encounters are themselves delegiti- (Bar-Tal & Teichman, 2005). Using these prin-
mized by ingroup members who view these ciples can help to change such beliefs.
types of projects as harming the resilience to Legitimization allows viewing the opponent
withstand the enemy and the effort to win the as belonging to an acceptable category of
conflict. In addition, studies found that the groups behaving within the boundaries of
positive effects of even successful encounters international norms, with which it is possible
may last for a short period of time because an and even desired to terminate the conflict and
institutionalized culture of conflict blocks the construct positive relations. This allows recog-
long-term effects of these attempts (Kuper- nition of the legitimate existence of the other
mintz & Salomon, 2005). We would like to group with its differences, which may be in the
propose that in order to enable and encourage realm of goals, values, ideology, religion, race,
daily contact between both sides, and to nationality, ethnicity, culture, and other
ensure broader and long-term impact of it, domains. Legitimization implies that the other
formal and planned processes of wide scope group has the same right to exist and live in
are needed. Applying such processes depends peace as the own group and has the right to
on factors related to the characteristics of the raise contentions and grievances that are then
given society such as political tolerance, soci- to be resolved in nonviolent ways. As such, it
ety openness, democratic nature, strong civil provides the basis for mutual trust, which is an
society, strong peace movement, and its gen- essential condition for starting the process of
eral orientation toward peace. We also need conflict resolution leading eventually to the
to note that the level of intractable conflict construction of peaceful relations. Trust raises
differs in different cases and thus, as the con- expectations for future positive relations and
text moves away from the intractability catalyzes the continuation of the peace pro-
toward peace building, there are more possi- cess. Legitimization thus plays crucial role in
bilities and opportunities to launch different changing the nature of the intergroup rela-
methods to change the delegitimizing societal tions. It enables initiation of negotiation with
beliefs including the use of the intercultural the opponent to achieve peaceful resolution of
training approach (see Bar-Tal, 2013). the conflict and eventually to build peaceful
Despite the described major challenges (or and cooperative relations. Therefore, encour-
barriers), we would like to suggest that the aging legitimization is one of the first condi-
intercultural training approach may apply to tions and primary building blocks for the
groups in conflict in the attempt to unfreeze construction of new relations between former
and change their delegitimizing beliefs about rivals.
each other. However, we argue that the Equalization makes the rival into an equal
training in this context involves a longer, more partner with whom it is possible to establish
complex, and a more gradual process than it is new relations. This requires recognition of the
in a non-conflict context. It goes beyond the principle of status equality between the groups,
agenda of formal conflict resolution and even a principle that is brought to bear first in nego-
peacemaking to profound societal change. We tiations and later in all types and levels of
propose that any intercultural training aiming intergroup interactions. Equalization implies
to change the delegitimizing beliefs of parties that leaders as well as ordinary people perceive
in conflict should be based on the principles of members of the other group first and foremost
legitimization, equalization, differentiation and as equals, without superiority, and then treat
personalization of the rival group members them accordingly. This constitutes a major

change after years of extreme differentiation in differentiation on three levels: within an

between the own group and the rival, which individual, among individual members, and
was a result of viewing the rival as inferior with among roles. Within an individual, differenti-
delegitimizing labels. Without equalization it ation refers to the level of complexity of indi-
is impossible not only to construct new peace- vidual perception. Differentiation among
ful relations, but also even to carry out suc- individuals allows the acknowledgement of
cessful negotiations to resolve the conflict. individual differences, namely to view groups
Equalization allows this meaningful inter- as being composed of individuals who differ in
action between past rivals and has the poten- appearance, characteristics, opinions, con-
tial to encouraging them to strive for a cerns, needs, goals, and expectations. Finally,
win–win solution. it allows viewing members of groups in differ-
Differentiation leads to heterogenization of ent personal or social roles such as mothers,
the rival group. It enables a new perception of sons, students, teachers, physicians, peasants,
the rival, which hither to has been viewed as a etc. Any type of individuation of group
homogeneous hostile entity. The new percep- members defuses generalizations and enables
tion implies that the other group is made up of us to perceive similarity and even commonal-
various subgroups that differ in their views and ity with them. These may include shared fea-
ideologies. Differentiation thus also makes it tures, ideology, beliefs, and feelings, at least
possible to see that members of the rival group with some members of the rival group. It facili-
differ in their opinions regarding the conflict tates the development of new individual and
and its resolution. This is an important group representations that go beyond the trad-
change, because there are always social forces itional stereotyped ones. These, in turn, ease
that oppose the peaceful resolution of the con- personal references to members of the rival
flict and people who do not hesitate to resort group, empathy for their hardships, and iden-
even to violence to stop it. Differentiation thus tification with some of their needs or
enables us at least to distinguish between those aspirations.
who support the peace and those who do not These principles correspond, to a large
support it, and as result to establish differential extent, to the ideas of intercultural training
relations with these two different groups. But that refer to intercultural understanding and
differentiation does more than that – it pro- intercultural sensitivity (Chen & Starosta,
vides a more human view of the other group 1998; Hill, 2006; Perry & Southwell, 2011).
and does more justice to its complex structure. Based on the above principles, a combination
It enables the acknowledgment of subgroups of didactic and experiential methods (Gudy-
that hold similar values and beliefs to one’s kunst, Guzley, & Hammer, 1996) can be pro-
own, including those relevant for establishing posed to implement intercultural training in
peaceful relations. order to change delegitimizing beliefs of rivals
Personalization allows us to view the rival in the context of intractable conflict. It should
group not as a depersonalized entity, but as be emphasized that the training in this context
being made up of individuals with ordinary involves a gradual process. Therefore, in the
human characteristics, concerns, feelings, following section, we will present one method
needs, goals, and expectations. This is a process that is necessary to apply at the early stage of
of individuation after a long period of de- training and some other methods that can be
individuation and consists of a further step after applied in the later stages. All, however, serve
differentiation. Personalization may be reflected as mechanisms to change society members’

beliefs and attitudes toward the rival in the opposite group, thereby illuminating and
direction of adopting new perspectives (Fowler enhancing positive attitudes toward its
& Blohm, 2004). members.
The first training method necessary to Regarding the training methods, the infor-
unfreeze the delegitimizing beliefs of rivals is mation can either come from indirect, exter-
to provide multidimensional information about nal sources or be inferred from direct personal
the opposite group. Generally, the rival groups contact with the delegitimized group. As
in conflict know very little about one another noted above, in peaceful environments one
with respect to information that does not per- can relatively easily implement training that
tain to the conflict. Most information comes is based on direct and open contact between
either from formal institutionalized sources or two cultures – groups or individuals – and the
from a prejudiced, informal social environment training can take place anywhere. This is not
that emphasizes conflict-supportive contents. the case in conflict areas that face challenges
This is the trend, for example, in school text- and limitations in this regard. Therefore, at
books that devote considerable space to nega- the beginning of the intercultural training pro-
tive information about the other and rarely cess, training methods should focus on indir-
provide positive information about it (Adwan, ect exposure to alternative information about
Bar-Tal, & Wexler, 2016; Papadakis, 2008). the opposite group. For example, via indirect
Providing information so that trainees channels such as the Internet, TV programs,
acquire an in-depth knowledge about the other newspapers, literature, songs, films, lectures
culture is one of the desired outcomes of inter- (Fowler & Blohm, 2004; Triandis, 1989). This
cultural training (e.g., Bennet, 1986; Fowler & approach to training is accessible and suitable
Blohm, 2004; see also, Stephan & Stephan, in conflict situations. The trainees can relate
1984). In the context of conflicts, providing comfortably to this kind of material, which is
alternative factual and/or positive information not threatening or demanding (Bennet, 1986).
about the other during training can contribute Avoiding dealing with threatening content is
not only to the acquisition of knowledge about an important issue that trainers must take
the rival, but also to the unfreezing of delegi- into consideration in intercultural training in
timizing beliefs. This information should focus general, and this becomes even more import-
on content that contradicts the delegitimizing ant in the early training stages in conflict
beliefs held by the groups, consisting of a situations.
multidimensional description of each society, Research demonstrated that positive media
its culture, education, history, literature, reli- portrayals of interactions and relations
gion, customs, values, economy, art, music, between ingroup and outgroup members (pro-
sport, or gastronomy, instead of focusing social contact) can potentially change the
exclusively on conflict-related information. intergroup orientations of millions of viewers,
Such information may provide the group with including, and perhaps especially, those whose
a full and real spectrum of characteristics opportunities for intergroup contact are rare
regarding the other, stress its positive contribu- (Schiappa, Gregg, & Hewes, 2005). This idea
tion to civilization, and increase familiarity was applied to television programs in Israel
with the group. Furthermore, such informa- and Palestine, such as the Sesame Street televi-
tion enables us to transmit to society members sion series, in which characters who inhabit the
principles of legitimization, equalization, dif- Israeli street (Rechov Sumsum) visit their
ferentiation and personalization of the friends on the Palestinian street (Shara’a

Simsim), and vice versa. Exposure to this pro- more a positive direction because they get to
gram was linked to an increase in children’s know each other in a personalized and human-
use of both prosocial justifications to resolve ized manner. This change is facilitated greatly
conflicts and positive attributes to describe when the encounter between the two groups
members of the other group (Cole et al., takes place under particularly favorable condi-
2003). An additional example is a radio pro- tions that were specified by the trainers. In the
gram in Rwanda, where a type of soap opera case of violent and prolonged conflict, contact
focused on positive intergroup contact is of special importance because groups in
between Hutus and Tutsis (Paluck, 2009). conflict often live in separate places. Such
These examples show the effectiveness of encounters are designed to improve intergroup
media-based contact interventions on counter- relations by changing the negative socio-
ing negative stereotypes. Watching and dis- psychological repertoire.
cussing such programs in the training room Accordingly, elements of face-to-face, direct
may illustrate the possibility of creating such contact can be adopted into intercultural
contacts in real life. Indirect contact illustra- training in conflict contexts as a gradual pro-
tion can be followed by additional experiential cess. We propose that training during direct
training methods and activities such as role contact in this context should include trainers
playing, games, and simulations, which simu- from both parties in conflict, while in its early
late a real-life contact’s situations that provide stages direct contact may include also a third-
the opportunity for trainees to practice new party “mediator” trainer. In addition, there is
behaviors in a safe and familiar environment, a need to take into consideration the location,
translate ideas and values into direct action, which must be neutral in the early stages, in
and prepare them to the real experience with order to provide equal status and supportive
the other culture (Fowler, 1994; Fowler & context for the group members in contact. In
Blohm, 2004). later stages, the training can be located alter-
In later progressive stages, intercultural nately at one of the parties’ places and without
training that aims to change negative attitudes the presence of a third party “mediator”
toward the rival can focus on creating contact trainer.
between groups in conflict; however, in some The line of research about the effects of
cases, it can begin even during the conflict – as direct contact on intergroup relations in situ-
happened in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict ations of conflict is probably one of the most
and in the Protestant–Catholic conflict in extensive ones in social sciences. Pettigrew and
Northern Ireland. The idea of bringing Tropp’s (2006) large-scale meta-analysis,
together members of two hostile groups to based on 713 independent empirical studies
change their negative intergroup repertoire conducted over sixty years, supported the
was conceptualized in the framework of a con- hypothesis that contact results in reduced
tact theory that was originally proposed by prejudice. Providing just a few illustrations,
Allport (1954) and then advanced by many large-scale interventions in Northern Ireland
social psychologists (e.g., Amir, 1969; Brown sought to facilitate cross-community contact
& Hewstone, 2005; Pettigrew, 1998). It sug- and thereby to promote values of tolerance
gests that when members of two groups, who and acceptance of cultural and political differ-
initially have mutual negative repertoire ences among local communities (Cairns, Dunn
toward each other, come in contact, they may & Giles, 1992). Later, research on reconcili-
change their repertoire toward each other in ation in Northern Ireland reported that cross-

group contact between Catholics and Protest- consolidation. In later stages, the trips may be
ants was the key to trust-building, empathy conducted at each party’s sites, in order to
emergence, and reduction of anger toward expand the acquaintance with each other, its
the outgroup (Tam, Hewstone, Kenworthy, culture, and its history. The joint learning may
& Cairns, 2009). In a study on post-apartheid be related to issues that both parties have an
reconciliation in South Africa, Gibson (2004) interest in or can derive a usefulness from, such
reported that interracial contact was the most as the Earth and environment. Joint projects
powerful predictor of reduced interracial create interdependence and promote cooper-
prejudice. This finding was replicated in a ation regarding common goals, for example
more recent study by Gibson and Claassen in areas such as agriculture and water, business
(2010). Malhotra and Liyanage (2005) ana- and economics, medicine and healthcare, and
lyzed the effect of a four-day peace camp in information technology. Experiential activities
Sri Lanka on young Tamil and Sinhalese may focus on issues that human beings have in
adults. Even one year after the intervention, common, such as music, art, sport, and food.
workshop participants showed greater All these methods, in turn, can help legitimize
empathy for the outgroup and spent a higher and personalize members of both groups.
amount of money for the support of outgroup
children in need than did non-participants.
Conclusion
In the context of the Israeli–Palestinian con-
flict, dozens of planned contact programs Intercultural training is an important
between Israeli Jews and Palestinians have approach that allows different cultures to
been conducted each year since the mid- better understand each other and interact with
1980s. They range from one-time meetings to one another more effectively. Indeed, studies
a long-term, continuous series of meetings, have demonstrated the positive effect it has on
typically including eight to twelve participants people and groups (e.g., Black & Mendenhall,
from each nationality and being facilitated by 1990; Brislin, Cushner, Cherrie, & Yong, 1986;
both a Jewish and an Arab facilitator. They Deshpandey & Viswesvaran, 1992). Still,
have been undertaken within a diverse range of one of the major challenges of this approach
demographic groups, including youths, univer- refers to the question, how it can be imple-
sity students, university professors, and other mented in conflicts in general and in intract-
professionals (Adwan & Bar-On, 2000; Maoz, able violent and persistent conflicts in
2004a, 2004b, 2011). In general, participants in particular. Usually, societies in conflict do
those meetings reported an increase in trust not recognize the need for intercultural
and empathy, a better understanding of the training because they concentrating on mutu-
complexity of the conflict situation, and in ally delegitimizing and harming each other.
some cases even a stronger agreement with Also, they do not attempt to promote their
integrative compromise solutions than did relations as another goal stands as their prior-
non-participants (Maoz, 2011). ity. These societies live as if they are in a dark
In addition, the contact may include joint tunnel, feeding off biased, one-dimensional
field trips, learning, projects, and experiential information, and failing to see the light at the
activities (Fowler & Blohm, 2004). In early end of it. We argue that intercultural training
stages, the field trips may be conducted in under conflict is possible but involves a long
neutral third-party locations, as a means to process that cannot be carried out easily with-
breaking the ice, creating direct contact, and out serious planning. Moreover, it is necessary

to take into account the phase in which the between Palestinians and Israelis. Jerusalem:
conflict is occurring. During the conflict, and Peace Research Institute in the Middle East.
especially during its de-escalation, it is possible Adwan, S., Bar-Tal, D., & Wexler, B. (2016).
to begin to provide information about the Portrayal of the Other in Palestinian and Israeli
schoolbooks: A comparative study. Political
rival. In further stages, especially during nego-
Psychology, 37, 201–217.
tiations for its peaceful resolution, it is possible
Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice.
to initiate encounters between rival group
Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
members. Amir, Y. (1969). Contact hypothesis in ethnic
In order to reach the desired outcomes of relations. Psychological Bulletin, 71, 319–341.
intercultural training, groups in conflict should Antonovsky, A. (1987). Unraveling the mystery of
get to know each other not only in conflict- health: How people manage stress and stay well.
related contexts but also in everyday humane San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
contexts. It is a long process that requires the Bandura, A. (1999). Moral disengagement in the
mobilization and involvement of all institu- perpetration of inhumanities. Personality and
tions. By offering training that provides neu- Social Psychology Review, 3, 193–209.
tral and positive information that humanizes, Bar-Tal, D. (1988). Delegitimizing relations
between Israeli Jews and Palestinians: A social
personifies, and legitimizes the opposite group,
psychological analysis. In J. Hofman (Ed.),
rival groups will formulate their perceptions
Arab-Jewish relations in Israel: A quest in human
toward their adversary in a way that considers
understanding (pp. 217–248). Bristol, IN:
its multidimensional aspects. Thus, rival Wyndham Hall Press.
groups will be illuminated in an alternative Bar-Tal, D. (1989). Delegitimization: The extreme
light. This may eventually lead members to case of stereotyping and prejudice. In D. Bar-
find interest and curiosity toward the other Tal, C. F. Graumann, A. W. Kruglanski, & W.
and hopefully to express willingness to open Stroebe (Eds.), Stereotyping and prejudice:
themselves to further intercultural training Changing conceptions (pp. 169–182). New York,
regarding their rivals, which in turn will pro- NY: Springer Verlag.
mote deep and intensive direct contact. We Bar-Tal, D. (1990). Causes and consequences of
believe that intercultural training offers delegitimization: Models of conflict and
ethnocentrism. Journal of Social Issues, 46, 65–81.
methods in the context of intractable conflict
Bar-Tal, D. (1993). Patriotism as fundamental
between two rival societies that facilitate
beliefs of group members. Politics and Individual,
mutual knowing, mutual recognition, mutual
3, 45–62.
legitimization, personalization and humaniza- Bar-Tal, D. (1998). Societal beliefs in times of
tion, and personal acquaintanceship – all of intractable conflict: The Israeli case. International
which are needed for successful peacebuilding. Journal of Conflict Management, 9, 22–50.
Bar-Tal, D. (2000). Shared beliefs in a society: Social
psychological analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA:
References
Sage.
Abelson, R. P., Aronson, E., McGuire, W. J., Bar-Tal, D. (2001). Why does fear override hope in
Newcomb, T. M., Rosenberg, M. J., & societies engulfed by intractable conflict, as it
Tannenbaum, R. H. (Eds.). (1968). Theories of does in the Israeli society? Political Psychology,
cognitive consistency: A sourcebook. Chicago: 22, 601–627.
Rand McNally. Bar-Tal, D. (2007a). Living with the conflict: Socio-
Adwan, S., & Bar-On, D. (2000). The role of non- psychological analysis of the Israeli-Jewish
governmental organizations in peace building society. Jerusalem: Carmel (in Hebrew).

Bar-Tal, D. (2007b). Sociopsychological Bialer, S. (1985). The psychology of US–Soviet

foundations of intractable conflicts. American relations. Political Psychology, 6, 263–273.
Behavioral Scientist, 50, 1430–1453. Black, J. S., & Mendenhall, M. (1990). Cross-
Bar-Tal, D. (2013). Intractable conflicts: Socio- cultural training effectiveness: A review and
psychological foundations and dynamics. theoretical framework for future research.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. American Management Review, 15, 113–136.
Bar-Tal, D., & Avrahamzon, T. (2017). Boccato, G., Capozza, D., Falvo, R., & Durante, F.
Development of delegitimization and animosity (2008). The missing link: Ingroup, outgroup and
in the context of intractable conflict. In C. Sibley the human species. Social Cognition, 26,
& F. K. Barlow (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook 224–234.
of the psychology of prejudice (pp. 582–606). Bowie, R. R. (1984). The president and the
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. executive branch. In J. S. Nye, Jr. (Ed.), The
Bar-Tal, D., Chernyak-Hai, L., Schori, N., & making of America's Soviet policy (63–94). New
Gundar, A. (2009). A sense of self-perceived Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
collective victimhood in intractable conflicts. Brands, H. W. (1993). The devil we knew: Americans
International Red Cross Review, 91, 229–277. and the Cold War. New York, NY: Oxford
Bar-Tal, D., & Halperin, E. (2011). Socio- University Press.
psychological barriers to conflict resolution. In Brislin, R. W., Cushner, K., Cherrie, C., & Yong,
D. Bar-Tal (Ed.), Intergroup conflicts and M. (1986). Intercultural interactions: A practical
their resolution: Social psychological perspective guide. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
(pp. 217–240). New York, NY: Psychology Brislin, R. W., & Horvath, A. M. (1997).
Press. Multicultural training and education. In M.
Bar-Tal, D., & Hammack, P. L. (2012). Conflict, Segal, J. W. Berry, & P. Dasen, (Eds.),
delegitimization and violence In L. R. Tropp Handbook of cross-cultural psychology (2nd ed.,
(Ed.), Oxford handbook of intergroup conflict Vol. 3). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
(pp. 29–52). New York, NY: Oxford University Brislin, R., & Yoshida, T. (1994). Intercultural
Press. communication training: An introduction.
Bar-Tal, D., Jacobson, D., & Klieman, A. (Eds.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
(1998). Security concerns: Insights from the Bronfenbrenner, U. (1961). The mirror-image in
Israeli experience. Stamford, CT: JAI Press. Soviet–American relations: A social
Bar-Tal, D., Oren, N., & Nets-Zehngut, R. (2013). psychologist’s report. Journal of Social Issues,
Socio-psychological analysis of conflict- 16, 45–56.
supporting narratives. Manuscript submitted for Brown, R., & Hewstone, M. (2005). An integrative
publication. theory of intergroup contact. Advances in
Bar-Tal, D., & Staub, E. (Eds.). (1997). Patriotism Experimental Social Psychology, 17, 255–343.
in the lives of individuals and nations. New York, Burton, J. W. (Ed.). (1990). Conflict: Human needs
NY: Nelson-Hall. theory. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.
Bar-Tal, D., & Teichman Y. (2005). Stereotypes and Cairns, E. (1996). Children and political violence.
prejudice in conflict: Representations of Arabs in Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Israeli Jewish society. Cambridge, UK: Cairns, E., Dunn, S., & Giles, M. (1992). Surveys of
Cambridge University Press. integrated education in Northern Ireland.
Bengio, O. (1986). Iraq. Middle East Contemporary Coleraine, UK: Centre for the Study of Conflict.
Survey, 8, 465–496. Cairns, E., & Roe, M. D. (Eds.), (2003). The role of
Bennet, J. M. (1986). Modes of cross-cultural memory in ethnic conflict. New York, NY:
training: Conceptualizing cross-cultural training Palgrave Macmillan.
as education. International Journal of Carlson, D. (1985). The Cold War and the
Intercultural Relations, 10, 117–134. curriculum. Educational Leadership, 48, 57–60.

Cecil, R. (1993). The marching season in Northern (Eds.), The role of memory in ethnic conflict (pp.
Ireland: An expression of politico-religious 9–33). Houndmills, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
identity. In S. MacDonald (Ed.), Inside Donagan, A. (1979). The theory of morality.
European identities (pp. 146–166). Providence, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
RI: Berg. Dubois, T. (1951). Solution T-25. New York, NY:
Chen, G. M., & Starosta, W. J. (1998). Foundations Curtis Books.
of intercultural communication. Boston, MA: Dulles, J. F. (1950). War or peace. New York, NY:
Allyn & Bacon. Macmillan.
Cogley, J. (1956). Report on blacklisting. 1: Movies. English, R., & Halperin, J. J. (1987). The other side:
New York, NY: Fund for the Republic. How Soviet and Americans perceive each other.
Cole, C. F., Arafat, C., Tidhar, C., Tafesh, W. Z., New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
Fox, N. A., Killen, M., Ardila-Rey, A., Leavitt, Finlay, D. J., Holsti, O. R., & Fagen, R. R. (1967).
L. A., Lesser, G., Richman, B. A., & Yung, F. Enemies in politics. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
(2003). The educational impact of Rechov Fowler, S. M. (1994). Two decades of using
Sumsum/Shara’a Simsim: A Sesame Street simulation games for cross-cultural training.
television series to promote respect and Simulation & Gaming, 25, 464–476.
understanding among children living in Israel, Fowler, S. M., & Blohm, J. M. (2004). An analysis
the West Bank, and Gaza. International Journal of methods for intercultural training. In D.
of Behavioral Development, 27, 409–422. Landis, J. M. Bennett, & M. J. Bennett (Eds.),
Connerton, P. (1989). How societies remember. Handbook of intercultural training (3rd ed.,
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–84). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Constantine, J. R. (1966). The ignoble savage, an Frankl, V. E. (1963). Man’s search for meaning.
eighteenth century literary stereotype. Phylon, New York, NY: Washington Square Press.
27, 171–179. Fyne, R. (1985). From Hollywood to Moscow.
Corcoran, F. (1983). The bear in the back yard: Literature/Film Quarterly, 13, 195–199.
Myth, ideology, and victimage ritual in Soviet Gallup, G. H. (1972). The Gallup Poll: Public
funerals. Communication Monograph, 50, opinion 1935–1971 (Vol. 1–3). New York, NY:
305–320. Random House.
Dallin. A, (1973). Bias and blunders in American Gallup, G. H. (1978). The Gallup Poll: Public
studies on the USSR. Slavic Review, 32, opinion 1972–1977 (Vol. 1–2). Wilmington, DE:
560–576. Scholarly Resources.
Darby, J. (1976). Conflict in Northern Ireland: The Gamson, W. A. (1988). Political discourse and
development of a polarised community. New collective action. In B. Klandermans, H. Kriesi,
York, NY: Barnes and Noble. & S. Tarrow (Eds.), From structure to action:
de Jong, J. (Ed.). (2002). Trauma, war, and violence: Comparing social movement research across
Public mental health in socio-cultural context. cultures (Vol. 1, pp. 219–244). Greenwich, CT:
New York, NY: Kluwer Academic Publishers. JAI Press.
Des Forges, A. (1999). “Leave none to tell the Gibson, J. L. (2004). Overcoming apartheid: Can
story”: Genocide in Rwanda. New York, NY: truth reconcile a divided nation? New York, NY:
Human Rights Watch and International Russell Sage Foundation.
Federation of Human Rights. Gibson, J. L., & Claassen, C. (2010). Racial
Deshpandey, S. P., & Viswesvaran, C. (1992). Is reconciliation in South Africa: Interracial
cross-cultural training of expatriate managers contact and changes over time. Journal of Social
effective: A meta analysis. International Journal Issues, 66, 255–272.
of Intercultural Relations, 16, 295–310. Goff, P. A., Eberhardt, J. L., Williams, M., &
Devine-Wright, P. (2003). A theoretical overview of Jackson, M. C. (2008). Not yet human: Implicit
memory and conflict. In E. Cairns & M. D. Roe knowledge, historical dehumanization, and

contemporary consequences. Journal of Jahoda, G. (1999). The images of savages: Ancient

Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 292–306. roots of modern prejudice. New York, NY:
Gorny, Y. (1987). Zionism and the Arabs, Routledge.
1882–1948: A study of ideology (C. Galai, Janoff-Bulman, R. (1992). Shattered assumptions:
Trans.) New York, NY: Oxford University Towards a new psychology of trauma. New York,
Press. NY: Free Press.
Grayson, B. L. (Ed.). (1978). The American image Jost, J. T., & Banaji, M. R. (1994). The role of
of Russia: 1917–1977. New York, NY: stereotyping in system-justification and the
Frederick Ungar. production of false consciousness. British
Gudykunst, W. B., Guzley, R. M., & Hammer, M. Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 1–27.
R. (1996). Designing intercultural training. In D. Katz, D. (1960). The functional approach to the
Landis & R. S. Bhagat (Eds.), Handbook of study of attitudes. Public Opinion Quarterly, 24,
intercultural training (2nd ed., pp. 61–80). 163–204.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Kelman, H. C. (1973). Violence without moral
Hadawi, S. (1968). Palestine occupied (Rev. ed.). restraint: Reflections on the dehumanization of
New York, NY: The Arab Information Center. victims and victimizers. Journal of Social Issues,
Hadjipavlou, M. (2007). The Cyprus conflict: Root 29, 25–61.
causes and implications for peacebuilding. Khalidi, R. (1997). Palestinian identity: The
Journal of Peace Research, 44, 349–365. construction of modern national consciousness.
Halbwachs, M. (1992). On collective memory. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Kleinig, J. (1991). Valuing life. Princeton, NJ:
Halperin, E., &. Bar-Tal, D. (2011). Socio- Princeton University Press.
psychological barriers to peace making: An Kornbluth, C. M. (1955). Not this August. New
empirical examination within the Israeli Jewish York, NY: Tor.
society. Journal of Peace Research, 48, 637–657. Kriesberg, L. (1993). Intractable conflict. Peace
Hann, H. (1983, December 11). Seeing red: How Review, 5, 417–421.
Hollywood movies handle the Russians. New Kriesberg, L. (1998). Intractable conflicts. In E.
York Daily News. Weiner (Ed.), The handbook of interethnic
Harris, R. (1972). Prejudice and tolerance in Ulster: coexistence (pp. 332–342). New York, NY:
A study of neighbors and strangers in a border Continuum.
community. Manchester, UK: Manchester Kriesberg, M. (1946). Soviets news in the “New
University Press. York Times.” Public Opinion Quarterly, 10,
Haslam, N. (2006). Dehumanization: An integrative 540–564.
review. Personality and Social Psychology Kruglanski, A. W., & Webster, D. M. (1996).
Review, 10, 252–264. Motivated closing of the mind: “Seizing”
Hill, I. (2006). Student types, school types and their and “freezing.” Psychological Review, 103,
combined influence on the development of 263–283.
intercultural understanding. Journal of Research Kupermintz, H., & Salomon, G. (2005). Lessons to
in International Education, 5, 5–33. be learned from research on peace education in
Hobfoll, S. E., & deVries, M. W. (Eds.) (1995). the context of intractable conflict. Theory Into
Extreme stress and communities: Impact and Practice, 44, 293–302.
intervention. New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/ Landis, D., Bennett, J. M., & Bennett, M. J. (Eds.).
Plenum Publishers. (2004). Handbook of intercultural training (3rd
Hunter, J. A., Stringer, M., & Watson, R. P. (1991). ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Intergroup violence and intergroup attributions. Lavi, I., & Bar-Tal, D. (2015). Violence in
British Journal of Social Psychology, 30, prolonged conflicts and its socio-psychological
261–266. effects. In J. Lindert & I. Levav (Eds.), Violence

and mental health: Its manifold faces (pp. 3–25). Oakes, P. J., Haslam, S. A, &Turner, J. C. (1994).
New York, NY: Springer Stereotyping and social reality. Oxford, UK:
Lieberman, E. J. (1964). Threat and assurance in the Blackwell.
conduct of conflict. In R. Fisher (Ed.), Opotow, S. (1990). Moral exclusion and injustice:
International conflict and behavioral science (pp. An introduction. Journal of Social Issues, 46,
110–122). New York, NY: Basic Books. 1–20.
Maass, A., & Arcuri, L. (1996). Language and Oren, N. (2005). The impact of major events in the
stereotyping. In C. N. Macrae, C. Stangor & M. Arab-Israel conflict on the ethos of conflict of the
Hewstone (Eds.), Stereotypes & stereotyping (pp. Israeli Jewish society (1967–2000). [PhD
193–226). New York, NY: The Guilford Press. dissertation]. Tel Aviv University (in Hebrew).
MacDonald, D. B. (2002). Balkan holocausts? Oren, N. (2009). The Israeli ethos of conflict,
Serbian and Croatian victim-centred propaganda 1967–2005. Working Paper #27. Fairfax, VA:
and the war in Yugoslavia. Manchester, UK: Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution,
Manchester University Press. George Mason University. Retrieved from
Mack, J. E. (1990). The psychodynamics of http://icar.gmu.edu/wp_27oren.pdf.
victimization among national groups in conflict. Oren, N., & Bar-Tal, D. (2007). The detrimental
In V. D. Volkan, D. A. Julius, & J. V. Montville dynamics of delegitimization in intractable
(Eds.), The psychodynamics of international conflicts: The Israeli-Palestinian case.
relationships (pp. 119–129). Lexington, MA: International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
Lexington Books. 31, 111–126.
Malhotra, D., & Liyanage, S. (2005). Long-term Paez, D., & Liu, J. H. (2011). Collective memory of
effects of peace workshops in protracted conflicts. In D. Bar-Tal (Ed.), Intergroup
conflicts. Journal of Education, 37, 391–408. conflicts and their resolution: A social
Maoz, I. (2004a). Coexistence is in the eye of the psychological perspective (pp. 105–124). New
beholder: Evaluating intergroup encounter York, NY: Psychology Press.
interventions between Jews and Arabs in Israel. Paluck, E. L. (2009). Reducing intergroup prejudice
Journal of Social Issues, 60, 437–452. and conflict using the media: A field experiment
Maoz, I. (2004b). Peace building in violent conflict: in Rwanda. Journal of Personality and Social
Israeli-Palestinian post Oslo people to people Psychology, 96, 574–587.
activities. International Journal of Politics, Papadakis, Y. (2008). History education in divided
Culture and Society, 17, 563–574. Cyprus: A comparison of Greek Cypriot and
Maoz, I. (2011). Does contact work in protracted Turkish Cypriot school books on the “history of
asymmetrical conflict? Appraising 20 years of Cyprus.” PRIO report 2/2008. Oslo:
reconciliation-aimed encounters between Israeli International Peace Research Institute.
Jews and Palestinians. Journal of Peace Perkovich, G. (1987, January–February). Beyond
Research, 48, 115–125. the cold war. Nuclear Times, 12–16, 18, 20, 41.
Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and personality. Perry, L. B., & Southwell, L. (2011). Developing
New York, NY: Harper & Row. intercultural understanding and skills: Models
McClosky, H., & Zaller, J. (1984). The American and approaches. Intercultural Education, 22,
ethos: Public attitudes toward capitalism and 453–466.
democracy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup contact theory.
University Press. Annual Review of Psychology, 19, 185–209.
Myrdal, G. (1964). An American dilemma. New Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006). Meta-
York, NY: McGraw-Hill. analytic test of intergroup contact theory.
Nasie, M., Diamond, A. H., & Bar-Tal, D. (2016). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90,
Young children in intractable conflicts: The 751–783.
Israeli case. Personality and Social Psychology Robben, A., & Suarez, O. M. M. (Eds.). (2000).
Review, 20, 365–392. Cultures under siege: Collective violence and

trauma. New York, NY: Cambridge University Silverstein, B., & Flamenbaum, C. (1989). Biases in
Press. the perception and cognition of the actions of
Roffman, P., & Pardy, J. (1981). The Hollywood enemies. Journal of Social Issues, 45, 51–72.
social problem film. Bloomington: Indiana Slocum-Bradley, N. R. (2008). Discursive
University Press. production of conflict in Rwanda. In F. M.
Said, E. W. (1979). The question of Palestine. New Moghaddam, R. Harré, & N. Lee (Eds.), Global
York, NY: Vintage. conflict resolution through positioning analysis
Sande, G. N., Goethals, G. R., Ferrari, L., & (pp. 207–226). New York, NY: Springer.
Worth, L. T. (1989). Value-guided attributions: Smith, M. B., Bruner, J. S., & White, R. W. (1956).
Maintaining the moral self-image and the Opinions and personality. New York, NY: Wiley.
diabolical enemy-image. Journal of Social Issues, Sohl, J. (1955). Point ultimate. New York, NY:
45, 91–118. Rinehart.
Savage, R. (2006). “Vermin to be cleared off the Somerville, J. (1981). Patriotism and war. Ethics, 91,
face of the Earth”: Perpetrator representations of 568–578.
genocide victims as animals. In C. Tatz, P. Stangor, C., & Schaller, M. (1996). Stereotypes as
Arnold, & S. Tatz (Eds.), Genocide perspectives individual and collective representations. In C.
III: Essays on the Holocaust and other genocides N. Macrae, C. Stangor, & M. Hewstone (Eds.),
(pp. 1–32). Sydney, Australia: Brandl & Stereotypes and stereotyping (pp. 3–40). New
Schlesinger. York, NY: Guilford Press.
Savage, R. (2007). “Disease incarnate”: Biopolitical Staub, E. (1989). The roots of evil: The psychological
discourse and genocidal dehumanisation in the and cultural origins of genocide. New York, NY:
age of modernity. Journal of Historical Cambridge University Press.
Sociology, 20, 404–440. Staub, E. (2003). The psychology of good and evil:
Sayigh, Y. (1997). Armed struggle and the search for a The roots of benefiting and harming other.
state: The Palestinian national movement, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
1949–1993. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (1993).
Schiappa, E., Gregg, P. B., & Hewes, D. E. (2005). Cognition and affect in stereotyping: Parallel
The parasocial contact hypothesis. interactive networks. In D. M. Machie & D. L.
Communication Monographs, 72, 92–115. Hamilton (Eds.), Affect, cognition, and
Scott, W. A. (1965). Psychological and social stereotyping (pp. 111–136). New York, NY:
correlates of international images. In H. C. Academic Press.
Kelman (Ed.), International behavior: A social Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (1984). The role
psychological analysis (pp. 71–129). New York, of ignorance in intergroup relations. In N. Miller
NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Groups in contact: The
Seed, D. (1999). American science fiction and the psychology of desegregation (pp. 229–255).
Cold War. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
University Press. Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (1996).
Shafer, R. (1955). The conquered place. London, Predicting prejudice. International Journal of
UK: Putnam. Intercultural Relations, 20, 409–426.
Shalev, A. Y., Yehuda, R., & McFarlane, A. C. Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (2000). An
(Eds.). (2000). International handbook of human integrated threat theory of prejudice. In S.
response to trauma. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing prejudice and
Kluwer Academic Publishers. discrimination (pp. 225–246). Hillsdale, NJ:
Shapira, A. (1992). Land and power: The Zionist Erlbaum.
resort to force, 1881–1948. New York, NY: Tajfel, H. (1978). Social categorization, social
Oxford University Press. identity and social comparison. In H. Tajfel

(Ed.), Differentiation between social groups (pp. Vollhardt, J. R. (2012). Collective victimization. In
61–76). London, UK: Academic Press. L. R. Tropp (Ed.), Oxford handbook of
Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories. intergroup conflict (pp. 136–157). New York,
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. NY: Oxford University Press.
Tajfel, H. (1982). Social identity and intergroup Walker, J. S. (1995). The origins of the Cold War in
relations. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge United States history textbooks. The Journal of
Tam, T., Hewstone, M., Kenworthy, J. B., & American History, 81, 1652–1661.
Cairns, E. (2009). Intergroup trust in Northern Wertsch, J. V. (2002). Voices of collective
Ireland. Personality and Social Psychology remembering. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
Bulletin, 35, 45–59. University Press.
Taylor, S. E. (1983). Adjustment to threatening White, R. K. (1984). Fearful warriors:
events: A theory of cognitive adaptation. A psychological profile of US-Soviet relations.
American Psychologist, 38, 1161–1173. New York, NY: Free Press.
Tessler, M. (2000). The Middle East Peace Process – Whitfield, S. J. (1991). The culture of the Cold War.
An Overview. Jerusalem: Information Division, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Wistrich, R. S. (Ed.). (1999). Demonizing the other:
Torsti, P. (2007). How to deal with a difficult past? Antisemitism, racism, and xenophobia.
History textbooks supporting enemy images in Amsterdam, Netherlands: Harwood Academic
post-war Bosnia and Herzegovina. Journal of Publishers.
Curriculum Studies, 39, 77–96. Wolfe, A. (1983). The rise and fall of the Soviet
Triandis, H. C. (1989). Intercultural education and threat: Domestic sources of the cold war
training. In P. Funke (Ed.), Understanding the consensus. Washington, DC: Institute for Public
USA: A cross-cultural perspective (pp. 305–322). Policy.
Tübinger, Germany: Gunter Narr Verlag. Yatani, C., & Bramel, D. (1989). Trends and
Turney-High, H. H. (1949). Primitive war. patterns in Americans' attitudes towards the
Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. Soviet Union. Journal of Social Issues, 45, 13–32.
Ugolnik, A. (1983). The Godlessness within: Yzerbyt, V., Rocher, S., & Schadron, G. (1997).
Stereotyping the Russians. The Christian Stereotypes as explanations: A subjective
Century, 100, 1011–1014. essentialistic view of group perception. In R.
Volkan, V. D. (1997). Bloodlines: From ethnic pride Spears, P. J. Oakes, N. Ellemers, & S. A. Haslam
to ethnic terrorism. New York, NY: Farrar, (Eds.). The social psychology of stereotyping and
Straus and Giroux. group life (pp. 20–50). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

9 Evaluation of Cross-Cultural Training
A Review
Anna Kallschmidt, Jessica Mesmer-Magnus,
Chockalingam Viswesvaran, and Satish P. Deshpande
(or their family) is unable to adapt to the

Evaluation of Cross-Cultural Training:
cultural differences between the home and host
A Review
cultures, they don’t possess the requisite per-
An increase in the prevalence of multinational sonality traits or interpersonal skills necessary
corporations as well as corporations doing for cross-cultural interaction, they lack needed
business outside their domestic borders has technical abilities, or they are not motivated to
resulted in much greater importance being work overseas (Littrell, Salas, Hess, Paley, &
placed on cross-cultural training programs Riedel, 2006). Given the prevalence of
that help businesses better conduct business sojourners within multinational corporations
across cultures (Stroh, Black, Mendenhall, & and companies doing business cross-culturally,
Gregersen, 2005). As a result, newly created these costs can easily exceed tens of millions of
cross-cultural training programs and dollars (Eschbach, Parker, & Stoeberl, 2001;
approaches have burgeoned in recent decades. Morris & Robie, 2001).
Research suggests that without adequate prep- Such statistics underscore the importance of
aration, individuals are not always successful cross-cultural training. However, despite
in meeting the demands of cross-cultural research on the effectiveness of cross-cultural
assignments. For example, statistics suggest training, conflicting views exist among corpor-
an average of 20–40 percent of employees on ate leaders and academics as to its efficacy
international assignments return home before (Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Deshpande &
the completion of their overseas assignment Viswesvaran, 1992). A number of reasons exist
due to poor performance and/or an inability for such disagreement, though most import-
to adjust to the host country culture (Baker & antly, the conduct of most evaluation studies
Ivancevich, 1971; Black & Mendenhall, 1990; of cross-cultural training does not permit solid
Deshpande & Viswesvaran, 1992; Kolancian, conclusions to be drawn as to its efficacy nor a
2013; Tung, 1981), and at least half of those quantification of its true effects (Deshpande &
workers that remain in their international Viswesvaran, 1992; Morris & Robie, 2001). In
assignment are not functioning at their ideal this chapter, we (1) review different evaluation
level of productivity (Copeland & Griggs, frameworks used in cross-cultural training,
1985). Other studies have shown that cross- and (2) discuss evaluation measures that may
cultural negotiations often fail as a function be used to assess the efficacy of cross-cultural
of the parties’ deficiencies in cross-cultural training (e.g., expatriate satisfaction).
competence (Black, 1988; Graham, 1985). Following this review, we discuss (3) issues in
Common reasons reported for failed inter- the effective evaluation of these training
national assignments include the expatriate efforts, as well as (4) important directions for

Evaluation of Cross-Cultural Training 335
future research and practice. Inconsistent abroad. Specifically, this connotes evaluating
operationalization of cross-cultural training if the employee returned too soon, as well
outcomes, disagreement as to what should be as their performance on their overseas assign-
measured and when, and a failure to report ment. On the other hand, social dependent
estimates of return on investment for these variables measure if the trainee developed suc-
programs are some of the problems noted in cessful interpersonal relationships, friendships,
this section. and strong interdependence with individuals
from the host country. Lastly, psychological
dependent variables consider how positive or
Frameworks of Cross-Cultural negative the trainee’s outlook is about the time
Training Evaluation spent in the other culture. This would include
Triandis (1977) provided a theoretical frame- investigating the trainee’s levels of anxiety or
work which specified the independent and depression, through both physiological and
dependent variables that should be used to subjective measures (Triandis, 1977).
evaluate whether cross-cultural training was Bhawuk (1990) agreed with Triandis’s
effective. Multiple independent variables and (1977) criteria for cross-cultural training evalu-
dependent variables were proposed in order to ation. He emphasized that these trainings
reduce bias and inform evaluations on mul- should always be evaluated since intercultural
tiple facets of information. The independent interaction is vastly beneficial, but there is tre-
variables included affective, cognitive, and mendous room for conflict between people of
behavioral predictors. The affective predictors different cultural backgrounds (Bhawuk,
focus on training emotions. When people are 1990). Consequently, Bhawuk extended Trian-
socialized to a culture, they develop emotional dis’s evaluation recommendations by promot-
responses that produce either positive or nega- ing the use of both formative and summative
tive emotions (Triandis, 1977). CCT can use evaluations. Formative evaluations occur
desensitization techniques to train employees when a program is reviewed for the purpose
to not experience negative emotions in of improving it, while summative evaluations
response to common situations in other cul- determine if the trainings were successful (Bha-
tures. Additionally, cognitive factors consider wuk, 1990). Bhawuk advocated that both of
the change of thinking about one’s environ- these assessments should be conducted by a
ment, specifically so that the employee does third-party evaluator (not the trainer), in order
not make incorrect assumptions about another to objectively determine if the training was
culture. However, knowledge is separate from truly effective (Bhawuk, 1990).
behaviors, so training programs can assist this Bhawuk (1990) also emphasized that length
by promoting behavior modification tech- of training is likely to affect the extent to which
niques or role-plays. These three types of pre- it is effective. He suggested that training for a
dictors can be crossed with either specific or day is unlikely to be effective, arguing that
general culture trainings to produce six differ- training must encompass behavioral, cogni-
ent exercises, which can be evaluated through tive, and affective development. Programs
economic, social, and psychological measures low in trainee involvement, trainer involve-
(Triandis, 1977). Economic dependent vari- ment, and cultural content often do not pro-
ables consider the cost of training compared vide adequate time for trainees to learn enough
to how effective the trainee is when working information about specific cultures to be

336 anna kallschmidt, jessica mesmer-magnus, et al.
successful. However, he notes that although a use of control groups, pre- and post-tests,
lifetime of experience in another culture could randomization of subjects, a focus on the
make the trainee proficient in another culture, long-term effects of training for on-the-job
such lengthy training is clearly not feasible. performance, and multiple measurement
Clear guidelines regarding the optimal length methods. Clearly these are features unlikely
of cross-cultural training programs still remain to be met in real-world evaluations; neverthe-
uncertain (Bhawuk, 1990). less, attempts should be made to incorporate
Black and Mendenhall (1990) suggest that as much rigor as possible. Further, there
the lack of a consistent, accepted theoretical should be clarity and precision in defining
framework for evaluating cross-cultural and operationalizing both independent and
training limits the conclusions that can be dependent variables.
drawn regarding whether, how, and why it is Mendenhall and colleagues (2004) agreed
effective. They recommend the use of Social that inconsistent results of cross-cultural
Learning Theory’s processes of attention, training effectiveness could be due to the lack
retention, reproduction, and motivation. of rigorous research designs in many evalu-
According to this framework, cross-cultural ation studies. In their review of the literature,
training improves employees’ cross-cultural they were able to evaluate cross-cultural
adjustment and job performance. However, training effectiveness on knowledge, behavior,
at the time, there was little empirical research attitude, adjustment, performance, and trainee
to test their framework. Consequently, the satisfaction. Their results indicated that the
field must carefully consider how this frame- effect of cross-cultural training was contingent
work can be most appropriately used for cross- on the dependent variable that was evaluated.
cultural training. Although trainee satisfaction and knowledge
In a review on the methodological rigor of are important outcomes for cross-cultural
cross-cultural training, Kealey and Protheroe training, there have been an insufficient
(1996) identify more concerns regarding the number of studies evaluating expatriate adjust-
success of cross-cultural training. They found ment, behavioral change, and performance
that evaluating the true effectiveness of cross- (Mendenhall et al., 2004). Similar to Kealey
cultural training is impossible given the and Protheroe (1996), they evaluated studies
prevalence of methodological weaknesses. that included pre- and post-test measures, a
Consequently, they outlined guidelines for control group, subject randomization, and
improved evaluations of cross-cultural measures of performance both in the short
training programs, reporting that no study and long run. However, they discovered most
they reviewed on intercultural training met studies did not (1) randomly assign subjects,
the full requirements for rigorous experimen- (2) have both pre- and post-tests as well as
tal research. These authors argue a quality control groups, nor (3) measure performance
evaluation of cross-cultural training would (those that did measure performance rarely
include a measure of the subject’s actual per- studied long-term performance and rarely
formance in the cross-cultural assignment as incorporated multiple indicators of perform-
well as be able to rule out alternative explan- ance). Further, most studies relied exclusively
ations of cross-cultural adjustment (e.g., the on self-report data, and most treatment groups
context of the workplace and the talents of were composed of university students rather
the individuals). They also argue that strong than actual expatriates. Furthermore, they
evaluation studies should incorporate the found the issue of length to still be a concern

for cross-cultural research, as they discovered suggested specific training strategies according
that length of training was not recorded in the to trainee intercultural sensitivity. The least
research. Without this documentation, the interculturally sensitive people are more likely
authors found it impossible to determine how to have rigid social categories and behavior
long cross-cultural trainings must be in order predispositions and will likely use a Marginal-
to be effective. ization or Separation strategy. Marginalized
Overall, the authors conclude that there is trainees have few relevant goals, poor intercul-
not a good fit between what is typically done in tural sensitivity, neutral or negative past inter-
cross-cultural evaluation studies and the cri- cultural experiences, and they perceive distinct
teria that have been established for rigor in differences between their home and host cul-
training evaluation research (Mendenhall tures. While Separatist trainees are similar,
et al., 2004). This reality raises concerns that they observe the home and host culture differ-
cross-cultural training programs may not be as ences to be larger, but they have experienced
effective as is currently assumed. Although we fewer negative past cross-cultural experiences.
might conclude that cross-cultural training On the other hand, interculturally sensitive
programs are typically effective in enhancing people will have broader social categories and
trainee knowledge and satisfaction, there is behavior predispositions and are more likely to
less evidence that they are effective in improv- use an Assimilation or Integration strategy
ing attitudes, behavior, cross-cultural adjust- (Bhawuk et al., 2006). These categories are
ment, and expatriate performance. Future for trainees who will be driven by their goals,
cross-cultural evaluation studies using rigor- despite negative past cross-cultural experiences
ous evaluation designs are needed to resolve and apparent cultural differences.
these issues. Based on these categories, Bhawuk and col-
In 2006, Bhawuk, Landis, and Lo amalgam- leagues explain that trainers should organize
ated the acculturation and intercultural the behavioral, cognitive, and affective com-
training disciplines, resulting in the develop- ponents of cross-cultural trainings according
ment of new intercultural training strategies. to what will most benefit the trainees. Since
The authors proposed a four-part typology: (1) people who are marginalized are more stressed
Trainers must assess a trainee’s motivation and have poorer performance results in new
either through screening or self-selection; (2) cultures, these trainees should first receive
Intercultural behavior should be evaluated via affective training to help them become emo-
assessment of goal centrality, past intercultural tionally settled, followed by cognitive training
experience, levels of intercultural sensitivity, to help them understand cultural differences,
and perceived individual differences between and then the behavioral portion of the training
cultures; (3) Intercultural behaviors should be so that they can practice in a comfortable
assessed by more than self-report, including environment before traveling (Bhawuk et al.,
host ratings of the trainees’ behaviors in the 2006). Trainees who use the Separation strat-
new culture; and finally (4) An individual egy are less emotionally unsettled, so their
trainees’ acculturation strategy should be training can begin with the cognitive approach
accounted for when the trainer is determining to help them learn about cultural differences,
the training strategy (Bhawuk et al., 2006). followed by behavioral techniques to help
Bhawuk et al. (2006) proposed that intercul- them practice, and then affective training for
tural sensitivity is an important antecedent to positive reinforcement of interacting with the
how trainees socialize and behave, and culture. However, Assimilation trainees are

ready and eager to learn the new behaviors, so insufficient adjustment to the new country also
these trainings should start with behavioral influences the MNC’s finances. Future
training to motivate them, then the cognitive research also needs to examine the extent to
training so they can appreciate the cultural which cross-cultural training programs effect-
differences, followed by affective training to ively instruct trainees in light of the organiza-
help them cope with sacrificing their own cul- tional/industrial culture, organizational goals,
ture for a period of time. Finally, Integration and country-specific knowledge that will
trainees have likely already thought about enable effective cross-cultural performance.
acculturation issues, so they are likely ready Collectively, these frameworks (Bhawuk
to start learning the cognitive framework first, et al., 2006; Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Trian-
followed by behavioral practice, and then dis, 1977) have provided organizational
affective training to allow them to ask ques- research with many approaches to test the
tions (Bhawuk et al., 2006). Collectively, the effectiveness of cross-cultural training. How-
authors promoted that these strategies should ever, these frameworks do not necessarily
be researched more in science, and that the agree on which strategies should be utilized
practice of cross-cultural training should take (e.g., they propose different sequences for
advantage of this theory more rigorously. The training individuals). Therefore, it is vital to
Bhawuk et al. (2006) framework essentially review the strategies that have been evaluated
calls for an aptitude by treatment interaction in practice to determine how effective cross-
approach long advocated in the training litera- cultural training has been.
ture (cf. Campbell, Kuncel, & Kostal, 2018 for
a summary). That individual differences affect
effectiveness of different methods also dove-
Evaluation Strategies for
tails with the findings that individual differ-
Cross-Cultural Training
ences in personality relate to performance in
international assignments (Bhatti, Battour, A major shortcoming in the literature on cross-
Ismail, & Sundram, 2014). cultural training is the lack of consistent and
Mesmer-Magnus and Viswesvaran’s (2008) quality attempts at evaluating its effectiveness
review concluded that cross-cultural training is (Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Littrell & Salas,
effective, specifically in promoting trainees’ 2005; Littrell et al., 2006). Solid evaluations of
positive cultural perceptions, facilitating cross-cultural training are difficult for a
adjustment to the host country culture, and number of reasons, not the least of which is
enhancing performance in international that often multinational corporations fail to
assignments. However, they note that research take the time, have the resources, or see the
must expand the criteria used to evaluate the value of following through on evaluation of
effectiveness of cross-cultural training. Typic- their programs (Littrell & Salas, 2005). Fur-
ally, trainee success is assessed via expatriate ther, inconsistent operationalizations of cross-
adjustment to the new culture and their per- cultural training outcomes, disagreement as to
formance on the international assignment. what should be measured and when, and a
While measuring the cost of expatriate failure failure to report estimates of return on invest-
to complete an assignment is transparent (i.e. ment for these programs have led to multi-
relocation, replacement, and selection costs), national corporations failing to (1) implement
the authors indicate that evaluation of cost known best practices for cross-cultural
for ineffective expatriate performance and/or training programs, and (2) evaluate (and, by

extension, report the results of evaluations) the However, it is unclear the extent to which
cross-cultural training programs they do training satisfaction will predict other out-
implement (Littrell & Salas, 2005). comes, like job performance. Items used to
Another shortcoming in the cross-cultural assess trainee satisfaction include “I enjoyed
evaluation literature has been disagreement this training program very much,” “I learned
as to what should be evaluated, and when from the training program to effectively solve
these evaluations should be implemented. serious problems with people who are cultur-
A variety of dependent variables have been ally different from me,” and “The training
measured in order to determine if trainings program helped me to understand the differ-
were successful (Fiedler et al., 1971; Menden- ence between the values of the host culture and
hall et al., 2004; Triandis et al., 1977). We sort those of my home culture” (Bhawuk, 1998;
these dependent variables chronologically Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000).
within Kirkpatrick’s (1987) model of training
evaluation. Kirkpatrick identified four levels Expatriate utility reactions. Post-training util-
of training evaluation, including reaction ity reactions assess the extent to which trainees
measures, learning outcomes, behavior/per- perceive the training content and approach
formance, and outcomes. Typically, reaction will be useful for them as they embark on their
and learning measures can be assessed imme- foreign assignment. Research suggests the
diately following training, while behavior/per- extent to which a trainee perceives the training
formance and outcomes are best assessed content to be useful in their assignment, the
longitudinally, after the trainee has an oppor- more likely they will implement training prin-
tunity to transfer the training content to on- ciples on the job and the more likely training
the-job performance. may improve performance (Noe, 1986). To the
extent the trainer is perceived as being an
expert on the host culture, the more likely the
Reaction Measures
trainee will perceive the training content to be
The most common reaction measure for cross- useful on the job (Littrell & Salas, 2005).
cultural training programs is expatriate satis-
faction with the training program (Bhawuk &
Learning Measures
Brislin, 2000; Littrell & Salas, 2005), though
perceptions the training content will be useful Learning outcomes of cross-cultural prepar-
on the expatriate assignment (utility reactions) ation programs may be quite diverse. For
are also relevant reaction measures. Research example, cross-cultural training programs
suggests trainee perceptions of utility are more may target changes in knowledge, attitudes,
predictive of learning and transfer than are or intercultural sensitivity.
satisfaction reactions (Noe, 1986).
Knowledge. Knowledge outcomes of cross-
Expatriate satisfaction reactions. Expatriate cultural training may refer to knowledge of
satisfaction with training is thought to predict differences between the home and host country
the extent to which expatriates will communi- (e.g., laws, business customs), the ability to
cate favorably about the training program to accurately analyze the behavior of a host
their coworkers (Noe, 1986). Building a posi- country national, and awareness of cultural
tive reputation about cross-cultural prepar- differences between host and home culture.
ation within the organization is important. Evaluations of cross-cultural training

programs suggest stronger positive results for other cultures (Ramirez, 1992), cultural inter-
trainee knowledge than for other outcomes est (Gannon & Poon, 1997), and intercultural
like behaviors, attitudes, adjustment, and per- sensitivity (Bhawuk, 1998). Reductions in
formance (Bhawuk, 1998; Littrell & Salas, trainee ethnocentrism (Bruschke, Gartner, &
2005). Seiter, 1993), intercultural anxiety (Hammer
Lenartowicz and colleagues reviewed the lit- & Martin, 1992; Caligiuri, Phillips, Lazarova,
erature to find that, while cross-cultural Tarique, & Burgi, 2001) and stereotyping of
training programs effectively teach explicit members of other cultures (Caligiuri, Phillips,
knowledge, there is little evidence that they Lazarova, Tarique, & Burgi, 2001) have also
transfer tacit knowledge (Lenartowicz, John- been reported. The other half of these studies
son, & Konopaske, 2014). For example, expli- either reported non-significant findings or
cit knowledge would be knowing which negative effects of cross-cultural training and
language the host country speaks, while tacit trainee attitudes (Bhawuk, 1998). An example
knowledge encompasses knowing how to of assessing attitude learning is provided in
interpret the values and emotions of people in Bhawuk and Brislin (2000) wherein a series of
another culture (Lenartowicz et al., 2014). In difficult critical incidents are used to measure
their review, the authors determine that effect- trainees’ skills in making correct attributions
ive cross-cultural programs utilize both tacit during intercultural interactions (Bhawuk &
and explicit cultural knowledge. They con- Brislin, 2000)
clude that an effective training program should
start with a cultural experience, where the
Intercultural Sensitivity Inventory. A particular
trainee first obtains tacit knowledge, and then
learning outcome of many cross-cultural
undergoes multiple sequential stages with a
training programs is intercultural sensitivity.
continuous interaction between tact and expli-
Bhawuk and Brislin (1992) designed the Inter-
cit knowledge. This process is repeated until
cultural Sensitivity Inventory (ICSI), a forty-
the desired level of knowledge is reached.
six-item scale which assesses trainee’s (1)
A four-stage model is proposed where trainees
understanding of appropriate behaviors in
are exposed to a cross-cultural encounter,
individualistic versus collectivistic cultures,
reflect on it, transform that reflection into
(2) open mindedness concerning the differ-
higher-level tacit knowledge by correcting
ences they encounter in other cultures, and
their individual performance, and then must
(3) flexibility concerning behaving in ways
demonstrate their knowledge in another inter-
which may be unfamiliar but are required by
cultural experience.
the norms of the host culture (Littrell & Salas,
2005).
Attitude. Examples of attitude learning out-
comes of cross-cultural training include cul-
tural interest, positive attitude toward
Behavioral Measures
members of other cultures, reduced trainee
ethnocentrism, and reduced stereotyping of According to Kirkpatrick (1987), the behav-
host country nationals. Approximately half of ioral level of training evaluation assesses
the studies on cross-cultural training evalu- changes in trainee behaviors and performance
ation report positive implications for trainee on the job, which may be attributable the
attitudes. Over the years, the literature evalu- training program. A number of outcomes
ated positive attitudes toward members of may be assessed, including relevant behaviors

on the expatriate assignment and job (Gannon & Poon, 1997). Reviews have
performance. reported that the results of cross-cultural
Fiedler, Mitchell, and Triandis (1971) pro- training on these sorts of outcomes sometimes
posed using “culture assimilators” to train reflect an improvement to behavior but more
members of one culture on the basic concepts, often there are non-significant findings. Non-
attitudes, role perceptions, customs, and significant findings may be attributable to
values of people from other cultures. These either the training methods used or difficulty
assimilators range in specificity and length, in measuring these types of changes.
with some providing training on a very narrow Finally, a review on international tertiary
social situation (i.e., working in a hospital), or students evaluated four types of cross-cultural
a broad group of social situations. Evaluation training: cognitive-based, behavioral-based,
of these training methods has been generally cognitive-behavioral, and didactic (Sit, Mak,
positive both in laboratory and field settings & Neill, 2017). The results supported that
(Fiedler et al., 1971). In the laboratory, the while all training results were mostly positive,
culture assimilator was effective in increasing the behavioral-based programs were the most
harmonious work relations; however, group effective, followed by cognitive-behavioral,
effectiveness of intercultural teams was not and then cognitive-based trainings. The didac-
significantly improved. In the field, the culture tic trainings were either non-significant or had
assimilator was found to generally improve a partially negative impact on training results.
work performance and work adjustment. CCT was found to enhance students’ aca-
Harrison (1992) developed a cross-cultural demic- and career-related performance the
interaction task to be used as a measure of most, followed by cross-cultural knowledge,
behavioral change. In this exercise, partici- cross-cultural cognitive adjustment and atti-
pants play the role of a manager interacting tude, and cross-cultural behavioral skills.
with a host country worker whose part is
played by a confederate. The process and
Results Measures
results of the interaction are then analyzed
according to pre-established criteria relevant Evidence of improvement at the results level of
to cross cultural performance (e.g., personal training evaluation is arguably most important
concern, reducing conflict; Bhawuk & Brislin, to justifying the cost of cross-cultural prepar-
2000). ation. The most commonly assessed results
measure for cross-cultural preparation pro-
Behavior. Examples of behavioral outcomes grams is expatriate adjustment to the host cul-
associated with cross-cultural training include ture. However, statistics associated with
displays of cultural sensitivity (Cunningham- reduced levels of expatriate assignment failure
Warburton, 1988), significantly lower number and organizational level performance attribut-
of referrals to counseling services (Pollard, able to the expatriate’s assignment would be
1989), intercultural problem solving ability beneficial in justifying the cost of cross-cultural
(Bhatkal, 1990; Cushner, 1989; Harrison, preparation programs. Littrell & Salas’s (2005)
1992), dealing with cross-cultural misunder- evaluation of cross-cultural training found that
standings (Bhatkal, 1990; Cushner, 1989; studies have predominately focused on meas-
McIlveen-Yarbro, 1988), increases in technical uring the return rate of expatriates. However,
information exchange (Hammer & Martin, they found that organizations with more suc-
1992), and evidence of cultural competence cessful cross-cultural training programs use

additional criteria, such as delayed productiv- Smith, 1999; Westwood & Barker, 1990), as
ity, start-up time, quality of the relationship well as reductions in psychological strain while
between expatriate and the host nationals, on the foreign assignment (Befus, 1988). Tung
damage to the multinational corporation’s (1981) reported that a spouse’s inability to
image, lost opportunities, and expatriate turn- adjust to the host culture is the primary reason
over rates. They also use their evaluations to for expatriate failure (as assessed via prema-
learn from previous mistakes and improve ture return to the home country). Furnham
their cross-cultural training programs. Conse- and Bochner (1986) reported culture shock
quently, the authors recommend that an ideal (an indicator of poor adjustment) may mani-
cross-cultural training program should include fest itself in broad sets of behaviors including
(1) evaluating the effectiveness of each iter- excessive hand washing and fear of physical
ation of cross-cultural training, (2) the use of contact with others. People may also become
numerous criteria to evaluate expatriate suc- absentminded, become unaccountably emo-
cess or failure, and (3) conducting surveys to tional, overreact to minor symptoms of sick-
assess the expatriate’s satisfaction with the ness, become excessively homesick, or
training and the international assignment (Lit- overindulge in alcohol. Cushner (1989)
trell & Salas, 2005). Other performance meas- reported trainees perceived significantly
ured such as the success of the foreign greater control of their environment in the host
assignment, the transfer of managerial prac- country, but were no more likely to believe
tices, adjustment difficulties, delayed product- they were compatible with others in the host
ivity, and lost opportunities should also be country following cross-cultural preparation.
considered (Littrell et al., 2006). Factors known to contribute to the likelihood
of culture shock include a history of conflict
Adjustment & culture shock. Cross-cultural between the home and host cultures, a wide
adjustment refers to positive perceptions by cultural distance between home and host cul-
the employee regarding their well-being, health ture, lack of knowledge (on the part of either
and safety, their level of adjustment and com- the expatriate or host country nationals) about
fort with the foreign culture, and their perceived the home/host cultures, and poor language
control within the environment (Littrell & proficiency (Triandis, 1994). Surprisingly,
Salas, 2005). Cultural adjustment is multifa- McKinlay, Patterson, and Gross (1996) found
ceted, including anticipatory adjustment as well trainees were significantly more homesick after
as both work and non-work aspects of in- having participated in training, though this
country adjustment. Non-work factors like may be a function of the nature and content
spouse/family adjustment are critical because of the training program.
they can spillover to affect the expatriate’s Nam, Cho, and Lee (2013) evaluated cross-
work-related adjustment (Bhaskar-Shrinivas, cultural training in Western and Eastern cul-
Harrison, Shaffer, & Luk, 2005). Failure in tures to identify issues that still need to be
adjustment usually results in premature returns addressed. They found conflicting results on
and lowered performance (Harari, Reaves, the effectiveness of cross-cultural training.
Beane, Laginess, & Viswesvaran, in press). For example, cross-cultural training has been
Approximately half of the studies on cross- found to have a positive impact on expatriate
cultural training programs report positive adjustment (e.g., Black & Mendenhall, 1990);
results for expatriate adjustment associated however, other studies have found that cross-
with cross-cultural preparation (Goldstein & cultural training to be negative related to

adjustment (e.g., Hechanova, Beehr, & Chris- evaluated had a significant relationship
tiansen, 2003). The authors state that this is between cross-cultural training and perform-
predominately due to most of the cross- ance, and the significant studies encompassed
cultural training research being theoretical, a variety of occupations, including students,
and not actually assessing the relationship teachers, mental health workers, public health
between training and performance. Further- workers, etc.
more, the effectiveness of these trainings could Deshpande and Viswesvaran (1992) exam-
be interpreted differently depending on the ined the effectiveness of cross-cultural training
cross-cultural context, as the authors also on five criteria: self-development, perception,
observe the extant literature is lacking suffi- relationship, adjustment, and performance. In
cient research on the cross-cultural training this analysis, they included samples of stu-
implications of Eastern companies operating dents, teachers, Army ROTC, nurses, man-
in the West (Nam et al., 2013). To date, most agers, Navy personnel, US and Japanese
cross-cultural training research focuses on Managers, Army officers, mental health pro-
West to East assignments. fessionals, US health workers in Central
America, and Army advisors. Their meta-
analysis of these groups revealed that cross-
Cross-Cultural Training in Different
cultural training programs improved trainees’
Occupations
perceptions and self-confidence across settings
Reviewing the evaluation history of cross- and revealed no moderators of the relation-
cultural training indicates a need to consider ship. Interestingly, this indicates that different
the various populations who need this form of cross-cultural training methods may not yield
training. Culture assimilators have been field differing results in self-development or cross-
tested with both students and military workers cultural perceptions. They concluded there is a
(Fiedler et al., 1971). While the culture assimi- strong and positive impact of cross-cultural
lator for students was found to be effective, it training on the development of cross-cultural
was more impactful for students who had trav- skills, expatriate adjustment, and expatriate
eled to the country previously than for stu- performance in the host country, and that
dents who were traveling to the country for leaders of multinational corporations should
the first time. However, military personnel in feel good about investments made into cross-
Thailand had significantly positive results to cultural preparation. However, they encour-
culture assimilator questions, and no signifi- aged future research on potential moderators.
cant negative reactions (Fiedler et al., 1971). For instance, they did find additional variance
Also, military personnel who were trained to in performance results, which might indicate
work in Greece rated themselves as having the presence of moderators. While these rela-
significantly improved interpersonal relations tionships could not be tested, they encouraged
and higher productivity than personnel who future testing of Black and Mendenhall’s
did not have the training (Fiedler et al., (1990) suggestions such as job characteristics,
1971). Black and Mendenhall (1990) evaluated occupation, and cultural familiarity.
studies including missionaries, managers, Interestingly, upon examination of only
teachers, teaching assistants, students, nurses, non-student samples, the researchers found
military personnel, psychologists, Peace Corps that the effect size of cross-cultural training
volunteers, medical interns, and public health was stronger (Deshpande, Joseph, & Viswes-
workers. Eleven out of the fifteen studies varan, 1994). Of the studies examined, the

student sample had a corrected effect size of must expend to learn the training materials;
.38, while the employee sample had a stronger Black et al., 1992), (6) how contextually
corrected effect size of .44. These results indi- tailored and relevant the predeparture cross-
cate that studies need to make use of samples cultural training was to the expatriate assign-
of actual expatriates who will be managing a ment (Caligiuri, Phillips, Lazarova, Tarique,
multicultural workforce or moving abroad and Burgi, 2001), and (7) trainee motivation
(Deshpande et al., 1994). to learn/transfer the training material (Noe,
Overall, these evaluations of diverse 1986). There is also concern over when should
employee occupations indicate that cross- the training program be timed (e.g., pre-
cultural training is effective. However, departure versus post-arrival; Bennett, Aston,
research must investigate if student samples & Colquhoun, 2000; Black & Mendenhall,
are diluting the true strength of these trainings’ 2004; Selmer, 2001). Discrepancies in conclu-
impact on supporting cross-cultural work sions of cross-cultural evaluation studies sug-
arrangements. gest some believe the trainee needs to be
adequately prepared for the foreign locale
(pre-departure) whereas others expect the
Potential Moderators and Mediators
trainee should be able to apply training real-
of Cross-Cultural Training
time (post-arrival). Most likely, training
Effectiveness
during both phases is needed (Stroh et al.,
Another consideration regarding training 2005). Trainers should also consider motiv-
evaluation relates to potential moderators of ational cultural intelligence, which is an indi-
cross-cultural training effectiveness (Littrell vidual’s ability to devote attention and energy
et al., 2006). Potential moderators may toward learning and functioning in situation
include (1) job-level attributes (e.g., task diffi- with cultural differences, as it has been shown
culty, job discretion, job clarity, role conflict; to boost trainees’ cultural effectiveness after
Black, Gregersen, & Mendenhall, 1992; receiving CCT (Peng, Dyne, & Oh, 2015). To
Ronen, 1989), (2) family-level attributes the extent cross-cultural training attempts to
(e.g., marital status, presence and number of enhance the successful detection and man-
children, spousal adjustment, spousal satis- agement of emotions, individual differences
faction; Birdseye & Hill, 1995), (3) in empathy and emotional intelligence are
organization-level attributes (Black et al., likely to affect the effectiveness of such inter-
1992), (4) individual attributes (e.g., person- ventions (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts,
ality traits related to success in a foreign cul- 2002; Van Rooy & Viswesvaran, 2004).
ture, like cognitive flexibility, adaptability, Mediators between cross-cultural training
tolerance for ambiguity, non-ethnocentrism, and job performance have not been investi-
positive self-image, extraversion, desire to gated extensively; consequently, future
trust, social skills, self-confidence, open mind- research must investigate how these other vari-
edness, cultural toughness; Bhagat & Prien, ables are impacting trainee effectiveness in
1996; Black, 1988; Black et al., 1992; Hanni- their cross-cultural assignments (Mesmer-
gan, 1990; Harris & Kumra, 2000; Katz & Magnus & Viswesvaran, 2008). For instance,
Seifer, 1996; Lievens, Harris, Van Keer, & perceived organizational support has been
Bisqueret, 2003; Mendenhall & Oddou, found to have direct effects on trainee adjust-
1986), (5) training rigor (e.g., the degree of ment, which also has direct effects on both
mental involvement and effort the trainee contextual and task performance (Kraimer,

Wayne, & Jaworski, 2001). Some research has and Curtis (1996) argued the perspectives of
indicated that cross-cultural training might host and home country nationals are import-
actually boost self-efficacy, which is the true ant to the evaluation of cross-cultural training.
reason that employee adjustment is improved Further, the perspective of the evaluator may
after cross-cultural training (Osman-Gani & affect the quality and content of the outcome
Rockstuhl, 2009). Previous international non- data. Judgments by spouses, coworkers, and
work-related experience has been found to supervisors, as well as objective measures and
boost the effectiveness of cross-cultural observable behaviors are also needed (Blake
training and all dimensions of cultural intelli- et al., 1996).
gence, a known antecedent of cross-cultural The effectiveness of cross-cultural training
adjustment (Moon, Choi, & Jung, 2012). may also vary as a function of both the
Individualistic versus collectivistic training technique used as well as how and
approaches to conflict resolution have also when it is implemented (Blake et al., 1996).
been found to be influential, as managers The immediacy of the training needs will con-
who used collectivist values to resolve conflicts tribute to decisions as to when and how the
improved learning and performance in inter- training should be implemented. Further,
national joint ventures (Wong, Wei, Wang, & when designing the cross-cultural preparation
Tjosvold, 2017). In a recent review, Sousa and program, other important considerations
colleagues found that pre-departure, post- include the resources available, time con-
arrival training, and language training signifi- straints, motivation of the potential trainees,
cantly impacted all general, work, and inter- and fit between the technique and the needs
action adjustment, with post-arrival training that are relevant for a given overseas assign-
have the largest impact on general and work ment (Blake et al., 1996). Finally, according to
adjustments, and language training impacting Blake et al. (1996), most evaluation studies
social adjustment more than work adjustment focus on outcomes of cross-cultural training
(Sousa, Goncalves, Santos, & Leitao, 2017). and not on the implementation. But, clearly
However, it is not clear which component of the facets of the implementation have the
post-arrival training support strong adjust- potential to interact with outcomes of cross-
ment, and future research should investigate cultural training programs.
this (Sousa et al., 2017). Additionally, organ-
izational support was found to increase trainee
Best Practices for Cross-Cultural
adjustment and performance in the cross-
Training Evaluation
cultural environment (Sousa et al., 2017).
We have little understanding of exactly what
organizations are doing in terms of cross-
Other Considerations Regarding
cultural training (Littrell & Salas, 2005). Based
Cross-Cultural Training Evaluation
upon the research findings, however, a
Research has suggested a number of other number of best practices have emerged. With
considerations relevant to the delivery and regards to designing and subsequent evalu-
evaluation of cross-cultural training programs. ation of cross-cultural training programs,
For example, self-report data has been related research suggests it is important to (1) align
to successful adaptation in host countries the length and content of training according to
(Mischel, 1965), though self-report data does the unique features of the expatriate assign-
not provide the whole story. Blake, Heslin, ment, (2) evaluate whether cross-cultural

training should be culture-specific or more contact and periodic trips (Littrell & Salas,
culture-general depending on the needs of the 2005).
expatriate and the multinational corporation, With regards to evaluation, best practices
(3) design and evaluate cross-cultural training include (1) evaluating the effectiveness of each
with family members accompanying the iteration of cross-cultural training, (2) the use
expatriate in mind, and (4) encourage the of numerous criteria to evaluate expatriate
human resources department to play a signifi- success or failure, and (3) conducting surveys
cant role in planning, implementing, and to assess the expatriate’s satisfaction with the
evaluating the cross-cultural training (Littrell training and the international assignment
& Salas, 2005). (Bennett et al., 2000; Littrell & Salas, 2005).
Further, before cross-cultural training
methods are chosen, a needs assessment should
Conclusions and Future Research
be done to assess the trainee’s strengths and
Directions
weaknesses with regard to interpersonal, cog-
nitive, and self-maintenance skills, as well as Much advancement has been made in theoret-
other factors which could affect performance ical frameworks as well as the training and
in the host culture (Littrell et al., 2006). This evaluation methods for cross-cultural training
same information should be used to assess the programs over the past five decades. The prin-
needs of trailing family members. The needs ciples of cross-cultural training have even
assessment should also identify information recently been applied to the need for domestic
regarding assignment objectives, past inter- multicultural training (Littrell et al., 2006).
national experience, and job responsibilities However, a number of criticisms of cross-
(Bennett et al., 2000; Bhagat & Prien, 1996; cultural training evaluation have continued to
Brewster, 1995; Caligiuri et al., 2001). The plague the field, and as a result, many multi-
needs assessment information should be used national corporations fail to see the value of
to customize the cross-cultural training to meet cross-cultural preparation. For example, key
the needs of the trainee and the cross-cultural complaints about cross-cultural training
assignment. The training should be designed research include a lack of unifying theoretical
and delivered by individuals who can be framework, inattention to moderators of
regarded as experts on the host country, pref- training effectiveness, inconsistent measures
erably with their own extensive first-hand of expatriate performance, insufficient evalu-
experience, as well as on the expatriation pro- ation of training transfer, particularly over the
cess in general. long-term expatriate assignment, and a failure
With regards to training delivery, research to quantify the return on investment of cross-
suggests the following best practices: (1) cultural preparation.
training programs should incorporate mul-
tiple methods/approaches, (2) the expatriate
Future Research Directions
should be provided with personalized
coaches who have first-hand experience with Insights gleaned from our review suggest
the host culture, (3) offer training either scholars need to increase the rigor of their
immediately prior to departure, immediately research designs when evaluating cross-
following arrival, or at both times, and (4) cultural training effectiveness, being sure to
keep expatriates connected with home organ- follow criteria for rigorous training evaluation
izational issues by encouraging frequent designs described above. Studies need to make

use of samples of actual trainees who will be Another important observation is that
managing a multicultural workforce or although trainee satisfaction and knowledge
moving abroad (Deshpande et al., 1994). Fur- are important outcomes for cross-cultural
thermore, theoretically sound measures, such training, there have been an insufficient
as culture shock, must be created and used to number of studies evaluating expatriate adjust-
properly evaluate these programs (Bhawuk & ment, behavioral change, and performance
Brislin, 2000). Cross-cultural training research (Mendenhall et al., 2004).
also needs to generate more empirical studies Future research is also needed to understand
with rigorous research designs, such as longi- the interaction between expatriate selection
tudinal designs with multiple measures of and training programs so as to determine what
adjustment and performance (Hippler, 2009; types of trainees benefit the most from cross-
Mendenhall et al., 2004). cultural training activities and for what types
We need richer theories on both individual of expatriate assignments (Caligiuri & Tari-
and team adaptation, as well as on the moder- que, 2006). Another promising direction for
ating role of personality on the effectiveness of future research is on multicultural team
cross-cultural training and by extension its training (Littrell & Salas, 2005; Salas, Burke,
evaluation (e.g., self-monitoring, self-efficacy, Wilson-Donnelly, & Fowlkes, 2004) as more
cultural sensitivity, and the Big Five; Black, frequently employees in multinational corpor-
Mendenhall, & Oddou, 1991; Caligiuri, 2000; ations will be working in teams comprised of
Harrison, Chadwick, & Scales, 1996; Paige, individuals from multiple cultures. Research is
Jacobs-Cassuto, Yershova, & DeJaeghere, also needed on how best to train individuals to
2003). Ones and Viswesvaran (1999) report be adaptable, like what cues can be used and
that Big Five factors of personality are con- what variables predict whether they will be
sidered relevant in expatriate selection but able to adapt to novel environments (Littrell
empirical estimates of their validity and poten- & Salas, 2005), and both formative and sum-
tial moderating influences on such validity esti- mative evaluations of these programs will be
mates need to be examined. Specifically, in instrumental in improving their effectiveness.
employing personality and other individual Cross-cultural training research should also
differences variables, job-specific and appro- incorporate findings from related areas such as
priate national norms should be employed work-family conflict. Research has shown how
(Ones & Viswesvaran, 2003) as well as taking work environments play a critical role in work-
into account the relative merits of using etic family interactions (Mesmer-Magnus & Vis-
and emic measures. wesvaran, 2006) and this is likely to be more
Mendenhall et al. (2004) indicated that amplified in international assignments. The
although most reviews have examined quanti- role of individual differences in effective
tative studies, qualitative studies may shed cross-cultural adjustment needs to be studied
better light on the extent to which cross- more. Organizational commitment and
cultural training programs are able to meet employee engagement have been shown to
training objectives. Ideally, researchers should affect performance and assessing these job atti-
utilize both qualitative and quantitative cri- tudes are likely to get more complicated in
teria for training evaluation. Further, as few international assignments given the potential
studies track the trainee over time, we need for multiple commitments. However, there
more research wherein longitudinal evaluation is some evidence of a positive manifold of
designs are used (Mendenhall et al., 2004). correlations across multiple allegiances

(Cooper-Hakim & Viswesvaran, 2005). Never- cross-cultural training research is that it is

theless, future research should explore the con- often based on anecdotal evidence and
sequences of such dual commitments that unspecified theories rather than rigorous
assignees may encounter. Ample research has empirical evidence and clear theoretical frame-
shown how proactive individuals excel in job works (Caligiuri & Tarique, 2006; Littrell
performance (Crant, 1995) and individuals et al., 2006; Nam et al., 2013). Researchers
differ in how broadly define their work roles need to continue rigorous cross-cultural
(Parker, 1998). How broadly an employee training research to address ongoing contro-
defines their work roles and how proactive versies regarding the goals, content, effective-
they are will influence the effectiveness of sev- ness, and processes of cross-cultural training
eral work-related consequences (Thomas, (Baumgarten, 1995; Brewster, 1995; Littrell
Whitman & Viswesvaran, 2010), and need to et al., 2006; Selmer, 2001; Selmer, Torbiörn,
be addressed in evaluating the training pro- & de Leon, 1998; Tung 1981).
gram effectiveness.
We also need research which systematically
investigates potential moderators of cross-
References
cultural training effectiveness, like trainer Baker, J. C., & Ivancevich, J. M. (1971). The
expertise, trainee intercultural sensitivity, con- assignment of American executives abroad:
text in which training was delivered, job com- Systematic, haphazard, or chaotic? California
plexity, trainer quality and experience, and Management Review, 13, 39–44.
trainee motivation and developmental readi- Baumgarten, K. (1995). Training and development
ness (Deshpande & Viswesvaran, 1992; Hutch- of international staff. In A. W. Harzing & J. Van
ins, Burke, & Berthelsen, 2010; Nam et al., Ruysseveldth (Eds.), International human
resource management (pp. 205–228). London,
2013). Several pre-training interventions have
UK: Sage.
been suggested for enhancing the effectiveness
Befus, C. P. (1988). A multilevel treatment
of training programs and learning (Cannon-
approach for culture shock experienced by
Bowers, Rhodenizer, Salas, & Bowers, 1998), sojourners. International Journal of Intercultural
but unfortunately, their effectiveness in cross- Relations, 12, 381–400.
cultural training interventions have not been Bennett, R., Aston, A., & Colquhoun, T. (2000).
studied as extensively as they have been stud- Cross-cultural training: A critical step in
ied in the training literature (Mesmer-Magnus ensuring the success of international
& Viswesvaran, 2010). Prepractice conditions assignments. Human Resource Management, 10,
such as providing trainees with advance organ- 117–134.
izers have been successfully implemented in Bhagat, R. S., & Prien, K. O. (1996). Cross-cultural
many training programs and their effectiveness training in organizational contexts. In D. Landis
& R. S. Bhagat (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural
in cross-cultural training awaits empirical veri-
training (2nd ed., pp. 216–230). Thousand Oaks,
fication. If verified, these pre-practice interven-
CA: Sage.
tions should become integral parts of best
Bhaskar-Shrinivas, P., Harrison, D. A., Shaffer, M.
practices in cross-cultural training. A., & Luk, D. M. (2005). Input-based and time-
In conclusion, the cross-cultural training based models of international adjustment: Meta-
field is in an “uncomfortable position of analytic evidence and theoretical extensions.
having a product which is acutely needed but Academy of Management Journal, 48, 257–281.
still of unproven efficacy” (Kealey & Bhatkal, R. (1990). Intercultural sensitivity training
Protheroe, 1996, p. 162). A major criticism of for preservice teachers using a culture-general

assimilator with a peer interactive approach and Black, J. S., Mendenhall, M., & Oddou, G. (1991).
media analysis. (Unpublished doctoral Toward a comprehensive model of international
dissertation). University of Nebraska, Lincoln. adjustment: An integration of multiple
Bhatti, M. A., Battour, M. M., Ismail, A. R., & theoretical principles. Academy of Management
Sundram, V. P. (2014). Effects of personality Review, 16, 291–317.
traits (big five) on expatriates adjustment and job Blake, B. F., Heslin, R., & Curtis, S. C. (1996).
performance. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: Measuring impacts of cross-cultural training. In
An International Journal. D. Landis & R. S. Bhagat (Eds.), Handbook of
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1990). Cross-cultural orientation intercultural training (2nd ed., pp. 165–183).
programs. In R. W. Brislin (Ed.), Applied cross- Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
cultural psychology (pp. 325–346), Newbury Brewster, C. (1995). Effective expatriate training. In
Park, CA: Sage. J. Selmer (Ed.), Expatriate management: New
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1998). The role of culture theory ideas for international business (pp. 57–71).
in cross-cultural training: A multimethod study Westport, CT: Quorem.
of culture-specific, culture-general, and culture Bruschke, J. C., Gartner, C., & Seiter, J. S. (1993).
theory-based assimilators. Journal of Cross- Student ethnocentrism, dogmatism, and
Cultural Psychology, 29, 630–655. motivation: A study of BAFA BAFA.
Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Brislin, R. W. (1992). The Simulation and Gaming, 21, 9–20.
measurement of intercultural sensitivity using Caligiuri, P. M. (2000). The big five personality
the concepts of individualism and collectivism. characteristics as predictors of expatriate’s
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, desire to terminate the assignment and
16(4), 413–436. supervisor-rated performance. Personnel
Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Brislin, R. W. (2000). Cross- Psychology, 53, 67–88.
cultural training: A review. Applied Psychology: Caligiuri, P., Phillips, J., Lazarova, M., Tarique, L.,
An International Review, 49, 162–191. & Burgi, P. (2001). The theory of met
Bhawuk, D. P. S., Landis, D., & Lo, K. D. (2006). expectations applied to expatriate adjustment.
Intercultural training. In D. L. Sam & J. W. International Journal of Human Resource
Berry (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of Management, 12, 357–372.
acculturation psychology (pp 504–524). Caligiuri, P., & Tarique, I. (2006). International
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. assignee selection and cross-cultural training
Birdseye, M. G., & Hill, J.S. (1995). Individual, and development. In G. K. Stahl &
organizational/work and environmental I. Bjorkman (Eds.), Handbook of research in
influences on expatriate turnover tendencies: An international human resource management
empirical study. Journal of International Business (pp. 302–322). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
Studies, 26(4), 787–813. Campbell, J. P., Kuncel, N. R., & Kostal, J. W.
Black, J. S. (1988). Work role transitions: A study of (2018). Training and learning in work roles. In
American expatriate managers in Japan. Journal D. S. Ones, N. Anderson, C. Viswesvaran, & H.
of International Business Studies, 19, 277–294. K. Sinangil (Eds.), The Sage handbook of
Black, J. S., Gregersen, H. B., & Mendenhall, M. E. industrial, work and organizational psychology
(1992). Global assignments: Successfully (2nd edition): Personnel psychology and
expatriating and repatriating international employee performance (pp. 533–610). Thousand
managers. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Oaks, CA: Sage.
Black, J. S., & Mendenhall, M. (1990). Cross- Cannon-Bowers, J. A., Rhodenizer, L., Salas, E., &
cultural training effectiveness: A review and a Bowers, C. (1998). A framework for
theoretical framework for future research. understanding pre-practice conditions and their
Academy of Management Review, 15(1), impact on learning. Personnel Psychology, 51,
113–136. 291–320.

Cooper-Hakim, A., & Viswesvaran, C. (2005). The International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
construct of work commitment: Testing an 23, 157–173.
integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin, Graham, J. L. (1985). The influence of culture on
131, 241–259. the process of business negotiations: An
Copeland, L., & Griggs, L. (1985). Going exploratory study. Journal of International
international. New York, NY: Random House. Business Studies, 16, 81–96.
Crant, M. C. (1995). The Proactive Personality Hammer, M. R., & Martin, J. N. (1992). The effects
Scale and objective performance among real of cross-cultural training on American
estate agents. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, managers in a Japanese-American joint venture.
532–537. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 20,
Cunningham-Warburton, P. A. (1988). A study of 161–182.
the relationship between cross-cultural training, Hannigan, T. P. (1990). Traits, attitudes, and skills
the scale to assess world views, and the quality of that are related to intercultural effectiveness and
care given by nurses in a psychiatric setting. their implications for cross-cultural training:
(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Storrs, CT: A review of the literature. International Journal
The University of Connecticut. of Intercultural Relations, 14, 89–111.
Cushner, K. (1989). Assessing the impact of a Harari, M. B., Reaves, A. C., Beane, D. A.,
culture-general assimilator. International Journal Laginess, A. J., & Viswesvaran, C. (in press).
of Intercultural Relations, 13, 125–146. Personality and expatriate adjustment: A meta-
Deshpande, S. P., Joseph, J., & Viswesvaran, C. analysis. Journal of Occupational and
(1994). Does use of student samples affect results Organizational Psychology.
of studies in cross-cultural training? A meta- Harris, H., & Kumra, S. (2000). International
analysis. Psychological Reports, 74, 779–785. manager development: Cross-cultural training in
Deshpande, S. P., & Viswesvaran, C. (1992). Is highly diverse environments. Journal of
cross-cultural training of expatriate managers Management Development, 19, 602–614.
effective: A meta-analysis. International Journal Harrison, J. K. (1992). Individual and combined
of Intercultural Relations, 16, 295–310. effects of behavior modeling and the cultural
Eschbach, D. M., Parker, G. E., & Stoeberl, P. A. assimilator in cross-cultural management
(2001). American repatriate employees’ training. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77,
retrospective assessments of the effects of cross- 952–962.
cultural training on their adaptation to Harrison, J. K., Chadwick, M., & Scales, M. (1996).
international assignments. International Journal The relationship between cross-cultural
of Human Resource Management, 12, 270–287. adjustment and the personality variables of self-
Fiedler, F.E., Mitchell, T., & Triandis, H. (1971). efficacy and self-monitoring. International
The culture assimilator: An approach to cross- Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20, 167–188.
cultural training. Journal of Applied Psychology, Hechanova, R., Beehr, T. A., & Christiansen, N. D.
55(2), 95–102. (2003). Antecedents and consequences of
Furnham, A., & Bochner, S. (1986). Culture Shock: employees’ adjustment to overseas assignment:
Psychological Reactions to Unfamiliar A meta-analytic review. Applied Psychology, 52,
Environments. London, UK: Methuen. 213–236.
Gannon, M. J., & Poon, J. M. L. (1997). Effects of Hippler, T. (2009). Why do they go? Empirical
alternative instructional approaches on cross- evidence of employees’ motives for seeking or
cultural training outcomes. International Journal accepting relocation. International Journal of
of Intercultural Relations, 21, 429–446. Human Resource Management, 20, 1381–1401.
Goldstein, D. L., & Smith, D. H. (1999). The Hutchins, H. M., Burke, L. A., & Berthelsen, A. M.
analysis of the effects of experiential training on (2010). A missing link in the transfer problem?
sojourners’ cross-cultural adaptability. Examining how trainers learn about training

transfer. Human Resource Management, 49, Matthews, G., Zeidner, M., & Roberts, R. D.
599–618. (2002). Emotional intelligence: Science and myth.
Katz, J. P., & Seifer, D. M. (1996). It’s a different Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
world out there: Planning for expatriate success McIlveen-Yarbro, C. L. (1988). An assessment of the
through selection, pre-departure training, and ability of the culture-general assimilator to create
on-site socialization. Human Resource Planning, sensitivity to multiculturalism in an educational
19, 32–47. setting. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation).
Kealey, D. J., & Protheroe, D. R. (1996). The University of Houston.
effectiveness of cross-cultural training for McKinlay, N. J., Pattison, H. M., & Gross, H.
expatriates. International Journal of Intercultural (1996). An exploratory investigation of the
Relations, 20, 141–165. effects of a cultural orientation programme on
Kirkpatrick, D.L. (1987). Evaluation of training. In the psychological well-being of international
R.L. Craig (Ed.), Training and development university students. Higher Education, 31,
handbook: A guide to human resource 379–395.
development (pp. 301–319). New York, NY: Mendenhall, M., & Oddou, G. (1986).
McGraw-Hill. Acculturation profiles of expatriate managers:
Kolancian, V. G. (2013). Causes of American Implications for cross-cultural training
company expatriates’ failures to complete programs. Columbia Journal of World Business,
offshore work assignments. Proquest 21, 73–79.
Information & Learning, AAI3544176. Mendenhall, M. E., Stahl, G. K., Ehnert, I., Oddou,
Kraimer, M.L., Wayne, S.J., & Jaworski, R.A. G., Osland, J. S., & Kuhlmann, T. M. (2004).
(2001). Sources of support and expatriate Evaluation studies of cross-cultural training
performance: The mediating role of programs: A review of the literature from
expatriate adjustment. Personnel Psychology, 54, 1988 to 2000. In D. Landis, J. Bennett, & M.
71–99. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural
Lenartowicz, T., Johnson, J.P., & Konopaske, R. training (pp. 129–143). Sage.
(2014). The application of learning theories to Mesmer-Magnus, J. R., & Viswesvaran, C. (2006).
improve cross-cultural training programs in How family-friendly work environments affect
MNCs. The International Journal of work/family conflict: A meta-analytic
Human Resource Management, 25(12), investigation. Journal of Labor Research, 27,
1697–1719. 555–574.
Lievens, F., Harris, M. M., Van Keer, E., & Mesmer-Magnus, J. R., & Viswesvaran, C. (2008).
Bisqueret, C. (2003). Predicting cross-cultural Expatriate management: A review and directions
training performance: The validity of for research in expatriate selection, training, and
personality, cognitive ability, and dimensions repatriation. In M. M. Harris (Ed.), Handbook
measured by an assessment center and a of research in international human resource
behavior description interview. Journal of management (pp. 183–206). New York, NY:
Applied Psychology, 88, 476–489. Lawrence Erlbaum.
Littrell, L.N., & Salas, E. (2005). A review of cross- Mesmer-Magnus, J. R., & Viswesvaran, C. (2010).
cultural training: Best practices, guidelines, and The role of pre-training interventions in learning:
research needs. Human Resource Development A meta-analysis and integrative review. Human
Review, 4(3), 305–334. Resource Management Review, 20(4), 261–282.
Littrell, L.N., Salas, E., Hess, K.P., Paley, M., & Mischel, W. (1965). Predicting the success of Peace
Fiedel, S. (2006). Expatriate preparation: Corps volunteers in Nigeria. Journal of
A critical analysis of 25 years of cross-cultural Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 510–517.
training research. Human Resource Development Moon, H., Choi, B., & Jung, J. (2012). Previous
Review, 5(3), 355–388. international experience, cross-cultural training,

and expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment: identity. Journal of Management Education, 39

Effects of cultural intelligence and goal (5), 572–596.
orientation. Human Resource Development Pollard, W. R. (1989). Gender stereotypes and
Quarterly, 23, 285–330. gender roles in cross-cultural education: The
Morris, M. A., & Robie, C. (2001). A meta-analysis cultural assimilator. International Journal of
of the effects of cross-cultural training on Intercultural Relations, 13, 57–72.
expatriate performance and adjustment. Ramirez, H. A. (1992). The effects of cross-cultural
International Journal of Training and training on the attributions and attitudes of
Development, 5, 112–125. preservice teachers. (Unpublished doctoral
Nam, K. A., Cho, Y., & Lee, M. (2013). West meets dissertation). University of Illinois, Urbana-
East? Identifying the gap in current cross- Champaign.
cultural training research. Human Resource Ronen, S. (1989). Training the international
Development Review, 20, 1–22. assignee. In R. A. Katzell (Ed.), Training and
Noe, R. A. (1986). Trainee’s attributes and development in organizations (pp. 417–453). San
attitudes: Neglected influences on training Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
effectiveness. Academy of Management Review, Salas, E., Burke, C. S., Wilson-Donnelly, K. A., &
11, 736–749. Fowlkes, J. E. (2004). Promoting effective
Ones, D. S., & Viswesvarna, C. (1999). Relative leadership within multicultural teams: An event-
importance of personality dimensions for based approach. In D. Day, S. J. Zaccaro, & S.
expatriate selection: A policy capturing study. M. Halpin (Eds.), Leader development for
Human Performance, 12, 275–294. transforming organizations (pp. 293–323).
Ones, D. S., & Viswesvaran, C. (2003). Job-specific Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
applicant pools and national norms for Selmer, J. (2001). The preference for predeparture
personality scales: Implications for range- or post-arrival cross-cultural training: An
restriction corrections in validation exploratory approach. Journal of Managerial
research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, Psychology, 16, 50–58.
570–577. Selmer, J., Torbiörn, I., & de Leon, C. T. (1998).
Osman-Gani, A. M., & Rockstuhl, T. (2009). Cross- Sequential cross-cultural training for expatriate
cultural training, expatriate self-efficacy, and business managers: Pre-departure and post-
adjustment to overseas assignments: An arrival. International Journal of Human Resource
empirical investigation of managers in Asia. Management, 9, 831–840.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, Sit, A., Mak, A. S., & Neill, J. T. (2017). Does cross-
33, 277–290. cultural training in tertiary education enhance
Paige, R. M., Jacobs-Cassuto, M., Yershova, Y. A., cross-cultural adjustment? A systematic review.
& DeJaeghere, J. (2003). Assessing intercultural International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
sensitivity: An empirical analysis of the Hammer 57, 1–18.
and Bennett Intercultural Development Sousa, C., Goncalves, G., Santos, J., & Leitao, J.
Inventory. International Journal of Intercultural (2017). Organizational practices for the
Relations, 27, 467–486. expatriates’ adjustment: A systematic review.
Parker, S. K. (1998) Enhancing role breadth self- Journal of Global Mobility, 5(3), 251–274.
efficacy: The roles of job enrichment and other Stroh, L. K., Black, J. S., Mendenhall, M. E., &
organizational interventions. Journal of Applied Gregersen, H. B. (2005). International
Psychology, 83, 835–852. assignments: An integration of strategy, research,
Peng, A. C., Dyne, L. V., & Oh, K. (2015). The & practice. Boca Raton, FL: Lawrence Erlbaum.
influence of motivational cultural intelligence on Thomas, J. P., Whitman, D. S., & Viswesvaran, C.
cultural effectiveness based on study abroad: (2010). Employee proactivity in organizations:
The moderating role of participant’s cultural A comparative meta-analysis of emergent

proactive constructs. Journal of Occupational investigation of predictive validity and

and Organizational Psychology, 83, 275–300. nomological net. Journal of Vocational Behavior,
Triandis, H. C. (1977). Theoretical framework for 65, 71–95.
evaluation of cross-cultural training Westwood, M. J., & Barker, M. (1990). Academic
effectiveness. International Journal of achievement and social adaptation among
Intercultural Relations, 1(4), 19–45. international students: A comparison of the
Triandis, H. C. (1994). Culture and social behavior. peer-pairing program. International Journal of
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Intercultural Relations, 14, 251–263.
Tung, R. L. (1981). Selection and training of Wong, A., Wei, L., Wang, X., & Tjosvold, D.
personnel for overseas assignments. Columbia (2017). Collectivist values for constructive
Journal of World Business, 16, 69–78. conflict management in international joint
Van Rooy, D. L., & Viswesvaran, C. (2004). venture effectiveness. International Journal of
Emotional intelligence: A meta-analytic Conflict Management, 29(1), 126–143.

Part II
Practice of Intercultural Training

10 International Initiatives in K–12
and Higher Education
Learning from and Moving Beyond Disciplinary History
Jennifer Mahon and Kenneth Cushner
Both interculturalists and multiculturalists readers should be cognizant that other countries
perform very similar tasks – we conduct define terms in different ways. For example,
research in the areas of intercultural communi- there is a good deal of literature that looks at
cation, intercultural competence, and intercul- the differences between the European and US
tural awareness. We study ethnic conflict, use of intercultural and multicultural (see e.g.,
intercultural relations, cross-cultural experi- Grant & Brueck, 2010). Gundara (2000) asserts
ences, global education, peace education, and that multicultural tends to be used in a descrip-
international education. We study abroad. All tive manner, while intercultural is used to sug-
of this is done with an eye on how it can be gest interaction. In our previous work we have
applied to the context of teaching and learning advocated the use of intercultural education.
across multiple contexts.
Any reader who has sought out this book is
already interested in looking at culture – cul- And Etics
ture across/between/among borders, countries,
But we have to echo Hill (2007) that attempts
situations, and times. Education related to cul-
to categorize terms such as multicultural and
ture has developed out of just those sort of
intercultural have not led to clear definitions or
concerns – based on contextual circumstances,
regularity in usage: “. . . the literature and
situational needs, and human interests that
practice shows them, by and large, operating
span the globe. It is, admittedly, a difficult task
independently with little reference, one to the
to encapsulate such concepts in a brief space.
other.” Rather, more efforts to establish
While we are not anthropologists, we find it
mutual ground would enhance the achieve-
useful to consider emic and etic approaches to
ment of “common objectives and improving
our purposes within this chapter. An emic per-
practice” (p. 245). The terms are often
spective comes from within a culture, while an
exchanged for one another, and there is much
etic approach attempts to observe from with-
that overlaps between the two including diver-
out in order to achieve some semblance of
sity awareness, cultural pluralism, notions of
impartiality. Yet these terms are often blurred
identity, boundaries, and valuation of the
(Headland, Pike, & Harris, 1990).
other (Grant & Brueck, 2010).
Headland, Pike, and Harris (1990) argue
that the same confusion abounds within the
Our Emics
emic/etic debate, and that there is much to be
From the outset, it must be clear that this chap- gained by a dialogical approach, looking at
ter was written by two US Americans, and both sides in order to move beyond the past

358 jennifer mahon and kenneth cushner
and build on it. So perhaps a “classical” etic example, in Tylor’s (1867) classic work Primi-
approach would not be done by two scholars tive Culture (Stocking, 1968). The term culture
who admit to operating within the intercul- was associated with greater sophistication,
tural paradigm. But for now we hope the such as the expression “she is more cultured
reader will indulge us in taking some initial than he.” Today, this idea might be more com-
steps. To begin, we attempt to trace the fields monly described by the word “civilized.”
such as intercultural and multicultural educa- However, this notion was questioned by Franz
tion which have dominated the paradigm of Boas. He used the word in the plural, the first ever
K–12 education and teacher preparation. Sec- to do so, suggesting the existence of more than
ondly, to move beyond those boundaries we one cultural tradition, and thus their equivalence.
draw from something both fields acknowledge By living with native peoples in the Arctic, and
is important – international perspectives. In adopting their customs, he discovered other ways
doing so, we draw upon organizations that of life had value (Stocking, 1968).
have enacted efforts to engage people across “The major implication of Boas’s classic
cultures, such as in the field of study abroad. book The Mind of Primitive Man (1911) was
At the end of the day, interculturalists or the need to replace an almost universal ethno-
multiculturalists have one very basic goal in centrism by respect, understanding, and appre-
common: we want our world to function so that ciation of the values and the way of life of
all people are essentially happy and healthy. others” (Klineberg, 1980, p.36). He saw the
For that to happen we need to learn to under- intertwined relationship between whole culture
stand others better so we can ultimately interact and individual; between a man’s social culture
well across multiple borders and contexts. and his feelings, reasonings, and perceivings.
He saw the impact language and communica-
tion had on culture and vice versa. Such work
Confusion from the Beginnings
was ground-breaking (Stocking, 1968):
Culture “Defined”
His work led to the emergence of the modern
Perhaps what intercultural and multicultural social science paradigm for the study of mankind.
educators share at the most basic level is the The idea of culture, radically transformed in
concept of culture. Even its definition, how- meaning, is the central element of this paradigm,
ever, has been debated (Grant & Brueck, and indeed much of the social science of the 20th
2010). Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952) illus- century may be seen as working out in detail of
trated this when they revealed 164 definitions. the implication of the culture idea. (p. 232)
They settled on the following:
He influenced other scholars to continue inves-
Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, tigating these ideas, including Ruth Benedict
of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by (1934), Margaret Mead (1926) and Edward
symbols, constituting the distinctive Sapir (1921), and their work had direct impli-
achievements of human groups, including their cations for schooling.
embodiment in artifacts. The essential core of Benedict, purportedly the first person to use
culture consists of traditional (i.e., historically the word intercultural in writings (Leeds-
derived and selected) ideas and especially their
Hurwitz, 1990) devised an integrated “gestalt”
attached values (p. 180).
view of culture where she explored the dichot-
Some of the earliest disagreements began with omy of abnormality/normality, leading to
an inferior/superior dialectic found, for ideas of cultural relativity Caffrey (1989).

International Initiatives in K–12 and Higher Education 359
Benedict also worked with the Bureau for Service Bureau for Education in Human Rela-
Intercultural Education – an organization tions, which greatly influenced teacher training
devoted to promoting diversity and under- throughout New York. Organizations such as
standing in US schools. She advised Margaret these were active in research and established “a
Mead whose work revealed great diversity in philosophy of democratic living, provided cur-
social standards as expressed by adolescents riculum and teacher training, and drew attention
(Klineberg, 1980). Finally, Edward Sapir ques- to problems faced by minority groups.”
tioned the interaction of language and culture McGee Banks (2004) suggests that points of
in the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which posited tension existed between different factions of
that “language functions not only to report intercultural/intergroup educators. They
information but actually to shape our percep- debated curriculum, with one side advocating
tions of reality” (Dodd, 1998, p. 119). These a culture-specific approach – that is, giving spe-
ideas are crucial to comprehending the experi- cific information on individual groups –
ences and interpretation of meaning by non- whereas the other side emphasized the need
English speaking students in US K–12 schools for teachers to learn prejudice reduction skills
today. and improve relationships between different
Much of the early work of these influential groups. They disagreed on whether the audi-
scholars coincided with the two World Wars ence for their programs should be the immi-
and the Great Depression which led people grants themselves, or members of the host
beyond the question of what culture is, to ques- culture. For example, Banks (2004a) describes
tion what prevents intercultural misunderstand- intercultural education as a subgroup within
ing. Schools provided fertile ground for conflict intergroup education, stating: “A prominent
as students with different national, cultural, and vision within the intergroup education ideology
linguistic backgrounds mixed in the classroom. was interracial harmony and desegregation;
Like the definition of culture, educators dis- another name for the movement was intercul-
agreed over which approach was best. tural education” (2004a, p. 11, emphasis in ori-
ginal). Another disagreement involved
immigrant cultural identity maintenance versus
Debating Cultural Terms and
assimilation to US norms. Intercultural educa-
Approaches to Schooling:
tion’s purpose (Banks, 2004a) was to “help
Intercultural Education
immigrant students adapt to American life,
In the early years, the first movements to address maintain aspects of their ethnic identity, and
cultural differences in school were referred to as become effective citizens of the common-
“intercultural education,” or “intergroup educa- wealth” (p. 231). McGee Banks, on the other
tion.” According to Banks (2004c), the develop- hand, describes the efforts of the Progressive
ment and inclusion of this work in US schools is Education Alliance as “seeking to help students
attributed to K–12 educators’ needs to respond reduce their prejudice and increase their under-
to increased anti-Semitism and racial rioting in standing and appreciation of ethnic, racial, and
between the World Wars. The Progressive Edu- religious diversity” (McGee Banks, 2004)
cation Association was credited with the creation
of the Commission on Intercultural Education
Multicultural Education
who “officially coined” the term intercultural
education in 1935 (McGee Banks, 2004). Add- Some authors contend that intercultural edu-
itionally, Rachel Davis DuBois founded the cation in the USA no longer exists as it was

originally conceived. Its broad scope pre- mandated school and staff training on “diver-
vented the efforts from being systematized sity issues,” and student integration. Owner-
(Khoja-Moolji, 2013). McGee Banks (2004) ship of the canon of knowledge regarding the
believes intercultural education was a move- curriculum was paramount to this debate.
ment that contributed to the development of Scholars such as Nieto (2009), Ladson-Billings
multicultural education. Multicultural educa- (2004), and McClaren (2015) argued that
tion filled the blind spot of the intercultural/ multicultural education was being watered
intergroup educators who “did not seem to down. They argued against what is known
recognize or were not prepared to address the as the additive or contributions approach,
enormous problem of minority discrimin- (for example, including Black authors in lit-
ation.” The influence of intercultural/inter- erature classes) in favor instead of a critical
group education has waned. James Banks perspective, which includes examinations
unequivocally states the intergroup (intercul- of power and structural inequalities. Multi-
tural) education movement had “quietly died cultural education should be an avenue for
without a requiem with the advent of the Civil social justice, transformation, and empower-
Rights Movement (2004b, p.11). ment. Gay (2004) asserts that Nieto’s defin-
Multicultural education is an educational ition is the most comprehensive and
reform movement which seeks to change the “synergistic” as it includes not only the socio-
structure of educational institutions so political context, but also notions of proced-
members of diverse racial, ethnic, language, ures and outcomes.
and cultural groups can achieve educational
Multicultural education is a pervasive
equality (Banks, 2004a). Increased emphasis
pedagogical process that is antiracist, egalitarian,
on ethnicity grew out of the Civil Rights move- and inclusive. Furthermore, it permeates the
ment, which led calls for ethnic studies to be curriculum and instructional strategies used in
offered in universities, eventually working its schools, as well as the interactions among
way into the K–12 school arena. People called teachers, students and parents, and the very way
for marginalized voices to be heard, and for that school conceptualize the nature of teaching
examination of institutional structures so that and learning. Because it uses critical pedagogy as
educational equity might be achieved (Banks, its underlying philosophy and focuses on
2004b). Considered a pioneer in the field, knowledge reflection, and action (praxis) as the
Banks developed an approach focused on the basis for social change, multicultural education
furthers the democratic principles of social justice
schools, especially in regard to curriculum and
(Nieto, 2000, as cited by Gay, 2004, p. 34).
pedagogy typified in his Five Dimensions of
Multicultural Education. These include con-
tent integration, the knowledge construction
A Bridge: Intercultural
process, prejudice reduction, equity pedagogy,
Communication and the
and empowering school culture (see e.g.,
International Stage
2004a).
Schools experienced political tensions over We agree that intercultural education has
multiculturalism. Some people saw the move- changed since it was conceived in the 1920s,
ment as an attempt to be politically correct, as but not that it is dead or was supplanted by
a move for radical liberals to take over the multicultural education. Intercultural educa-
school curriculum. Debates raged across US tion, especially as related to intercultural com-
school districts regarding textbook adoptions, munication, is very much alive and should be

included in current curriculum in K–12 schools multicultural perspectives and address issues
and teacher training. Multicultural education of intercultural communication, cross-cultural
has dominated the educational paradigm in training and language diversity into the prep-
the USA, but we also do not believe that inter- aration of teachers. Hofstede (1986) applied
cultural education should supplant multicul- his 4-D model of cultural difference to various
tural education – rather there is value and contexts in the educational sphere, from the
need for both. varying social positions of teachers and stu-
dents, to differences in the relevance of cur-
riculum and cognitive abilities between
Intercultural Education populations, to teacher/student and student/
student interaction. Albert and Triandis
Hoopes and Pusch (1979) contend that the (1985) argued for the need for intercultural
division was attributed to the immediacy of education in multicultural societies, suggesting
ethnic and racial conflict happening at the that all children, as well as teachers in multi-
time, and a movement led by minorities who cultural societies, could profit from exposure
talked about cultural pluralism, as opposed to to effective intercultural education.
the intercultural field which was dominated by A comprehensive history of what Pusch
“mainstream American culture” and relied on terms international/intercultural communica-
international and intercultural communication tion and training is outside of the scope of this
terms: work. Nonetheless, we feel that the similar
one of the most significant problems in the field theoretical grounding, struggles around discip-
has been its division into two parts which have linary boundaries, and its origins in inter-
remained unnecessarily separate – the national applications help illuminate the
international intercultural and the domestic inter- discussion going forward.
ethnic. The international has found its focus of Immigration, the Depression, and the Wars
interest in higher education and in training focused attention on cultural differences.
personnel for overseas service while the inter- Three post–World War II factors led to this:
ethic interest has been located in elementary and
Americans from diplomats to students to busi-
secondary education and has concentrated on
ness people were “swarming” overseas, foreign
teacher education at the university level . . . There
students were coming to the USA to study in
is thus almost a cross-cultural division within
the field. (Hoopes, 1979, p. 13) great numbers, and the domestic ethnic and
racial situation was in need of attention. While
Notes Stephan and Stephan, “For decades, the K–12 arena developed intercultural/inter-
social psychologists have sought to understand group education as responses, government and
the causes of prejudice, stereotyping and dis- business took other approaches such as inter-
crimination. During the same period, educa- cultural or cross-cultural communication and
tors were developing multicultural education training (Hoopes, 1979).
and other programs to improve intergroup Leeds-Hurwitz (1990) offers examples of
relations. Both groups were working in relative increased diplomatic and military needs that
isolation and neither fully benefitted from the led to major shifts in thinking about the poten-
work of the other group” (2004, p. 782). tial applications of the intercultural training
Pusch’s work (1979) was one of the earlier field. The United States Army, realizing their
attempts to bridge the fields. She presented a soldiers needed both to better understand
resource to guide the integration of diversity within its own ranks, and to improve

their linguistic skills for work abroad, created aspects of their subject led to the study of small
the Army Specialized Training Program elements of culture, rather than the traditional
(ASTP), the first to undertake language topics anthropologists taught their college
training to a great degree. They used a non- students. This shift, in turn, led to the creation of
academic approach, i.e., concentrating on new fields of research, all centered on the role of
nonverbal communication in social interaction:
immediate needs for conversational skills as
proxemics, time, kinesics, paralanguage (Leeds-
opposed to the grammar-translation model
Hurwitz, 1990, p. 275).
prevalent at the time. Utilizing the ASTP as a
model, the US Department of State’s Foreign Although unintentional, Hall’s work spread
Service Institute (FSI) pioneered intercultural cultural education beyond anthropology; it
communication training. Especially critical to was no longer the exclusive domain of any
this development was Edward Hall, an anthro- one subject area. Many scholars representing
pologist who was hired by a branch of the different disciplines contributed vital research,
foreign service known as the Technical for example, Berlo’s theory on the process of
Cooperation Authority (TCA). Greatly influ- communication (1960), Allport’s psycho-
enced by Boas’s idea that communication was logical work (1954) on the nature of prejudice,
central to culture, and recognizing that the and Rokeach’s sociological work (1968) on
technicians he was training were asking for world-mindedness. This research was in turn
immediately applicable skills in international built upon by other training organizations
contexts, he modified their curriculum beyond such as the Society for Intercultural Educa-
anthropology. He included the concept of cul- tion, Training, and Research (SIETAR), and
ture, the process of change, and American The Institute for Intercultural Communication
assumptions. He added “microcultural analy- and its summer program (SIIC) in Portland,
sis,” which helped his technicians learn to Oregon (Hoopes,1979).
attend to such aspects of human behavior as
gestures or the use of space they found to be
easily observable. He included geography and Moving Beyond Borders:
language. Notably, he established the funda- Comprehensive Initiatives
mental idea of “culture as communication.”
Interdisciplinary Lessons
People could be trained to deliberatively
attend to “subtle aspects” of interaction, both Despite all of the benefits having come of the
of the host and of themselves. Further, they interdisciplinary work pioneered by people like
could be trained to do so in a shorter amount Hall, there still seems to be a disconnect
of time with less emphasis on theory – a notion between what is known as the intercultural
not appreciated by some other anthropologists and multicultural disciplines. In our other
(Leeds-Hurwitz, 1990). works (Cushner & Mahon, 2009) we have
People like Hall shaped and redefined the called attention to this lack of international
field: perspective and content which appears to be
missing in traditional multicultural education
These academics had to adapt their knowledge pedagogy and teacher training. We feel the
for the new audience in a variety of ways; this history we have outlined in this chapter speaks
adaptation led to new ideas about their work and to the fact that a focus on international issues
to a burst of creativity in the late 1940s and early can help achieve goals of intercultural and
1950s. The need to teach immediately practical multicultural education. For example, by the

1960s, John F. Kennedy would assist the and perspectives that cut across academic dis-
growth of multicultural education due to his ciplines and age/grade levels. This review
impact on the Civil Rights Movement, but shows overlap with many concepts from the
also, by enacting legislation for the Peace fields of cross-cultural communication and
Corps in 1961, he signaled the importance of intercultural training:
learning about the disparity beyond US
borders too (Dodd, 1998). While multicultural • Perspective Consciousness refers to a per-
educators have emphasized, and perhaps son’s awareness that he or she has a view of
rightly so, that intercultural education has the world that is not universally shared, that
not historically examined the perspective of this view is shaped by unconscious as well as
minorities in the USA, research does show conscious influences, and that others may
promising international initiatives enabling have profoundly different views.
students to bring home the cultural learning • State of the Planet Awareness encompasses
and sensitivity acquired overseas. Boix- the awareness of prevailing world condi-
Mansilla (2011) argues it may even inspire tions and trends and includes such aspects
them to take action. This is similar to the as population growth and migration; eco-
notion of social justice which critical multicul- nomic conditions; resources and the phys-
turalists argue was missing from traditional ical environment; political developments;
multicultural education. advancements in science and technology,
Edward Hall changed the field of cultural law, and health; and various forms of
education by introducing immediately prac- conflicts.
tical and useful training from which his stu- • Cross-Cultural Awareness includes an aware-
dents could take action, Secondly, Pusch noted ness of social and cultural diversity around
that intercultural/international and multicul- the world and at least a beginning awareness
tural fields must work together. Thus taking of how one’s own culture and society might
their cues, the remainder of this chapter high- be viewed from other vantage points. Han-
lights key international initiatives across K–12 vey suggested that this dimension would be
(primary/secondary) education as well as the most difficult to attain, recognizing that
higher (tertiary) education. These include: people typically do not have the time or
international experiences for students, organ- expertise needed to truly understand those
izations that promote comprehensive curricu- who are different from themselves. This has
lar frameworks and/or policy initiatives, and since been supported by our growing under-
outcomes of recent studies that assess their standing of the time and attention required
impact. for significant culture learning to occur
(Cushner & Mahon, 2009; Vande Berg,
Paige, & Lou, 2012).
K–12 International Initiatives
• Knowledge of Global Dynamics or World
Curricular Integration Systems, requires a modest understanding
of how world ecosystems operate and the
An Attainable Global Perspective: The integra- importance of understanding the intercon-
tion of a global perspective across the curricu- nectedness of living things such that when
lum was first presented by Hanvey (1975), who something is introduced somewhere in the
identified five elements of a global perspective system there may be unanticipated and nega-
that can be transformed into teachable skills tive consequences that follow.

• Awareness of Human Choice represents the designed to prepare students for success at
final critical step in attaining a global per- university and beyond.
spective. The fact that once people acquire • The IB Career-related Certificate (IBCC),
new knowledge of the global system they the newest offering for students aged 16–19,
must then decide how to act toward the is specifically designed for students who wish
problems that confront individuals, nations, to engage in career-related learning.
and the human species.
Common to all IB programs is how the IB
International Baccalaureate Organization
organization defines international education.
(IBO): The International Baccalaureate, com-
The various IB programs aim to develop inter-
monly referred to as the IB (see IBO.org), was
nationally minded citizens of the world who,
founded in 1968 in an attempt to address the
recognizing their common humanity and
educational needs of children of mobile fam-
shared guardianship of the planet, help to
ilies, many of whom were overseas working in
create a better and more peaceful world while
multinational organizations. In its early days,
learning to live together and building a sense
the program consisted of a common pre-
of identity, cultural awareness, and develop-
university curriculum and a common set of
ment of universal human values. This is
external examinations designed for students
achieved by stimulating curiosity and inquiry,
in schools throughout the world seeking to
equipping students with the skills to learn and
acquire a secondary school diploma that
acquire knowledge individually and collabora-
would guarantee acceptance in universities
tively, and encouraging students to apply these
worldwide. Today, the IB consists of four
skills and knowledge across a broad range of
high-quality international education programs
content and discipline areas. IB programs also
that are being implemented in more than 3,300
aim to provide international content while
schools that reach more than 1 million stu-
responding to local requirements and interests,
dents in forty-five countries.
encourage diversity and flexibility in teaching
As stated in its mission statement, “the IB
methods, and provide appropriate forms of
aims to develop inquiring, knowledgeable and
assessment and international benchmarking.
caring young people who help to create a
The IB Learner Profile, the IB mission state-
better and more peaceful world through inter-
ment translated into a set of learning outcomes
cultural understanding and respect,” encour-
for the twenty-first century, provides a long-term
aging students around the world to become
vision of education that serves as a set of ideals
active, compassionate, and lifelong learners
that can inspire, motivate, and focus the work of
who understand that other people, with their
schools and teachers, uniting them in a common
differences, can also be right (IBO, 2014).
purpose. The Learner Profile is incorporated
The IB continuum currently offers four dis-
into all of its programs as the common ground
tinct programs:
on which all IB World Schools stand, and con-
• The IB Primary Years Programme (PYP) is tains the essence of what they, and the programs,
designed for students aged 3–12. are about. Thus, the Learner Profile guides all
• The IB Middle Years Programme (MYP) is students to strive to be Inquirers: Knowledge-
for students aged 11–16. able, Thinkers, Communicators, Principled,
• The IB Diploma Programme (DP), for stu- Open-Minded, Caring, Risk-Takers, Balanced,
dents aged 16–19, offers an academically and Reflective. Intercultural elements are evi-
challenging program with final examinations dent throughout the IB programs.

Asia Society/EdSteps: The Asia Society, in files/book-globalcompetence.pdf). Each of the

conjunction with the Council of Chief State recommendations above are in support of the
School Officers, published the document Edu- intercultural dimension.
cating for Global Competence: Preparing our
Youth to Engage the World (Boix Mansilla &
Jackson, 2011). The document defines global Study Abroad in Secondary Education
competence as “the capacity and disposition to Student exchange for secondary level students
understand and act on issues of global signifi- has been available through a number of organ-
cance,” recognizing that globally competent izations for more than sixty years. In 1947,
individuals are aware, curious, and interested after both World Wars, the secondary school
in learning about the world and how it works. student exchange program that is now referred
Globally competent individuals can use the big to as AFS Intercultural Programs, Inc. (origin-
ideas, tools, methods, and languages that are ally) was established. Similarly, Youth for
central to any discipline (mathematics, litera- Understanding (YFU) began operations in
ture, history, science, and the arts) to engage 1951 between war-torn Germany and the
the pressing issues of our time. They deploy United States in an effort to heal the wounds
and develop this expertise as they investigate of World War II. Today, although AFS and
such issues, recognizing multiple perspectives, YFU are among the largest organizations
communicating their views effectively, and facilitating adolescent exchange around the
taking action to improve conditions. world, there are an increasing number of
groups encouraging student exchange for ado-
The framework presented in this document,
lescents. The Council on Standards for Inter-
applicable at all age levels and content areas,
national Educational Travel (CSIET), a non-
suggests that globally competent students
profit organization established in 1984, is com-
should be able to perform the following four
mitted to ensuring that the quality of inter-
competences:
national educational travel and exchange for
(1) Investigate the world beyond their imme- youth at the high school level maintains best
diate environment, framing significant practices and follows a set of agreed-upon
problems and conducting well-crafted and standards. CSIET, which in 2014 had 207
age-appropriate research. members, has been tracking participation
(2) Recognize perspectives, others’ and their among their member organization since 2004.
own, articulating and explaining such per- Although the number of US secondary stu-
spectives thoughtfully and respectfully. dents who chose to study abroad declined from
(3) Communicate ideas effectively with a high of 2,619 in 2005 to 1,165 in the
diverse audiences, bridging geographic, 2012–2013 academic year, the number of sec-
linguistic, ideological, and cultural ondary students who came to the United
barriers. States steadily increased from 25,815 in
(4) Take action to improve conditions, 2004–2005 to 29, 698 in the 2012–2013
viewing themselves as players in the world school year.
and participating reflectively.
Numerous examples of this in action in a var- AFS: Of all the secondary exchange organiza-
iety of classroom contexts are presented in the tions, AFS Intercultural Programs has had the
document (available at: http://asiasociety.org/ most extensive research initiatives, looking

especially at the immediate and long-term students for extended periods of time; the con-
impact of the exchange experience. The AFS tribution of exchange to intercultural learning
Long-Term Impact Study documented not for educational institutions; assessment of
only the initial impact of study abroad, but intercultural learning in student exchanges;
also the benefit of following a secondary and one on the intercultural training of
school exchange experience with one at univer- teachers in 2017.
sity (Hansel, 2008). From this extensive
research, we find that:
• 89 percent of AFS participants who subse- Internationalization Initiatives

quently study abroad at university speak at in Higher Education
least one foreign language
Knight (2003) refers to the internationalization
• 39 percent of AFS participants who also of higher education as “the process of integrat-
study abroad at university report having
ing an international, intercultural, or global
friends outside their own culture
dimension into the purpose, functions, or
• 45 percent of AFS participants who also delivery of post-secondary education” (p. 2).
study abroad at university report having
These initiatives have been spawned, in large
professional networks outside their own cul-
part, by the desire of universities to remain
ture; AFS participants who also study
current, relevant, and innovative in their
abroad at university have lower intercultural
research, teaching, and service missions
anxiety levels – even twenty-five years after
around a wide range of globally intertwined
the experience
events (markets crash globally affecting one
• those who study abroad at university (both another, change in political systems influence
with AFS experience and without) have
other countries, and so forth), as well as the
higher developmental scores on the IDI.
need to prepare students to find employment
These results are all greater than those who and compete in the global marketplace.
have had one study abroad experience, which,
in turn, are greater than those who have never
studied overseas. The Role of Educational Associations
Forum on Intercultural Learning and Numerous professional organizations and

Exchange: An outgrowth of AFS in Europe, associations that influence and accredit higher
the Forum on Intercultural Learning and education institution have adopted inter-
Exchange (Fondazione Intercultura, n.d.) has national agendas and guidelines, including
organized a series of invitation-only confer- The American Council on Education (ACE),
ences co-sponsored by the Intercultural Foun- the National Association of State and Land
dation (related to the Italian AFS organization Grant Universities and Colleges
Intercultura) with research support directed by (NASULGC), National Association of Stu-
IDRInstitute. The first Forum, conducted in dent Personnel Administrators (NASPA), and
Italy in October, 2009, focused on intercultural the Association of International Educators
learning and re-entry in study abroad. Nine (NAFSA). In addition to these broad-based
others have taken place since then, focusing organizations, a number of discipline-specific
on such topics as the intercultural learning that initiatives are currently underway that influ-
takes place in families that host foreign ence higher education in general and/or the

preparation of teachers more specifically, two identified through interviews with leaders in
of which are discussed in greater detail. education and government that examine what
is being done to better prepare teachers to
NAFSA: Association of International Educa- understand and address the global and inter-
tors: NAFSA, the world's largest nonprofit national dimensions of their work. It also sug-
association dedicated to international education gests a framework for internationalizing the
and exchange, has expanded its influence and education of pre-service teachers and increasing
outreach in recent years from being an organ- the number of world language teachers, espe-
ization initially established to address the needs cially in less commonly taught languages.
of incoming international students (in its begin- Among their recommendations that address
ning, the acronym NAFSA stood for National the intercultural dimension in teacher education
Association of Foreign Student Affairs) to one are facilitating at least one in-depth cross-cul-
that now serves as a catalyst for transforming tural experience for every pre-service teacher;
educational institutions in its broadest sense requiring general education coursework that
and advocating for comprehensive inter- helps prospective teachers to develop deep
national education across the disciplines. knowledge of at least one world region, culture,
NAFSA currently has initiatives designed to foreign language, or global issue; providing
influence teacher education, business education, professional education courses that enable
legal education, medical and public health, the future teachers to teach the global dimensions
STEM fields (science, technology, engineering, of their subject matter; providing field experi-
and mathematics), as well as the general educa- ences that support the development of pre-
tion curriculum (2014). Among its initiatives, service teachers’ global perspectives; promoting
the organization initiated its Colloquium on study or student teaching in another country, or
Internationalizing Teacher Education as an service-learning or student teaching in a multi-
opportunity for deans, faculty members, senior cultural community in the United States; and
international officers, and program directors providing appropriate orientation, supervision,
working to infuse global knowledge, awareness, and debriefing to tie these experiences to pro-
and cross-cultural competency into coursework spective teachers’ emerging teaching practice.
and cocurricular activities. The Colloquium Similar initiatives are underway by the
functions as a venue to share new and innova- American Association of Colleges of Teacher
tive initiatives to internationalize teacher educa- Education (AACTE), the Association of
tion, and to learn from each other. Similar Teacher Educators (ATE), as well as the
colloquia are offered each year in the other discipline-specific associations (e.g., the
disciplines as well (NAFSA, 2017). National Council for the Social Studies and
the National Science Teachers Association).
Longview Foundation for World Affairs and
International Understanding: The Longview
Study Abroad in Higher Education
Foundation has been helping young people in
the United States learn about world regions and
History
global issues since 1966. In 2008, they put their
attention toward teacher education, releasing Ask if a university is focused on internationli-
the document Teacher Preparation for the zation, and one just might hear, “Yes, we have
Global Age: The Imperative for Change. This a study abroad program.” In a study of the
document highlights promising practices internationalization efforts of 1,100

universities conducted by the American Coun- 70 percent) believe it is important that their
cil of Education (2017), increasing study university offers a variety of international
abroad was listed as the most important prior- experiences (e.g., study abroad, international
ity. The number of students participating in internships, and opportunities to interact with
study abroad at the university level, both as international students). When asked about
international students pursuing full-degree their plans to study abroad, 55 percent say that
programs outside their home country as well they plan to study abroad as undergraduates,
as domestic students participating in short- while another 26 percent say they would like
term, semester or year-long overseas experi- to. And of those who plan to study abroad,
ences as a part of their education, has risen 70 percent say they would study the language
dramatically in recent years. The United States of their country of choice. The sad reality
has witnessed a steady increase in numbers of though, at least in the United States, is that,
students studying abroad that has grown from even with this apparent interest and steady
about 50,000 in the 1985–1986 academic year, increase in numbers of students participating
to over 140,000 in 1999–2000, and reaching in overseas study, only about 5 percent of
332,727 in the 2016–2017 school year (IIE, undergraduate students ultimately do partici-
2001; 2018). Similar trends are evident in pate in an overseas experience. This percent-
Europe where more than 3 million students age is far lower in graduate education.
have studied outside of their home country
since the Erasmus program began in 1987,
Research on Intercultural Learning in Study
with approximately 230,000 now doing so
Abroad
each year. Similarly, the number of inbound
students coming to the USA has increased to Now that the number of students participating
an all-time high of 1,094,792 in the 2017–2018 in study abroad and studying away from their
academic year (Open Doors, IIE, 2018). The home country has increased, more and more
number of globally mobile students worldwide institutions of higher learning are touting it as
is expected to surpass 8 million by 2025. one of their major indicators that their efforts
The American Council on Education (ACE) at internationalization are effective and that
investigated the international experiences and their graduates are globally ready. Intercultur-
interests of incoming university freshmen in alists, however, have long recognized that
2001 and again in 2008 (ACE, 2008), provid- mere exposure to new people and events does
ing both insights into their readiness to address not automatically produce the kinds of learn-
international concerns as well as guidance to ing that is often assumed to occur (Bennett,
institutions as they work to embrace this ini- 2013; Pusch & Merrill, 2008). Many in the field
tiative. Freshmen students in the United States are challenging the assumption of the “immer-
reportedly enter university with a range of sion hypothesis,” that is, the belief that simply
international experiences: almost all (96 per- because students have had an international
cent) have studied a foreign language in high experience in a foreign culture that they have,
school; 26 percent report speaking a language in fact, achieved the objective of increasing
other than English at home; 61 percent have their intercultural competence (Vande Berg,
traveled abroad; 51 percent have a friend or Paige and Lou, 2012). Students, it seems,
family member living overseas; and 10 percent may not be achieving the intercultural gains
say they have hosted an international student so often assumed to occur as a result of study
in their home. By far, the majority (more than abroad and international exposure. Many,

instead, are arguing more forcefully, now subsequent interactions and intercultural
that there is clear evidence, for interventions friendships were rare. In similar studies
that would provide study abroad undertaken in England, Ireland, Spain, and
participants with the tools to respond to, and South Africa, domestic students report a
manage, the different contexts and challenges number of communication and language
they are certain to encounter, and to reflect challenges, as well as the possibility of making
upon and thus benefit more from the cultural faux pas, that led to an avoidance
experience. of the other (Dunne, 2009; Hyde and Ruth,
Studies looking at the experience of incom- 2002; Le Roux, 2001; Peacock and Harrison,
ing international students studying in the 2009). Finally, Groeppel-Klein, Germel-
United States report, somewhat surprisingly, mann, and Glaum (2010) report that even in
that intercultural development gains tend to a border university that had a specific inter-
be minimal, if not, in fact, reduced. It appears cultural mission and priority, intercultural
that most international students have limited interaction did not occur over time. These
interaction with US students, spending the studies all help to debunk the immersion
majority of their time with fellow nationals or hypothesis.
other international students. Domestic stu- Vande Berg, Paige, and Lou (2012) ques-
dents, on the other hand, tend to keep their tioned many of the assumptions commonly
distance from international students with made about study abroad and also provided
many reporting positive yet stereotypical a foundation of research and research-
views, and perceive a range of threats and inspired practice aimed at improving the out-
anxieties from international students comes. Their book challenges three common
(Spencer-Rodgers, 2001; Spencer-Rodgers & assumptions: (1) that students learn effect-
McGovern, 2002). Halualani (2008) and ively while abroad simply by being exposed
Halualani et al. (2004) found that while stu- to new and different cultures – commonly
dents, even on multicultural university referred to as the “immersion hypothesis;”
campuses that promote diversity, report par- (2) that reports from returning students
ticipating in intercultural interactions, these that they have been “transformed” provides
tend to be relatively rare, perceived as less the evidence needed to confirm that being
important, separate from their personal friend- immersed in the experience is, in fact, effect-
ship networks, or are in short-term one-time ive; and (3) that because most students
exchanges with international students. Many say they are learning effectively while
assume that because they are surrounded by abroad, we should focus more on getting
diversity it automatically translates into sub- larger numbers of students overseas than on
stantial encounters. working to investigate and improve the teach-
This appears to be common elsewhere in ing and learning that takes place. This volume
the world. In Australia, studies have found brings together scholarship from the aca-
that domestic students were not as interested demic disciplines, especially those that offer
in intercultural contact as were their inter- insights into the processes involved in human
national student counterparts (Nesdale & development, teaching and learning, with
Todd, 1993). In New Zealand, Ward and evidence from a number of courses and pro-
her colleagues (2005) report that although grams that have proven to be successful at
domestic students tended to have positive helping students develop their intercultural
perceptions of international students, their skills (Lou & Bosely, 2012).

Large Scale Studies of University Programs assist them to better understand their
Three large studies conducted on study abroad experience.
programs highlight some important aspectives
The Georgetown Consortium Research Project:
of targeted intercultural learning. These
Commonly referred to as The Georgetown
include Maximizing Study Abroad (MAXSA),
Study, this has been, to date, the most compre-
the Georgetown Consortium Research Pro-
hensive study examining immersion and its
ject, and the American University Center of
impact on intercultural development and lan-
Provence
guage learning (Vande Berg, 2009; Vande
Berg, Quinn, & Menyhart, 2012). For four
MAXSA: One of the first initiatives designed years, researchers looked at the experiences
to enhance intercultural learning and language and learning outcomes of US students study-
acquisition during the study abroad experience ing in sixty-one different programs to deter-
was the Maximizing Study Abroad (MAXSA) mine if the experience of study abroad
project undertaken at the University of Min- produces intercultural learning. Of all the pro-
nesota’s Center for Advanced Research on grams analyzed, only one was employing a
Language Acquisition. One of MAXSA’s comprehensive intervention strategy that
major contributions has been its pioneering included intensive cultural mentoring. Utiliz-
effort to place planned and strategic intervening a pre–posttest comparison group design
tions focused on intercultural development at that used the Intercultural Development
the core of the study abroad experience (Kap- Inventory (IDI) (Hammer, Bennett, & Wise-
pler Mikk, Cohen, & Paige, 2009). man, 2003), average gain of students in sixty of
Four key learning principles were identified the programs was minimal, at 1.32 pts. Partici-
as central to the approach to learning that pants in the one program that combined
MAXSA utilized (Cohen et al., 2005; Paige, immersion with cultural mentoring showed
Harvey, & McCleary, 2012): IDI gains averaging 12.47 points (see below,
on the American University Center of Pro-
• Learning strategies were introduced to stu-
vence). This study also demonstrated little sup-
dents so that they, as well as their study
port for two of the most commonly used
abroad professionals, could employ them
immersion practices – housing students with
throughout the experience to enhance learn-
host families and enrolling them directly in
ing outcomes.
host country university classes. Surprisingly,
• The principle of the learning cycle was
only students living with other US students
employed, whereby student learning was
showed significant, though modest, IDI gains.
addressed throughout the study abroad
Those who chose to engage with local host
experience, from pre-departure to in-country
families also demonstrated significant gains.
and later upon reentry.
• The principle of interactive learning was
introduced, so students learned how to util- The American University Center of Provence:
ize their daily interactions with the new lan- Of the sixty-one programs analyzed in the
guage and culture as authentic learning Georgetown Consortium Study, the only one
opportunities. to demonstrate significant gain in intercultural
• The principle of guided reflection was intro- sensitivity via the IDI was the American Uni-
duced, thereby providing students with key versity Center of Provence (Engle & Engle,
concepts about culture and language to 2012). Each semester, between fifteen and

forty students participate in one of two campus encouraging and supporting research initia-
programs in Marseilles or Aix, France. tives, and offering educational programs and
Although technically falling under the resources to its members. Its mission is to help
category of an “island program” where stu- to improve education abroad programs to
dents live and study together in one common benefit the students that participate in them
location, program structures have been put in by establishing standards of good practice,
place that provide for specific and strategic improving education abroad curricula, and
activities to occur that facilitate intercultural promoting data collection and outcomes
engagement and have demonstrated their abil- assessment. The Forum serves institutions
ity to impact student learning, for example: and organizations that sponsor and support
education abroad programs for students
• Classes were taught in the target language enrolled at US colleges and universities, and
(in this case French) by local professors.
collaborates with international member insti-
• Weekly community-based experiential learn- tutions and organizations to identify and
ing activities were required, as was attend-
facilitate best practices and standards for edu-
ance in a required course designed to
cation abroad.
support intercultural learning.
• Program policies required speaking only in
French. Curriculum and Instruction for Intercultural
• Participation with host families was required Learning
on a regular basis from the beginning MAXSA was not only a pioneering research
(including having host families greet the stu- study; it helped define research-based best
dents upon arrival in France). practices for study abroad programs that
• There was limited or restricted use of elec- attend to the achievement of intercultural
tronic communication. learning.
• Based on Kolb’s experiential learning cycle The authors Vande Berg, Paige, and Lou
(1984), there was an on-going cultural men- (2012) made specific recommendations that
toring component that addressed issues of study abroad professionals should consider
adaptation as well as issues relating to inter- that are worth summarizing here.
cultural communication.
(1) Be clear about what you want students to
accomplish through study abroad. Stu-
Best Practices in Study Abroad dent learning is assumed, but the nature
of that learning is often not well articu-
The prior research has shown that a targeted lated. Differentiate between surface
and comprehensive approach is necessary for (objective, low-level) and deep (develop-
study abroad to be a truly beneficial learning mental, experiential, constructivist,
experience. The following highlights some of reflective, transferable) learning. Robin-
the best practices in study abroad education son (2012, same volume) adds that
and programming. instructors must understand and deliber-
ately target intercultural learning as a spe-
Professional Standards in Study Abroad cific student learning objective. It can not
The Forum on Education Abroad only be a marginal by-product.
(www.forumea.org) focuses on developing (2) Identify learning outcomes, and then
and implementing standards of good practice, develop programs that help students to

achieve these. Traditionally this is not the meet the academic requirements and learning
case as the focus of many study-abroad outcomes of each department.
programs has been on the experience and Several themes have emerged that are
logistics, assuming that outcomes would driving the integration of study abroad across
be positive and desired. the curriculum and thus resulting in greater
(3) Be familiar with recent research on student participation on the part of faculty and stu-
learning abroad. Know the limitations of dents alike. These themes include a focus on
immersion approaches such as homestays the learning outcomes expected from the
and direct enrollment in host universities – study-abroad experience as opposed to simply
students need on-going support and men- attending to logistical and administrative
toring to help them learn throughout. structures; the growing emphasis on develop-
While immersion may be necessary, in ing study-abroad programs that are well-
and of itself it is insufficient. integrated with existing coursework as
(4) Embrace the principle that “intervention” opposed to being stand-alone elective experi-
is necessary. Cultural mentors can be ences; growing participation in community-
instrumental in helping students make service, civic engagement, and internship
sense of their intercultural challenges, placements in an overseas setting as an integral
which could be accomplished online, in- part of a student’s program; increased use of
person, or in learning communities. There employing international students in the pre-
is no one best way. departure orientation of students preparing to
(5) Cultural mentors should receive training in study abroad; highlighting study abroad as a
the theory of intercultural teaching and major dimension in addressing global and
learning. intercultural competencies in the overall
(6) Effective assessment should be carried out undergraduate curriculum; and integrating
that uses valid and reliable instruments the study-abroad experience more effectively
and rigorous methodologies. into one’s campus life upon return.
Importance of a Systematic University

Conclusion
Approach in Study Abroad
In recent years we have seen increased atten- This chapter began with a case to move
tion and focus given to the integration of the beyond dichotomies: the insider/outsider ideas
study-abroad experience more intimately to of the emic or etic perspective, the multicul-
the academic plan of students so it is not seen tural versus the intercultural. By tracing his-
as a marginal elective, with the added goal of tory, we have attempted not only to show the
making study abroad accessible to a greater differences and disagreements between the
percentage of the institution’s students. On fields, but to illuminate what might be in
many campuses, this may result in the first common in order to move forward on shared
collaboration between an international pro- goals. Yet history shows that an international
gram office and specific academic depart- perspective has been a common link– whether
ments. The integration of study abroad considering the education of immigrants, the
attempts to address such obstacles to student cultural sensitivity of US students, or the
participation as academic fit, faculty engage- inequities experienced within and beyond US
ment, as well as financial barriers, by structur- borders. Thus, optimistically, we listed a
ing international education experiences that number of initiatives in K–12 and higher

education that have continually tried to bring issues. International Journal of Intercultural
global perspectives into focus. Relations, 9(3), 319–337.
Yet we must acknowledge that another Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice.
common tie between these two fields is fighting Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Banks, J. A. (2004a). Introduction. In J. A. Banks &
against misunderstanding, animosity, fear, and
C. A. McGee Banks (Eds.). Handbook of
conflict between cultures. Global and domestic
research on multicultural education (2nd ed.,
conditions at the time of this writing are
pp. xi–xiv). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
fraught with many, many problems – from Banks, J. A. (2004b). Multicultural Education:
climate change, rising levels of economic dis- Historical development, dimensions, and
parity, ethnic and racial discord, to war and practice. In J. A. Banks & C. A. McGee Banks
massive refugee populations. Forty years have (Eds.), Handbook of research on multicultural
passed since Hoopes uttered the following: education (2nd ed., pp. 3–29). San Francisco,
“But the thrust of both communities, domestic CA: Jossey-Bass.
and international, should be in the same direc- Banks, J. A. (2004c). Race, knowledge construction,
tion, toward the development of the know- and education in the United States: Lessons from
ledge and skills needed to manage cultural history. In J. A. Banks & C. A. McGee Banks
(Eds.), Handbook of research on multicultural
diversity and bring about a more equitable
education (2nd ed., pp. 228–239). San Francisco,
distribution of the social good” (1979, p 13).
CA: Jossey-Bass.
We must move from narrow avenues of that
Benedict, R. (1934). Patterns of culture. New York,
which is intercultural or multicultural or cross- NY: Houghton Mifflin.
cultural to simply engaging in education that is Bennett, M. (2013). Turning cross-cultural contact
cultural. Let’s draw on the knowledge of each into intercultural learning. A presentation at the
other, so we can instead spend more time China Annual Conference for International
engaged in the work, in the initiatives that Education, Beijing, Feb 2, 2013. Retrieved from
might actually bring about a more equitable www.idrinstitute.org/allegati/IDRI_t2_allegati/
distribution of that greater good. 77/FILE_Allegato_CACIA_Beijing_2013rev
.pdf.
Berlo, D. (1960). The process of communication: An
References introduction to theory and practice. New York,
NY: Holt, Reinhart and Winston.
ACE. (2008). College bound students’ interests in
Boas, F. (1911). The mind of primitive man. New
study abroad and other international learning
York, NY: Macmillan.
activities. American Council on Education, Art
Boix Mansilla, V. & Jackson, A. (2011) Educating
and Science Group LLC, and the College Board.
for global competence: Preparing our youth to
Available at www.acenet.edu/AM/Template
engage the world. New York, NY: Asia Society.
.cfm?Section=Home&Template=/CM/
Caffrey, M. M. (1989). Ruth benedict: Stranger in
ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentFileID=3997
this land. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
ACE. (2017). Mapping internationalization on US
Cohen, A. D., Paige, R. M., Shively, R. L., Emert,
campuses: 2017 edition. American Council on
H. A., & Hoff, J. G. (2005). Maximizing study
Education. Available at www.acenet.edu/
abroad through language and culture strategies:
Research-Insights/Pages/Internationalization/
Research on students, study abroad program
Mapping-Internationalization-on-U-S-
professionals, and language instructors.
Campuses.aspx
Minneapolis, MN: Center for Advanced
Albert, R., & Triandis, H (1985). Intercultural
Research on Language Acquisition, Office of
education for multicultural societies: Critical
International programs, University of

Minnesota. Retrieved from www.carla.umn.edu/ A. Grant & A. Portera (Eds.), Intercultural and
maxsa/research.html. multicultural education: Enhancing global
CSIET (Council on Standards for International interconnectedness (pp. 3–11). New York, NY:
Educational Travel). (2014). 2012–2013 Routledge.
International Youth Exchange Statistics: Groeppel-Klein, A., Germelmann, C., & Glaum,
Semester and Academic Year Programs M. (2010). Intercultural interaction needs more
2012–2013 Cycle. Alexandria, VA: CSIET. than mere exposure: search for drivers of student
Retrieved January 9, 2014 from www.csiet.org/ interaction at border universities. International
documents/CSIETStatsReport2012-13-FINAL Journal of Intercultural Relations, 34, 253–267.
.pdf Gundara, J. (2000). Interculturalism, education and
Cushner, K., & Mahon, J. (2009). Developing the inclusion. London, UK: Paul Chapman
intercultural competence of educators and their Publishing.
students: Creating the blueprints. In D. Halualani, R. (2008). How do multicultural
Deardorff (Ed.). Sage handbook of intercultural university students define and make sense of
competence (pp. 304–320). Thousand Oaks, CA: intercultural contact? A qualitative study.
Sage Publications. International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
Dodd, C. (1998). Dynamics of intercultural 32, 1–16.
communication (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Halualani, R., Chitgopekar, A., Morrison, J., &
McGraw-Hill. Dodge, P. (2004). Who’s interacting? And what
Dunne, C. (2009). Host students' perspectives of are they talking about? – intercultural contact
intercultural contact in an Irish university. and interaction among multicultural university
Journal of Studies in International Education, 13, students. International Journal of Intercultural
222–239. Relations, 28, 353–372.
Engle. L., & Engle, J. (2012). Beyond immersion: Hammer, M., Bennett, M., & Wiseman, R. (2003).
The American University Center in Provence Measuring intercultural sensitivity: The
Experiment in Holistic Intervention. In M. intercultural development inventory.
Vande Berg, R. M., Paige, & K. Lou (Eds.), International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
Student learning abroad: What our students are 27, 421–443.
learning, what they’re not, and what we can do Hansel, B. (2008). AFS Long Term Impact Study
about it (pp. 284–307). Sterling, VA: Stylus. Report 2: Looking at Intercultural Sensitivity,
Fondazione Intercultura. (n.d.). Forum on Anxiety, and Experience with Other Cultures.
intercultural learning and exchange. Available at New York, NY: AFS International.
www.fondazioneintercultura.org/en/ Hanvey, R.G. (1975). An attainable global
Conferences/Forum-on-intercultural-learning- perspective. New York, NY: Center for War/
and-exchange/ Peace Studies.
Forum on Education Abroad. (n.d.). Curriculum Headland, T. N, Pike, K. L., & Harris, M. (Eds.).
Resources. Available at https://forumea.org/ (1990). Emics and etics: The insider/outsider
resources/curriculum/curriculum-resources/ debate. Newbury, CA: Sage.
Gay, G. (2004). Curriculum theory and Hill, I. (2007). Multicultural and international
multicultural education. In J. A. Banks & C. A. education: Never the twain shall meet? Review of
McGee Banks (Eds.), Handbook of research on Education, 53, 245–264.
multicultural education (2nd ed., pp. 30–49). San Hofstede, G. (1986). Cultural differences in teaching
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. and learning. International Journal of
Grant, C. A., & Brueck, S. (2010). A global Intercultural Relations, 10(3), 301–320.
invitation: Toward the expansion of dialogue, Hoopes, D. (1979). Intercultural communication
reflection and creative engagement for concepts and the psychology of intercultural
intercultural and multicultural education. In C. experience. In M. Pusch (Ed.), Multicultural

education: A cross-cultural approach (pp. 9–38). Handbook of research on multicultural education

LaGrange Park, IL: Intercultural Network. (2nd ed., pp. 50–65). San Francisco, CA:
Hoopes, D., & Pusch, M. (1979). Definition of Jossey-Bass.
terms. In M. Pusch (Ed.), Multicultural Leeds-Hurwitz, W. (1990). Notes in the history of
education: A cross-cultural approach (pp. 2–9). intercultural communication: The Foreign
Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Service Institute and the mandate for
Hyde, C., & Ruth, B. (2002). Multicultural content intercultural training. Quarterly Journal of
and class participation: do students self-censor? Speech, 76, 262–281.
Journal of Social Work Education, 38, 241–256. Le Roux, J. (2001). Social dynamics of the
IBO (International Baccalaureate Organization). multicultural classroom. Intercultural Education,
(2014). Retrieved from www.ibo.org/mission/ 12, 273–288.
IIE (Institute of International Education). (2001). Longview Foundation. (2008). Teacher preparation
Open Doors Report on International Educational for the global age: The imperative for change.
Exchange. Retrieved from www.iie.org/ Washington, DC.
opendoor Lou, K. H., & Bosley, G. W. (2012). Facilitating
IIE (Institute of International Education). (2018). intercultural learning abroad: The
Open Doors Report on“Fast Facts.” Retrieved intentional, targeted intervention model. In
from www.iie.org/Research-and-Publications/ M. Vande Berg, R. M. Paige, & K. Lou
Open-Doors. (Eds.), Student learning abroad: What our
Kappler Mikk, B., Cohen, A., & Paige, R. M. students are learning, what they’re not, and
(2009). Maximizing study abroad: An what we can do about it (pp. 335–359).
instructional guide to strategies for language and Sterling, VA: Stylus.
culture learning and use. Minneapolis, MN: McGee Banks, C. A. (2004). Intercultural and
University of Minnesota Center for Advanced intergroup education, 1929-1959: Linking
Research on Language Acquisition. schools and communities. In J. A. Banks &
Khoja-Moolji, S. (2013). Intercultural education. In C. A. McGee Banks (Eds.), Handbook of
C. E. Cortés (Ed.), Multicultural America: research on multicultural education (2nd ed.,
A multimedia encyclopedia (pp. 1206–1209). pp. 228–239). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Bass.
Klineberg, O. (1980). Historical perspectives: Cross- McLaren, P. (2015). Life in schools (4th ed.). New
cultural psychology before 1960. In H. Triandis York, NY: Routledge.
& W. Lambert (Eds.), Handbook of cross- Mead, M. (1926). Coming of age in Samoa. New
cultural psychology: Vol. 1. Perspectives (pp. York, NY: William Morrow.
31–68). Boston, MA: Allyn-Bacon. NAFSA (2014). Curriculum integration: Best
Knight, J., (2003, fall). Updated practices. Retrieved from www.nafsa.org/Find_
internationalization definition. International Resources/Supporting_Study_Abroad/
Higher Education, 33, 2–3. Network_Resources/Education_Abroad/
Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience Curriculum_Integration__Best_Practices/
as the source of learning and development. NAFSA (2017). 2017 Global Learning Colloquia
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Presentations and handouts. Retrieved from:
Kroeber, A., & Kluckhohn, C. (1952). Culture: www.nafsa.org/programs-and-events/2017-
A critical review of concepts and definitions. global-learning-colloquia-presentations-and-
Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum. handouts
Ladson-Billings, G. (2004). New directions in Nesdale, D., & Todd, P. (1993). Internationalising
multicultural education: Complexities, Australian universities: the intercultural contact
boundaries and critical race theory. In J. A. issue. Journal of Tertiary Education
Banks & C. A. McGee Banks (Eds.), Administration, 15, 189–202.

Nieto, S. (2009). Language, culture, and teaching: Spencer-Rodgers, J., & McGovern, T. (2002).
Critical perspectives (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Attitudes towards the culturally different: The
Routledge. role of intercultural communication barriers,
Paige, R. M., Harvey, T. A., & McCleary, K. S. affective responses, consensual stereotypes, and
(2012). The Maximizing Study Abroad Project: perceived threat. International Journal of
Toward a pedagogy for culture and language Intercultural Relations, 26, 609–631.
learning. In M. Vande Berg, R. M. Paige, & K. Stephan, W. G., & White Stephan, C. (2004).
Lou, (Eds.), Student learning abroad: What our Intergroup relations in multicultural education
students are learning, what they’re not, and what programs. In J. A. Banks & C. A. McGee Banks
we can do about it (pp. 308–334). Sterling, VA: (Eds.), Handbook of research on multicultural
Stylus. education (2nd ed., pp. 782–798). San Francisco,
Peacock, N., & Harrison, N. (2009). “It’s so much CA: Jossey-Bass.
easier to go with what’s easy”: ‘mindfulness’ and Stocking, G. (1968). Race, culture and evolution:
the discourse between home and international Essays in the history of anthropology. New York,
students in the UK. Journal of Studies in NY: Free Press.
International Education, 13, 487–508. Tylor, E. B. (1867). Primitive culture (Vol. 1).
Pusch, M. (1979). Multicultural education: A cross- London, UK: John Murray.
cultural training approach. Yarmouth, ME: Vande Berg, M. (2009). Intervening in student
Intercultural Press. learning abroad: A research-based inquiry.
Pusch, M. D., & Merrill, M. (2008). Reflection, Intercultural education, 20, 15–27.
reciprocity, responsibility, and committed Vande Berg, M., Paige, R. M., & Lou, K. (2012).
relativism. In V. Savicki (Ed.), Developing Student learning abroad: What our students are
intercultural competence and transformation: learning, what they’re not, and what we can do
Theory, research, and application in international about it. Sterling, VA: Stylus.
education (pp. 53–73). Sterling, VA: Stylus. Vande Berg, M., Quinn, M., & Menyhart, C.
Robinson, J. M. (2012). Learning abroad and the (2012). An experiment in developmental
scholarship of teaching and learning. In M. teaching and learning: The Council on
Vande Berg, R. M. Paige, & K. Lou (Eds.), International Educational Exchange’s seminar
Student learning abroad: What our students are on living and learning abroad. In M. Vande
learning, what they’re not, and what we can do Berg, R. M. Paige, & K. Lou (Eds.), Student
about it (pp. 239–257). Sterling, VA: Stylus, learning abroad: What our students are learning,
Rokeach, M. (1968). Beliefs, attitudes and values: what they’re not, and what we can do about it
A theory of organizational change. San (pp. 383–407). Sterling, VA: Stylus.
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Ward, C., Masgoret, A.-M., Ho, E., Holmes,
Sapir, E. (1921). Language: An introduction to the P., Newton, J., & Crabbe, D. (2005).
study of speech. New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace Interactions with international students:
and Company. Report prepared for Education New Zealand.
Spencer-Rodgers, J. (2001). Consensual and Wellington, New Zealand: Center for
individual stereotypic beliefs about international Applied Cross-cultural Research, Victoria
students among American host nationals. University of Wellington.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
25, 639–657.

11 The Triad Training Model in Counseling,
Cultural Diversity, and Intercultural
Training
Tomoko Yoshida
Introduction method involved using the video starring Caje-

tan DeMello as Mr. Kahn (Pusch, 2004).
Experiential learning has played a central role
A special interest group within the Society of
in the field of Intercultural Training since its
Intercultural Education Training and
beginnings in the 1960s (see Bennett, 1986;
Research (SIETAR) Japan headed by Donna
Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000; Pusch, 2004 for
Fujimoto (see Fujimoto, 2004; Hiratsuka &
reviews). This is because trainers and educa-
Fujimoto, 2012) continues to work with this
tors have long acknowledged that intercultural
method today.
encounters can cause culture shock (Oberg,
Another popular experiential method that
1960), which is a traumatic emotional experi-
was developed in the mid-1960s was the cul-
ence. Lectures alone cannot help prepare
ture assimilator (see Bhawuk, 2001; Cushner &
trainees for this (Fowler & Blohm, 2004; Har-
Landis, 1996; Fiedler, Mitchell, & Triandis,
rison & Hopkins, 1967). Experiential learning
1970; Triandis, 1995a for more details). The
enables participants to experience emotionally
culture assimilator is a type of attribution
laden situations in a safe environment.
training. By compiling a large number of crit-
One of the first experiential methods in the
ical incidents (Flanagan, 1954) organized
field was created by Edwart Stewart (1966),
around cultural themes or values, trainees
which he called the Contrast American or
learn how to make culturally appropriate attri-
Contrast Culture method. The purpose of the
butions. Critical incidents are stories in which
Contrast American method is to help trainees
cultural differences cause misunderstandings.
gain awareness of their own culture and realize
After reading the incident, trainees are given
how frustrating it is to interact with individuals
a number of explanations why the incident
who have values that are opposite their own.
occurred. By solving many of these critical
Based on his seminal book American Cultural
incidents they can learn how individuals from
Patterns, Stewart (1972) trained a Contrast-
a different culture might interpret various situ-
American who he called Mr. Kahn to have a
ations. Culture assimilators can either be
business negotiation with Mr. Smith, an
culture-specific, and target a particular culture
American (see DeMello, 1995; Stewart, 1995
(e.g., Ito & Triandis, 1989; Tolbert, 1990;
for more details). As the Contrast-American
Triandis, 1995a), or be culture-general (e.g.,
must learn all the American values described
Brislin, 1993; Brislin, Cushner, Cherrie, &
in Stewart (1972) and act in the opposite way,
Yong, 1986; Cushner & Brislin, 1995), and be
training Mr. Kahn can be very time-
organized around general themes that can be
consuming. For this reason, instead of bring-
found across cultures.
ing a Contrast-Culture person to training,
Albert (1983) argued convincingly that the
most training using the Contrast-Culture
purpose of the culture assimilator is not to

378 tomoko yoshida
make the trainees assimilate to a particular nose by placing his thumb on his nostril and
culture but to sensitize them to cultural differ- blowing the mucus onto the grass. When an
ences so that they can make their own choices. American participant offered a clean handker-
She aptly suggested renaming it the Intercul- chief to the teacher, his response was “And
tural Sensitizer. Many studies have supported you carry that stuff in your pocket all day
the effectiveness of the culture assimilator or long?” (Trifonovitch, 1977, p. 217). At the
Intercultural Sensitizer (see Chemers, 1969; final luau, the pig, which had become a pet to
Fiedler, Mitchell, & Triandis, 1971; Gudky- many of the participants was slaughtered and
kunst & Hammer, 1983; Landis & Miller, served at the banquet.
1973; Malpass & Salancik, 1977; O’Brien, Fie- Numerous simulations such as Bafá Bafá
dler, & Hewett, 1970 for more details). Bha- (Shirts, 1973), the Albatross (Gochenour,
wuk (1996) created and tested the effectiveness 1977a), the Owl (Gochenour, 1977b),
of a theory-based culture assimilator/Intercul- BARNGA (Thiagarajan & Thiagarajan,
tural Sensitizer organized around the concepts 2011), Ecotonos (Hofner-Saphiere, 1997),
of individualism and collectivism (Triandis, Minoria-Majoria (Kohls & Knight, 1994), the
1995b). Outside Expert Awareness Exercise (Pedersen,
To train American educators and their fam- 1988, 2004), and Synthetic Cultures (Hofstede,
ilies prior to their assignments as educators Pedersen & Hofstede, 2002; Pedersen, 2004)
and administrators in various islands of were created to simulate actual intercultural
Micronesia, Trifonovitch (1977) created a encounters, allowing participants to experi-
simulated Micronesian village in rural Oahu, ence culture shock firsthand. Each is different
Molokai, Moen (Truck district), and the Big in length, goals, and intensity.
Island. Bhawuk and Brislin (2000) call this an For example, the Outside Expert Awareness
area simulation as it simulates the area in Exercise (Pedersen, 1988, 2004) is a short
which the trainees will be living and working. thirty-minute exercise that enables participants
During the two- to three-week program, the to experience culture shock. Bafá Bafá
trainees and their family were required to find (Shirts, 1973) takes one-and-a-half to two
their own food, shelter, waste disposal system, hours, enabling participants to not only experi-
and entertainment. The area simulation inten- ence culture shock but also learn how to learn
tionally targeted various values, assumptions, new cultural customs and rules. Ecotonos
and stereotypes the participants might have. (Hofner-Saphiere, 1997) is even more intense,
One of the goals was to reach the partici- necessitating at least two hours. It allows par-
pants at an affective rather than cognitive ticipants to collaborate in various types of
level. For example, during the first few days, multicultural situations (i.e., where there is a
the Micronesian staff pretended not to speak majority group and a minority group; where
any English. The Micronesian language there are two groups of equal size; where
teachers would also intentionally appear for there are three groups of equal numbers).
their lessons thirty to forty-five minutes late. Ecotonos allows participants to not only
To help volunteers better appreciate how they experience the difficulties of working with cul-
can unintentionally offend others with their turally different others but allows them to
clothing (e.g., shorts and a tank top), one of understand how power dynamics change
the staff members appeared in a traditional depending on the number of cultures and indi-
Micronesian outfit (i.e., a grass skirt with no viduals represented. Minoria-Majoria (Kohls &
top). One of the teachers intentionally blew his Knight, 1994) simulates the situation of a

Counseling, Cultural Diversity, and Intercultural Training 379
powerful majority group helping a minority the Triad Training Model evolved over the
culture. This is particularly effective when past forty years in three phases. Finally, it will
training individuals who are in a position to describe the fourth phase – how I adapted it
help (e.g., Peace Corps Volunteers, teachers, for use with non-counselors in Japan.
doctors) as it enables participants develop
empathy with the group being helped.
As numerous intercultural trainers and The Background of the Triad
instructors have created countless experiential Training Model
activities, many books have organized them
The Cultural Context That Gave Birth
into categories and compiled them so that
to the Model
trainers and educators can easily find the
appropriate simulation or exercise (e.g., Batch- In the mid-1970s, when Pedersen (1976) first
elder & Warner, 1977; Casse, 1981; Harrison developed the Triad Training Model in coun-
and Hopkins, 1967; Kohls & Knight, 1994; seling, the cultural background of clients was
Mumford & Fowler, 1999; Paige, 1993; Peder- largely ignored in counseling theory and prac-
sen, 1988, 2004; Seelye, 1996; Singelis, 1997; tice (Bernal & Padilla, 1982; Casas, 1982;
Stringer & Cassiday, 2009; Weeks, Pedersen & Casas, Ponterotto, & Guttierrez, 1986; Ibra-
Brislin, 1979). him & Arredondo, 1986; Pedersen, Fukuyama
Effective intercultural communication & Heath, 1989; Ponterrotto & Casas, 1987;
comes from becoming aware of cultural differ- President’s Commission on Mental Health,
ences, acquiring culture-specific and culture- 1978; Smith, 1982; Sue & Sue, 1981; D. W.
general knowledge, and learning skills that will Sue et al., 1982). As a consequence, minorities
foster effective communication (Pedersen, were much less likely to use counseling ser-
1988; Sue & Sue, 1990). Brislin & Yoshida vices, and when they did, they were much
(1994) later added the importance of address- more likely to discontinue after one session
ing the emotional aspects of the intercultural (S. Sue, Allen, & Conaway, 1975; S. Sue &
experience. Paige (1993) emphasized that atti- McKinney, 1974; S. Sue, McKinney, Allen,
tude change is perhaps the most important & Hall, 1974).
goal of intercultural training. Sue and Sue (1981) argued that the “reasons
The Triad Training Model is unique in that why minority-group individuals underutilize
it simultaneously targets all five of these and prematurely terminate counseling/therapy
dimensions (i.e., awareness, attitude, know- lie in the biased nature of the services them-
ledge, emotions, and skills) in a limited time selves” (p. 7). These individuals felt that soci-
with minimal preparation. While the Triad etal injustices permeated into the counselors’
Training Model is widely used in the field of offices and that counseling was not helpful
counseling it is not well-known outside the for them. To correct this situation, various
field. This is unfortunate as the method is ver- researchers (e.g., Casas, 1984; S. Sue, Akutsu,
satile and can be adapted for any target audi- & Higashi, 1985; Sue & Sue, 1981) called for
ence. This chapter will begin by describing the the re-evaluation of counselor education pro-
background of the Triad Training Model, grams to better prepare future counselors for a
including the cultural context that gave birth multicultural clientele.
to the model as well as its psychological Since then, many books have addressed the
research foundation. It will then describe the issue of counseling culturally different others
goals of the model. Next, it will describe how (e.g., Corsini, 1981; Harper & McFadden,

380 tomoko yoshida
What happens here?
Internal
Internal conversation
conversation
(positive and
negative)
Client Counsellor
Figure 11.1 Three conversations during a counseling session.
2003; Lefley & Pedersen, 1986; Pedersen, 1997; level. Recognizing that the subconscious often
Pedersen, Crethar, & Carlson, 2008; Pedersen, controls our thoughts has a long tradition in
Draguns, Lonner, & Trimble, 1976; Roysircar, the field of psychology starting with Freud
Sandhu & Bibbins, 2003; Sue & Sue 1981) and (1995). Pedersen (1976) asserts that during a
Counselor Education programs started to counseling session, three conversations occur
address this need by the mid-1980s (see Pon- simultaneously. In addition to the conversa-
terotto & Casas, 1987 for a review). The Triad tion between the counselor and the client, there
Training Model played an integral role in rec- is also one within the client’s mind and another
ognizing the importance of culture in counsel- within the counselor’s mind (see Figure 11.1).
ing therapy and, therefore, was a seminal This notion of inner speech or self-dialogue has
contribution to the field. long been recognized by psychologists as an
important way for humans to organize their
thoughts (e.g., Luria, 1961; Mead, 1982;
The Triad Training Model’s Psychological
Vygotsky, 1934/1986).
Research Foundation
The second assumption is that these
The Triad Training Model is based on four thoughts are strongly influenced by our social
assumptions. The first assumption is that, systems including our ethnographic, demo-
during a counseling session, there are many graphic, status, and affiliation. Hines & Peder-
thoughts that the client has that are not ver- sen (1980) posited the Intrapersonal Cultural
balized; these thoughts can either help or Grid (see Figure 11.2) to show how various
hinder therapy. Pedersen (2000) calls these social systems influence our behaviors,
hidden messages. This idea of hidden messages expectations, and values. Ethnographic
is similar to Hall’s (1976) idea of context. variables include age, residence, and physical
When we communicate, not all messages are ability. Status includes social, economic, polit-
verbalized; some of them are communicated ical, and educational variables. Affiliation
through shared context. These hidden mes- includes formal systems like family and church
sages are not only hidden to others but are as well as informal systems such as a shared
sometimes hidden from the individuals them- idea or value. These various social systems
selves. In other words, some of the hidden help shape our worldview and our social
messages are taking place at the subconscious identity.

PERSONAL
Social System Variables BEHAVIOR EXPECTATIONS VALUE
Ethnographic (nationality,
ethnicity, religion, language, etc.)
Demographic (age, gender,
affectional orientation, physical
ability, etc.)
Status (social, economic, political,
educational, etc.)
Affiliation (formal like family or
informal like a shared idea)
Figure 11.2 The intrapersonal cultural grid for describing within-group or -person variables. Based on
Pedersen and Ivey (1993).
The third assumption is that the more dif- hidden messages to be effective. According to
ferences there are between the client and coun- social power theory (Corrigan, Dell, Lewis, &
selor’s interpersonal cultural grid, the more Schmidt, 1980; Goodyear and Robyak, 1981)
difficulty they will experience. If the interper- there are three players in a counseling session
sonal cultural grid for the two is very similar, vying for power: the counselor, the client, and
the hidden messages will most likely be “read” the problem. Usually, clients come to therapy
and “interpreted” accurately by the other because they are overwhelmed by their prob-
party. On the other hand, if they are different, lem. At this point, therefore, the problem has a
misunderstandings and hostility might result. great deal of power over the client. During
While Pedersen (1988) believed that “all coun- counseling, the client and counselor form a
seling is to some extent multicultural” (p. vii) coalition against the problem so that the client
he also felt that “the greater the cultural differ- can eventually win against the problem on his/
ence between a client and counselor, the less her own. According to this theory, the strength
likely a counselor is to establish a coalition of the coalition is determined by how much the
with the client against the problem” (Pedersen, client trusts the counselor and how similar they
1977, p. 94). are in behaviors, expectations, and values.
Finally, the fourth assumption is that the Therefore, if a client mistrusts a counselor or
counselor must understand and address these is culturally different from the counselor, then,

382 tomoko yoshida
it is difficult to form a coalition against the counselors-in-training should be able to

problem (Pedersen, 2000). This is in line with acquire the following skill areas: “(a) articulat-
Rogers’ (1951) notion of client-centered ther- ing the problem from the client’s cultural per-
apy, in which counselor empathy is central to spective, (b) recognizing resistance from a
the formation of this coalition. It is, therefore, culturally different client in specific rather than
critical for counselors to recognize how their general terms, (c) being less defensive in a
own worldviews and biases affect the counsel- culturally ambiguous relationship, and (d)
ing session in addition to understanding and learning recovery skills for getting out of
empathizing with the clients’ worldview and trouble when making mistakes in counseling
any resistances they might have. culturally different clients” (Pedersen, 2000,
One of the biggest contributions of the Triad p. 94).
Training Model is that it is one of the earliest
intercultural models that mapped out the
dynamics of how our social identities are
Forty Years After Its Creation: The
shaped by society and how cultural differences
Evolution of the Triad Training Model
can interfere with effective communication. It
also brought forth the idea that all counseling, Phase 1 (1970s to mid-1980s): Its Birth
and by extension all communication, is multi-
cultural. Unlike many other experiential exer- Description of the model. The Triad Training
cises and simulations, the Triad Training Model was designed for use in counseling
Model has been researched quite extensively training; it should not be used in an actual
even though its results are inconclusive (Ped- counseling session. Originally, the counselor-
ersen, 2000). Its wide usage over the past forty in-training practiced with a client and an
years in various forms, however, attests to its anticounselor (Pedersen, 1976, 1977). As the
usefulness as a training tool. One of the pri- anticounselor represented the inner voice of
mary features of the Triad Training Model is the client, the anticounselor needed to be as
its simplicity and versatility. Furthermore, it is close as possible to the client in terms of age,
the only experiential activity that enables us to gender, and cultural background and was
“hear” the negative thoughts of a culturally required to practice in advance with the client
different other. It is easy to implement with to better represent the client’s “inner voice”
minimal training of assistant trainers and the (Pedersen, 1976, 1977). The anticounselor
model can be changed and used to fit various was a personification of the “problem” or the
audience’s needs. negative voices or doubts that the client had
but did not voice. During the practice inter-
view that lasted about ten minutes, the antic-
The Triad Training Model for Counselors:
ounselor tried to obstruct the counseling
Its Goals
process by bonding with the client and distan-
According to Pedersen (2000), to effectively cing the client from the counselor. As the
counsel culturally different others we must anticounselor is from the same culture as the
understand “(a) the explicit verbal exchange client, even if the thoughts expressed are not
between the counselor and the client, (b) the necessarily those of the client, they are still
counselor’s own internal dialogue, and (c) the those of someone from that culture. Clients
client’s internal dialogue” (Pedersen, 2000, can also argue with the anticounselor if they
p. 71). Through the Triad Training model, disagree with them.

The Triad Training Model is an intense

cl: Yeah, that’s a
training model as counselors must not only
problem – my folks.
try to counsel a culturally different client but
co: Oh. How do they feel
must do this while an anticounselor strives to
about it?
obstruct the process. Pedersen (1988) provided
cl: They don’t like me to
some guidelines for what anticounselors could
move out.
do during interviews.
co: They don’t like you to
1. Build on the positive aspects of the problem move out, huh?
and the client’s ambivalence. However, I don’t know
2. Distract or sidetrack the counselor and your folks. I don’t
client, physically and psychologically. know your home
3. Attempt to obstruct communication situation. Who
between the counselor and client, physically all’s home?
and psychologically. cl: My brother.
4. Annoy the counselor, forcing the counselor anti: Does that matter who’s
to deal with defensive reactions. home and who’s not
5. Exaggerate differences between the coun- home? It’s just that you
selor and client to drive them farther apart. want to move out.
6. Demand immediate and observable results Now, remember,
from counseling. Lynette, your
7. Communicate privately with the client. grandmother went
8. Identify scapegoats to encourage the coun- through problems also,
selor and client’s unrealistic perspectives. and she never
9. Attack the counselor’s credibility and complained, right? She
request that someone more expert be always says “hang on,”
brought in (p. 44). you know? You just
suffer in silence and
An excerpt from an interview follows.
things will work out,
co: So you’ve been and she would be
thinking about through it all. Uh, it
moving out? will all work out.
cl: Yes.
(Pedersen, 2000, p. 139)
co: How is it a problem?
anticounselor See, he doesn’t even
(“anti,” understand your How to use the Triad Training Model in
hereafter): problem. You just training. The Triad Training Model has been
want to move out. used in hundreds of one-day workshops as well
co: But I’m not sure of as semester-long counseling courses (Pedersen,
whether it’s not having 1977). Pedersen (1977) described how the
another place to stay Triad Training Model was used in a one-day
or how you’re going to in-service workshop for smaller groups (ten to
handle it with fifteen participants). The day began with stu-
your folks. dents receiving a brief overview of the Triad

384 tomoko yoshida
Training Model and then watching a one-hour Pedersen (1984) first developed this in a work-
demonstration video1 with four Triad inter- shop with bilingual teachers asking them to
views. Two trained client/anticounselor teams come up with their own dialogues based on their
were present for the training. Pedersen (1977) experiences. Here is an example of a dialogue
suggested that for larger groups, one client/ between Wan Lee-ho, a student, and his teacher.
anticounselor team should be available for
teacher: Look at me! What happened?
every ten participants.
teacher You must be guilty or you
After the orientation session, the first work-
unspoken: would look me in the eye.
shop participant entered a separate room with
Your kind never look others
a client/ anticounselor pair and practiced for
straight in the eye.
ten minutes followed by a five-minute debrief-
student: I dunno.
ing session, all of which was videotaped. The
student What’s the use? You won’t
Triad then returned to the classroom to watch
unspoken: believe me anyway. I am not
the fifteen-minute videotape and for a debrief-
comfortable looking back
ing session. While this debriefing was taking
at you!
place, another workshop participant left the
room with a different dyad. This process was (Pedersen, 1984, pp. 58–59)
repeated until all the workshop participants
Pedersen and Hernandez (1997) applied the
had a chance to work with a client and antic-
RDM to the military context and the business
ounselor. Each workshop participant missed
context (Pedersen, 2000). Pedersen (2004) later
one interview and debriefing session but was
wrote this up as a half-day exercise to be used
otherwise able to learn from all the other inter-
in various kinds of training. Because it repre-
views (Pedersen, 1977).
sents the negative thoughts of both parties, it is
widely applicable to various audiences.
The Rehearsal Demonstration Model (RDM)

(Pedersen, 1984). Pedersen (1984) later created Phase 2 (1980s): Softer Approaches
a model called the Rehearsal Demonstration Because the highly confrontational nature of
Model. This model is similar to the Triad the Triad Training Model might not be appro-
Training Model in that unspoken negative priate for all trainees (Sue & Sue, 1990) some
thoughts are vocalized by another person. softer approaches have been developed.
Unlike the Triad Training Model which only
represents the negative thoughts of the client,
this model represents the negative thoughts of Bicultural Contextualizer (Loo, 1980a, 1980b).
both parties and so it can be used when both The Bicultural Contextualizer (BCC) was the
parties need to understand the other’s earliest adaptation of the Triad Training
thoughts. The RDM is scripted and participants Model. In this model, a bicultural third person
begin by reading the scripted messages but participates in the counseling session, asking for
then continue the conversation spontaneously. and providing relevant cultural context for both
parties. The focus is not on voicing positive or
negative thoughts but providing or drawing out
1 the important cultural context necessary for
A similar video can be purchased through www
.emicrotraining.com/product_info.php?cPath=22_ both parties to understand each other. Being
82_38&products_id=108 bicultural, the BCC knows what kinds of

contextual information is necessary and might What he’s (client) saying is he’s stuck because he
ask for those specifically. For example: worries so much about his life and so forth that . . .
this culture (Hmong), when you start seeing
BCC: Tell me about yourself and your Chi- things – especially your member of the family or
cano background? (Loo, 1980a, as cited in your close friend who dies – that means that his life
Pedersen, 2000, p. 145) is also going down the drain. That he will die soon.
If it were back home, that’s what would happen
BCCs can also share their own experiences to (Pedersen, 1983, p. 342).
help the client or the counselor better under-
stand the problem. For example: This same interpreter then helps the client
better understand what the counselor is saying
BCC: So you were identifying yourself as based on the counselor’s cultural context.
quote “Mexican.” I, I, okay, what I was think-
What he’s (the counselor) saying is that, things
ing was that, I’ll share some of my experiences like that (seeing things) happen in this country
with you, uh personal and otherwise, which is also, but it’s not as serious as it would be if it
that, when we’re growing up, um, we are substi- happened in our country. Because they can do
tuting things as quote “being Mexican,” and things, patients with that kind of problem can be
because those of us who were raised in this coun- helped . . . Is that what you (the counselor) are
try were not Mexican, nor are we American. saying? (Pedersen, 1983, p. 342)
(Loo, 1980a, as cited in Pedersen, 2000, p. 146)
Unlike the Triad Training Model using the
The BCC would be a good tool to use if the anticounselor, the model using the interpreter
primary goal of training is to increase the can be used in counseling, not exclusively in
counselor’s understanding of the cultural con- training, as the interpreter’s presence can be
text of a particular cultural group. helpful for both the counselor and the client.
Understanding Each Other’s Cultures through Supporting the Counselor through the Procoun-
the Interpreter (1983). Pedersen (1983) also selor (1988). Yet another adaptation to the
created a variation which is similar to the Triad Training Model which Pedersen (1988)
BCC. In this form of the Triad Training made was to introduce the procounselor,
Model, a bicultural individual joins the coun- whose role was to help the counselor and the
seling session as a cultural “interpreter.” The client by encouraging both parties, guiding the
interpreter provides the appropriate cultural counselor in the right direction, and helping
interpretation for both the counselor as well the counselor better understand the client.
as the client. The procounselor can also help the counselor
The example below is from a male Hmong by talking directly to the client.
refugee who had recently moved to Honolulu The procounselor is much less anxiety-
at the time of the interview and was feeling provoking compared to the anticounselor as
disoriented and exhibiting “strange” behavior the procounselor is essentially an ally. The
such as wearing three pairs of pants or disadvantage is that the procounselor does
following strangers around town. The inter- not provide the counselor with insight
preter is another male from the same culture. regarding the negative thoughts and doubts
Here, the interpreter is trying to help the coun- the client might have. The beauty of the antic-
selor understand what the client is saying from ounselor is that the role gives permission to
the client’s cultural context. voice all the negative thoughts that would

386 tomoko yoshida
The Triad Training Model: People Represent

Positive and Negative Thoughts of the Client
Client Counselor AntiCounselor

ProCounselor
Figure 11.3 A Pictorial Representation of the Triad Training Model.
otherwise be left unsaid. For this reason, Ped- An example of a Triad training session with
ersen’s later models (1988) include both the both an anticounselor and a procounselor is
procounselor as well as the anticounselor presented below. The client is a Japanese
(See Figure 11.3). American female and the counselor is a Cau-
Pedersen (1988) provided some guidelines casian American female. The roles that the
for what a procounselor could do during an anticounselor and procounselor take should
interview. be noted.
• Restate or reframe what either the client or therapist: What’s been going on
counselor said in a positive fashion. recently that has made
• Relate client or counselor statements to the you feel anxious and
basic underlying problem, keeping things depressed?
on track. counselor: Well, in the next month
• Offer approval or reinforcement to the client or so I’m going to be
or the counselor when they are cooperating. moving to a different
• Reinforce and emphasize important insights town, and I think that’s
that need to be discussed and expanded. been stirring up a lot of
• Suggest alternative strategies to the coun- things that’s going with
selor when necessary (p. 45). my family.

procounselor: Her family, ask about her me, versus what’s best for
family. the family.
therapist: So the move is stressful anticounselor: Totally burdened.
and then there’s also client: So I’ve been feeling very
something with the burdened, very heavy.
family. Sounds like it’s Heavy kind of feeling.
making it more stressful? procounselor: She wants to understand.
client: Yes. Well, for twenty-five
(Pedersen & Brooks-Harris, 20052).
years I’ve lived at home
and this impending move Several studies have examined the effective-
has gotten my parents ness of the Triad Training Model in its various
very upset. forms but the results are inconclusive in terms
anticounselor: She probably won’t of which form is most effective and in which
understand what you’re sequence. At the same time, those who have
saying. She’s white! used the various forms of the model have sup-
client: I’m kind of wondering . . . ported the utility of the model (Pedersen, 2000)
we’re both female but and the fact that so many variations of the
we’re also from different model exist support its usefulness. Pedersen
cultures. (2000) suggests that the inconclusive results
therapist: That’s true. might be due in part to the difficulty in meas-
client: So I was wondering if you uring the ability of counselors to work effect-
could really understand ively across cultures. Below are a few studies
my situation. that have examined the effectiveness of the
procounselor: Great, this is your model.
chance. Neimeyer, Fukuyama, Bingham, Hall, and
therapist: Well, the best thing I can Mussenden (1986) conducted a study with
do is try to understand twenty student volunteers from a graduate-
even if our backgrounds level counselor education course to compare
aren’t exactly the same. the effectiveness of the Triad Training Model
Maybe you can tell me a using an anticounselor with that using a pro-
bit about . . . sounds like counselor. Students participated in two 10-
your parents are really minute interviews interrupted by a short break
important to you. to fill out a self-assessment form. Each inter-
client: Yeah, they’re really dear view was also assessed by two graduate stu-
to my heart, and what dents who were trained on the rating
they think about and how instruments. Half the participants were ran-
they feel about my future domly assigned to the anticounselor condition
is very important to me. while the other half were assigned to the
That’s why I’m feeling
very torn between kind of
venturing out on my own 2
From the transcript that accompanies the video on
and developing my career Pedersen’s Triad Training Model: www
and doing what’s best for .emicrotraining.com/product_info.php?cPath=22_
82_38&products_id=108

388 tomoko yoshida
procounselor condition. Two self-reports and first can give some cultural insights and
two objective ratings of counselor perform- develop confidence before delving into the
ance were utilized. more difficult anticounselor situation. Starting
While the results found that the self-reports with anticounselor, however, can help trainees
of the two conditions were significantly differ- realize the resistances and challenges that exist
ent, with participants finding the procounse- in counseling a particular group and thus
lor condition much less confusing and feeling make them more responsive to the advice that
more competent about their counseling skills, procounselors might have.
the external observer ratings showed no dif- Wade & Bernstein (1991) examined which
ference between the two groups. In other was more powerful – the counselor’s race or
words, although the participants in the antic- whether the counselor had undergone cultural
ounselor condition felt less competent and sensitivity training that included the Triad
more confused, their expertness, attractive- Training Model. In their study, they examined
ness and trustworthiness as seen by a third eight female counselors with master’s degrees –
party were no different. In other words, the four were White and four were Black. Half
effectiveness of the Triad Training Model were assigned to the experimental condition
using the procounselor and the anticounselor in which they participated in four hours of
were the same but the procounselor design culture sensitivity training which included the
was more appealing to the counselor trainees. Triad Training Model. The other half received
Neimeyer et al. (1986), therefore, suggested no training. Of the eighty Black women
that the more confrontational anticounselor clients, half were assigned to the treatment
design might be best reserved for advanced group and the other half to the control. Each
students. Their advice for future studies was of the eight counselors thus counseled ten
to examine whether sequential use of the pro- clients. Results found that counselors who
counselor followed by the anticounselor or had experienced cultural sensitivity training,
the reverse would affect outcomes. which included the Triad Training Model,
Following up on Neimeyer et al.’s (1986) were rated higher by the clients regardless of
study, Irvin and Pedersen (1995) examined race. In fact, not only did the White counselors
the effect of sequencing the procounselor and benefit from training but so did the Black
the anticounselor by having twenty graduate counselors.
students in a counseling program participate in One explanation is that according to the
two 10-minute interviews once with a procoun- interpersonal cultural grid, race is but one of
selor and once with an anticounselor, varying the socio-cultural dimensions that affect our
the sequences. For consistency, they used the worldview. It is possible that the Black coun-
same outcome measures as Neimeyer et al. selors differed from their clients in terms of
(1986) and found that those who experienced other ethnographic, demographic, status, and
the anticounselor situation before the pro- affiliation variables and were able to under-
counselor situation were less anxious and more stand them better through the Triad Training
comfortable after the two interviews. Those Model. It is might also be that any kind of
who experienced the procounselor followed training provides more confidence and thus
by the anticounselor later were more likely to credibility.
expect their clients to return. In other words, Sue (1980, as cited in Irvin & Pedersen,
both sequences seemed to have different 1995) compared two versions of the Triad
advantages. Practicing with the procounselor Training Model with students in a counseling

class – one using the procounselor and the example, Jackson (1999) introduces the case
other using the anticounselor – and found that of a client talking about her classmates
while students found the anticounselor more making “Black jokes” and expecting her to
anxiety-provoking it was more effective than laugh along with them. The counselor belit-
the procounselor. While the procounselor tles the client’s problem by pointing out that
helped students obtain more knowledge about the counselor himself is Irish but is able to
the client’s history and culture, the anticounse- laugh at Irish jokes. In such a case, an antic-
lor reached them at a deeper emotional level ounselor might say, “You can’t understand
helping them see things from the client’s the difference between you and me – between
perspective. an Irish joke that may be insulting versus a
racial joke that devalues an African American
Third Party Friendly/ Hostile. Pedersen (2000) person as stereotypically inferior” (Jackson,
describes an earlier adaptation he made for 1999, p. v). This approach might make the
preparing counselors to work with the Native counselor defensive or the counselor might
American population. When consulting just ignore this comment.
leaders of Native American groups in the In stereotype reversal training, the goal is
Northwest United States, he was told that to cognitively restructure (e.g., Beck &
often a parent, a friend or a relative will Weishaar, 1989; Goldfried, 1988) the client’s
accompany a client to counseling. As this third statements so that the counselor can develop
party might be friendly or hostile, they sug- empathy with the client and see things from
gested using an actual friend or family member the minority client’s perspective. In the same
who could either be friendly or hostile in the situation above, the third voice might say,
training session. Unlike the anticounselor or “What if being Irish meant that you were
procounselor who do not necessarily know assumed to be biologically and intellectually
the client personally, the Third Party Friendly inferior? Imagine if jokes about Irish people
or Hostile are able to voice the concerns of the presumed that the only way that you could
family or the community. have become a counselor was by some
special remedial program” (Jackson, 1999,
p. v).
Phase 3 (1990s): Prejudice Reduction
Jackson (1999) compared the effectiveness
In the 1990s, the variations of the Triad Training of the stereotype reversal method, the Triad
Model turned inward to the counselor’s inner Training Model (using an anticounselor), and
voice with the goal of prejudice reduction. the control condition (in which the third voice
reflected or paraphrased the client’s verbalized
Challenging the Counselor’s Stereotypes concerns). The study examined forty counselor
through Stereotype Reversal. Jackson’s (1999) trainees who each participated in a one-day
“stereotype reversal” model focuses on six-hour training session. The participants
stereotypes counselors might have that pre- were randomly assigned to one of the three
vent them from understanding what the client conditions. Both the coached client and the
is trying to say by asking the counselors how third-voice trainer were African American
it would feel if that stereotype was cast upon females. Results showed that both the stereo-
them. The goal is to increase counselor type reversal method as well as the Triad
empathy regarding the stereotypes imposed method improved counselor effectiveness by
on a particular group of individuals. For increasing the counselors’ ability to see things

390 tomoko yoshida
from the clients’ perspective. The stereotype (Hofstede, 1986; Triandis, Bontempo, Villar-
reversal method was, however, more effective eal, Asai, & Lucca, 1988) I used a variation of
in influencing the Caucasian counselor the Triad Training Model using two Interpret-
trainees’ racial attitudes. ers. Since the Japanese have strong uncertainty
avoidance (Hofstede, 1986) and place an
Cole’s (1996) Proactive Approach to Reducing importance on face (Morisaki & Gudykunst,
Prejudice. Cole’s (1996) Proactive Approach 1994; Oetzel, Ting-Toomey, Masumoto, Yoko-
to Reducing Prejudice is similar to the original chi, Pan, Takai, & Wilcox, 2001), instead of
Triad Training Model in that it includes three having the interpreters interrupt the trainee
people. The main difference is that instead of during the presentation, I decided that video-
having a counselor and a client, which implies taping the session and then having the two
a power differential, he calls the counselor the interpreters provide feedback while watching
“Concerned Listener” and the client the the video might be less intimidating.
“Sharing Person.” The anticounselor is called
the “Distracter” or the “internal voice.” The
goal of this training is to help the trainee listen Using the Triad Training Model in a
carefully and develop empathy with the indi- Japanese University
vidual from the other culture (see www I applied the Triad Training Model to two of
.beyondprejudice.com/under_stand.html for my Intercultural Training Classes taught at a
more details). Japanese university. Participation was volun-
tary and fifteen students participated in the
The “Anticlient”/ “Proclient.” Strous (1997), experiment. As the course required students
who works with South African counselors, to make at least two group presentations
created a variation that focuses on develop- during the spring semester, I decided to use
ing counselors’ self-awareness. The anticlient the Triad Training Model to teach English
voices all the prejudices and stereotypes that presentation skills.
the counselor might have subconsciously.
The proclient voices the positive thoughts.
As we often deny, ignore, or are unaware Triad Training Model for Collectivists
of various prejudices we may have, this In our modified Triad Training Model for
method provides a good opportunity for Collectivists, the Triad team consisted of three
counselors to confront any covert prejudices returnee students and myself. Returnees are
they might have. Japanese students who lived abroad during
their childhood (Sueda, 2014). Their experi-
ences of studying in an International or an
Phase 4 (2015–): Applying the Triad
American school gave credibility to their opin-
Training Model Outside of the United
ions. In addition, in Japanese schools, children
States through the Triad Training Model
often learn from older students, called senpai
for Collectivist Cultures
(seniors) (Bright, 2005; Cave, 2004; Davies &
I adapted the Triad Training Model to a non- Ikeno, 2002). As all three returnees were older
counseling situation in Japan. As Japan has than the fifteen student participants, having
been described as a collectivist society them serve as interpreters provided the

participants with a familiar learning model – during presentations because in Japan the
learning from a senpai. audience usually saved their questions until
My three co-researchers and I discussed the speaker is finished. This is consistent with
what modifications were necessary for the Hofstede, Hofstede, and Minkov’s (2010) find-
model to succeed with Japanese students. ings that the Japanese have strong uncertainty
As the Japanese tend to have collectivistic avoidance. Although Japanese students should
tendencies (Hofstede, 1986; Triandis, Bon- eventually learn how to deal with interrup-
tempo, Villareal, Asai, & Lucca, 1988) and tions, we felt that it might have been too stress-
place importance on creating good feelings ful for novice presenters. For this reason, we
or a good “interpersonal reality” (see Diaz- decided to videotape the presentations and
Guerrero, 1975; Yoshida, 1994 for a com- then invite the students for individual sessions
plete discussion), we felt that having an anti- in the evening after classes to go over the video
presenter voice negative thoughts during clip. During this modified Triad Training
their presentation would intimidate most Model, we watched short clips from the video-
Japanese students. We felt that if the Triad tape, paused it, and then took turns voicing
Training Model was too confrontational both positive and negative thoughts that an
even for collectivists in the USA (Sue & American audience member might have when
Sue, 1990), it would not be appropriate for listening to their presentations.
the Japanese. Secondly, since the Japanese Video-based feedback is used extensively in
have strong uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede, many fields such as sports training (e.g.,
1986), we felt that having a propresenter Nelson, Potrac, & Groom, 2014), nursing
and an antipresenter constantly interrupting training (e.g., James, Collins, & Samoylova,
their presentations would be too stressful 2012). In fact, Pedersen (1976) also videotaped
for them. the session for debriefing purposes. The main
While we felt that it was important for stu- difference was that we did not provide any
dents to recognize the negative thoughts an feedback during the actual presentation; the
American audience might have when listening Triad Training Model was implemented after
to their presentations, we felt that delivery of the fact while watching the video.
those thoughts needed to be done in a much Although we initially felt that we should
softer, culturally appropriate manner. For this conduct the Triad Training Model in English,
reason, we chose to use an interpreter, who we chose to conduct it in Japanese to facilitate
gave voice to both pro and anti thoughts but accuracy and understanding of comments
in a more neutral tone. We decided to have given by the interpreters since some of the
two interpreters as we felt they would better students who volunteered to participate in the
represent various perspectives. To be consist- experiment had limited English proficiency.
ent, I served as one of the interpreters in every We felt this was a case in which use of the first
Triad, with the three student assistants alter- language would facilitate instruction of pre-
nating as the other interpreter. sentation skills. Cook (2001) argues that in
The other barrier was the nature of the the language classroom, the first language
Triad Training Model which involved multiple does not necessarily need to be shunned; it
people interrupting the presentation. My can be helpful in teaching things that cannot
experience with Japanese students was that be conveyed completely in the second
they were often rattled when asked questions language.

392 tomoko yoshida
Experiment Design students’ presentations and gave them advice

on what they could do to improve their
We tried to fit the experiment into the
presentations.
existing class making as few adjustments as
The quote below is for Chizuru a 19-year-
possible to the class schedule. As the class
old female student.4
required one individual presentation at the
beginning of the semester followed by two interpreter 1: First of all, in an
group presentations later in the term, we introduction it is said that an
decided to measure the students’ performance American audience tends to
on the two group presentations, inserting the decide during the first three
Triad Training Model feedback session right to five seconds whether “this
after the first group presentation3. Each is interesting, I am going to
group was given about ten to fifteen minutes listen” or “I am not going to
and was expected to share this time amongst listen.” So an introduction is
the four members. The students were asked really important and you
to fill out a questionnaire before their first need to do something to grab
presentation (demographics), after their first the audience’s attention, do
presentation (self-evaluation), after the Triad something surprising like ask
Training Model (open-ended items about a question or show surprising
the Triad Training Model), and finally after statistics or . . .
their second presentation (self-evaluation). interpreter 2: Show them props or show
The three researchers and I watched video- them a video clip . . .
tapes of the two presentations and evaluated interpreter 1: You can even sing! Just do
them independently. something that is really
surprising! Also, if you look
at the screen (where the
Excerpts from the Triad Training Model PowerPoint is showing) too
for Collectivists much then the audience can
only see the back of your
We allocated thirty minutes per student for
head . . . Try not to look at
the Triad Training Model. For each student,
the screen as much as
we viewed a video of their presentation
possible. And remember that
together, stopped it from time to time and
once you are on stage, it’s like
commented. Below are a few representative
you are in a movie. Once
quotes. As interpreters, we tried to focus on
you’ve started, it’s like the
how an American audience might react to the
video camera has started
shooting the movie. People
are watching you so once you
are up there don’t try to figure
3
While the choice to use the two group presentations out how to work the
was to not disrupt the existing class curriculum we felt
that the group presentations affected, positively for
equipment, or discuss with
some and negatively for others, their individual
performances. From an experimental perspective, it
4
would have been better to have individual Pseudonyms were used to protect the participants’
presentations. anonymity.

might just think he was being lazy. Further-

your teammates what to do
more, a pun on words often does not translate
next. Remember that you are
across cultures. In Japanese, because Hyatt is
constantly “performing” in
pronounced “hayatto,” the pun is obvious.
front of an audience.5
For an American audience, however, the
Here, we focused on the importance of grab- resemblance between “Hayato” and “Hyatt”
bing the audience’s attention at the very begin- might go unnoticed.
ning of the presentation (Pike, 2003) and on
the importance of “performing.” During this interpreter 1: One of the things that
student’s presentation, she stopped and started I thought, was that you
a discussion with her fellow presenters ignor- were clearly targeting this
ing the presence of the audience. While this is audience when you came
not considered commendable in Japan either, up with this presentation.
a Japanese audience tends to be more forgiving And that is REALLY
of such behavior. important. For example, if
While a few of the students were aware of the I am asked to give a speech
importance of grabbing the audience’s attention I always ask who is
at the beginning with the use of humor, we felt coming – what kind of
that some of the humor they employed might people they are, how old
have been misconstrued by an American audi- they are, how good their
ence. For example, one student started his pre- English is, what they are
sentation with an apology for his “poor interested in – and I adjust
condition,” which was due to eating too much my presentation to them.
garlic the previous night. While his classmates And I think this joke about
laughed wholeheartedly, as interpreters we told your name worked really
him that an American audience might not have well for this audience.
that same reaction – they might just see him as However, if it were an
being unprofessional or even repulsive. American audience . . . it
As part of their presentation, the students might have been too
were supposed to come up with a creative title “Japanese.”
for the hotel that they were “managing” in the student: Oh, really . . .
simulation. One student named it after a interpreter 1: For example, when you
world-famous hotel chain (Hyatt) that had an said my name is Hayato
uncanny resemblance to his name (Hayato6), and I picked the name
and the first few minutes of his presentation Hyatt for my hotel, they
was devoted to why he did that. While it was might just think “he’s just
obvious that he had put a lot of thought into being lazy.”
this we felt that an American audience, espe- interpreter 2: Umm . . . hmmm . . .
cially his professor who assigned the project, interpreter 1: You just need to pick the
appropriate joke for the
audience. For this audience
5
As the Triad session was in Japanese, we translated it was perfect. And for us
the transcripts into English for this chapter.
6
We obtained permission from the student to use his (the four interpreters), we
real name. found it really funny . . .

394 tomoko yoshida
As can be seen from the quote above, even importance of being energetic when delivering
negative comments were phrased in a positive a presentation might be true for many cultures,
way to help create a positive interpersonal since Americans are more sender-oriented, the
reality (Diaz-Guerrero, 1975; Yoshida, 1994). speaker bears the responsibility of getting the
The quote below is directed at a 20-year-old audience excited. The excerpt below is from a
female student, Miyako. Here we explain the session with Yuji, a 21-year-old male student.
distinction between sender-orientation and
interpreter 1: When you’re presenting,
receiver-orientation with the USA being
one of the things you need
sender-oriented, meaning that the speaker has
to do is to have a lot of
more responsibility than the audience (Yum,
energy. You need to sound
1988). Once again, note how we try to phrase
like you are having so
our negative comments in a way that saves
much fun and are so
face (Morisaki & Gudykunst, 1994; Oetzel,
excited about your topic
Ting-Toomey, Masumoto, Yokochi, Pan, Takai
and are dying to share it
& Wilcox, 2001) for the student, and preserves a
with the audience!
positive interpersonal reality (Diaz-Guerrero,
1975; Yoshida, 1994).
Even with this modified version of the Triad
interpreter 1: An American audience Training Model, however, some students were
tends to be more passive. visibly nervous. Noriko, a 19-year-old female
A Japanese audience tends student looked terrified as she walked in, so we
to try hard and listen and addressed it at the beginning, praising her and
understand what the trying to help her relax.
speaker is saying. For
student: (Looks worried)
example, if a professor is
interpreter 1: You seem to really be
speaking and a student falls
“talking” to the audience.
asleep, in the USA it would
You are making eye
be the professor’s fault
contact with the audience
while in Japan, no matter
and you don’t look like
how boring the professor
you are reading your notes
might be, if the student falls
that much and you seemed
asleep it is her
to really be “talking us.” It
responsibility. So the
was very good!
speaker’s responsibility is
interpreter 2: Yes, yes, yes.
enormous. The audience
student: (Looks very worried.)
will just sit back and expect
interpreter 1: Why do you look so unsure
to be entertained and if it’s
(laughs)?
not interesting they might
student: (Laughs). I am very
just “change the channel”
nervous!
so the speaker really needs
interpreter 1: Your English is really
to “perform.”
good, too!
For many of the students, while the content interpreter 2: Yeah, your pronunciation
of their presentations were good, they seemed is really good.
to lack energy and enthusiasm. While the student: No, no . . .

Some students did not make eye contact but interpreter 1: Eye contact is the only way
usually it was because they were reading from you connect with the
a script. The student below, Nobuo a 20-year- audience. With a Japanese
old male student, had clearly memorized his audience it might not be so
script and yet looked down the entire time he important because they
was speaking. Even during our Triad session, might be taking notes and
he had difficulty making eye contact with the not looking at you anyway.
two interpreters. With an American
audience, they are actually
interpreter 1: . . . I think you’re kind of
looking up at you trying to
shy . . .
make eye contact, so if you
student: Yes!
as the speaker don’t make
interpreter 1: Because it’s obvious you
eye contact they might be
memorized everything so
like, “Why won’t you
you could make eye contact
make eye contact with us?”
but you’re avoiding looking
Eye contact connects you
into the audience’s eyes
to the audience, helps you
(laughs).
persuade the audience, and
student: (laughs)
you can also wake up
interpreter 2: It’s a shame since you
sleepy students by making
memorized everything!
eye contact with them
interpreter 1: Yes! You need to practice
(laughs . . . student laughs
that (eye contact) a bit.
too). So we should practice
(Looks into the
making eye contact . . .
student’s eyes)
student: (Student looks away)
student: (Looks down and avoids
interpreter 1: (laughs) You’re so funny!
eye contact)
You’re avoiding my eyes
interpreter 1: See, you avoided looking
again! (laughs; student
at me again! (laughs)
laughs too) I understand
student: (laughs) Yeah . . .
now! You really don’t like
interpreter 1: But the Japanese don’t
making eye contact, do
really make a lot of eye
you? I think that’s the only
contact, right?
thing you need to work
student: Maybe . . .
on! . . . OK, let’s
interpreter 1: When I was teaching a
practice . . . If it really
presentation class with
bothers you, look right
another Japanese professor
above our heads or at
he said, “You REALLY
our necks. . .
make a lot of eye contact,
don’t you?” And I said, By using humor, we tried to help the student
“Isn’t it normal?” He said relax and feel more confident. This particular
“No but you REALLY student started making eye contact in class the
make a lot of eye contact.” following week and during his second presen-
student: I see . . . tation, he delivered a powerful presentation

396 tomoko yoshida
Affirmation of the Model
Four Components of the Triad Training Model
1.Personal Advice from

2.Positive
an American Audience’s 3.Video taping 4.Practicing
Atmosphere
Perspective
Outcomes of the Triad Model
Presentation
Motivation Confidence Expand Perspective
Attitude
Presentation Skills
Figure 11.4 Results of student reactions and feedback.
making consistent and effective eye contact Affirmation of the Triad Training Model
with the audience. for Collectivists
First and foremost, the students were excited
Analyses of Student Reactions about the Triad Training Model and felt that it
and Feedback was a valuable experience for them.
During this feedback session, I learned presentation
Two of the researchers read through the open-
techniques that I could not have come up with on my
ended responses to the questions regarding the
own. I learned about how an American audience
Triad Training Model and used Atlas.ti to
would feel, how to give an interactive presentation,
analyze the responses. Grounded theory was the importance of “performing” and was able to
used (Strauss, 1987) and we allowed the codes experience an invaluable lesson. There is nothing
to emerge from the data. Every time a new that needs to be changed. I felt that this session
code was introduced we returned to the begin- was1the most effective way to do this. (Noriko,
ning of the transcript and recoded the entire a 19-year-old female)7
transcript; multiple iterations were repeated
7
until no new codes emerged. Using Krueger’s For participants who responded in Japanese, the
researchers translated their responses. For
(1998) criteria of frequency, intensiveness, and
participants who responded in English the researchers
extensiveness, the following results were modified their English slightly for clarity and
observed (see Figure 11.4). accuracy.

Some even hoped for more opportunities to I relaxed so much and felt so happy to get a lot of
experience the model again or hoped that all good advice. (Nami, an eighteen-year-old female)
classes could provide such an opportunity. Needless to say, this session was valuable for me.
I felt that it was a good chance. Someday, I would In addition, I could enjoy this session by hearing
like to take a session like this again. (Yuzuru, a many humorous experiences and advice. (Nobuo,
20-year-old male) a twenty-year-old male)
Four Components of the Triad Training Receiving personal advice from an American
Model for Collectivists audience’s perspective. The participants also
felt that receiving personal advice directed at
Four aspects of the model were particularly them rather than an entire class made the ses-
appealing to the students: (1) watching the sion much more meaningful.
videotape, (2) “positive atmosphere” of the
session, (3) receiving personal advice from I think that a general lecture on presentation
the perspective of an American audience, and techniques can be useful but being given personal
(4) practicing. advice made it easier to understand. Also, because
the advice was given scene by scene, it was easy to
understand and I could think of what to do to
Watching the videotape. The participants felt
improve my presentation. It was good to hear weak
that viewing the videotapes gave them object-
points and improvements which I would not have
ive feedback on their performance and so the realized myself. (Mariko, a twenty-year-old
advice from the interpreters seemed that much female)
more relevant.
Moreover, hearing how an American audience
I think video-taping the presentation and watching
would perceive their presentations was eye-
it is a very good method because it allows you to
opening for many of them.
look at yourself objectively. Because I was able to
see myself perform, what the professor said made a while Japanese audiences tend to just sit and listen,
lot of sense to me and I was able to accept her American audiences might not even listen if they
suggestions wholeheartedly. (Keita, a nineteen- decide at the very beginning that it is not an
year-old male) interesting presentation. In addition, compared to
a Japanese style presentation, an American style
presentation should be more interactive. (Noriko,
Positive atmosphere. Some of the participants
a 19-year-old female)
were worried that they would be severely criti-
cized during the session and many were happy I think an American audience is more interactive
that the Triad Training Model was conducted and wants more interactive communication in a
in what they felt was a “positive atmosphere” presentation, so it is necessary to put a lot of things
providing ample positive feedback which into a presentation which attract an audience such
encouraged them to do better next time. as clear and interesting examples, asking
questions, letting them stimulate the five senses,
I was glad I applied for this session. At first, I was and so on. (Hiro, a 19-year-old male)
worried that I would be severely criticized but in
addition to receiving criticism I also received
positive feedback and so I felt quite positive, not Practicing. Finally, at the end of the session,
depressed, afterwards. (Yuji, a twenty-one-year- each of the participants was given a chance
old male) to practice their introduction with the help of

398 tomoko yoshida
the interpreters. The participants found this when they would have another chance to pre-
combination of feedback and opportunity to sent in class again.
practice helpful.
I realize keenly I’m very inexperienced through
I think the method was wonderful. Watching the this session. So, my motivation for delivering a
video and giving feedback, changing some of the presentation is improving. This session was very
points and presenting again. I think this is the best helpful for me. (Mayumi, a twenty-year-old
method if the session were to be conducted within female)
thirty minutes. (Keita, a 19-year-old male)
It was helpful for me because her (the student
interpreter’s) words made me happy and
Outcomes of the Triad Training Model inspired. It lead to greater confidence and to an
for Collectivists improved presentation next time. She mentioned
about my weak points such as my choice of
As a result of the Triad Training Model, the words and lack of creativity as well. (Yuta, a
participants reported five outcomes: (1) change nineteen-year-old male)
in attitude toward presentations, (2) motiv-
It was very interesting how many of the par-
ation, (3) confidence, and (4) expansion of
ticipants really valued the comments which
perspective. The first four outcomes together
they received from their senpais, even more
lead to (5) better presentation skills.
so than those from their instructor.
Change in attitude toward presentations. Some Expansion of perspectives. As a result of hear-

of the participants mentioned that, through the ing how an American audience might react to
session, they learned that Americans have a their presentations, some of the participants
different attitude toward presentations com- felt that they were able to expand their
pared to the Japanese. perspectives.
I think we have to have the consciousness that “we Because I was able to get direct feedback from a
are the entertainer.” (Chizuru, a 19-year-old returnee student who had lived abroad, I was
female) able to learn things I would not have been able
to learn simply from reading a textbook. By
In my opinion, the American attitude to
presentations is very different from the Japanese
hearing how American students would feel if
one. For example, they seem to enjoy delivering they heard my presentation, I felt I was able to
presentations more than Japanese people. Some expand my perspective more. (Noriko, a 19-
Japanese regard it as hard work they are obligated year-old female)
to do while some Americans state their feelings
and opinions vividly. As a result, American Better presentation skills. Finally, all the stu-
audiences tend to react more enjoyably and dents listed specific presentation skills they
happily in response to the splendid and interesting wished to use during their next presentation
expressions of the presenters. (Makoto, an and were eager to try out what they just
eighteen year-old male)
learned.
The use of graphs and photographs in my power

Motivation and Confidence. Some felt very point slides and when necessary to use props. The
motivated to present again while others use of gestures, tone of voice and inflections so it
reported increased confidence. In fact, at the does not become monotonous. To do things so the
end of the Triad Training Model, many asked audience does not get bored (ask them questions,

make them laugh, etc.). Try to stimulate the four constructs (i.e., creativity, delivery, con-
audience’s five senses (even if the audience is tent and overall assessment), the post-test
Japanese, from now on I plan to make my scores were significantly higher than the pre-
presentations more interactive). (Noriko, a test scores at the p < 0.05 level. In other words,
19-year-old female) the students’ performances improved mark-
edly after the Triad Training Model (see
Summary of findings. Overall, the Triad Yoshida, Gimbayashi, Tamura, & Suzuki,
Training Model for Collectivists was 2015 for more details on the quantitative
appealing to Japanese students because of the analyses).
modifications we made to the model. Instead As is with all experiential techniques, it is
of using an antipresenter and a propresenter, possible that there are strong experimenter
we used two interpreters who strived to create effects and that the method might not be as
a good interpersonal reality (Diaz-Guerrero, effective if delivered by a less experienced
1975; Yoshida, 1994). It also helped save face trainer. There is also the possibility that the
(Morisaki & Gudykunst, 1994; Oetzel et al., participants performed much better simply
2001) as we did not embarrass the participants because of the extra attention they were given.
in front of their classmates. Moreover, by not Regardless of these possible biases, we felt that
interrupting them during the presentation but the Triad Training Model for Collectivists was
simply conducting the feedback session after- simple to implement, versatile, and effective.
wards using the video, we did not create
unnecessary uncertainty and anxiety to what
Discussion and Conclusion
was already a stressful situation – delivering a
presentation in English. A final feature of our The Triad Training Model was a seminal con-
modification was that we used an indigenous tribution to the field as it was one of the first
and familiar form of instruction, the senpai intercultural communication models. The
(Bright, 2005; Cave, 2004; Davies & Ikeno, Triad Training model provides the unique
2002), as one of the interpreters. opportunity to hear various thoughts that
Overall, the participants’ second presenta- might be occurring in someone else’s mind.
tions were much better than their first with As the model gives permission to voice nega-
most of them trying hard to entertain the audi- tive thoughts that would otherwise be hidden,
ence using many creative techniques. Most it provides a unique opportunity to directly
were very enthusiastic about their presenta- deal with the various resistances a culturally
tions. The one student who was too shy to different other might have. Another unique
make eye contact during his first presentation feature of the model is its versatility. During
was so excited that he could not sleep the night the past four decades, many versions of the
before the presentation and consequently model have appeared for various audiences
caught a cold. He smiled through the entire and purposes.
presentation, looked into the audience’s eyes, The Triad Training Model for Collectivists
and delivered an impressive presentation. is a cross-cultural application of the model and
A one-way within-subjects analysis of vari- should be used for individuals from collectivist
ance was conducted to evaluate the effect of cultures, especially those with strong uncer-
the Triad Training Model and the difference in tainty avoidance. As all communication is
rating between the students and the third party intercultural to a certain extent, the Triad
evaluators. The results suggested that for all Training Model can also be useful for any kind

400 tomoko yoshida
of training as it provides invaluable insights tool. The trainer can simulate an actual busi-
into what the service receiver might be think- ness scene and have the trainee interact natur-
ing and also offers advice from experienced ally. During the video-taped feedback session
practitioners. the two interpreters or the anti and probusi-
For example, if we are training instructors ness person can express the positive and nega-
to teach in a new culture, it might be helpful tive feelings they might have experienced. The
for instructors to hear negative thoughts stu- business scene might consist of going out for a
dents might have (via the anti instructor or drink. Let us say that the trainee just goes
interpreter) or receive advice from experienced ahead and sits down in the first seat he finds.
instructors (via the pro instructor or inter- The antibusiness person might say, “Foreign-
preter). For example, many non-Japanese ers are so inconsiderate! I was going to offer
instructors who teach in Japan for the first him the best seat anyway but he shouldn’t just
time are greeted by a wall of silence in class take it without me offering it!” or “That was
(King, 2013; Wadden, 1993). Some complain supposed to be for our boss! What is he think-
that students are passive and uninterested ing?!” The probusiness person might say,
(King, 2013; Wadden, 1993). Using the modi- “Stand back and wait until someone offers
fied version of the Triad Training Model, a you a seat.” The interpreter might provide a
trainer could videotape the class and then pro- comprehensive explanation of this custom
vide feedback via two interpreters or an anti such as, “In Japan, seating order is very com-
and pro instructor, depending on the cultural plicated and carries a lot of meaning. The rule
background of the instructor being trained. depends on the shape of the table, the view,
For example, if an instructor asks a question and other factors but the main rule of thumb is
and none of the students respond, an antifa- that the best seat is furthest away from the
culty might say, “How do you expect us to say door, with the best view, and is in a central
anything if you don’t call on a particular stu- position. This seat is usually reserved for the
dent?” The proinstructor might say, “You most important person like the oldest person
need to direct questions at specific students, in the group or the guest. It is best to wait until
like ‘Sayuri, what do you think?’” The inter- a seat is offered to you” (see Nishiyama, 1996
preter might say something like, “Because the for a more extensive discussion on seating
Japanese are collectivists they really care rituals).
about what other people think. If a particular In a train-the-trainer workshop, a pro and
student raises his/her hand too often the others antitrainer (or two interpreters) can be used. If
might think he/she is showing off. That’s a trainer is about to start a simulation, the
why the teacher needs to call on students antitrainer might say, “A game? What does
equally.” This could help the instructor better she think we are . . . Kindergartners?” The pro-
understand the reasons behind this apparent trainer, on the other hand, might say, “You
passivity and may help save years of frustra- need to first explain the purpose of the simula-
tion, while making them more effective as tion and why you are doing it.” The interpreter
teachers. might explain, “Unless the trainees have had
Similarly, when training business people, the experience with simulations, they might just
Triad Training Model using a probusiness see it as child’s play. You really need to begin
person (or interpreter) and antibusiness person by explaining why you are using a simulation
(or interpreter) could be a powerful training and the importance of experiential learning.”

The Triad Training Model can be applied to

Acknowledgments
any service profession. For example, when
training an American hotel front desk staff to I would like to thank Ms. Riko Gimbayashi
serve Japanese guests, the antifront desk staff for serving as “interpreter” in the Triad
might say, “How rude! I can’t believe he just Training Model, for inputting the statistical
slammed down the registration form like data, for analyzing the qualitative data with
that!” The profront desk staff might say, me, and for proofreading this manuscript so
“Your actions have as much meaning to the carefully. I am also grateful to Ms. Shouko
Japanese as words do. So make sure you hold Suzuki and Ms. Yuki Tamura for serving as
the form with two hands and give it to them “interpreters,” for helping me design the pro-
while bowing slightly.” The interpreter might ject, and for their helpful comments on this
explain the concept of high-context and low- manuscript. My heartfelt thanks also go to
context communication and explain why pre- Dr. Gary Fontaine, Professor Kyoko Yashiro,
sentation is so important in Japan. Dr. Melinda Wood, and Dr. Mariko Muro-
Even within the same culture, there are Yokokawa for reading the initial draft and for
many cross-cultural situations. For example, their insightful comments. I am also extremely
in elderly care facilities, the caregivers do not grateful to Dr. Dharm Bhawuk for his very
necessarily understand the thoughts of the care helpful and insightful comments on what
receivers. For example, if an Alzheimer’s was originally my final draft. I would also like
patient says there are rats in the room and to thank all the participants for their enthusi-
the caregiver denies this fact, the anticaregiver asm and excitement regarding this project.
might say, “Are you saying that I am crazy? Last, but not least, I am forever grateful to
You think you’re so much better than me. Dr. Paul Pedersen for all he has taught me –
I don’t trust you.” The procaregiver might he has and continues to inspire me in
say, “You need to match the reality of the countless ways.
patient. If he sees it, you need to go with that
version of reality.” The interpreter might say,
References
“Each of us has our own version of reality
which needs to be acknowledged. If you want Albert, R. D. (1983). The intercultural sensitizer or
to gain their trust, you need to begin by culture assimilator: A cognitive approach. In D.
acknowledging their reality” (based on Bryden, Landis & R. W. Brislin (Eds.), Handbook of
2005). intercultural training (pp. 186–217). New York,
In summary, the Triad Training Model is NY: Pergamon.
powerful because it gives us permission to Batchelder, D., & Warner, E. G. (Eds.). (1977).
Beyond experience: The experiential approach to
voice negative thoughts that are otherwise
cross-cultural education. Brattleboro, VT:
denied or kept silent. In the past four decades,
Experiment Press.
the Triad Training Model has made a very
Beck, A. T., & Weishaar, M. E. (1989). Cognitive
important contribution to the field of counsel- therapy. In R. Corsini & D. Wedding (Eds.),
ing. The Triad Model, like its originator, Paul Current pyschotherapies (4th ed., pp. 285–322).
Pedersen, embraces the complexity and beauty Itasca, IL: Peacock.
that is culture and our lives. As we enter Phase Bennett, J. M. (1986). Modes of cross-cultural
4 in its evolution, it is my hope that trainers training: Conceptualizing cross-cultural training
and educators across the world will choose and as education. International Journal of
adapt the model to fit their needs. Intercultural Relations, 10, 117–134.

402 tomoko yoshida
Bernal., M. E., & Padilla, A. M. (1982). Status of Cave, P. (2004). Bukatsudo: The educational role of
minority curricula and training in clinical Japanese school clubs. Journal of Japanese
psychology. American Psychologist, 37, 780–787. Studies, 30(2), 383–415.
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1996). Development of a culture Chemers, M. M. (1969). Cross-cultural training as a
theory-based assimilator: Application of means of improving situational favorableness.
individualism and collectivism in cross-cultural Human Relations, 22, 531–546.
training. Best Paper Proceedings (pp. 147–150), Cole, J. (1996). Beyond prejudice: Teaching tools, a
Academy of Management Annual Meeting, Triad Model approach for reduction of prejudicial
Cincinnati. behavior. Ellensburg, WA: Growing Images.
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2001). Evolution of culture Cook, V. (2001). Using the first language in the
assimilators: Toward theory-based assimilators. classroom. The Canadian Modern Language
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, Review, 57(3), 402–423.
25, 141–163. Corrigan, J., Dell, D. M., Lewis, K. N., & Schmidt,
Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Brislin, R. W. (2000). Cross- L. D. (1980). Counseling as a social influence
cultural training: A review. Applied Psychology: process: A review [Monograph]. Washington,
An International Review, 49(1), 162–191. DC: American Psychological Association.
Bright, M. I. (2005). Can Japanese mentoring Corsini, R. J. (Ed.). (1981). Handbook of innovative
enhance understanding of Western mentoring? psychotherapies. New York, NY: Wiley.
Employee Relations, 27(4), 325–339. Cushner, K., & Brislin, R. W. (1995).Intercultural
Brislin, R. W. (1993). Culture-general assimilator: interactions: A practical guide. Thousand Oaks,
Preparation for various types of sojourners. In CA: Sage.
R. M. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural Cushner, K., & Landis, D. (1996). The intercultural
experience (pp. 281–299). Yarmouth, ME: sensitizer. In D. Landis & R. S. Bhagat (Eds.),
Intercultural Press. Handbook of intercultural training (2nd ed.,
Brislin, R. W., Cushner, K., Cherrie, C., & Yong, pp. 185–202). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
M. (1986). Intercultural interactions: A practical Davies, R. J., & Ikeno, O. (2002). The Japanese
guide. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. mind: Understanding contemporary Japanese
Brislin, R. W., & Yoshida, T. (1994). Intercultural culture. North Clarendon, VT: Tuttle Publishing.
communication training: An introduction. DeMello, C. (1995). Acting the culture contrast. In
Newbury Park, CA: Sage. S. M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford (Eds.),
Bryden, C. (2005). Dancing with dementia: My Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural training
story of living positively with dementia. London, methods (Vol. 1, pp. 59–68). Yarmouth, ME:
UK: Jessica Kingsley. Intercultural Press.
Casas, J. M. (1982). Counseling psychology in the Diaz-Guerrero, R. (1975). Psychology of the
marketplace: The status of ethnic minorities. The Mexican: Culture and personality. Austin, TX:
Counseling Psychologist, 10, 61–67. University of Texas Press.
Casas, J. M. (1984). Policy, training, and research in Fiedler, F. E., Mitchell, T., & Triandis, H. C.
counseling psychology: The racial/ethnic (1970). The culture assimilator: An approach
minority perspective. In S. Brown & R. Lent to cross-cultural training (Technical Report
(Eds.), Handbook of counseling psychology (pp. 70-5). Advanced Research Projects Agency, US
785–831). New York, NY: Wiley. Navy.
Casas, J. M., Ponterotto, J. G., & Guttierrez, J. M. Fiedler, F. E., Mitchell, T., & Triandis, H. C.
(1986). An ethical indictment of counseling (1971). The culture assimilator: An approach to
research and training: The cross-cultural cross-cultural training. Journal of Applied
perspective. Journal of Counseling and Psychology, 55, 95–102.
Development, 64, 347–349. Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique.
Casse, P. (1981). Training for the cross-cultural mind Psychological Bulletin, 51, 327–358.
(2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Society of Fowler, S., & Blohm, J. M. (2004). An analysis of
Intercultural Education. methods for intercultural training. In D. Landis,

J. M. Bennett, & M. J. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook workshop for international graduate students in
of intercultural training (3rd ed., pp. 37–84). Japan. Journal of Intercultural Communication,
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 15, 93–108.
Freud, S. (1995). The basic writings of Sigmund Hofner-Saphiere, D. (1997). Ecotonos: A simulation
Freud (Psychopathology of everyday life, the dealing with problem solving and decision making
interpretation of dreams, and three contributions in multicultural groups. Cultural Detective.
to the theory of sex). New York, NY: Modern Retrieved from www.culturaldetective.com/
Library. relatedproducts.shtml
Fujimoto, D. (2004). Adapting the contrast culture Hofstede, G. (1986). Cultural differences in teaching
method to the classroom. Journal of Intercultural and learning. International Journal of
Communication, 7, 43–61. Intercultural Relations, 10, 301–320.
Gochenour, T. (1977a). The albatross. In D. Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010).
Batchelder & E. G. Warner (Eds.), Beyond Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind –
experience: The experiential approach to cross- Intercultural cooperation and its importance for
cultural education (pp. 131–136). Brattleboro, survival (3rd ed.). New York, NY:
VT: Experiment Press. McGraw-Hill.
Gochenour, T. (1977b). The owl. In D. Batchelder & Hofstede, G. J., Pedersen, P. B., & Hofstede, G.
E. G. Warner (Eds.), Beyond experience: The (2002). Exploring culture: Exercises, stories and
experiential approach to cross-cultural education synthetic cultures. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural
(pp. 125–130). Brattleboro, VT: Experiment Press. Press.
Goldfried, M. R. (1988). Application of rational Ibrahim, F. A., & Arredondo, P. M. (1986). Ethical
restructuring to anxiety disorders. The standards for cross-cultural counseling:
Counseling Psychologist, 16, 50–68. Counseling preparation, practice, assessment,
Goodyear, R., & Robyack, J. (1981). Counseling as and research. Journal of Counseling and
an interpersonal influence process: A perspective Development, 64, 349–352.
for counseling practice. Personnel & Guidance Irvin, R., & Pedersen, P. (1995). The internal dialogue
Journal, 60, 654–657. of culturally different clients: An application of the
Gudykunst, W. B., & Hammer, M. R. (1983). Basic Triad Training Model. Journal of Multicultural
training design: Approaches to intercultural Counseling and Development, 23, 4–11.
training. In D. Landis & R. W. Brislin (Eds.), Ito, K., & Triandis, H. C. (1989). Culture assimilator
Handbook of intercultural training: Issues in for Japanese visiting the United States.
theory and design (Vol. 1, pp. 118–154). Department of Psychology, University of Illinois.
Elmsford, NY: Pergamon. Jackson, M. A. (1999). Stereotype reversal and triad
Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond culture, New York, NY: methods of counselor training: Expanding
Doubleday. perspective taking in conceptualizing presenting
Harper, F. D., & McFadden, J. (Eds.). (2003). problems of racial/ethnic minority clients
Culture and counseling: New approaches. Boston, [Doctoral Dissertation]. Available from
MA: Pearson Education. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database.
Harrison, R., & Hopkins, R. L. (1967). The design (UMI No. 9943672).
of cross-cultural training: An alternative to the James, D. M., Collins, L. C., & Samoylova, E.
university model. Journal of Behavioral Science, (2012). A moment of transformative learning:
3, 431–460. Creating a disorientating dilemma for a health
Hines, A. B., & Pedersen, P. (1980). The cultural care student using video feedback. Journal of
grid: Matching social system variables and Transformative Education, 10(4), 236–256.
cultural perspectives. Asian Pacific Training King, J. (2013). Silence in the second language
Development Journal, 1, 5–11. classroom. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Hiratsuka, H., & Fujimoto, D. (2012). A training Kohls, R. L., & Knight, J. M. (1994). Developing
evaluation of the Contrast Culture Method intercultural awareness: A cross-cultural training

404 tomoko yoshida
handbook (2nd ed.). Yarmouth, ME: hockey: A player’s perspective. Sport, Education
Intercultural Press. & Society, 19(1), 19–40.
Krueger, R. A. (1998). Analyzing and reporting Nishiyama, K. (1996/2006). Welcoming the
focus group results. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Japanese visitor: Insights, tips, tactics. Honolulu,
Publications. HI: University of Hawaii Press.
Landis, D., & Miller, A. (1973). The army culture Oberg, K. (1960). Cultural shock: Adjustment to
assimilator: Interaction with black soldiers. new cultural environments. Practical
Philadelphia, PA: Center for Social Anthropology, 7, 177–182.
Development. O’Brien, G. E., Fiedler, F. E., & Hewett, T. (1970).
Lefley, H. P., & Pedersen, P. B. (1986). Cross- The effects of programmed culture training
cultural training for mental health professionals. upon the performance of volunteer medical
Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. teams in Central America. Human Relations,
Loo, C. (1980a). Bicultural contextualizer model for 24, 209–231.
cultural sensitivity in counseling: Transcript, Oetzel, J., Ting-Toomey, S., Masumoto, T.,
understanding ethnic identity. Santa Cruz, CA: Yokochi, Y., Pan, X., Takai, J., & Wilcox, R.
Chinatown Research Center and the University (2001). Face and facework in conflict: a cross-
of California. cultural comparison of China, Germany, Japan,
Loo, C. (1980b). Bicultural contextualizer model for and the United States. Communication
cultural sensitivity in counseling: Transcript, Monographs, 68(3), 235–258.
harmful assumptions. Santa Cruz, CA: Chinatown Paige, R. M. (Ed.). (1993). Education for the
Research Center and the University of California. intercultural experience (2nd ed.). Yarmouth,
Luria, A. R. (1961). The role of speech in regulation ME: Intercultural Press.
of normal and abnormal behavior (J. Tizzard Pedersen, P. B. (1976). A cross-cultural triad training
Ed.). New York, NY: Liverwright. model for counselors. International Student
Malpass, R. S., & Salancik, G. R. (1977). Linear Advisors Office, University of Minnesota.
and branching formats in culture assimilator Pedersen, P. B. (1977). The triad model of cross-
training. International Journal of Intercultural cultural counselor training. Personnel and
Relations, 1(2), 76–87. Guidance Journal, 56, 94–100.
Mead, G. H. (1982). The individual and the social Pedersen, P. B. (1983). Intercultural training of
self: Unpublished work of George Herbert Mead mental-health providers. In D. Landis & R. W.
(D. L. Miller, Ed.). Chicago, IL: University of Brislin (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural training,
Chicago Press. Volume 2: Issue in training methodology
Morisaki, S., & Gudykunst, W. B. (1994). Face in (pp. 325–352). New York, NY: Pergamon Press.
Japan and the United States. In S. Ting-Toomey Pedersen, P. B. (1984). Levels of intercultural
(Ed.). The challenge of facework, (pp. 47–93). communication using the rehearsal
Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. demonstration model. Journal of Non-White
Mumford, M. G., & Fowler, S. M. (1999). Concerns, 57–68.
Intercultural sourcebook. Yarmouth, ME: Pedersen, P. B. (1988). A handbook for developing
Intercultural Press. multicultural awareness. Alexandria, VA:
Neimeyer, G. J., Fukuyama, M. A., Bingham, R. American Association for Counseling and
P., Hall, L. E., & Mussenden, M. E. (1986). Development.
Training cross-cultural counselors: Pedersen, P. B. (1997). Culture-centered counseling
A comparison of the pro and anti-counselors interventions: Striving for accuracy. Thousand
triad models. Journal of Counseling and Oaks, CA: Sage.
Development, 64, 437–439. Pedersen, P. B. (2000). Hidden messages in culture-
Nelson, L. J.,, Potrac, P., & Groom, R. (2014). centered counseling: A triad training model.
Receiving video-based feedback in elite ice- Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Pedersen, P. B. (2004). 110 experiences for Roysircar, G., Sandhu, D. S., & Bibbins, V. E. Sr.
multicultural learning. Washington, DC: (2003). Multicultural competencies: A guidebook
American Psychological Association. of practices. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Pedersen, P. B., & Brooks-Harris, J. (2005). Multicultural Counseling and Development.
Pedersen’s triad training model: Five vignettes of Seelye, H. N. (1996). Experiential activities for
culturally different counselors intercultural learning. Yarmouth, ME:
interviewing a single client. Alexandria, VA: Intercultural Press.
Micro Training. Shirts, G. (1973). BAFA-BAFA: A cross-cultural
Pedersen, P. B., Crethar, H., & Carlson, J. (2008). simulation. Del Mar, CA: Simile 11.
Inclusive cultural empath: Making relationships Singelis, T. (1997). Teaching about culture, ethnicity,
central in counseling and psychotherapy. and diversity: Exercises and planned activities.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Association. Smith, E. J. (1982). Counseling psychology in the
Pedersen, P. B., Draguns, J. G., Lonner, W. J., & marketplace: The status of ethnic minorities. The
Trimble, J. E. (1976). Counseling across cultures. Counseling Psychologist, 10, 61–67.
Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. Stewart, E. C. (1966). The simulation of cultural
Pedersen, P. B., Fukuyama, M., & Heath, A. (1989). differences. Journal of Communication, 16,
Client, counselor, and contextural variables in 291–304.
multicultural counseling. In P. B. Pedersen, J. B. Stewart, E. C. (1972). American cultural patterns:
Draguns, W. J. Lonner, & J. E. Trimble (Eds.), A cross-cultural approach. Pittsburgh, PA:
Counseling across cultures (pp. 23–52). Honolulu, Regional Council for International Education.
HI: University of Hawaii Press. Stewart, E. C. (1995). Contrast-culture training. In
Pedersen, P. B., & Hernandez, D. (1997). Decisional S. M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford (Eds.),
dialogues in a cultural context: Structured Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural training
exercises. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. methods (Vol. 1, pp. 47–57). Yarmouth, ME:
Pedersen, P. B., & Ivey, A. (1993). Culture-centered Intercultural.
counseling and interviewing skills: A practical Strauss, A. L. (1987). Qualitative analysis for social
guide. Westport, CT: Praeger. scientists. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
Pike, R. W. (2003). Creative training techniques University Press.
handbook: Tips, tactics, and how-to’s for Stringer, D. M., & Cassiday, P. A. (2009). 52
delivering effective training (3rd ed.). Human activities for improving cross-cultural
Resource Development Press. communication. Boston, MA: Nicholas Brealey.
Ponterotto, J. G., & Casas, J. M. (1987). In search Strous, M. (1997). Counsellor inner dialogue as an
of multicultural competence within counselor impediment or facilitation of therapeutic alliance
education programs. Journal of Counseling and in multicultural counselling. [Research proposal
Development, 65, 430–434. for a dissertation]. University of the
President’s Commission on Mental Health (1978). Witwatersrand, South Africa.
Report from the President’s Commission on Sue, D. W. (1980). Evaluation report from
Mental Health. Washington, DC: US DISC 1978–1979. Honolulu, HI: East–West
Government Printing Office. Center.
Pusch, M. D. (2004). Intercultural training in Sue, D. W., Bernier, J. E., Durran, A., Feinberg, L.,
historical perspective. In D. Landis, J. M. Pedersen, P., Smith, E., & Vasquez-Nuttal, E.
Bennett, & M. J. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of (1982). Position paper: Cross-cultural counseling
intercultural training (3rd ed., pp. 1–36). competencies. The Counseling Psychologist, 10,
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 45–52. In P. B. Pedersen (Ed.), Handbook of
Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy. cross-cultural counseling and therapy. Westport,
London, UK: Constable. CT: Greenwood Press.

406 tomoko yoshida
Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (1981). Counseling the Triandis, H. C. (1995b). Individualism and
culturally different: Theory and practice. New collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
York, NY: Wiley. Triandis, H. C., Bontempo, R., Villareal, M. J.,
Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (1990). Counseling the Asai, M., & Lucca, N. (1988). Individualism and
culturally different: Theory and practice (2nd collectivism: Cross-cultural perspectives on self-
ed.). New York, NY: Wiley. ingroup relationships. Journal of Personality and
Sue, S., Akutsu, P. D., & Higashi, C. (1985). Social Psychology, 54(2), 323–338.
Training issues in conducting therapy with Trifonovitch, G. (1977). On cross-cultural
ethnic minority-group clients. In P. B. Pedersen orientation techniques. In R. W. Brislin (Ed.),
(Ed.), Handbook on cross-cultural counseling and Culture learning: Concepts, applications, and
therapy (pp. 275–280). Westport, CT: research (pp. 213–222). Honolulu, HI: East–
Greenwood Press. West Center, University of Hawaii
Sue, S., Allen, D., & Conaway, L. (1975). The Press.
responsiveness and equality of mental health care Vygotsky, L. S. (1934/1986). Thought and language
to Chicanos and Native Americans. American (A. Kozulin, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: MIT
Journal of Community Psychology, 45, 111–118. Press. (Original work published in 1934).
Sue, S., & McKinney, H. (1974). Delivery of Wadden, P. (1993). A handbook for teaching English
community health services to black and white at Japanese universities. Oxford, UK: Oxford
clients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical University Press.
Psychology, 42, 794–801. Wade, P., & Bernstein, B. L. (1991). Culture
Sue, S., McKinney, H., Allen, D., & Hall, J. (1974). sensitivity training and counselor’s race: Effects
Delivery of community health services to black on black female clients’ perceptions and attrition.
and white clients. Journal of Consulting Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38(1), 9–15.
Psychology, 41, 794–801. Weeks, W. H., Pedersen, P. B., & Brislin, R. W.
Sueda, K. (2014). Negotiating multiple identities: (1979). Manual of structured experiences for
Shame and pride among Japanese returnees. New cross-cultural learning. Yarmouth, ME:
York, NY: Springer. Intercultural Press.
Thiagarajan, S. T., & Thiagarajan, R. (2011). Yoshida, T. (1994). Interpersonal versus non-
Barnga 25th anniversary edition: A simulation interpersonal realities: An effective tool
game on cultural clashes [Kindle edition]. individualists can use to better understand
Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. collectivists. In R. Brislin & T. Yoshida (Eds.).
Tolbert, A. S. S. (1990). Venezuelan culture Improving intercultural interactions. Newbury
assimilator: Incidents designed for training US Park, CA: Sage.
professionals conducting business in Venezuela Yoshida, T., Gimbayashi, R., Suzuki, S., &
[Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University Tamura, Y. (2015). The Triad Training Model
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota. for collectivists. Journal of Intercultural
Triandis, H. C. (1995a). Culture-specific Communication, 19, 151–165.
assimilators. In S. M. Fowler & M. G. Mumford Yum, J. O. (1988). The impact of Confucianism on
(Eds.), Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural interpersonal relationships and communication
training methods (Vol. 1, pp. 179–186). patterns in east Asia. Communication
Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Monographs, 55(4), 374–388.

12 Multicultural Counseling Training
A Synthesis
Ben C. H. Kuo
The disciplines of Multicultural Counseling meaningful way, in either research or practice.

Training (MCT) (also known as cross-cultural This is evident by the fact that a careful litera-
counseling and training) and intercultural ture search conducted by the author at the
training (ICT) (also known as cross-cultural time of writing this chapter on PsychInfo,
training) represent two distinguished fields of using paired keywords with terms such as
scientific inquiry within psychology; both fields “intercultural training,” “cross-cultural
are concerned specifically with cultural, inter- training,” “multicultural counseling,” “cross-
cultural, and human diversity issues (Cushner cultural counseling,” etc., failed to yield any
& Brislin, 1997; Pedersen, 2000). Both special- published works that deal directly with the
ties stand as crucial responses to the increasing intersections between MCT and ICT.
significance of cultural contacts between This is highly curious because the two fields
people and groups due to globalization, migra- share similar lineage and heritage. For
tion, international trade and education, and example, the prominent multicultural counsel-
also intergroup conflict (Pusch, 2004; Sue & ing scholar, the late Dr. Paul Pedersen, repre-
Sue, 2016). Broadly speaking, the hallmarks sented a pioneering scholar whose prolific and
of MCT and ICT are characterized by the influential works and contributions cross over
systematic examination of culture and its psy- between MCT to ICT (Pedersen, 1991, 1994).
chological and sociopolitical impacts on cul- In earlier ICT book volumes it is also not
turally diverse groups and individuals and the uncommon to see chapters on cross-cultural
application of such a knowledge to educate counseling or multicultural counseling being
and train people for more effective adaptation included as an important type of application
and/or intercultural interactions (Abreu, Gim of ICT (see Pedersen, 1994). As well, many of
Chung, & Atkinson, 2000; Bennett, Bennett, & the philosophical underpinnings and training
Landis, 2004). Similarly, both fields have wit- methods embedded in these two disciplines are
nessed significant growth and advancement highly comparable and, at time, interchange-
with respect to research, and theoretical and able, for example, the frequent use of critical
practical contributions in the recent decades incident, role-play, cultural simulation game,
(see Landis, Bennett, & Bennett, 2004; Ponter- and case studies as cross-cultural training tools
otto, Casas, Suzuki, & Alexander, 2010; Smith in both MCT and ICT (Kim & Lyons, 2003;
& Trimble, 2016). Pedersen, 1987, 2000, 2003; Pope, Pangelinan,
However, despite the growing prominence & Coker, 2011). Owing to this lack of mean-
of MCT and ICT and the many overlapping ingful intersection and exchange between con-
objectives, interests, and concerns between temporary MCT and ICT, a systematic review
these two culture-focused specialty areas, the and understanding of each of these specialty
two disciplines have not intersected in any areas and the interphase and association

408 ben c. h. kuo
between them has yet to be attempted in the and training; (4) the advent of professional
current extant literature. standards for MCT; (5) its operationalization
Considering the growing influence and and measurement of cultural competence; (6)
prominence of both MCT and ICT, a closer its training models, methods, and techniques;
examination of these two seemingly affiliated and (7) the prevailing and emerging themes
disciplines at this juncture would be timely and and issues of the specialty. As a comprehensive
profitable for both fields and beyond. With narrative review, the current chapter opts to
respect to ICT, Van de Vijver and Breugel- selectively highlight information, elements,
mans (2008) asserted more than a decade ago and themes pertinent to the specific purposes
that the future of ICT lies with the field’s of this chapter. Following the review of topics
ability to connect and learn from its allied (3–7), above, on MCT, an attempt is made to
disciplines, like cross-cultural and evaluation further link the cross-cultural training perspec-
research. Likewise, the same argument can be tive of MCT to that of ICT through discussion
made about linking ICT to MCT. A greater and analysis under the “Relevance/Implica-
mutual understanding and exchange between tions for Intercultural Training” sections relat-
MCT and ICT will likely bring about more ing to these five topics. The chapter concludes
open dialogues, sharing and collaborations with some syntheses, thoughts, and recom-
between the disciplines. mendations intended to encourage greater
In view of the above, the purpose of this mutual learning, sharing and exchange of
chapter in the current Handbook is to provide ideas and interaction between MCT and ICT.
a synergetic review by surveying and analyzing It is the present author’s hope that such a
the development of cross-cultural training synergetic review may serve to bridge the two
from the perspective of MCT and, from this allied disciplines and to encourage more intel-
vantage point, to consider MCT’s relationship, lectual cross-fertilization and interdisciplinary
relevance, and implication for the field of ICT. collaboration between the two specialties.
Operating from this perspective, this chapter
will place a greater focus on presenting MCT
Historical Origins and Lineages of
and reflecting upon its implications for ICT.
Multicultural Counseling and Training
The aim of this chapter intends to provide a
broad introduction for non-counselors, includ- In order to more fully describe and understand
ing intercultural and diversity trainers, man- MCT in relation to ICT, a closer examination
agers, students, and other practitioners, to the of the historical roots and contexts from which
discipline of MCT and to consider its implica- multicultural counseling movement emerged is
tions for ICT. As such, the chapter is not essential. To situate MCT and its development
intended to be exhaustive in its review of within the proper historical context, the ensu-
MCT and ICT, but instead to serve as an ing section provides a brief overview of the
initial step to bridge these two culture-centered multicultural counseling movement in the
disciplines by offering some preliminary syn- USA since its origin in 1950s until the present.
theses and suggestions. In the grand schema, the advent of multicul-
In terms of its organization, this chapter will tural counseling movement was catalyzed by
review what is currently known about MCT several professional and sociopolitical precur-
with respect to: (1) its historical development; sors in the USA around the 1950s. These
(2) its parallels and similarities to ICT; (3) the events included: (1) the rapid growth and
definition of multicultural counseling practice diversification of the demographics in the

Multicultural Counseling Training and Intercultural Training 409
USA; (2) the apparent inadequacy of the sociopolitical climate and race relation of the
mental health system in serving the needs of day (Jackson, 1995). The focus of this limited
culturally diverse clients (e.g., high premature body of multicultural literature during these
therapy dropout rates among racial and ethnic early days was on how culture and cultural
clients); (3) the increasing recognition among consideration affected the administration of
American psychologists, counsellors, and standardized psychological tests with African
mental health professionals of the pervasive Americans.
social injustice, inequality, racism and discrim-
ination faced by individuals of racial and 1960s–1970s Second Moment: The Movement’s
ethnic groups in the USA; and (4) the serious Infancy. In the 1960s and 1970s, with the rise
need for cultural competencies among counsel- of the Civil Rights movement and the institu-
ors and psychologists but the absence of tionalization of the Civil Rights Act in 1964,
training programs to address this issue and to changes were occurring within the professional
meet this need (Abreu et al., 2000; Jackson, organization of psychology. Jackson (1995)
1995; Sue & Sue, 2016). Broadly speaking, it noted that these sweeping societal changes
has been argued that the advent of multicul- made it easier for minority members of the
tural psychology was a critical reaction to the counseling profession to voice their concerns
two prevailing forces in psychology: scientific and raise their issues within the larger organ-
racism and social justice (Casas, 2017). Ponter- izations, such as APA. This period witnessed
otto (2008), an influential multicultural coun- the emergence of racial/ethnic-specific organ-
seling pioneer and scholar, marks the historical izational bodies within the APA, including the
evolution of multicultural counseling based on Association of Black Psychologists in 1968, the
five chronological “moments,” extending from Association of Psychologists Por La Raza in
the pre-1960s to the present. The issues and 1970, the Asian American Psychological Asso-
themes associated with scientific racism and ciation in 1972, and the Society of Indian
social justice in psychology can be observed Psychologists in 1975 (Abreu et al., 2000).
throughout these five periods of development Additionally, in 1972 the Association for
of multicultural counseling and psychology. Non-White Concerns was established; it was
later renamed the Association for Multicul-
Pre-1960s Moment: The Birth of the tural Counseling and Development in 1985
Movement. According to Jackson (1995), the (Jackson, 1995).
roots of multicultural counselling can be The Vail Conference held in Colorado in
traced back to a number of journal articles, 1973 is considered to be the pivotal event that
dealing with specific counseling issues and marked the MCT movement as cultural com-
needs of African Americans, published in Per- petence was formally recognized as moral and
sonnel and Guidance Journal in the 1950s. This ethical imperative for psychological and
modest beginning planted the seeds for a grad- mental health professionals when serving cul-
ually increasing debate about culture, race, turally diverse clients (Ridley & Kleiner,
and counseling among American counselors. 2003). Furthermore, the Vail Conference bol-
It was observed that this development emerged stered the multicultural counselling movement
out of a White-dominated, racist fields of by stipulating that culture and diversity issues
counseling (i.e., American Counseling Associ- needed to be addressed through the training
ation) and psychology (i.e., American Psycho- and education of psychologists. In 1979 the
logical Association) in the USA; it reflected the Office of Ethnic Minority Affairs within the

410 ben c. h. kuo
APA was established (Abreu et al., 2000). counseling relationship in which two or more
While the primary focus of the multicultural of the participants differ with respect to cul-
counseling literature during this period was tural background, values, and lifestyle” (p. 47;
still on African Americans, the scholarly atten- Sue et al., 1982). However, the later adopted
tion had begun to expand and to include the term “multicultural counseling:” represents
experiences of other racial and ethnic minority a more contemporary lexicon used to encom-
groups in the USA. pass counseling interaction involving other
dimensions/factors of diversity, including age,
gender, socioeconomic status, religion/spiritu-
1980s Third Moment: The Movement’s Growth ality, ethnicity, nationality, and more (Hays,
into a Specialty. The 1980s was marked by the 1996).
inception of the Board of Ethnic Minority
Affairs (BEMA) in 1981 and the Division of
Ethnic Minority Affairs (Division 45) in 1986. 1990s Fourth Moment: The Maturing Move-
According to Heppner, Casas, Carter and ment. During this moment there was a rapid
Stone (2000), the institutionalization of these increase and growth of journal and book pub-
organizations was momentous as they served lications on multicultural counseling literature.
as mechanisms within the APA governance While theoretically and empirically based
structure to promote diversity issues and plur- multicultural research initiated during the pre-
alism in psychology. Equally significant at the vious moment continued to flourish, new and
scholarship front was crucial advancements in additional research agenda and focuses
multicultural theories and research during this appeared, such as empirical research on world-
period, most notably research on racial iden- view and on the development of multicultural
tity models, acculturation, and counselor- counseling competence assessment measures
client racial match for counseling (Ponterotto, (Ponterotto, 2008). As a result, this fourth
2008). This stands as a critical paradigm shift moment was distinguished by enhanced depth
for multicultural counseling, from assuming a and sophistication of multicultural research
predominantly between-group cultural differ- and scholarly works. As well, there was an
ence perspective to an addition within-group increasing attention being paid to the multicul-
cultural difference focus (Ponterotto, 2008). tural training and education of counselors and
It was also during this third moment that psychologists. This was evident in the publica-
Sue et al., (1982) published a seminal position tion of Guidelines for Providers of Psycho-
paper on cross-cultural counselling and com- logical Services to Ethnic, Linguistic, and
petencies in The Counseling Psychologist, a Culturally Diverse Populations (APA, 1993)
prominent academic journal representing the and Guidelines and Principles for Accreditation
discipline of counseling psychology and coun- of Programs in Professional Psychology (APA,
seling profession. This paper formally articu- 1996). Furthermore, the multicultural counsel-
lated the imperative of cultural competent ing movement began to expand to include
counseling and mental health services for other diversity groups and to address their
treating minorities in the USA and it formally unique issues. For instance, in the mid to late
defined the parameters of cross-cultural coun- 90s, the Division 17 (Counseling Psychology)
seling competence. At this point of the of the APA launched the Committee on
MCT movement, the term “cross-cultural Women and the Section for Lesbian, Gay,
counseling” was widely used to refer to “any and Bisexual Awareness.

2000 to Present Fifth Moment: The Expanding information. Proponents of the cultural humil-
Movement. As the field of multicultural Coun- ity model, such as the Multicultural Orienta-
seling began to come to its own, the new mil- tion Framework (Davis et al., 2018), have
lennium ushered in new directions for the challenged the notion of “cultural compe-
movement while building on previously estab- tence” as the latter implies an “end goal” to
lished research and professional endeavors cultural learning on the part of a counselor or
(Casas, 2017). Ponterotto (2008) credited this therapist. Instead, the cultural humility model
fifth moment with three evolving themes: (1) is preferred and is said to better reflect “the
the internationalization of the counseling and ever-evolving, incremental, and highly con-
multicultural counseling movement; (2) the textual” (Davis et al., 2018, p. 90,) character-
intersection between multicultural counselling istics of cultural learning and the client-
and other psychology specialties (e.g., positive therapist process.
psychology, personality psychology); and (3) For a thorough, chronical review of the his-
the expansion in the use of more diverse scien- torical development of multicultural counsel-
tific methodologies in conducting multicultural ing and multicultural psychology, interested
counseling research. Pertaining specifically to readers are encouraged to read Casas (2017)
multicultural counseling and training, the cur- and Ponterotto (2008).
rent moment is also marked by continuous
discussions on identifying the “best practice”
in delivering multicultural education to coun-
Parallels between Multicultural
selors and training modalities that can pro-
Counseling Training and Intercultural
mote mastery of actual multicultural
Training
counseling and intervention skills (Kuo, 2012;
Smith, Constantine, Dunn, Dinehart, & Mon- In view of the above historical and contextual
toya, 2006). Additionally, the maturity of the backdrop of the MCT movement, many
field is further evident by MCT’s on-going remarkable parallels between the fields of
discourse and movement toward engaging in MCT and ICT are noted. Similar to MCT,
social justice issues, social advocacy and the origin of ICT can be traced to the 1950s
action, and engendering changes at system, and 1960s in the USA. While the MCT move-
organizational, and societal levels by counsel- ment was engendered by rising consciousness
ors and psychologists (Sue & Sue, 2016; of racial and ethnic counselors and psycholo-
Toporek, Gerstein, Fouad, Roysircar, & gists in the USA following the civil rights
Israel, 2006). movement as reviewed in the last section, the
More recently, there has been a movement emergence of ICT was fueled by: (1) the
within the field of multicultural counseling to increasing international education and oversea
promote the concept of “cultural humility” deployment/assignment occurring among US
(Davis et al., 2018). Mosher et al., (2017) citizens and (2) the scholarly works of Oberg
defined cultural humility as a process that on cultural shock and of Hall on intercultural
involves a counselor or therapist in engaging communication (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000;
in (1) persistent motivation to learn from the Pusch, 2004).
client; (2) critical self-examination; (3) giving With respect to the organizational base and
interpersonal respect to the client; (4) address- intellectual affiliation, the APA Division
ing power imbalance; and (5) maintaining an 17 the Society of Counseling Psychology and
other-oriented stance open to new cultural Division 45 the Society for the Psychology

412 ben c. h. kuo
Study of Ethnic Minority Issues form the prin- University Press, follows the previous third
cipal directorial entities for MCT. On the edition by Landis et al., (2004) by Sage.
other hand, the Society for Intercultural Edu- Similarly as for MCT, the Handbook of
cation, Training and Research (SIETAR) and Multicultural Counseling by Casas, Suzuki,
the International Academy of Intercultural Alexander, and Jackson (2017) is currently in
Relations (IAIR) have served as the intellec- its fourth edition. The proliferation of litera-
tual, research, and scholarly home bases for ture in multicultural counseling is visible from
ICT since the 1970s. In terms of primary jour- the large and ever-growing collection of book
nal outlets, Journal of Multicultural Counseling publications on the subject. They stand as one
and Development, Cultural Diversity and crucial indication of the expanding depth and
Ethnic Minority Psychology, the Counseling breadth and the growing maturity of multicul-
Psychologist, Journal of Counseling Psych- tural counseling and practice as a field. Some
ology, and to a lesser degree Journal of Coun- of the selective, prominent book volumes
seling and Development represent the key published within the past three decades are
publication journals for MCT. The Inter- highlighted below chronologically.1
national Journal of Intercultural Relations, on
(1) Pedersen, P. (1987). Handbook of cross-
the other hand, represents the flagship journal
cultural counseling and therapy. NY.
for the field of ICT and cross-cultural training.
Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
This journal was initially published under the
(2) Pedersen, P. A series of twenty-one multi-
auspice of SIETAR, then the responsibility
cultural counseling books edited by Dr.
was later assumed by IAIR.
Paul Pedersen as the lead editor for the
Incidentally in the year 2000 two seminal
“Multicultural aspects of counseling and
review papers of MCT and of ICT respectively
psychotherapy series” on a wide-ranging
were published. Abreu et al., (2000) presented
subjects, spanning from 1990s to 2000s by
MCT in an article published in The Counseling
Sage Publications.
Psychologist and Bhawuk and Brislin (2000)
(3) Pedersen, P. (2000). A handbook for
presented ICT in an article published in
developing multicultural awareness (3rd
Applied Psychology: An International Review.
edition). Alexandria, VA: American
These articles document and summarize the
Counseling Association.
history, the milestones and the key themes in
(4) Pope-Davis, D. B., Coleman, H. L. K.,
the research and the practices of MCT and
Liu, W. M., & Toporek, R. L. (2003).
ICT, respectively, up to the point of the
Handbook of multicultural competencies
review. Perhaps the coincidence of having
in counseling and psychology. Thousand
these two seminal papers published in
Oaks, CA: Sage.
2000 speaks to the coming of age and the
(5) Carter, R. T. (Ed.) (2005). Handbook of
increasing maturity and influences of these
racial-cultural psychology and counsel-
specialties at the turn of the millennium.
ing. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
The prevailing scholarly advances and the
(6) Toporek, R. L., Gerstein, L. H., Fouad,
state of arts and sciences of both specialties
N. A., Roysircar, G., & Israel T. (2006)
are epitomized and highlighted in their
respective “Handbook” published by the Sage
Publication. In the case of ICT, the latest
fourth edition of Handbook of Intercultural 1
Where a book title has multiple editions, the most
Training, the current volume by Cambridge recent edition is indicated here.

(Eds.). Handbook of social justice in coun- scholars in both MCT and ICT have typically
seling psychology. Thousand Oaks, realized.
CA: Sage.
(7) Dana, R. H., & Allen, J. (Eds.) (2008).
Defining Multicultural Counseling
Cultural competency training in a global
Practice and Training
society. New York: Springer.
(8) Gerstein, L. H., Heppner, P. P., Ægisdót- During the earlier years, the field of “multicul-
tir, S., Leung, S. A., & Norsworthy, K. L. tural counseling” was widely referred to as
(2009). International handbook of cross- “cross-cultural counseling.” According to the
cultural counseling: Cultural assumptions definition by Sue and Sue (2008), multicultural
and practices worldview. Thousand Oaks, counseling embodies “a helping role and pro-
CA: Sage. cess that uses modalities and defines goals con-
(9) Pedersen, P., Draguns, J., Lonner, W., sistent with the life experiences and cultural
Trimble, J., & M. R., Scharron-del Rio values of clients” (p. 42). These authors and
(Eds.). (2015). Counseling across cultures other multicultural counseling scholars have
(7th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. delimited that multiculturally competent coun-
(10) Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2016). Counseling seling involves therapists/counsellors who take
the culturally diverse: Theory and Practice into consideration of clients’ various identities,
(7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & use universal (etic) as well as cultural-specific
Sons, Inc. (emic) therapeutic strategies, and understand
(11) Casas, J. M., Suzuki, L. A., Alexander, clients’ culture from the perspective of indi-
C. M., & Jackson (2017) (Eds.). Hand- vidualism and collectivism, racial identity
book of multicultural counseling (4th development, acculturation, worldview, etc.
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. in the healing process (Ponterotto, 2008; Sue
(12) Arthur, N. (Ed.) (2018) Counseling in cul- & Sue, 2016). By extension, “multicultural
tural context: Identity and social justice. counseling training” (MCT) represents a sys-
Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature tematic effort to prepare counseling/psych-
Switzerland AG. ology/mental health practitioners and
(13) McAuliffe, G. J., & Associates (2020). students in developing and applying multicul-
Culturally alert counseling: A comprehen- tural theories, knowledge, and principles to
sive introduction (3rd ed.). Thousand clinical interventions and research when
Oaks, CA: Sage. working with culturally diverse groups and
individuals (APA, 2003). The use of the term
From this brief MCT–ICT comparison “multicultural” is intended to convey that the
above, it is clear that there exists considerable, domains of “culture” or “diversity” issues
striking symmetries between the two discip- MCT concerns with, transcend beyond
lines. Not only do these disciplines intercorrel- national or ethnic cultural markers and
ate in their “content” and “domain” of include gender, social class, sexual orientation,
focuses, but also they share comparable devel- religion/spirituality, disability, etc. (Hays,
opmental trajectory over the past and their 1996).
organizational structures. Hence, the strong Similar response to the diversity discourse
parallels, similarities and relatedness these was found within the management literature
two culture-focused specialty areas are per- related to ICT since the publication of
haps more conspicuous than practitioners and the influential Hudson Institute’s 1987

414 ben c. h. kuo
“Workforce 2000” report. Nearly three In the past decade or so, however, the scope
decades ago this report predicted the ever- of MCT has been extended beyond the confine
increasing cultural and sociodemographic of the counseling/therapy room or relation-
diversity of the US workforce and workplace ship, to include social justice interventions
in the future. The report prompted companies (Toporek et al., 2006). Recent multicultural
and organizations to resort to ICT programs scholars have urged the fields of counseling
and racism-reduction interventions to help and counseling psychology to engage in
prepare their employers to work with cowor- changes to counter all forms of oppression,
kers/colleagues who are of different gender including those originating at the system and
(e.g., women), colors, disability, and sexual societal levels (Speight & Vera, 2008; Vera &
orientation, etc. (Pusch, 2004). Speight, 2003). Attention to training students
On these definitional bases, the mandate of and counselors in community service, advo-
MCT is grounded in moral, ethical, and profes- cacy work, policy change and activism has
sional obligations for counselors, psycholo- been supplemented to the agenda of the
gists, and mental health practitioners – a MCT movement (e.g., Kuo, 2018a; Kuo &
required duty to respect clients’ cultural and Arcuri, 2014; Toporek et al., 2006). This newly
diversity characteristics and to provide cultur- evolved social justice domain of the MCT will
ally responsive psychological treatments and be further discussed later in the chapter.
interventions for clients accordingly (Sue, Arre-
dondo, & McDavis, 1992). Thus, the traditional
scope of cultural interaction within multicul-
Relevance/Implications for Intercultural
tural or cross-cultural counseling focuses pri-
Training
marily on the client-counselor therapeutic By definition ICT is a cross-cultural training
relationship. This emphasis on the dyadic coun- that adopts formal and systematic strategies to
seling or therapeutic interactions and processes train and prepare people for more effective
strongly borne out of the Western European interpersonal interactions, relationships and
and Judeo-Christian roots of psychotherapy job performance in the context of intercultural
tradition, as reflected in Freudian psycho- contact with others who are from another cul-
dynamic theory, Jungian analytic theory, and ture (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000; Brislin &
Rogerian “client-centered” humanistic theory, Yoshida, 1994a). Consequently, Brislin and
etc. However, multicultural counseling chal- Yoshida (1994a) noted that ICT has been
lenges the status quo and the universal assump- applied to help individuals and groups who
tions of these psychotherapy theories. It have to live and work in another country
confronts and attempts to rectify the suppos- (internationally) and/or those who have to
ition that the conceptualization of personality interact with others of different cultural back-
and psychopathology and the principles of grounds within the same country (intranation-
therapeutic changes and interventions are uni- ally). The latter point is more akin to the
versally applicable to all people regardless of concept of “multiculturalism” as construed in
their cultures. In fact, Wrenn (1962) termed MCT (Kuo, 2012).
“cultural encapsulated counselor” to describe As follows, both MCT and ICT are con-
counselors or therapists who blindly adhere to cerned with ways of instructional and learning
an unexamined monocultural and ethnocentric strategies to promote and enhance individuals’
worldview. cultural effectiveness or “cultural competence”

during intercultural contacts in which some backgrounds as broadly defined (Ridley &
degrees of cultural distance/difference exist Kleiner, 2003; Sue et al., 1992). For this
between the target person and other(s) with reason, the multicultural counseling move-
whom he/she interacts. Both specialties share ment and MCT in North America have an
the belief that individuals’ cultural competence audible “sociopolitical” overtone to them, that
can be acquired, trained or achieved through attempts to address the issues of oppression,
some systematic methods of cultural teaching discrimination, white privilege, social injustice
and learning about the cultural characteristics vs. social justice in counseling training, teach-
of oneself and that of the others’ (Bennett & ing and delivery of counseling and mental
Bennett, 2004; Kuo, Soucie, & Huang, 2019). health services (Pieterse et al., 2009; Sue &
Perspective wise, as allied disciplines within Sue, 2016).
psychology and social-behavioral science, On the other hand, the primary objective of
MCT and ICT converge on viewing human ICT is directed mainly at training people to
experiences across culture from both the etic – engage in effective adaptation in a new and
culturally universal perspective – and the unfamiliar cultural context, such as employees
emic – culturally specific perspective. As such, on job assignments overseas, student sojourn-
both specialties stress the importance of ers studying abroad, expatriate reentering one’s
attending and respecting etic as well as emic home country, to name a few (Cushner &
aspects of culture in research, practice, and Brislin, 1996). The vast breadth of topics
training. examined within ICT is observable in training
Despite these shared assumptions, MCT monographs published in the field. For
and ICT clearly distinguish from each other example, Brislin and Yoshida’s (1994b) edited
in their respective parameters and objectives book, Improving intercultural interactions:
for approaching cultural training. In terms of Modules for cross-cultural training programs,
its scope, the focus of traditional MCT falls describes ICT for diverse populations to
primarily within the “client-counselor” thera- include executives, professionals, adolescents,
peutic interaction and relationship (Pedersen, teachers, health care workers, welfare
2000), as it reflects the principal professional works, counselors, etc. In term of topical issues,
domain of counselors and counseling psych- in volume two of this book by Cushner & Bri-
ologists (Heppner et al., 2000). Also contem- slin’s (1997) the authors further discuss and
porary MCT implicates the terms “culture” or review various subject matters examined with
“cross-cultural” to include a broader diversity ICT; they include organizational leadership,
factors (race, ethnicity age, gender, sexual intercultural training in the classroom, cultural
orientation, etc.) than does traditional ICT. shock, ethnic identity, cross-cultural conflict
Historically, the training emphasis of MCT management, communication across cultures,
also concerns more with the experiences of cross-cultural empathy, and more. Taking
domestic racial, ethnic and other categories together, despite the broad array of cultural
of minorities within the USA or Canada. subjects being addressed in ICT, in comparison
Hence, the primary aim of MCT is to prepare to MCT the prevailing ICT operates under a
and enable counselors or therapists to provide more delimited prescription of “culture” and
culturally responsive and appropriate counsel- places a greater attention on culture and cul-
ing, psychotherapy and interventions to or on tural issues along the line of nationality and
behalf of clients with culturally diverse national border.

416 ben c. h. kuo
were proposed and articulated elsewhere, for

Advent of Professional Standards
examples the Code of Ethics for the American
for MCT
Counseling Association (ACA, 2005) and
As MCT continued to evolve, the discipline Guidelines for Non-Discriminatory Practice
began to self-reflect and articulate its directions for the Canadian Psychological Association
and visions, and to circumscribe the term (CPA, 1996). These guidelines stand as major
“multicultural counseling competencies” and steps forward in bringing culture and diversity
to define its content and scope. The article in issues to the forefront of professional practices
The Counseling Psychologist, titled “Position and academic scholarships.
paper: Cross-cultural counseling competencies” While the specific impacts of these guide-
by Dr. Derald Wing Sue and his colleagues, lines are difficult to determine at this point,
represents the landmark paper (Sue et al., there are however some positive indicators –
1982); it introduced the concept and the evidences suggesting that MCT is making pro-
domains of “multicultural counseling compe- gresses and being integrated into graduate
tencies” to the field of counseling psychology. training and curriculum for counselors and
Dr. Sue and his colleagues defined multicultural psychologists. For instance, multicultural and
counseling competencies in terms of a counsel- diversity issues have been incorporated into
lor’s cultural beliefs and attitudes, knowledge, the accreditation requirement for APA profes-
and skills. This article was followed by yet sional psychology graduate programs in clin-
another landmark publication a decade later, ical, counseling and school psychology and
“Multicultural counseling competencies and pre-doctoral internship sites (APA, 2013).
standards: A call to the profession” by Sue That is, professional psychology graduate pro-
et al. (1992) in Journal of Counseling and Devel- grams or internship sites that seek to obtain or
opment. This seminal paper lay out the blue- maintain APA accreditation status must dem-
print and the professional standards for onstrate commitment to MCT and address
multicultural counseling practice, training, and diversity issues in their training and education
research. It described three characteristics programs. In particular, Domain C, “Cultural
(counsellor’s cultural awareness, ability to and Individual Differences and Diversity” of
understand client’s worldview, and ability to APA’s (2013) official accreditation guidelines
develop appropriate intervention strategies) stipulates that graduate programs and intern-
and three domains (beliefs and attitudes, know- ship sites are required to respect and under-
ledge, and skills) in operationalizing multicul- stand diversity factors/concerns, to recruit and
tural counseling competencies. retain students of diverse cultural back-
This document subsequently became the grounds, and to provide multicultural training
foundation of later, more formally enunciated and education for their students. Similar cri-
and circulated ethical and professional stand- teria are also found in the most recent accredit-
ards within American psychology, including ation policy of the Canadian Psychological
Guidelines for providers of psychological ser- Association (2011).
vices to ethnic, linguistic, and culturally diverse
populations (APA, 1993) and Guidelines on
multicultural education, training, research,
Training
practice, and organizational change for psych-
ologists (APA, 2003). Other similar standards From the above account, it is apparent that
on cultural diversity and psychological services MCT movement came from critical social,

political and professional cataclysms and parameters of training for ICT be feasible or
impetuses, which in turn bore wider impacts useful for the long-term development of the
on counseling and professional psychology. specialty?” ICT scholars have noted that in
The movement was further bolstered, pro- the 1990s a similar debate about ethical stand-
moted, and enshrined by professional man- ards and professional competencies for inter-
dates and directives within the field of cultural trainers had been brought up, but the
psychology, including ethical standards and idea of initiating a certification program for
accreditation requirements (e.g., ACA, 2005; ICT within SIETAR was later aborted due to
APA 1993, 2003, 2013; CPA, 2011). As a expense, cost, and other considerations (Pusch,
result, the MCT movement by its nature was 2004). Looking at MCT as an example, one
imbued with strong sociopolitical, moral, eth- may surmise that some forms of professional
ical and professional underpinnings. In fact, and academic benchmarks, grounded in unify-
these growing developments for multicultural ing conceptual or theoretical frameworks of
counseling from multiple fronts appear to be cross-cultural training, which can help articu-
fulfilling Dr. Paul B. Pedersen’s early assertion late and delineate the essential elements of
that multicultural counseling and psychology ICT, would benefit the long-term advance-
is the “Forth Force” in psychology, following ment of ICT (Littrell, Salas, Hess, Paley, &
the psychodynamic, the behavioral, and the Riedel, 2006; van de Vijver & Breugelmans,
humanistic movements (Pedersen, 1991). 2008). Such an effort might help assimilate
In contrast, the emergence of the field of and integrate the current knowledge and the
ICT has been said to be motivated by prag- skill base of ICT, work toward standardizing
matic necessity in response to the influx of the parameters of intercultural competencies
international students studying in the USA for practice and training purposes, and
and the expansion of American trade, develop- enhance ICT’s capacity and identity as a pro-
ment, and deployment overseas between 1950s fessional specialty area.
and 1970s (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000; Pusch,
2004). Thus, unlike MCT, the development
Operationalization, Measurement,
of ICT has been influenced neither by any
and Assessment of Multicultural
organized political or ethical mandates nor
Counseling Competence
by any formally articulated or endorsed pro-
fessional guidelines and stipulations on inter- Since the 1970s ICT has witnessed a significant
cultural competency. Clearly, the characteristics growth in the measurements designed to assess
and the needs of the target recipients of MCT cultural and intercultural competencies and
vs. ICT (e.g., professional counsellor/psych- other critical cultural constructs. Many
ologists vs. organizational employees) are notable instruments being employed for ICT
quite different for obvious reasons. Hence, and ICT research have included Category
MCT and ICT are not bounded by the same Width by Detweiler (1975, 1978), the Intercul-
professional, ethical and even legal standards tural Sensitivity Measures by Bhawuk & Bri-
and expectations. slin (1992), the Intercultural Development
However, the present review of the history Inventory by Hammer, Bennett, & Wiseman,
of the MCT movement raises a crucial ques- (2003), the Organizational Culture Inventory
tion for ICT: “Would working toward some by Cooke & Lafferty (1983), the Culture for
agreed-upon professional ‘standards’ on the Diversity Inventory by Cooke & Lafferty
contents of cultural competency and the (1995), to list a few. There have also been a

418 ben c. h. kuo
number of previous reviews about these instru- self-report measures of multicultural counsel-
ments (e.g., Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000; Paige, ing competencies in the MCT literature
2004). By comparison there have been rela- designed to capture and assess counselors’ cul-
tively few assessment tools and measures tural counseling competence in terms of coun-
designed and developed specifically to evaluate selors’ cultural awareness, knowledge, and
multicultural counseling competencies for skills. Four of the most referenced and
MCT. Nevertheless, the assessment and the adopted measures of multicultural counseling
evaluation of cultural competency do consti- competence are briefly described here.
tute an area of considerable importance within
the field of MCT (Pope-Davis et al., 2003). The Cross-Cultural Counseling Inventory-
The most widely referred to and adopted Revised (CCCI-R: 20 items) by LaFromboise,
model of multicultural counseling competence Coleman, & Hernandez (1991). The CCCI-R
is the “Tripartite model” propositioned by Sue was originally designed as an observer rating
and his colleagues (Sue et al., 1992; Sue & Sue, scale of multicultural counseling competencies,
2016). Under the Tripartite model Sue and with supervisors rating of their trainees’ ability
Torino (2005) defined multicultural counseling to deliver counseling to their racial and ethnic
competence as “the counselor’s acquisition of minority clients. However, the measure was
awareness, knowledge, and skills needed to later converted into a self-report scale. The
function effectively in a pluralistic democratic CCCI-R is comprised of three domains:
society, and on an organizational/societal cross-cultural counseling skill, sociopolitical
level, advocating effectively to develop new awareness, and cultural sensitivity. According
theories, practices, polices, and organizational to Constantine, Miville and Kindaichi (2008)
structures that are more responsive to all the CCCI-R has demonstrated good reliabil-
groups” (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 46). Hence, ity, ranging from 0.95 for scores on the full
within this Tripartite framework, multicultural scale for the supervisor-rating form to 0.88 for
counseling competencies are defined in terms the scores on the self-report form. The measure
of three domains: counselors’ cultural aware- was also reported to have good psychometrics
ness, cultural knowledge, and cultural skills. with respective to context, construct and
Interestingly this Tripartite MCT framework criterion-related validity (Constantine et al.,
recalls yet another three-pronged ICT model 2008; LaFromboise et al., 1991).
by Brislin and his colleague; Brislin proposes
that ICT should aim at changing participants’ The Multicultural Awareness/Knowledge/Skills
thinking (cognition), affective reactions (emo- Survey (MAKSS: 60 items) by D’Andrea,
tion), and actions (behavior) (Brislin & Hor- Daniels, and Heck (1991). Similar to the
vath, 1997). In fact, in Sue and Sue’s (2016) CCCI-R, the MAKSS has three subscales that
more recent writings they additionally stress correspond to the components of Sue’s Tripar-
the critical role emotional impact and affective tite MCT model: multicultural counseling
change play in facilitating trainees’ develop- awareness, knowledge, and skills. The Aware-
ment of multicultural counseling competence. ness and the Knowledge subscales assess
Sue’s Tripartite multicultural counseling respondents’ capacity in these two domains
model has served as the basis for several sub- related specifically to people of color, whereas
sequently developed psychological measures of the Skills subscale assesses their cross-cultural
multicultural competence (Constantine & communication ability. In the original instru-
Ladany, 1996). There have been a number of ment validation study, the reliability coefficients

for these three subscales were 0.75, 0.90, and The Multicultural Counseling Self-Efficacy–
0.90, respectively (D’Andrea et al., 1991). The Racial Diversity Form (MCSE-RD: 37 items)
subscales of the MAKSS and a subsequently by Sheu and Lent (2007). Despite the fact that
modified version of the measure were also most of the previously reviewed scales have
reported to have good convergent validity with been in existence for more than two decades,
other measures of multicultural competencies questions about the psychometric quality of
(Constantine et al., 2008). these measures and their capacity to truly
assess respondents’ multicultural skills (as
opposed to multicultural awareness and know-
The Multicultural Counseling Inventory (MCI:
ledge) have been raised (Sheu & Lent, 2007).
40 items) by Sodowsky, Taffe, Gutkin, & Wise
In view of these concerns, a later developed
(1994). The MCI consists of the following four
MCSE-RD by Sheu and Lent (2007) was said
subscales: (1) the Awareness subscale, assess-
to focus more on evaluating counselors’ multi-
ing multicultural sensitivity, interactions,
cultural skills directly. The MCSE-RD pur-
experiences, general cultural understanding
ports to capture multicultural competence
and multicultural advocacy; (2) the Know-
through tapping specifically into respondents’
ledge subscale, assessing multicultural case
“perceived capability to counsel racially
conceptualization, treatment strategies, and
diverse client” (Sheu & Lent, 2007, p. 31).
familiarity with cultural information; (3) the
The MCSE-RD is comprised of three skills-
Skills subscale, assessing both general and
based subscales: (1) multicultural intervention;
multicultural counseling skills; and (4) the
(2) multicultural assessment, and (3) session
Relationship subscale, assessing counselor’s
management. High internal consistency was
quality of interaction with culturally diverse
reported for the three subscales, 0.98, 0.92,
clients (Sodowsky et al., 1994). In the original
and 0.94, respectively, with .98 for the overall
scale validation study, with a sample of coun-
measure (Sheu & Lent, 2007). The MCSE-RD
seling practitioners, the reliability coefficients
was found to correlate very highly with other
for the above subscales were reported to be
self-report measures of multicultural counsel-
0.80, 0.80, 0.81, and 0.67, respectively. The
ing competency (i.e., the MCI) and a measure
measure was found to be positively correlated
of counselor’s self-efficacy. Hence, these initial
to other measures of multicultural counseling
psychometric findings point to the MCSE-RD
competence (Constantine & Ladany, 1996).
as a promising new measure for MCT.
The Multicultural Counseling Knowledge and Program Evaluation Measures. In addition to

Awareness Scale (MCKAS: 32 items) by Pon- the MCT measures focusing on counseling
terotto, Gretchen, Utsey, Rieger, and Austin trainees as described above, a limited number
(2002). In the case of the MCKAS, it consists of program-level measures of MCT have been
of two subscales based on the measure of: (1) developed and published to assess the multi-
multicultural knowledge and (2) multicultural culturalism and diversity of graduate pro-
awareness. The reliabilities for the two sub- grams or departments. The Multicultural
scales were both reported to be .85 in the Competency Checklist (MCC) developed by
original study (Ponterotto et al., 2000). The Ponterotto, Alexander, and Grieger (1995)
authors of the MCKAS also reported good and the Multicultural Environmental Inven-
content, construct and criterion-related tory (MEI) developed by Pope-Davis, Liu,
validity. Nevitt, and Toporek, (2000) represent two

420 ben c. h. kuo
notable instruments. The MCC, for example, communication, to personality/dispositional

comprises twenty-two items that correspond to domains (Behrnd & Porzelt, 2012; Fowler &
six separate themes associated with multicul- Blohm, 2004). From this standpoint, the oper-
turalism and diversity of graduate training ationalization and measurement of cultural
programs: minority representation, curriculum competence in ICT appear to be more diverse
issues, counseling practice and supervision, and wide-ranging in content than those in
research considerations, student and faculty MCT. Strongly shaped by Sue’s Tripartite
competency evaluation, and physical environ- framework of multicultural counseling, the
ment (Ponterotto, Alexander, & Grieger, prevailing MCT measures appear to be more
1995). The MEI, on the other hand, is a specific in the targeted domains of cultural
twenty-seven-item scale that assesses students’ competence for which the measures assessed,
or participants’ perception of how diverse and namely counselors’ cultural awareness, know-
multicultural a graduate program or depart- ledge, and skills.
ment is. These instruments can be used to The benefit of having a much more focused
evaluate an organization’s cultural diversity and narrowly defined multicultural compe-
and sensitivity and to serve as tools for pro- tence, as in the case of MCT, is that it offers
gram evaluation and accreditation purposes a more-or-less common conceptual scheme for
(e.g., APA or CPA accreditation of clinical/ researchers and practitioners to engage in the-
counseling/school psychology graduate oretical, psychometric, and empirical research.
programs). The training contents and outcomes based on
this operational framework are more focused
and comparable. However, this relatively con-
fined, model-driven operationalization of
Training
multicultural counseling competence, based
In Bhawuk and Brislin’s (2000) review of ICT, on counsellors’ cultural awareness, knowledge,
they listed key paper-and-pencil measures and skills, is not without its challenges from
within ICT literature to include intercultural some MCT researchers (Davis et al., 2018;
sensitivity inventory, category width, reaction Sheu & Lent, 2007).
measures, learning measures, and behavioral The argument for broader and more diverse
measures. Paige (2004) further provided a frameworks of characterizing and assessing
comprehensive review of instruments used to intercultural competency, as in the case of
assess ICT interventions and intercultural ICT, is that it provides a richer and more
competency. Specifically, Paige identified complex understanding of cultural compe-
diverse instruments, including measures of tence. However, such a broad approach to
intercultural development, cultural values and operationalizing cultural competence risks
orientations, cultural identity, global aware- being overly diffused and does not lend itself
ness, cultural adjustment, multicultural com- easily to the assimilation and integration of
petence, and even personality traits. cumulative research in the area (Behrnd &
Consequently, how intercultural or cultural Porzelt, 2012). While ICT’s increasing sophis-
competency is operationalized and evaluated tication in its theory-building and theory-
within ICT varies considerably depending on driven research is clearly evident (Bhawuk &
the perspectives adopted by the researchers Brislin, 2000; Brislin & Yoshida, 1994a, 1994b;
and/or the trainers. These can range from cog- Cushner & Brislin, 1997), some ICT scholars
nitive, affective, social, attitudinal, skills, have nevertheless called for the discipline to

seek out a more unifying theoretical frame- into MCT for instance, to consider the cumu-
work to guide research in this area (Littrell lative research and knowledge base established
et al., 2006; van de Vijver & Breugelmans, within the MCT literature. As a potential
2008) and a more consensual and centralized avenue, the discipline of ICT may take cues
definition of intercultural competence in from MCT’s continuous efforts to strive for a
guiding the field (Behrnd & Porzelt, 2012). better alignment of the field’s definitions,
The implication here for both MCT and measurements, and ethical guidelines and prin-
ICT is that the two specialties might benefit ciples for multicultural counseling competence
from a converging dialogue and mutual and its training models and approaches. In this
exchange of ideas on the issue of how best to regard, it might be profitable for ICT to work
operationalize and evaluate “cultural compe- toward a more-focused integration and assimi-
tence.” In particular, it may be useful for MCT lation among its various domains, such as on
to look more broadly toward ICT to reexa- how the components of intercultural compe-
mine the adequacy of its scope of multicultural tency are defined and delineated, how they are
competence for counselors and psychologists. assessed and measured psychometrically, and
Relatedly the leading multicultural counseling how professional standards and guidelines
scholar Ponterotto (2008) has suggested that could potentially be stipulated to help guide
multicultural counseling should consider the practices of ICT.
moving from emic-oriented research and
multicultural assessment with the focus on
Training Models, Methods, and
racial/ethnic minority groups in the USA, to
Techniques for Multicultural
a broader and more etic-oriented cultural, the-
Counseling Competence
oretical and conceptual research perspective
with the focus on pancultural, multicultural Both instructors and trainers in MCT and ICT
experiences and constructs. The latter etic pos- use a wide variety of teaching methods and
ition has always been the strong point of ICT intervention strategies in conveying and
and cross-cultural psychology. Ponterotto delivering the contents of their training pro-
(2008) observed that the intercultural and grams. A review of the MCT and the ICT
cross-cultural psychology literature on “multi- literature show that between the two special-
cultural personality,” based on the works of ties there are in fact significant overlaps in the
Van der Zee and Van Oudenhoven (2000, instructional techniques adopted for educating
2001), has begun to receive attention in multi- trainees. Within the MCT literature, Ridley,
cultural counseling psychology. Ponterotto Mendoza, and Kanitz’s (1994) Multicultural
(2008) further observed that etic cultural meas- Program Development Pyramid (MPDP) pro-
ure such as the Multicultural Personality Ques- vides one of the most comprehensively elabor-
tionnaire (Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, ated models of MCT. These authors stipulated
2000) and its five dimensional factors can aid that multicultural education for counselors
the understanding of critical variables in coun- should clearly encompass five essential com-
seling psychology, such as individual’s career ponents: (1) training philosophy; (2) learning
development, academic and educational objective; (3) instructional strategies; (4) pro-
issues, development and prevention, coping, gram design; and (5) evaluation (Ridley et al.,
problem solving, and quality of life. 1994).
Similarly, it would also be a valuable exer- Ridley et al. (1994) further identified six
cise for ICT to look beyond its own discipline, most commonly adopted types of MCT

422 ben c. h. kuo
models: (1) traditional program; (2) workshop MCT, a later review surveying fifty-four multi-
design; (3) separate course; (4) interdisciplin- cultural counseling course syllabi in the US pro-
ary cognate; (5) subspecialty; and (6) inte- grams showed that the majority of these courses
grated program. The authors pointed to the utilized a combination of didactic and reflective
integrated model as the most ideal and holistic learning methods (Pieterse et al., 2009). The top
approach for multicultural education as it teaching approaches used with counseling stu-
involves the “infusion of MCT into all areas dents include the following: 57 percent of the
of the training program” (Ridley et al., 1994, courses used cultural autobiography, 56 percent
p. 273). While the MPDP model has set the involved students in a cross-cultural event,
gold standard for MCT, the authors noted that 50 percent required students to write personal
in practice the prevailing MCT coursework journals and 48 percent required students to
and curriculum in graduate programs for conduct class presentations.
counselors and psychologists have fallen short Therefore, not unlike ICT, the instructional
of these proposed criteria. As subsequent methods used in MCT usually include a com-
reviews of multicultural coursework in bination of didactic and experiential exercises.
counseling psychology graduate programs Incidentally, the exceptional benefit and apt-
indicate, the “separate course” approach con- ness of experiential training techniques for
tinues to represent the dominant multicultural MCT has been advocated by some multicul-
education/training model in most graduate tural scholars (Kim & Lyons, 2003; Kuo &
training programs – a curriculum that typic- Arcuri, 2014). In a paper by Kim and Lyons
ally involves an one-time, single, didactic (2003), the writers argued and illustrated that
course for students and trainees (Malott, the use of facilitative games in counseling
2010; Priester et al., 2008). graduate classes could help instill multicultural
In terms of specific instructional and competence in the domains of beliefs and atti-
training techniques, Arredendo and Arciniega tudes, knowledge, and skills for counseling
(2001) reviewed and outlined various teaching trainees. They contended that the use of Bafá
approaches used in MCT that correspond to Bafá could help promote counselor trainees’
the specific aspects of trainees’ multicultural awareness of their cultural beliefs and atti-
counseling competencies (i.e., cultural aware- tudes, whereas the adaptation of Multicultural
ness, knowledge, and skills). The authors iden- Jeopardy and Cultural Bingo could help facili-
tified reading assignment, autobiography, tate trainees’ cultural knowledge. Similar sen-
journal, role play, video clip, simulated exer- timent was voiced by Arthur and Archebach
cise based on counseling vignette, and discus- (2002) who stressed that experiential training
sion as the primary teaching tools adopted in interventions enable counselor trainees to
MCT (Arredendo & Arciniega, 2001). Fur- develop “cultural empathy” and to enable
thermore, Ridley et al. (1994) proposed a them to bridge multicultural theory to
number of instructional interventions for practice.
MCT. They include: (1) didactic methods; (2) As a case in point, Dr. Paul Pedersen’s
experiential exercises; supervised practical/ “Triad Training Model” and “microcounsel-
internships; (3) reading assignments; (4) writing ing” approach exemplify one such an experien-
assignment; (5) participatory learning; (6) mod- tially based MCT framework in teaching
eling/observational learning; (7) technology- multicultural counseling competence (Peder-
assisted training; (8) introspection; and (9) sen, 2000). The Triad model is premised on
research. In terms of actual implementation of the importance of training a counselor to hear

her/his culturally diverse client’s “internal dia- Littrell et al., 2006; Rost-Roth, 2009). Critical
logue” and to respond in a culturally appro- analyses of various training methods used in
priate and competent manner in counseling ICT, ranging from didactic lecture to case
process. A key focus of the Triad training study to cross-cultural dialogue to cultural
model is for a counselor trainee to discern the assimilator to computer-based program, have
client’s “hidden messages” that often occur been undertaken and reported. However, to
during a cross-cultural counseling interaction. the author’s knowledge, no comparable type
It is a stimulation-based, cross-cultural role- of evaluation study of specific teaching
play exercise that involves four counselor methods and techniques used in MCT is cur-
trainees playing the respective roles of counsel- rently available in the multicultural counseling
lor, client, “procounselor” and “anticounse- literature. Instead, the majority of the pub-
lor” simultaneously (Pedersen, 2000). The lished evaluation studies on MCT have
role-playing procounselor seeks to explain focused on content analyses and the efficacy
and interpret the positive messages in the mind of the existing multicultural counseling courses
of the client, whereas the role-playing antic- (e.g., Malott, 2010; Priester et al., 2008; Smith
ounselor seeks to explain and interpret the et al., 2006), and not on specific instructional/
negative messages in the mind of the client. training techniques. This has prompted some
MCT researchers to identify a lack of know-
ledge and research on “how to teach” MCT
or “best practice” in teaching and training
MCT, as a critical shortcoming of the MCT
Training
field at the present (Kim & Lyons, 2003; Kuo,
Pertaining specifically to instructional methods 2012).
used in MCT and ICT, a review of the litera- In this regard, ICT has an important edge
ture of both specialties suggests that a two- over MCT and can serve as an invaluable
pronged emphasis on the combination of resource and reference point for MCT, owing
didactic and experiential methods in training to the former’s wealth of empirical knowledge
is typical in both MCT (Arredendo & Arci- and well-established practical experiences on
niega, 2001; Kim & Lyons, 2003) and ICT training techniques and methods. In particu-
(Fowler & Blohm, 2004; Littrell et al., 2006). lar, MCT researchers and practitioners should
Furthermore, this present review also finds look toward ICT for additional ideas on
that many, if not most, of the pedagogical evidence-based cross-cultural and experiential
techniques and exercises commonly adopted training methods and interventions with dem-
in MCT and ICT are quite interchangeable onstrated effectiveness. MCT programs and
between the two fields. It is observed, however, research should adopt, experiment, and inves-
that there appears to be more discussion and tigate the efficacy of other alternative teaching
elaboration on the methods of conducting methods utilized in ICT for counselor and
cross-cultural training within the ICT litera- psychologist training purposes, such as cul-
ture than in the MCT literature. tural assimilator, cross-cultural analysis,
Within the ICT literature there has been a immersion, and/or more recent computer-
number of comprehensive descriptions and based training approach (Fowler & Blohm,
analyses of instructional techniques/methods 2004; Pope et al., 2011). The prevailing ICT
used in ICT and cross-cultural training (Bha- literature on training methods such as those by
wuk & Brislin, 2000; Fowler & Blohm, 2004; Cushner and Brislin (1996), Fowler & Blohm

424 ben c. h. kuo
(2004), Littrell et al. (2006), and Rost-Roth Prevailing Themes and Issues
(2009), and the MCT literature by Kim and
First, a key area of MCT research and training
Lyons (2003) can serve as helpful resources
continues to focus on the refinement of the
and references for MCT practitioners. Con-
definition, the measurement, and the assess-
sidering the use of a greater variety of creative
ment of counselors’ multicultural competence
cultural training methods would serve to
by identifying relevant factors or correlates of
remedy the on-going criticism levied against
multicultural competence (Pope-Davis et al.,
current MCT; that is, the shortcoming that
2003; Smith & Trimble, 2016). This body of
counselor education and professional psych-
theoretical and empirical work marks a signifi-
ology graduate programs overly rely on nar-
cant domain of scholarly research for MCT.
rowly structured, traditional didactic teaching
As a result, psychometric studies of multicul-
approaches (e.g., Abreu et al., 2000; Malott,
tural counseling competency instruments for
2010). However, there is an emerging MCT
trainees and counseling practitioners have
intervention and research that are based on
occupied a critical place in the MCT literature
experientially based, hand-on cultural clinical
(Constantine & Ladany, 1996). Readers are
training practicum, which involves counselor
referred to the previous section of this chapter,
or therapist training providing therapy and
under “Operationalization, Measurement, and
mental health services directly to actual, cul-
Assessment of Multicultural Counselling
turally diverse client populations, such as refu-
Competence,” for a more detail discussion
gees (Kuo, 2018a; Kuo & Arcuri, 2014; Kuo &
and review of the development, the design,
Boucher, 2020). This newly developing,
and the psychometric properties of leading
practicum-based MCT approach will be dis-
MCT measures.
cussed and reviewed in greater detail in the
Second, additional research in MCT stems
next section.
from empirical investigations that explore and
examine the efficacy of MCT coursework and
Prevailing and Newly Emerging curricula in counselor education and profes-
Themes and Issues in Multicultural sional psychology graduate programs (e.g.,
Counseling and Training Malott, 2010; Priester et al., 2008; Smith
et al., 2006). These studies employed quantita-
A review of the four cumulative editions of tive, qualitative, and/or mixed-methods
the Handbook of Multicultural Counseling approaches in their analyses. Overall this body
(Casas, Suzuki, Alexander, & Jackson, of research has provided favorable empirical
2017; Ponterotto, Casas, Suzuki, & Alexan- evidence in support of the usefulness of the
der, 1995, 2001, 2010) and the Handbook of MCT training and coursework. For example,
Multicultural Competencies in Counseling and Smith et al. (2006) conducted a meta-analysis
Psychology (Pope-Davis et al., 2003) proof forty-five evaluation studies of multicul-
vides a helpful panoramic overview for and tural counseling education based on pre- and
of on-going issues, debates, and contribu- post-testing of students/trainees who partici-
tions associated with MCT over the past pated in MCT interventions. Across the studies
decades. In this following section, six prevail- reviewed training effectiveness was assessed
ing and two recently emerged MCT themes based on several different outcomes, ranging
and issues relevant to ICT are highlighted from measures of participants’ multicultural
and considered. counseling competency, racial/ethnic identity,

racial prejudice, client-counselor relationship, models of racial identity (e.g., Black and White
and other multidimensional assessments. The racial identity), ethnic identity (e.g., Asian or
investigators found that at the individual level Latino American identity development), and
student participants who completed the MCT other forms of minority status (sexual minority,
coursework reported a statistically significant immigrant, refugee, older adult, etc.) (Ponter-
increase in their multicultural competence after otto et al., 2010; Sue & Sue, 2016).
the training. The study additionally revealed On this front, the MCT literature has made
that participants who completed a MCT important strides in terms of understanding
coursework reported moderately higher level individuals’ racial/ethnic/minority identity for-
of multicultural competence than those who mation across various stages of life and the
did not. Further to that, at the course level, impact these identities have on the individual’s
Smith and his colleague reported that MCT psychological and mental health well-being.
courses that were designed based on extant The cumulative MCT research on this subject
theory and research were found to be twice has significantly contributed to our under-
more effective than those that were not, when standing of cross-cultural interactions, and
the student outcomes were assessed based on has helped to inform the practice and the
their self-rating multicultural competence. training of counselors (Smith & Silva, 2011;
More recently, Smith and Trimble (2016) con- Sue & Sue, 2016). Smith and Silva (2011) note
ducted a meta-analytical study of twenty-four that knowing a client’s nature and strength of
multicultural counseling education interven- his/her ethnic identity can help a counselor to
tions. Across these studies, they found the aver- understand the client’s: (1) self-affirmation
age weighted effect size of d = 0.95 in skills and coping resources and (2) contextual
participants’ reports on multicultural measures and circumstantial conditions, such as envir-
between pre and post scores. These findings onmental and sociopolitical constrains.
above lend empirical support to the effectiveness Research on the racial identity match between
and the importance of theory- and empirically- client-counselor also sheds light on how racial
driven curriculum for multicultural counseling minority clients in the USA might react and
education and training. respond to White counselors based on their
Third, there has also been considerable statuses of racial identity (Sue & Sue, 2016).
research on theories and models of racial and Fourth, research on acculturation and its
cultural identity in the multicultural counsel- clinical application represent yet another sali-
ing literature (Sue & Sue, 2016). Given the ent theme in the MCT literature (see Kim &
demographic diversity and the sociopolitical Abreu, 2001; Kuo, 2014; Kuo & Roysircar,
reality of race relations in the USA, issues 2004, for examples). Yoon, Langrehr and
concerning racial, ethnic, or cultural identity Ong, (2011) observed that acculturation
have been found to have pervasive impacts on research has garnished particular interest
the well-being of minority groups and individ- among multicultural counseling researchers
uals and, thus, hold critical implications for and practitioners because of the construct’s
the provision of counseling and psychological particular usefulness in discerning within-
interventions for these groups and individuals group variability in racial, ethnic, and cultural
(Ponterotto et al., 2010). Consequently, the groups. These authors further noted that
field has witnessed considerable growth in research on acculturation helps shed light on
research and critical discourses on this issue, the psychological, behavioral, and health out-
particularly in terms of exploring various comes (stress, depression, addictions, etc.) for

426 ben c. h. kuo
immigrants, refugees, and diverse acculturat- of quantitative methods of inquiry in research

ing racial/ethnic individuals. In a content to a qualitative one. There has been a strong
analysis of quantitative studies in five major call by counseling researchers and MCT
counseling journals over the past twenty-two researchers alike to engage in more use of
years, Yoon et al. (2011) identified 138 studies qualitative methods in multicultural counsel-
in 134 published articles that focused on accul- ing and training research (e.g., Hanson, Cres-
turation. Interestingly, the results of this well, Plano, Petska, & Creswell, 2005). To
meta-analysis showed that acculturation in complement the predominant quantitative
the direction toward the host culture had a research in this area, more and more research
small, near-statistically-significant negative in the area have advocated the mixed-methods
effect on psychological distress and depression approach in counseling and MCT research
and positive effect on self-esteem. Whereas, (Hanson et al., 2005). In stressing the import-
enculturation had a small nonsignificant but ant addition of qualitative approach, Ponter-
positive effect on self-esteem. While the direc- otto (2002) predicted that qualitative research
tionality of these effects are generally consist- is leading to “a radical transformation and
ent with theoretical predictions, the effects of paradigm shift in the research-training com-
these cultural constructs on psychological well- ponents of counseling psychology programs”
being appear to be somewhat limited and (p. 395). The role and the impact of qualitative
await for further investigation. inquiry are so profound for counseling and
Fifth, MCT literature continues to address multicultural counseling research that Ponter-
racism and discrimination, counseling with otto (2002) regarded qualitative research as the
specific populations (older adults, LGBTQ+ “Fifth Force” in psychology, following the
populations, immigrants, refugees, etc.), multi- multicultural movement. Readers who are
cultural psychological diagnosis and assess- interested in mixed-methods MCT research
ment, indigenous healing practice, religion/ are referred to Kuo et al. (2019) for an illustra-
spirituality and mental health, multicultural tive example of the use of quantitative and
clinical-counseling supervision, multicultural qualitative evaluations in assessing the devel-
organizational development, and many more opment of therapist trainees’ cultural compe-
(Ponterotto et al., 2002, 2010). Many of these tencies through working with refugee clients
topics in MCT have been expounded and longitudinally.
delved in detail in the twenty-one-volume
Multicultural Aspect of Counseling Series
Newly Emerging Themes and Issues
edited by Dr. Paul Pedersen, as highlighted
earlier, and by other book volumes on various As the discipline of multicultural counseling
minority groups (e.g., Handbook of counseling and MCT continue to expand and evolve, it
and psychotherapy with lesbian, gay, bisexual faces a number of new and exciting opportun-
and transgender by Bieschke, Perez, & ities as well as challenges. A number of these
DeBord, [2007]; Handbook of psychotherapy issues are reviewed here. First, as noted previ-
and religious diversity by Richard & Bergin, ously, the predominance of the single, didactic
[2014]). multicultural course training model being
Finally, in recent years the specialty of MCT adopted across the majority of counselor
and the field of counseling psychology more education and psychology graduate programs
broadly are undergoing a major shift in meth- in North America has been met with some
odological perspective, from the predominance criticisms based on several review studies

(e.g., Malott, 2010; Priester et al., 2008). As a target community in which the immersion
corrective measure, some scholars have experiences take places (Hipolito-Delgado
strongly advocated MCT training and curricu- et al., 2011; Roysircar et al., 2003; Roysircar,
lum to adopt more hands-on, experientially- Gard, Hubbel, & Ortega, 2005). Two
based multicultural training for counseling examples of multicultural immersion model
and psychology trainees and to aid trainees in of training for counselor and psychology
translating cognitive cultural knowledge to trainees are briefly delineated here as illustra-
actual counseling and therapeutic skills (Abreu tion for this emerging trend.
et al., 2000; Arthur & Achenbach, 2002; Smith In a qualitative study, Hipolito-Delgado
et al., 2006). Additionally, there has been a and her colleagues (2011) described and
strong call within the field of counseling psych- reported the effects of a multicultural immer-
ology and of MCT particularly to address sion experience on three counseling graduate
social justice issues along with multicultural students in the mountain region of the USA
and diversity concerns in the counseling who completed a sixteen-week long Multicul-
research, training and practice (Speight & tural Action Project (MAP) (Hipolit-Delgado
Versa, 2008; Toporek et al., 2006). This move- et al., 2011). In this training project, each
ment reflects the sociopolitical conscious trainee engaged in a self-selected community
and self-reflective nature of multicultural (i.e., homeless, older adults, and women in
counseling. prison) that is culturally different from the
The use of “cultural immersion” model of trainee’s background through the process of
multicultural counseling training, which observation, information seeking and direct
involves counselor or psychology trainees in action. Based on the analysis of students’
direct contact with diverse clients, has recently weekly narrative journals, the study reported
been championed as a promising, alternative that trainees increased in their multicultural
model for MCT to address the aforementioned awareness, knowledge, and skills through this
issues. Not only is this model of cultural project, and the first-hand interpersonal con-
training grounded in experiential and partici- tact with the target community significantly
patory learning, but also it exposes student contributed to their cultural learning.
trainees to unique service-based learning and More recently, Kuo and his colleagues pre-
social advocacy work in the training process sented and described an innovative MCT
(Hipolito-Delgado, Cook, Avrus, & Bonham, model situated within a refugee-serving multi-
2011). Specifically, cumulative evidence from cultural psychotherapy practicum at the Uni-
multicultural immersion training research has versity of Windsor in Ontario, Canada (see
the potential to enable student trainees to: (1) Kuo, 2018a; Kuo & Arcuri, 2014; Kuo &
integrate the cognitive components of multi- Boucher, 2020; Kuo et al., 2019). The authors
cultural education into practice; (2) build and describe this MCT model as a hands-on,
strengthen multicultural intervention skills and experiential, community-focused, and service-
relationship; (3) confront their own fear, resist- learning-based culture and diversity training
ance, cultural bias, and stereotype about for therapists and counselors (Kuo & Arcuri,
minority groups; (4) use supervisory feedback 2014). The model involves clinical psychology
to guide their counseling/therapy work with Ph.D. students, who had previously completed
diverse clients and to inform about their cul- an in-class multicultural counseling course,
tural learning; and (5) engage in meaningful providing direct culturally informed counsel-
service-based learning to serve the needs of the ing and therapy services to community-based,

428 ben c. h. kuo
multinational refugee clients under supervision 2003). The internationalization movement of

over an eight-month academic semester. Using counseling psychology speaks to the increasing
a mixed-methods design collecting both quan- awareness that psychologists and counselors
titative and qualitative data from three cohort need to transcend beyond an “ethnocentric”
years of student trainees, Kuo and his col- worldview that is subsumed under a singular
leagues (Kuo & Arcuri, 2014; Kuo et al., national context (e.g., the USA). In addition,
2019) reported promising, positive results with the movement recognizes the imperative of
respect to trainees’ development of various extending multiculturally responsive counseling
aspects of multicultural competence over the practice and training “beyond a national multi-
course of this practicum-based MCT. Specific- cultural perspective toward a global vision for
ally, using pre- and post-quantitative measures the field” (Leong & Ponterotto, 2003, p. 382).
and through working directly with refugee Though this global vision for counseling psych-
clients, trainees in this multicultural practicum ology and MCT is still in its nascence, it is at the
demonstrated a statistically significant improve- forefront of the current MCT movement and it
ment in measures of multicultural counseling bears broad implications for the development of
skills and of multicultural self-efficacy pertain- cross-cultural training and practice for counsel-
ing specifically to their multicultural interven- ors and psychologists for many years to come.
tion, assessment, and session management In this regard, one might argue that MCT’s
skills (Kuo et al., 2019). increasing international stance is in fact moving
These positive initial results from new closer to the foundational purview of ICT.
immersion models of cultural immersion
training for counselors point to the critical
value of interactive learning and intercultural
Training
exposure in multicultural education. Observa-
tions like these have promoted MCT scholars The foregoing sections show that, broadly
to contend that the “best practice” for the speaking, the traditional scope and sphere
future of MCT models may lie in the under which MCT typically operates are more
implementation of hands-on, experientially- akin to “diversity training” as it is known
grounded methods, similar to the multicultural (Fowler, 2006). This characteristic is deeply
therapy practicum (Arthur & Achenbach, entrenched in the identity of MCT and well
2002; Kim & Lyons, 2003; Kuo, 2012). evident in the prevailing and emerging themes
A review of the literature suggested that, in associated with the specialty. MCT’s added
fact, MCT programs and interventions based concern about power, dominance, inequality,
on immersion forms of multicultural and discrimination, and oppression related to
social justice education are on the rise. domestic intergroup relations and the experi-
Another major emerging development with ences of minorities of racial, ethnic groups,
MCT and counseling psychology concerns and other diversity backgrounds (Hays, 1996;
with is the call for the internationalization of Sue & Sue, 2016) is what sets it apart from
the discipline. In recent years MCT researchers ICT. On the other hand, for ICT Bennett and
and practitioners have challenged the field of Bennett (2004) observed an increasing fusion
counseling psychology to move beyond its between “domestic” and “global” cultural
“domestic” focus and to expand its global issues faced by groups and organizations.
horizon (Gerstein, Heppner, Ægisdóttir, Leung, These ICT scholars posited that the future of
& Norsworthy, 2009; Leong & Ponterotto, ICT interventions hinges upon an effective

response to this shift in focus and direction. themselves to be trained to communicate

Consequently, ICT researchers such as Fowler effectively with culturally different others. This
(2006) have advocated for a greater integration has been found to be true and relevant for
between the existing model of ICT and diver- teachers, as in the case of multicultural educa-
sity training. Therefore, a case can be made for tion (Cushner, 2011).
the existing ICT training and research to On the other hand, given the evolving inter-
extend their primary scope and capacity of national aspiration of the field of MCT and
cross-cultural training to encompass other counseling psychology, these disciplines can
increasingly salient diversity factors, such as look to ICT for additional intellectual stimula-
gender, age, social class, gender identity, sexual tion and practical support. The specialty of
orientation, religion/spiritualty, disability, etc. ICT is inherently “international” in its outlook
It may be of value for ICT researchers and and perspective as it strives to prepare individ-
practitioners to take lessons from MCT, and uals to effectively adjust and function in an
to strive to incorporate broader aspects of cul- international environment (Pusch, 2004). In
tural diversity factors and experiences into the this respect, ICT has accrued a breadth of
existing training approaches. For instance, culture-general (etic) and culture-specific
ICT training might be enhanced by having (emic) knowledge and training strategies
intercultural researchers and trainers infuse appropriate in the cross-national and inter-
sociopolitical and economic discussions and national context (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000). In
perspectives (Bhawuk, 2009) into their cross- contrast, the field of MCT and counseling
cultural training, as an effort to instill psychology are currently right at the doorway
systemic-contextual awareness, cultural sensi- of their internationally and global visions
tivity, and intercultural competence in their (Gerstein et al., 2009). Ultimately, ICT can
trainees. Cumulative research in MCT has serve as a valuable resource and ally for
shown that a counselor trainee’s cultural MCT as MCT grows to expand its vista from
empathy and cultural competence can be sig- a domestic, multicultural focus to a global,
nificantly augmented if the individual has the international perspective.
awareness and ability to attune to and address
the larger systemic barriers and societal condi-
tions faced by “cultural others” (Pieterse et al.,
Discussion and Conclusion
2009). As follows, it is reasonable to surmise
that a similar effect would hold for recipients Despite being two allied disciplines within
of ICT. By extension, the field of MCT holds psychology, up until this point virtually no
direct relevance for the learning of ICT scholarly works has explicitly explored, exam-
trainers. For instance, in the past ICT trainers ined, and articulated the intersection and the
have been training culturally similar people for association between MCT and ICT. The pre-
international assignments. However, currently sent chapter serves as an initial first step
this is often no longer the case. Nowadays ICT toward bridging this gap. It attempts to offer
trainers often have to train culturally dissimi- a comprehensive review of MCT and ICT with
lar people – a scenario typical of multicultural a hope to generate some syntheses between
counseling relationship and interaction, with these two specialty areas, with respect to prac-
clients and counselors coming from divergent tice, research, and training. Through narra-
racial, ethnic, cultural, and linguistic back- tively juxtaposing MCT and ICT, the results
grounds. Thus, there is a need for ICT trainers of this synergetic review point to intriguing

430 ben c. h. kuo
parallels as well as divergences between the which expectedly reflect the multi-disciplinary
two fields. nature of ICT; and (3) the field’s expertise and
In terms of similarities, MCT and ICT cor- cumulative research and knowledge base on
respond in their respective focuses on striving cross-cultural training methods and
to understand human cultural diversity and techniques.
intercultural contact and to apply such a Based on the current review, the potential
knowledge to systematically instill cultural for collaboration, synthesis, and intellectual
competence in students/trainees (Abrue et al, cross-fertilization between MCT and ICT is
2000; Bhawuk, 2009; Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000). immense. Considering the ever-expanding lit-
As demonstrated in this review, both special- erature of both MCT and ICT, the two leading
ties also share many parallel historical mile- culture-focused social and psychological dis-
stones and organizational developments, ciplines, the time for each discipline to look
conceptualization of cultural competence, to the other to be challenged and enriched is
and training models, methods and techniques. auspicious and opportune. The present author
Moreover, empirical reviews of evaluation offers the following recommendations/sugges-
studies conducted with MCT (Smith et al., tions and synergetic points for ICT’s consider-
2006; Smith & Trimble, 2016) and ICT (Men- ation, as potential steps toward greater mutual
denhall et al., 2004) programs/interventions learning, partnership, and cooperation
respectively have pointed to positive training between MCT and ICT.
outcomes and suggested efficacy of cross- Previous sections of this chapter reveal that
cultural training and education associated with the professional and scholarly contributions of
both fields. MCT can offer ICT considerable amount of
While similarities exist, the present analysis “food for thought,” in terms of the scope, the
also highlights the unique and differential fea- domain, and the content of intercultural prac-
tures pertaining to MCT and ICT individually. tices and research. First, as discussed previ-
For instance, the MCT movement clearly dis- ously, one key strength of MCT, as a field,
tinguishes itself from ICT as it: (1) assumes a stems from its having a mostly shared and
sociopolitical advocacy and social justice consistent definition of “multicultural counsel-
stance (e.g., addressing societal level of oppres- ing competence” within the discipline – that is,
sion and discrimination); (2) defines culture a more-or-less understood and agreed-upon
and multicultural competence from broader definition of what cultural competence is by
diversity perspectives; and (3) evokes and graduate programs and professional governing
solidifies professional and ethical standards bodies for counselors and psychologists. This
and guidelines to promote multicultural coun- relatively consistent and streamlined approach
seling competence among counselors and in conceptualizing cultural competence is
psychologists (e.g., APA 1993, 2003). The field attributable to multi-level influences over the
of ICT, on the other hand, sets itself apart development of MCT. They include the prom-
from MCT owing partly to: (1) the interdiscip- inence of the Tripartite model of MCT pro-
linary intellectual basis of the ICT (including posed by Sue and his colleagues (Sue et al.,
psychology, communication, anthropology, 1992), the established professional guidelines
sociology, organization development, and and standards for counselors (ACA, 2005) and
many more) (Bennett & Bennett, 2004); (2) psychologists (APA, 1993, 2003; CPA, 1996)
having more diversified views and approaches in working with diverse clients, and the
in conceptualizing “culture competence,” accreditation requirements for counseling,

clinical, and school psychology graduate pro- would likely enable ICT to clarify its core
grams in North America (APA, 2013). As values, assert its identity, better streamline
reviewed before, these training guidelines and the contents and substances of ICT being
standards are being further supplemented by delivered, and ensure the quality and consist-
the recent emerging notion of “cultural humil- ency of training interventions across different
ity” put forth by some MCT scholars and sectors of trainees and recipients. It is sug-
practitioners (e.g., Davis et al., 2018; Mosher gested that when addressing these questions
et al., 2017). One major advantage of this more and issues, ICT scholars and practitioners
unified and integrated operationalization of should refer to MCT’s past experiences in
cultural capability across multiple sections of bringing about changes at the larger adminis-
MCT is that it works toward streamlining (or trative and organizational levels, as exempli-
standardizing) how MCT is conceptualized, fied in the instituted ethical standards and
implemented, promoted, and assessed within accrediting criteria for professional psycholo-
the extant literature and research, among gists in North America (see Heppner et al.,
graduate programs, and among professional 2000; Ponterotto, 2008).
governing bodies, and organizations for coun- Second, ICT can take further lessons from
selors and psychologists. MCT’s recent development in expanding cul-
On the other hand, in the previous edition of tural and cross-cultural training of counselors
this Handbook, Landis and Bhawuk (2004) to address broader diversity issues and
observed that the ethics of ICT and the quali- social justice concerns. These broadening
fications of intercultural trainers continue to perspectives of MCT have challenged the
be a significant concern for the field. Conse- field to supplement its traditional person- or
quently, taking cues from MCT’s experience in client-centered focus with an added vision for
this regard, it may be beneficial for the long- activism and advocacy for facilitating
term development of ICT to reconsider the changes at the larger systematic, organiza-
questions: Would pursuing and establishing tional, and environmental level (Sue & Sue,
some sort of “standardized” professional 2016). Speight and Vera (2008) asserted that
guidelines or benchmarks to support the delin- to be truly committed to multiculturalism,
eation of “intercultural competence,” the counselors and psychologists ought to
design and the delivery of ICT programs/inter- incorporate social justice as “a grounding
ventions, and the research and program evalu- principle” for all domains of their works; these
ation of ICT interventions be of value and scholars contend that “identifying, examining,
viable for the field of ICT? Should the field of and combating the multiple forms of oppres-
ICT reconsider potential avenues and mechan- sion (e.g., racism, classism) that adversely
isms for ensuring quality of IC trainers or ICT impact the lives of people of color must be
programs through certification/qualifying central to our research and practice” (p.
procedures? 55–56).
It is noted that a previous attempt to create By extension, actively infusing principles of
a standard certification program for ICT had multiculturalism, diversity, and social justice
failed due to consideration of cost and a lack into ICT will broaden the current scope of
of consensus within the field for an appropriate the field and to extend its potential impacts.
process for certification (SIETAR Inter- More often than not, much of the intercultural
national Task Force [1997] as cited by Pusch and cross-cultural interactions for groups and
[2004]). However, having such a mechanism individuals around the world nowadays occur

432 ben c. h. kuo
under some sort of sociopolitical climate or part of the researcher. As a result, in recent
dynamic (e.g., in the target, host culture). For years counseling and counseling psychology
instance, intercultural contact due to forced research has witnessed an increased number
displacement, in the case of refugees and of published qualitative studies and studies
asylum seekers, represents one common that have employed mixed-methods research
example we witness repeatedly around the design, with both quantitative and qualitative
world today (Kuo, 2018b; United Nations inquiry methods (Hanson et al., 2005; Kuo
Higher Commission of Refugees, 2019). Cul- et al., 2019).
tural competency training, therefore, may need Some ICT scholars have also noted the
to additionally inform and sensitize trainees to need for incorporating more qualitative
geopolitical issues and social concerns in the inquiry within the discipline. For instance,
target culture, for instance, in terms of the struc- based on their review of twenty-eight evalu-
tures for the haves vs. the have-nots, the privil- ation studies of cross-cultural training pro-
eged vs. the underprivileged, the power holders grams from 1988 to 2000, Mendenhall and
vs. the oppressed, etc. ICT practitioners and his colleagues (2004) observed the lack of
academics need to recognize that these unbal- qualitative approaches in assessing the effect-
anced power and relational dynamics may be iveness of ICT interventions in the existing
embedded in and manifested through other literature and the need to incorporate qualita-
diversity factors such as age, gender, religion, tive measures in future ICT research. Given
sexual orientation, social class, etc. in a given that the quantitative findings on efficacy of
cultural or national context (Hays, 1996). ICT program have been quite “murky” or
Therefore, ICT should consider extending ambiguous, these authors implicated that the
beyond its traditional purview based mainly on inclusion of qualitative inquiry into future
cultural and national boundary and to address ICT evaluation research would help shed
other increasing important diversity issues lights on if and how various ICT interventions
domestically and internationally with their work. Again in this regard, ICT may wish to
trainees (Bennett & Bennett, 2004). look toward MCT specifically and multicul-
Third, with respect to research, in recent tural counseling literature more generally to
years MCT has made noticeable progress in consider a greater incorporation of qualitative
advocating and promoting the use of qualita- inquiry and data into future ICT evaluation
tive method to supplement quantitative and research.
approach in conducting multicultural and Finally, it is this author’s opinion that some
cross-cultural research (e.g., Hanson et al., intentional, tangible, and strategic efforts to
2005; Ponterotto, 2002). Within the context foster a greater professional interaction and
of counseling research, Ponterotto (2002) intellectual exchange between MCT and ICT
noted that qualitative methods are particularly would definitely be timely and highly profit-
suitable for multicultural research because of able for both specialties. These attempts must
their naturalistic characteristics, bringing the be initiated deliberately at the broader, pro-
researcher closer to their culturally diverse par- grammatic level for both disciplines. Obvi-
ticipants, tapping into participants’ lived ously there are endless possibilities for MCT–
experiences, increasing the researcher’s own ICT interdisciplinary exchanges and collabor-
cultural awareness and sensitivity, facilitating ations. Several basic ideas are offered here as a
empowerment of culturally diverse partici- starter. Researchers and practitioners in MCT
pants, and encouraging social activism on the and ICT should interconnect and share ideas

and resources through various professional enriched individually as well as reciprocally.

forums and academic platforms, such as Ultimately, with the combined expertise and
through conference presentations, sympo- scholarship of MCT and ICT, a more compre-
siums, and round table discussions. It would hensive and integrated body of practical and
be intellectually stimulating and enriching to empirical knowledge on cross-cultural and
promote interdisciplinary communication multicultural training and education would
between students, practitioners, and research- emerge. It is the hope and the intent of
ers of MCT and ICT at each other’s leading this present chapter to serve as a spark and a
conferences. For MCT the biennial National catalyst to this interdisciplinary synergetic
Multicultural Conference and Summit for endeavor between MCT and ICT.
MCT is a possible venue, whereas for ICT
the biennial Congress of International Aca-
demic for Intercultural Research for ICT is a References
possible forum. This can be readily achieved
Abreu, J. M., Gim Chung, R. H., & Atkinson, D.
through sending expert delegates from one
R. (2000). Multicultural counseling training:
specialty to the major conference of the other. Past, present, and future directions. The
Likewise, intercultural conference organ- Counseling Psychologist, 28, 641–656. DOI:
izers may wish to invite prominent MCT 10.1177/0011000000285003
researchers and practitioners as speakers and American Counseling Association (2005). ACA
presenters in their conferences to discuss and code of ethics. Alexandria, VA: American
share their MCT works, experiences, and per- Counseling Association.
spectives and vice versa. Taking a step further, American Psychological Association (1993).
leadership in the MCT and the ICT move- Guidelines for providers of psychological
ments may consider hosting joint conferences services to ethnic, linguistic, and culturally
diverse populations. American Psychologist, 48,
or facilitating joint symposiums to engage each
45–48. DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.48.1.45
other in cross-specialty discussion. Similarly,
American Psychological Association (1996).
key journal outlets associated with the MCT
Guidelines and principles for accreditation of
movement (e.g., Journal of Multicultural programs in professional psychology.
Counseling and Development, the Counseling Washington, DC: American Psychological
Psychologist, Journal of Counseling Psych- Association.
ology) and with the ICT movement (e.g., Inter- American Psychological Association (2003).
national Journal of Intercultural Relations), Guidelines on multicultural education,
respectively, may consider initiating special training, research, practice, and organizational
issues devoting to subject matter relevant to change for psychologists. American
both disciplines and/or to the bridging and Psychologist, 58, 377–402. DOI: 10.1037/0003-
synthesis of the same. Lastly, interdisciplinary 066X.58.5.377
American Psychological Association (2013).
research collaboration or multicultural/cross-
Guidelines and principles for accreditation of
cultural teaching and training involving expert
programs in professional psychology.
practitioners, researchers, and scholars from
Washington, DC: American Psychological
MCT and ICT should be actively encouraged, Association.
pursued, and supported. Arrendondo, P., & Arciniega, G. M. (2001).
Through these aforementioned, purposeful Strategies and techniques for counselor training
synergetic efforts, it is expected that the fields based on the multicultural counseling
of MCT and ICT would be challenged and competencies. Journal of Multicultural

434 ben c. h. kuo
Counseling and Development, 29, 263–273. DOI: Brislin, R. W., & Horvath, A. M. (1997). Cross-
10.1002/j.2161-1912.2001.tb00469.x cultural training and multicultural education. In
Arthur, N. (Ed.). (2018). Counseling in cultural J. W. Berry, M. H. Segall, & C. Kağıtçıbaşi
context: Identity and social justice. Cham, (Eds.). Handbook of cross-cultural psychology:
Switzerland: Springer Nature Switzerland AG. Social behaviors and applications (pp. 327–369).
Arthur, N., & Achenbach, K. (2002). Developing Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
multicultural competencies through experiential Brislin, R. W., & Yoshida, T. (1994a). Intercultural
learning. Counselor Education and Supervision, communication training: An introduction.
42, 2–14. DOI: 10.1002/j.1556-6978.2002. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
tb01299.x Brislin, R. W., & Yoshida, T. (Eds.). (1994b).
Behrnd, V., & Porzelt, S. (2012). Intercultural Improving intercultural interactions: Modules for
competence and training outcomes of students cross-cultural training programs (Vol. 2).
with experiences abroad. International Journal of Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Intercultural Relations, 36, 213–223. DOI: Canadian Psychological Association (1996).
10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.04.005 Guidelines for non-discriminatory practice.
Bennett J. M., & Bennett, M. J. (2004). Developing Ottawa, ON: Canadian Psychological
intercultural sensitivity: An integrative approach Association.
to global and domestic diversity. In D. Landis, J. Canadian Psychological Association (2011).
M. Bennett, & M. J. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook Accreditation standards and procedures for
of intercultural training (3rd ed., pp.147–165). doctoral programmes and internships in
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. professional psychology (Fifth revision).
Bennett, J. M., Bennett, M. J., & Landis, D. (2004). Carter, R. T. (Ed.). (2005). Handbook of racial-
Introduction and overview. In D. Landis, J. M. cultural psychology and counseling. Hoboken,
Bennett, & M. J. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of NJ: Wiley.
intercultural training (3rd ed., pp.1–10). Casas, J. M. (2017). The history of multicultural
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. psychology: From the perspective of two
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2009). Intercultural opposing forces. In J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, C.
communication in a dynamic environment: M. Alexander, & M. A. Jackson (Eds.),
Preparing managers of developing and Handbook of multicultural counseling (4th ed.,
developed countries using cultural standard. pp. 3–16). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Psychology & Developing Societies, 21, 161–181. Casas, J. M., Suzuki, L. A., Alexander, C. M. &
DOI: 10.1177/097133360902100201 Jackson, M. A. (2017) (Eds.). Handbook of
Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Brislin, R. W. (1992). The multicultural counseling (4th ed.). Thousand
measurement of intercultural sensitivity using Oaks, CA: Sage.
the concepts of individualism and collectivism. Constantine, M. G., & Ladany, N. (1996). New
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, visions for defining and assessing multicultural
16, 413–436. competence. In D. Pope-Davis & H. L. K.
Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Brislin, R. W. (2000). Cross- Coleman (Eds.), Multicultural counseling
cultural training: A review. Applied psychology: competencies: Assessment, education and
An international review, 49, 162–191. DOI: training, and supervision (pp. 482–498).
10.1111/1464-0597.00009 Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Bieschke, K., Perez, R. M., & DeBord, K. A. (Eds.). Constantine, M. G., Miville, M. L., & Kindaichi,
(2007). Handbook of counseling and M. M. (2008). Multicultural competence in
psychotherapy with lesbian, gay, bisexual and counseling psychology practice and training.
transgender (2nd ed.). Washington, DC. In S. D. Brown & R. W. Lent (Eds.),
American Psychological Association. DOI: org Handbook of counseling psychology, (4th ed.,
.ezproxy.uwindsor.ca/10.1037/11482-000 pp. 141–158). New Jersey: Wiley.

Cooke, R. A., & Lafferty, J. C. (1983). The Landis, J. M. Bennett, & M. J. Bennett (Eds.),
organizational culture inventory. Plymouth, MI: Handbook of intercultural training (3rd ed.,
Human Synergistics. pp.37–84). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Cooke, R. A., & Lafferty, J. C. (1995). Culture for Gerstein, L. H., Heppner, P. P., Ægisdóttir, S.,
diversity inventory. Arlington Heights, IL: Leung, S. A., & Norsworthy, K. L. (2009).
Human Synergistics/Center for Applied International handbook of cross-cultural
Research. counseling: Cultural assumptions and practices
Cushner, K. (2011). Intercultural research in teacher worldview. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
education: An essential intersection in the Hammer, M. R., Bennett, M. J., & Wiseman, R.
preparation of globally competent teachers. (2003). Measuring intercultural sensitivity: The
Action in Teacher Education, 33, 601–614 DOI: intercultural development inventory.
10.1080/01626620.2011.627306 International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
Cushner, K., & Brislin, R. W. (1996). Intercultural 27, 421–443.
interactions: A practical guide (2nd ed.). Hanson, W. E., Creswell, J. W., Plano, V. L.,
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Petska, K. S., & Creswell, J. D. (2005). Mixed
Cushner, K., & Brislin, R. W. (1997). Improving methods research designs in counseling
intercultural interactions: Modules for cross- psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology,
cultural training programs (Vol. 2). Thousand 52, 224–235. DOI: 10.1037/0022-0167.52.2.224
Oaks, CA: Sage. Hays, P. A. (1996). Addressing the complexities of
Dana, R. H., & Allen, J. (2008) (Eds.). Cultural culture and gender in counseling. Journal of
competency training in a global society. New Counseling and Development, 74, 332–338. DOI:
York, NY: Springer. 10.1002/j.1556-6676.1996.tb01876.x
D’Andrea, M., Daniels, J., & Heck, R. (1991). Heppner, P. P., Casas, J. M., Carter, J., & Stone, G.
Evaluating the impact of multicultural L. (2000). The maturation of counseling
counseling training. Journal of Counseling & psychology: Multifaceted perspectives,
Development, 74, 45–52. DOI: 10.1002/j.1556- 1978–1998. In S. D. Brown & R. W. Lent (Eds.),
6676.1991.tb01576.x Handbook of counseling psychology, (3rd, ed.,
Davis, D. E., DeBlaere, C., Owen, J., Hook, J. N., pp. 3–49). New York, NY: Wiley.
Rivera, D. P., Choe, E., Van Tongeren, D. R., Hipolito-Delgado, C. P., Cook, J. M., Avrus, E. M.,
Worthington, Jr. E. L., & Placeres, V. (2018). & Bonham, E. J. (2011). Developing
The multicultural orientation framework: counseling students’ multicultural competence
A narrative review. Psychotherapy, 55, 89–100. through the Multicultural Action Project.
DOI: 10.1037/pst0000160 Counselor Education and Supervision, 50,
Detweiler, R. (1975). On inferring the intentions of a 402–421. DOI: 10.1002/j.1556-6978.2011.
person from another culture. Journal of tb01924.x
Personality, 43, 591–611. Jackson, M. L. (1995). Multicultural counseling:
Detweiler, R. (1978). Culture, category width, and Historical perspectives. In J. G. Ponterotto, J.
attributions: A model building approach to the M. Casas, L. A., Suzuki, & C. M., Alexander,
reasons for cultural effects. Journal of Cross- (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (pp.
Cultural Psychology, 9, 259–284. 3–16). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Fowler, S. M. (2006). Training across cultures: Kim, B. S. K., & Abreu, J. M. (2001). Acculturation
What intercultural trainers bring to diversity measurement: Theories, current instruments,
training. International Journal of Intercultural and future directions. In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M.
Relations, 30, 401–411. DOI: 10.1016/j. Casas, L. A., Suzuki, & C. M., Alexander,
ijintrel.2005.12.001 (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling
Fowler, S. M., & Blohm, J. M. (2004). An analysis (2nd ed., pp. 394–424). Thousand Oaks, CA:
of methods for intercultural training. In D. Sage.

436 ben c. h. kuo
Kim, B. S. K., & Lyons, H. Z. (2003). Experiential English reading ability. Journal of Multicultural
activities and multicultural counseling Counselling and Development, 32, 143–154. DOI:
competence training. Journal of Counseling and 10.1002/j.2161-1912.2004.tb00367.x
Development, 81, 400–408. DOI: 10.1002/j.1556- Kuo, B. C. H., Soucie, K., & Huang, S. (2019).
6678.2003.tb00266.x Developing clinical trainees’ multicultural
Kuo, B. C. H. (2012). Situating multicultural counseling competencies through working with
counseling in the Canadian cultural context: refugees in a multicultural psychotherapy
A reflection on Clemmont Vontress’s Works. In practicum: A mixed-methods investigation.
R. Moodley, L. Epp, & H. Yusuf (Eds.), International Journal for the
Counseling across the Cultural Divide: The Advancement of Counselling. DOI: 10.1007/
Clemmont E. Vontress Reader (pp. 261–275). s10447-019-09392-8
United Kingdom: PCCS Books, UK LaFromboise, T. D., Coleman, H. L. K., &
Kuo, B. C. H. (2014). Coping, acculturation, and Hernandez, A. (1991). Development and factor
psychological adaptation among migrants: structure of the Cross-Cultural Counseling
A theoretical and empirical review and synthesis Inventory-Revised. Professional Psychology:
of the literature. Health Psychology and Research and Practice, 22, 380–388. DOI:
Behavioral Medicine: An Open Access Journal, 2, 10.1037/0735-7028.22.5.380
16–33. DOI: 10.1080/21642850.2013.843459 Landis, D., Bennett, J. M., & Bennett M. J. (2004).
Kuo, B. C. H. (2018a). Refugee-serving (Eds.). Handbook of intercultural training (3rd
multicultural therapy practicum: An example of ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
a culture- infused, service-based training Landis, D., & Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2004). Synthesizing
program. In N. Arthur (Ed.), Counseling in theory building and practice in intercultural
cultural context: Identity and social justice (pp. training. In D. Landis, J. M. Bennett, & M. J.
359–379). Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature Bennett (Eds.). Handbook of intercultural
Switzerland AG. training (3rd ed., pp. 453– 468). Thousand Oaks,
Kuo, B. C. H. (2018b). Responding to refugee CA: Sage.
mental health needs by training Canadian Leong, F. T. L., & Ponterotto, J. G. (2003).
psychologists in cultural clinical competence. A proposal to internationalizing counseling
Psynopsis, 4, 4–7. psychology in the United States: Rationale,
Kuo, B. C. H., & Arcuri, A. (2014). Multicultural recommendations, and challenges. The
therapy practicum involving refugees: Counseling Psychologist, 31, 381–395. DOI:
Description and illustration of a training model. 10.1177/0011000003031004001
The Counseling Psychologist, 42, 1021–1052. Littrell, L. N., Salas, E., Hess, K. P., Paley, M., &
DOI: 10.1177/0011000013491610 Reidel, S. (2006). Expatriate preparation:
Kuo, B. C. H., & Boucher, C. M. (2020). Training A critical analysis of 25 years of cross-cultural
and preparing therapist trainees to work with training research. Human Resource Development
refugee clients through a multicultural Review, 5, 355–388. DOI: 20.2277/
psychotherapy practicum: The training model 2534484306290106
and its learning impacts. In J. Kottler, S. Banu, Malott, K. M. (2010). Multicultural counselor
& S. Jani (Eds.), Handbook of refugee training in a single course: Review of research.
experience: Trauma, resilience, and recovery (pp. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and
330–342). San Diego, CA: Cognella Academic Development, 38, 51–63. DOI:10.1002/j.2161-
Publishing. 1912.2010.tb00113.x
Kuo, B. C. H., & Roysircar, G. (2004). Predictors of McAuliffe, G. J. & Associates (2020). Culturally
acculturation for Chinese adolescents in Canada: alert counseling: A comprehensive introduction
Age of arrival, length of stay, social class, and (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Mendenhall, M. E., Stahl, G. K., Ehnert, I., Oddou, multicultural course syllabi. The Counseling
G., Osland, J. S., & Kuhlmann, T. M. (2004). Psychologist, 37, 93–115. DOI: 10.1177/
Evaluation studies of cross-cultural training 0011000008319986
programs: A review of the literature from 1988 to Ponterotto, J. G. (2002). Qualitative research
2000. In D. Landis, J. M. Bennett, & M. J. methods: The fifth force in psychology. The
Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural training Counseling Psychologist, 30, 394–406.
(3rd ed., pp. 129–143). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Ponterotto, J. G. (2008). Theoretical and empirical
Mosher, D. K., Hook, J. N., Captari, L. E., Davis, advances in multicultural counseling and
D. E., & DeBlaere, C. (2017). Cultural humility: psychology. In S. D. Brown & R. W. Lent
A therapeutic framework for engaging diverse (Eds.), Handbook of counseling psychology, (4th,
clients. Practice Innovations, 2, 221–233. DOI: ed., pp. 121–140). NJ: Wiley.
10.1037/pri0000055 Ponterotto, J. G., Alexander, C. M., & Grieger, I.
Paige, R. M. (2004). Instrumentation in (1995). A multicultural competency checklist for
intercultural training. In D. Landis, J. M. counseling training programs. Journal of
Bennett, & M. J. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 23,
intercultural training (3rd ed., pp.85–128). 11–20.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Ponterotto, J. G., Casas, J. M., Suzuki, L. A., &
Pedersen, P. (1987). Handbook of cross-cultural Alexander, C. M. (1995) (Eds.). Handbook of
counseling and therapy. NY. Westport, CT: multicultural counseling. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Praeger. Sage.
Pedersen, P. (1991). Multiculturalism as a fourth Ponterotto, J. G., Casas, J. M., Suzuki, L. A., &
force in counseling. Journal of Counseling and Alexander, C. M. (2001) (Eds.). Handbook of
Development, 70, 5–25. multicultural counseling (2nd ed.). Thousand
Pedersen, P. (1994). Multicultural counseling. In Oaks, CA: Sage.
R.W. Brislin & Tomoko Yoshida (Eds.), Ponterotto, J. G., Casas, J. M., Suzuki, L. A., &
Improving intercultural interactions: Modules for Alexander, C. M. (2010) (Eds.). Handbook of
cross-cultural training programs (pp. 221–240). multicultural counseling (3rd ed.). Thousand
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Oaks, CA: Sage.
Pedersen, P. (2000). A handbook for developing Ponterotto, J. G., Gretchen, D., Utsey, S. O.,
multicultural awareness (3rd ed.). Alexandria, Rieger, B., & Austin, R. (2000). A construct
VA: American Counseling Association. validity study of the Multicultural Counseling
Pedersen, P. (2003). “Walking the talk”: Awareness Scale (MCAS). Unpublished
Simulations in multicultural training. In G. manuscript.
Roysircar, D. S. Sandhu, & V. E. Bibbins Sr. Ponterotto, J. G., Gretchen, D., Utsey, S. O.,
(Eds.), Multicultural competencies: A guidebook Rieger, B., & Austin, R. (2002). A revision of the
of practices (pp. 29–37). Alexandria, VA: Multicultural Counseling Awareness Scale.
American Counseling Association. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and
Pedersen, P., Draguns, J., Lonner, W., Trimble, J., Development, 30, 153–180. DOI: 10.1002/j.2161-
& Scharron-del Rio, M. R., (Eds.). (2015). 1912.2002.tb00489.x
Counseling across cultures (7th ed.). Thousand Pope, M., Pangelinan, J. S., & Coker, A. D. (2011).
Oaks, CA: Sage. Handouts for experiential activities for teaching
Pieterse, A. L., Evans, S. A., Risner-Butner, A., multicultural competency in counseling.
Collins, N. M., & Mason, L. B. (2009). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling
Multicultural competency and social justice Association.
training in counseling psychology and counselor Pope-Davis, D. B., Coleman, H. L. K., Liu, W. M.,
education: A review and analysis of a sample of & Toporek, R. L. (2003). Handbook of

438 ben c. h. kuo
multicultural competencies in counseling and Roysircar, G., Webster, D. R., Germer, J.,
psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Palensky, J., Lynne, E., Campbell, G. R., et al.
Pope-Davis, D. B., Liu, W. M., Nevitt, J., & (2003). Experiential training in multicultural
Toporek, R. L. (2000). The development and counseling: Implementation and evaluation. In
initial validation of the Multicultural G. Roysircar, D. S. Sandhu, & V. E. Bibbins Sr.
Environmental Inventory: A preliminary (Eds.), Multicultural competencies:
investigation. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic A guidebook of practices (pp. 39–50).
Minority Psychology, 6, 57–64. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling
Priester, P. E., Jones, J. E., Jackson-Bailey, C. M., Association.
Jana-Masri, A., Jordan, E. X., & Metz, A. Sheu, H. B., & Lent, R. W. (2007). Development
(2008). An analysis of content and instructional and initial validation of the Multicultural
strategies in multicultural counseling courses. Counseling Self-Efficacy Scale – Racial Diversity
Journal Multicultural Counseling and Form. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research,
Development, 36, 29–39. DOI: 10.1002/j.2161- Practice, Training, 44, 30–45. DOI: 10.1037/
1912.2008.tb00067.x 0033-3204.44.1.30
Pusch, M. D. (2004). Intercultural training in Smith, T. B., Constantine, M. G., Dunn, T. W.,
historical perspective. In D. Landis, J. M. Dinehart, J. M., & Montoya, J. A. (2006).
Bennett, & M. J. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of Multicultural education in the mental health
intercultural training (3rd ed., pp.13–36). professions: A meta-analytic review. Journal of
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Counseling Psychology, 53, 132–145. DOI:
Richard, P. S., & Bergin, A. E. (Eds.) (2014). 10.1037/0022-0167.53.1.132
Handbook of psychotherapy and religious Smith, T. B., & Silva, L. (2011). Ethnic identity and
diversity (2nd ed.). Washington, DC. American personal well-being of people of color: A meta-
Psychological Association. analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58,
Ridley, C. R., & Kleiner, A. J. (2003). Multicultural 42–60. DOI: 10.1037/a0021528
counseling competence: History, themes, and Smith, T. B., & Trimble, J. E. (2016). Foundations of
issues. In D. B. Pope-Davis, Coleman, H. L. K., multicultural psychology: Research to inform
Liu, W. M., & Toporek, R. L. (Eds.). Handbook effective practice. Washington, DC: American
of multicultural competencies in counseling and Psychological Association.
psychology (pp. 3–20). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sodowsky, G. R., Taffe, R. C., Gutkin, T., & Wise,
Sage. S. L. (1994). Development of the multicultural
Ridley, C. R., Mendoza, D. W., & Kanitz, B. E. counseling inventory: A self-report of
(1994). Multicultural training: Re-examination, multicultural competencies. Journal of
operationalization, and integration. The Counseling Psychology, 41, 137–148. DOI:
Counseling Psychologist, 22, 227–289. DOI: 10.1037/0022-0167.41.2.137
10.1177/0011000098266001 Speight, S. L., & Vera, E. M. (2008). Social justice
Rost-Roth, M. (2009). Intercultural training. In H. and counseling psychology: A challenge to the
Kotthoff & H. Spencer-Oatey (Eds.). Hanbook profession. In S. D. Brown & R. W. Lent (Eds.),
of intercultural communication (pp. 491–518). Handbook of counseling psychology, (4th, ed.,
Berlin, Germany: Mouton deGruyter. pp. 54–67). New Jersey: Wiley.
Roysircar, G., Gard, G., Hubbell, R., & Ortega, M. Sue, D. W., Arredondo, P., & McDavis, R. J.
(2005). Development of counseling trainees’ (1992). Multicultural counseling competencies
multicultural awareness through mentoring and standards: A call to the profession. Journal
English as Second Language students. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70, 477–486.
of Multicultural Counseling and Development, DOI: 10.1002/j.2161-1912.1992.tb00563.x
33, 17–36. DOI: 10.1002/j.2161-1912.2005. Sue, D. W., Bernier, J. B., Durran, M., Feinberg, L.,
tb00002.x Pedersen, P., Smith, E., & Vasquez-Nuttall, E.

(1982). Position paper: Cross-cultural counseling cultural competency training in a

competencies. The Counseling Psychologist, 10, global society (pp. 117–133). New York, NY:
45–52. DOI: 10.1177/0011000082102008 Springer.
Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2008). Counseling culturally Van der Zee, K., & Van Oudenhoven, J. P. (2000).
diverse: Theory and practice (5th ed.). New The multicultural personality questionnaire:
Jersey: Wiley. A multidimensional instrument of multicultural
Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2016). Counseling the effectiveness. European Journal of Personality,
culturally diverse: Theory and practice (7th ed.). 14, 291–309.
Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Van der Zee, K., & Van Oudenhoven, J. P. (2001).
Sue, D. W., & Torino, G. C. (2005). Racial-cultural The Multicultural Personality Questionnaire:
competence: Awareness, knowledge and skills. Reliability and validity of self- and other ratings
In R. T. Carter (Ed.), Handbook of racial- of multicultural effectiveness. Journal of
cultural psychology and counseling (pp. 3–18). Research in Personality, 35, 278–288.
Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Vera, E. M., & Speight, S. L. (2003). Multicultural
Toporek, R. L., Gerstein, L. H., Fouad, N. A., competence, social justice, and counseling
Roysircar, G., & Israel T. (2006) (Eds.). psychology: Our expanding roles. The
Handbook of social justice in counseling Counseling Psychologist, 31, 253–272 DOI:
psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 10.1177/0011000002250634
United Nations Higher Commission of Refugees Wrenn, C. G. (1962). The culturally encapsulated
(2019). Global trends: Forced displacement in counselor. Harvard Educational Review, 32,
2018. www.unhcr.org/statistics/unhcrstats/ 444–449.
5d08d7ee7/unhcr-global-trends-2018.html Yoon, E., Langrehr, K., & Ong, L. Z. (2011).
Van de Vijver, F. J. R., & Breugelmans, S. M. Content analysis of acculturation research in
(2008). Research foundation of cultural counseling and counseling psychology: A 22-
competency training. In R. H. Dana & J. Allen year review. Journal of Counseling Psychology,
(Eds.). International and cultural psychology 58, 83–96. DOI: 10.1037/a0021128

13 Training for Cross-Cultural Competence
in the United States Military
Sharon Glazer
“Intercultural training” is a thematic phrase foreign operational environment or with

that encapsulates various culture content people of different national backgrounds.
domains. The first three editions of this Hand- Intercultural training can focus on many
book of Intercultural Training addressed inter- different aspects of culture (Winslow et al.,
cultural training in the military primarily in 2004). For example, a nation’s military might
terms of diversity training (Dansby & Landis, benefit from intercultural training in order to
1996; Winslow, Kammhuber, & Soeters, 2004) operate within the diverse environments of a
and race relations (Day, 1983). This chapter single country’s military forces or between a
looks at intercultural training in the military in single country’s military forces, as well as mili-
an expanded form, namely training for cross- tary and other defense agencies. Intercultural
cultural competence, which refers to a cogni- training could also benefit those who interact
tive-affective-behavioral state and personal with individuals of different national back-
characteristics that yield proficiency or expert- grounds and different countries’ military
ise on cross-cultural issues, allowing ease in forces. Finally, intercultural training could
adaptability to different cultural environments help improve relationships between people
(McCloskey, Behymer, Papautsky, Ross, & who belong to different organizational cul-
Abbe, 2010; Rasmussen & Sieck, 2013). tures, such as non-government organizations
Training for cross-cultural competence in the (NGOs) and media.
military aims at increasing foreign cultural Winslow and colleagues (2004) provide
understanding and providing behavioral strat- unique insight into two major domains of
egies necessary to improve interactions in a intercultural training in non-United States
(US) military forces. They presented examples
of diversity training programs and needs in
South Africa, Belgium, Germany, and
1
Open source information on cross-cultural Canada. They also presented examples of
competence training or culture training in other intercultural training needs and programs in
nations’ military forces or defense departments is
minimal. Glazer, Hamedani, Kayton, and Weinberg Belgium, Canada, and Germany that had to
(2014) present a single paragraph summarizing do with national cultural differences. The pre-
rudimentary results or implementation goals of cross- sent chapter extends Winslow et al.’s final
cultural training in other countries, including
point regarding multinational intercultural
Germany, Afghanistan, Norway, Netherlands, and
the United Kingdom. Given the long history of training and focuses on the US Department
defense departments’ reticence in sharing (Howcroft, of Defense (DoD).1 In particular, this chapter
2013, 2014) information with foreign nationals and addresses the opportunities and obstacles the
the military culture of holding information close to
the body, attempting to identify more non-American US DoD has faced in training military forces
studies is a futile exercise. for cross-cultural competence. It does not

Training for Cross-Cultural Competence in the United States Military 441
address diversity or within-country multicul- Pacific, were ill-prepared with culture-relevant

tural training. knowledge, skills, abilities, and attitudes
(KSAAs) to face combat. More tragically, they
were also ill-prepared to handle and broker
Need for Cross-Cultural Competence peacekeeping efforts in the region. Many US
in the Military military documents cite September 11, 2011, the
ensuing military operations, and globalization
Understanding one’s allies and enemies is
as a catalyst for making language, regional
essential for engaging in both peacekeeping
expertise, and culture vital to the warfighter
and war-fighting efforts. A high level of
(Defense Foreign Language, 2005; Department
cross-cultural competence to engage with
of Defense, 2007a; 2011; Kruse et al., 2008;
people from other cultures enables alternative
Miyoshi Jager, 2007). Although security threats
perspective-taking of people from other cul-
after 9/11 catapulted renewed interest in cul-
tures and supports isomorphic attributions
ture, Kruse and colleagues (2008) reported that
(Triandis, 1975). An alternative perspective-
already during World War II, the US DoD
taking ability is purported to help mitigate
identified a need for language acquisition and
conflict, reduce misunderstandings, ensure
cultural proficiency.
operational effectiveness, and nurture friendly
The US military’s motivation for training
military alliances (Fallon, 2014; Howcroft,
for cross-cultural competence had been to
2014; Schroeder, 2018). Indeed, documented
incorporate skills into operational planning
in an ancient Chinese military treatise, Art of
so that regional expertise and culture would
War, written more than 2,000 years ago, Sun
become regarded as core competencies of the
Tzu emphasizes the importance of knowing
US Defense Department (Defense Foreign
your enemy as well as you know yourself in
Language, 2005). Additionally, the
order to strategically win battles. The advice
2011–2016 Strategic Plan for Language Skills,
may be more relevant for tactical warfare than
Regional Expertise, and Cultural Capabilities
for conflict negotiation. Recent research sug-
(Department of Defense, 2011) set forth three
gests that alternative perspective-taking can
major goals with respect to developing KSAAs
sometimes backfire when the interactional
that support cross-cultural competence. The
situation puts the perspective-taker in a pos-
three goals began with research and culminate
ition of threat (Sassenrath, Hodges, & Pfat-
in operability (p. 6):
theicher, 2016). Still, the need to understand
others’ cultural values, norms, and beliefs is
(1) Identify, validate, and prioritize require-
important. Practical implications of
ments for language skills, regional expert-
perspective-taking during high stakes situ-
ise, and cultural capabilities, and generate
ations still needs to be empirically explored.
accurate demand signals in support of
When terrorists attacked the USA on Sep-
DoD missions.
tember 11, 2001, the US military responded on
(2) Build, enhance and sustain a Total Force
multiple fronts in western Asia (primarily Iraq
with a mix of language skills, regional
and Afghanistan). However, the soldiers, like
expertise, and cultural capabilities to meet
those who fought in Vietnam in the 1960s and
existing and emerging needs in support of
1970s or those who fought in the 1950s Korean
national security objectives.
war, or the 1940s World War II in the South

442 sharon glazer
(3) Strengthen language skills, regional evaluating the effectiveness of such training
expertise, and cultural capabilities to (Glazer, Hamedani et al., 2014).
increase interoperability and to build part- The demand signal for cross-cultural com-
ner capacity.2 petence training was clearly articulated; how-
ever, funding to support evaluation of the
Cross-cultural competence, like intercultural
training was minimal (Blascovich & Hartel,
competence (the term first coined by Dinges,
2008; Taliaferro, Hinkle, & Gallo, 2014), des-
1983), differs from being cross-culturally com-
pite varying perspectives on what the training
petent, as competence infers all people are
content should include (Fosher, Mackenzie,
capable of developing some KSAAs, but may
Tarzi, Post, & Gauldin, 2017). For example,
not be advanced experts (Bhawuk, 1998), who
some researchers (e.g., McCloskey et al., 2010)
are capable of readily extending their expertise
within the US DoD drew, in part, on Menden-
to new cultures as cross-culturally competent
hall and Oddou’s (1985) focus of cross-cultural
individuals are (Rasmussen & Sieck, 2013).
competence training on the individual’s inter-
The 2011–2016 Strategic Plan, therefore, pre-
actional orientations in a given cultural con-
sented reasonable expectations of the military
text. These orientations are toward
forces. Ultimately, through didactic and
strengthening one’s sense of and awareness of
experiential learning opportunities, combined
self (e.g., values, beliefs, personal resilience),
with support from superiors, members of the
others (e.g., taking the perspective of others
military can begin cultivating cross-cultural
in different social settings), and situation
competence.
(e.g., understanding the context that shapes
others’ behaviors and decisions; Mendenhall
& Oddou, 1985; Mendenhall, Osland, Bird,
Training and Education Models
Oddou, & Maznevski, 2008). To achieve
In order to support the 2011–2016 Strategic cross-cultural competence, each of the orienta-
Plan (2011), the US DoD funded some tions must be developed.
research activities, including research on cul- Other researchers (e.g., Glazer, Saner,
ture, research on the need for culture training, Paletz, Pavisic, & Mathis, 2014), adopted Bha-
and development of culture-related training wuk’s (1998) recommended steps to becoming
curricula (see reviews by Gabrenya, Griffith, an advanced intercultural expert. He asserted
Moukarzel, Pomerance, & Reid, 2013; Glazer, learners should start with developing declara-
Hamedani, Kayton, & Weinberg, 2014). tive knowledge (i.e., memorization and recall
Research scientists were simultaneously of concept definitions and cultural facts) and
developing and attempting to validate models procedural knowledge (i.e., knowing how to
of cross-cultural competence and cross- perform tasks within a cultural context) to
cultural competence training, while also solidify the knowledge as evident in autono-
mous performance of procedural tasks in a
fluid and habitual manner. Then, to become
2 autonomous intercultural experts, learners
Diplomatic Language Services (DLS) provides
language and culture training for DoD clients, as well should have a solid foundation in culture
as non-government organizations and for-profit theory. Using a sample of students, Bhawuk
companies that deploy or interact with people who
demonstrated that without knowledge of cul-
speak different languages, including services for those
who need to communicate in English (http://dlsdc ture theory, a person will remain a novice and
.com/images/general/DLS_Capabilities_web_2.pdf). will not be able to advance to a high level of

cross-cultural competence. Glazer, Saner, intercultural stressors could help someone

Pavisic, and Barnes (2014) presented further revise how s/he would otherwise cope. Having
evidence of Bhawuk’s results with a sample trainees role play in a simulation or identify
of professional adults who received (vs. did appropriate and inappropriate responses to
not receive) training. situations are both ways of training for social
Much like Bhawuk (1998) outlined, Morris, learning and conditioning.
Savani, Mor, and Cho (2014) argued that there Like Morris et al. (2014), other researchers
are four unique cognitive processes that are (e.g., Littrell & Salas, 2005; Rotkoff, 2013)
necessary for someone to become cross- have proposed cognitive-behavioral
culturally competent. These subconsciously approaches to developing individuals’ cross-
and consciously cognitive processes include: cultural attitudes, behaviors, and knowledge,
studying (developing declarative knowledge), emphasizing too, the procedures that are
attributional reasoning (identifying cultural required to effect change. A combination of
antecedents of behaviors, e.g., individuals’ cognitive (developing expertise, e.g., Bhawuk,
values, beliefs, and assumptions in a given 1998) and behavioral, developmental (phased)
context), social learning (behaving in certain approaches (e.g., Bennett & Bennett, 2004;
situations as others from the culture model the Winslow et al., 2004) to cross-cultural training
normative behavior), and conditioning (modi- may help in developing cross-cultural compe-
fying behaviors on the basis of rewards and tence. Ultimately, the goal of training for
reprimands). The conscious processes are cross-cultural competence is to internalize
effortful and purposeful, whereas the subcon- training content so that there is fluid applica-
scious processes evolve without even noticing tion when real intercultural interactions occur
that one has become embedded or fluent in the (Bhawuk, 1998; Fowler & Blohm, 2004; Ward,
other culture. 2004; Winslow et al., 2004).
Over the past ten years, at least, most
training programs for cross-cultural compe-
Evaluation of Training
tence focused on the first two, conscious cog-
nitive processes of studying facts (through In order to achieve the aforementioned goals,
“factbooks” given just prior to deployment) time and financial resources need to be
and honing skills in attributional reasoning invested not only in developing and imple-
(which may be guided with support from a menting training for cross-cultural competence
foreign area officer or computerized simula- in the military (see, e.g., chapters 3, 8, 28, 32,
tions), though they seldom integrated deep and 33 in Schmorrow and Nicholson’s, 2013,
learning of culture theory, thus limiting their edited book), but also in evaluating the utility
opportunities to become cross-cultural experts of training programs (Glazer, Hamedani et al.,
(Bhawuk, 1998). Social learning and condi- 2014; Glazer, Saner, Paletz et al., 2014; Kobus
tioning are more implicit through social & Viklund, 2013; Winslow et al., 2004). With-
rewards and punishments for behaving in cer- out training for cross-cultural competence,
tain ways in different contexts (Morris et al., data gathering efforts about other cultures
2014). Still, training for cross-cultural compe- can have negative repercussions. These reper-
tence reinforces openness to new experiences cussions, including financial cost, loss of life,
and acceptance of different practices and and breach of ethical boundaries, became evi-
norms (Winslow et al., 2004). Reading and dent during cultural intelligence (CULINT)
studying how others have overcome gathering efforts during the wars in Iraq and

444 sharon glazer
Afghanistan (Fallon, 2014), when prisoners of improve by incorporating a more sophisticated

war were interrogated in ways that demon- understanding of how to account for host nation
strated absolute and purposeful disrespect for cultural norms prior to any capacity building
the prisoners’ cultural practices and beliefs initiative. The literature on cultural norms
(Schmitt, 2004). However, there was no meth- strongly suggests that we “western” advisors need
to become more self-conscious about the degree
odical and deliberate research protocol to
to which our conceptualization of analytically
study what went wrong. Funding for evaluat-
based management is bound to our culture and
ing the efficacy of training military personnel
not universally applicable (Taliaferro et al.,
for cross-cultural competence has been slow 2014, p. 8).
to come.
The US DoD has funded primarily litera- Although compelling arguments were made
ture review papers to justify training for for better measurement of training utility, due
cross-cultural competence and some military to funding changes, the Institute for Defense
agencies have invested in the development of Analyses has (as of the time of this chapter’s
cross-cultural competence frameworks and publication) shifted its focus to diversity and
curricula for training or education programs, inclusion, military education, and organiza-
but specifically for their own branch (see tional culture.
review by Gabrenya et al., 2013). Ironically,
excellent programs could be developed if only
The Problem with Evaluating
they could be systematically evaluated and not
Intercultural Training Programs: It’s
based primarily on subjective views of best
not Research
practices. However, the US DoD has not
invested in evaluation of the effectiveness Research can be conceptualized as scientific
training for cross-cultural competence pro- efforts to produce knowledge that may be
grams and, therefore, there are also no stand- generalizable. For the US DoD, literature
ardized validated measures to evaluate the review research that supports curriculum
success of training. Even the program at the development also counts as research. This def-
Defense Equal Opportunity Management inition is particularly evident in the forty-six-
Institute (DEOMI), initially aimed at evaluat- chapter (465-page) book Schmorrow and
ing diversity training, has not made much Nicholson (2013) edited, Advances in Design
headway since Gabrenya and team’s report for Cross-Cultural Activities Part I, as well as
(2013) on such efforts. DEOMI had taken forty-four-chapter (459-page) edited book,
several initiatives, but, none has led to system- Advances in Design for Cross-Cultural Activ-
atic evaluation of the success of training. Part ities Part II, both of which present works that
of the problem is that evaluating training pro- support culture-related research topics of inter-
grams does not neatly fit into any specific est for the US DoD. Note that not even 10 per-
funding category, and thus evaluation of cent of the chapters are statistically validated
training takes a back seat to developing and empirical works. Thus, while identifying best
administering training. Nonetheless, it is clear practices in culture-general training and syn-
from researchers at the Institute for Defense thesizing the identified practices into a coher-
Analyses that ent curriculum is considered research, testing if
the curriculum has any predictive validity for
DoD’s and perhaps even the whole USG’s operational improvements is not considered
success rate in its capacity building efforts would research. Research is any effort in

development, but not production. Thus, and who to train, conceptual definitions for
training can be developed, but it cannot be culture, region, culture-specific, culture-gen-
evaluated, because the money category associ- eral, and cross-cultural competence are pro-
ated with research and evaluation is different vided. These definitions are followed by a
from program development. In short, the pro- review of the state of research on training for
duction of training tools constitutes research, cross-cultural competence in the military and
but testing its value is not research (see appen- concludes with future directions for cross-
dix H in Glazer et al., 2011, in which funding cultural competence-related research, includ-
mechanisms and purposes are presented). ing validating effectiveness of training for
Program evaluation relies on fact-finding cross-cultural competence.
and data collection on various program
aspects, including the number of individuals
who completed a program and general evalu-
Challenges: When and Who to Train
ations of the quality of the program, instruc-
for Cross-Cultural Competence
tion, instructor, venue, and program utility.
However, program evaluation does not consti- One of the major challenges for trainers of
tute research because it focuses on institutional cross-cultural competence in the military is
questions and assessment, and it also has balancing immediate deployment needs with
limited generalizability, because of a focus on long-term goals. On the one hand, it is import-
a specific program rather than on developing ant to be able to provide quick, focused, in-
metrics for future uses. Program evaluation depth knowledge of one or two cultures with
might be passable as research if the program whom members of the military forces are to
evaluated is done in a controlled method, such interact in a crisis or expedited military inter-
that only designated groups take part in a vention. On the other hand, it is imperative to
program and others do not, or the latter take provide culture-general training, including cul-
part in a different kind of program. The goal ture theory, for cross-cultural competence that
would not only be to implement a program, would be transferable across cultures (Bha-
but also to test its utility (e.g., Brislin, 1970; wuk, 1998) in order to move people from a
Kirkpatrick, 1975). Thus, in some cases, pro- mission in one country to a mission in another
gram evaluation may also be considered country (Winslow et al., 2004). Further, there
research, but more often than not, it would is little doubt that personal experiences can
be a hard sell. only help to sharpen meta-knowledge (Leung,
Nonetheless, each branch of the military has Lee, & Chiu, 2013) and skills for being able to
developed training for cross-cultural compe- flexibly move about in any situation (Aytug,
tence programs (see Gabrenya et al., 2013 Rua, Brazeal, Almaraz, & González, 2018).
Glazer, Hamedani et al., 2014) that would The need for cross-cultural competence
benefit from systematic evaluation. Some pro- became clear when interpreters were embed-
grams focus on culture-specific knowledge, ded with the troops rather than preparing
others on culture-general knowledge, and troops for linguistic and cultural knowledge
others focus on language learning with some (Mason, 2017). Although the US Department
cultural immersion experiences (i.e., culture- of State can engage the services of linguistic,
specific experiences). Below I describe chal- cultural, and regional experts, having the
lenges associated with training for cross- expertise oneself is more important (Mason,
cultural competence, including when to train 2017).

446 sharon glazer
As is often the case in any organization, the individuals’ competencies would yield a team-
most salient and urgent issues need to be pri- level cross-cultural competence. In the military
oritized and this is no different in the military. setting, team efficacy is more useful than self-
When a person, particularly, someone in a efficacy in mitigating the effects of stressors on
leadership role, is deployed it is to his or her strains (Jex & Bliese, 1999). If what matters in
advantage to be immersed in culture-specific a team military setting is the team’s belief in
knowledge and thus, regional proficiency is their collective abilities, then is cross-cultural
preferable to cross-cultural competence, even competence for each person necessary? This
if people who are high on cross-cultural com- chapter continues with a definition of culture-
petence are more transportable. Indeed, Win- specific, culture-general, cross-cultural compe-
slow and colleagues (2004) found that German tence, research developments on cross-cultural
soldiers who were given training for cross- competence, foci of training (individuals or
cultural competence two weeks before deploy- teams), and concludes with remarks about
ment reported four months later that they felt the future of training for cross-cultural compe-
the timing of the culture-general training was tence in the military.
poorly chosen. Culture-general training is
better delivered when there is no urgency for
Culture
deployment to a specific location. German sol-
diers might have also preferred more familiar- Finding a common definition of “culture” is
ity with the culture to which they were to be difficult when the concept varies throughout
deployed. academia and the military communities. Sum-
Additionally, according to Glazer, Hame- marizing more than three dozen interviewee
dani, Kayton, Maloney, and Weinberg responses from subject matter experts (SMEs)
(2011), prior to deployment, military person- associated with the US DoD cross-cultural
nel prepare for specific cultural practices and initiatives, Glazer et al. (2011) found that cul-
language acquisition of the host society, rather ture cannot be separated from identity, reli-
than an overarching regional expertise. In fact, gion, economic factors, political views, and
because relationship building is bound by cul- the like. Other operationalizations of culture
ture, Taliaferro and colleagues (2014) assert that SMEs presented is that culture represents
that defense departments must develop a the learned set of values, beliefs, behaviors,
deeper understanding of how to decipher and norms for a society. It is boundary-less,
implicit, as well as explicit, cultural nuances not equal to national boundaries, and occurs
in order to identify culture training that would on many levels from global cultures (like reli-
enable sojourning personnel to navigate a var- gion) to ethnic sub-cultures (e.g., Pashtuns in
iety of cultural landscapes. By providing Afghanistan). Culture is a cognitive system of
culture-general training and attending to symbols and meaning construction mapped on
regional familiarity prior to deployment to a to behavior and conditions of life (e.g., ecology
specific location, defense departments will pro- and subsistence). Finally, culture is the way
actively mitigate crises. individuals view the world around them and
A second challenge for militaries is deter- their role within it. These definitions and oper-
mining whether cross-cultural competence ationalizations are consistent with ones found
should be developed within all individuals in in academic literature (see Kwantes &
a unit (when working in a team situation) or Glazer’s, 2017, summary of definitions from
within a team, whereby the sum of all academic literature); scholars, like the SMEs,

attempt to simplify an abstract, complex con- to swiftly enable military personnel engage-
cept that is simultaneously familiar to all. ment in the area of deployment. This is
In contrast to the abstract term “culture,” referred to as culture-specific and is expanded
“region” tends to be represented as concrete upon later in this chapter.
and tangible, despite artificially imposed
boundaries. As culture, language, and religion
Cross-Cultural Competence vs. Regional
are sociocultural elements that resist being
Expertise
nationally bound, the use of region has
become an alternative. And, although regions Regional expertise is not akin to cross-cultural
are categorized differently across the military competence. In the US military, regional
branches, there is a common understanding expertise (R) and culture expertise (C) are dis-
that regions designate a certain grouping of crete concepts that support each other. “Big
nation states that share cultural elements. C” refers to culture-general knowledge or
Moreover, regional boundaries do not have information that crosses cultural boundaries.
to be defined by national boundaries; other It includes general ideas, concepts, behaviors
boundary demarcations could be economics- that would be found anywhere in the world.
related. An important aspect of region is ter- “Little c” generally refers to specific manifest-
rain, and some parts of the DoD community ations of the general concepts that are not
utilize terrain to plan operations and interface typically generalizable across all cultures; they
with members of a region. Region tends to be are specific to the focal context. For example,
represented as concrete and tangible even “Big R, Little c” refers to developing a great
though it is also an abstract concept. Military deal of regional culture knowledge, whereas
strategists reify regions in order to enable lead- “Big C, Little r” refers to developing culture-
ership operational and strategic decision- general knowledge with less emphasis on
making. The Marines utilize a seventeen-area region-specific knowledge. The role of regional
breakdown, whereas the Air Force discusses expertise training is to develop knowledge of
six principal regions, the Office of the Secre- the historical roots of a geopolitical region,
tary of Defense references fifteen regions, and including the political, military, economic,
then there are the regional Unified Combatant religious, or legal factors; however, when
Commands. Thus, developing regional culture “Big C” is of importance, training is also
training for people deployed in a given geo- expected to attend to beliefs and norms that
graphically bound region is problematic too are learned and transmitted over generations.
because each of the services divide the world A focus of “Big C” is developing cross-cultural
into different geographical boundaries, competence.
making it difficult to generalize training
manuals and research findings. Cross-Cultural Competence. Cross-cultural
One way of making “culture” training more competence assumes a broad understanding
manageable has been to deep dive into one or of culture, skill in discerning cultural differ-
two specific cultures, rather than a culture- ences and similarities, and ability to swiftly
general approach, which establishes a founda- adapt to different cultural milieus, including
tion for practitioners to make sense of any engaging with culturally different people.
cultural environment. While US military strat- Cross-cultural competence means one is skilled
egists desire a cross-culturally competent sol- at deciphering meaning systems from cultural
dier, they first drill culture-specific information cues present in almost any culture. It refers to a

448 sharon glazer
level of proficiency or expertise that yields feel- Unfortunately, at the present time, there is
ings and perceptions of having capabilities not a single validated measure that can accur-
essential for successfully fulfilling a goal and ately assess a person’s cross-cultural compe-
has an implicit human interaction component. tence (see a summary table of face, construct,
Thus, cross-cultural competence entails, and and criterion validity of nine measures of
training for cross-cultural competence cultural-competence or intelligence, Gabre-
requires, a focus on declarative and procedural nya, 2018).
knowledge, orientations toward self and others Although cross-cultural competence is a
(often operationalized in terms of personality desirable feature of military personnel, for the
factors that are drawn to or are readily amen- most part, the US military has focused on
able and resilient to intercultural experiences), cultural intelligence (CULINT). CULINT is
attitudes and emotions regarding intercultural different from cross-cultural competence, in
encounters and understandings, and behav- that CULINT utilizes established frameworks
ioral practices associated with culture-general to identify thought patterns and forecast inten-
capabilities. In essence a highly cross- tions and behaviors, rather than organically
culturally competent individual has KSAAs, and spontaneously creating an image of a cul-
as well as other personality characteristics tural entity and its evolution (Fallon, 2014).
(Abbe, Gulick, & Herman, 2007) that are not Winslow et al. (2004) conclude that “trainees
readily trained, that make him or her capable should learn not only to think about the model,
and effective in managing in various cultural but rather in terms of the model or with the
contexts. Given that military personnel are model” (p. 403). In other words, a framework
likely to face ambiguous cultures (Salmoni & should guide, but not dictate, factors relevant
Holmes-Eber, 2008) or they have to interact for understanding a culture.
through layers of military culture (Soeters & A major focus of CULINT is identification
Recht, 2001), which may be distinct from the of cultural artifacts or observable manifest-
nation’s culture, cross-cultural competence is ations in the cultural environment. It does
an important asset. not necessarily include making sense of those
The concept of “culture-general” and “Big artifacts through reflection. In contrast, cross-
C” is associated with cross-cultural compe- cultural competence focuses on developing
tence, and is typically the focus of education skills and knowledge for understanding values
and training programs that prepare people to (e.g., Hofstede, 2001; Schwartz, 1999), social
communicate effectively with people from dif- axioms (i.e., generalized beliefs; Leung &
ferent cultures. The training focuses on skills- Bond, 2004), and assumptions (Schein, 1990)
based communicative elements. However, a that guide people’s behaviors and explain the
focus on training skills means a focus on reasons for the artifacts. Thus, when there are
cross-cultural competencies, not cross-cultural shifts in normative practices, a deeper under-
competence. Competencies reflect individual standing of culture and ability to make sense
knowledge, skills, abilities, or other character- of the situation could help guide alternative
istics (KSAOs) required for stellar perform- perspective-taking – a necessary competency
ance of a job (Briscoe & Hall, 1999) and when engaging in cultural encounters. How-
these are often the content on which compe- croft (2013) offers some practical insights that
tence is evaluated. A competency is a compon- could aid US military personnel in interacting
ent of competence. Having more KSAOs does with partners from different countries, and for
not necessarily increase one’s competence. others to interact with Americans (Howcroft,

2014). Similar to the advice Triandis, Brislin, soldiers are being deployed quickly, regional
and Hui (1988) provide about interacting with and culture-specific knowledge are seemingly
people in individualistic or collectivistic cul- more important to develop than culture-
tures, such as people in collectivistic societies general knowledge (Glazer et al., 2011; Win-
respect interpersonal interactions, Howcroft slow et al., 2004). More specifically, soldiers
(2013) reminds readers that to be successful, are given information about important prac-
Americans, interacting with foreigners, need to tices; however, they are not trained to under-
build relationships. This type of practical stand why the information they learn about is
guidance begins to shed light on cultural important for a people of a different culture.
assumptions, values, and beliefs that explain Culture-general training provides that add-
observed practices, whereas CULINT identi- itional layer of deeper understanding (Glazer,
fies data without much context. Saner, Pavisic, & Barnes, 2014). When time is
of the essence, however, leadership of the
Regional Expertise. To be a regional expert armed services deployed overseas desire direct
means one has requisite regional knowledge knowledge of cultural practices to support
like geography, history, and broad trends that their mission.
are apparent across a bounded region. In the
DoD context, regional expertise may be a Culture-Specific Training Context. A culture-
catchall phrase to refer to a range of skill levels specific focus in training is often categorized
vs. an indication of being an expert. The under regional-expertise, even when culture-
Defense Language Transformation Roadmap specific is more focused than a region. When
(Defense Foreign Language, 2005) served as studying specific cultures, scholars are often
a catalyst for marking culture and regional seeking to understand phenomenon from
expertise requirements for the job. Unlike for within a specific context. The general axiom
cross-cultural competence, the 2007 DoD is that culture is relative and must be dis-
Instruction Number 5160.70 provides a scale covered from within. Scholars will often inves-
for regional proficiency that ranges from 0+ tigate nuances of a particular cultural group at
(pre-novice) to level 5 (expert) and incorpor- a particular time, focusing on the individual
ates necessary ILR (Interagency Language members, their interactions, what they value,
Roundtable)3 levels (Department of Defense, and their system for organizing structures of
2007b). However, there are still no valid universal domains, such as family, communi-
assessments of required levels of expertise cation styles, and power dynamics. The
given a set of job roles and functions. resulting information is specific to the focal
culture and is not necessarily comparable to
Regional Expertise Training Context. General other proximally near cultures.
Purpose Forces are seeking to increase
“regional familiarity” to include some regional
Culture-General Training Context. A culture-
knowledge, a little language training, and
general focus in training encourages discovery
some level of cross-cultural competence, but
there is no consensus on what should be
3
required regional skills, especially in the case Although the ILR is a non-US government
organization, made of members from government,
of deploying individuals who might only be
academia, and the private sector, its language skill
assigned on short stays with little interaction level descriptions have been officially adopted by the
with the native population. Further, when US Government (www.govtilr.org).

450 sharon glazer
of universal principles and processes that can take perspective from another’s vantage point,
be used to understand and interpret any cul- isomorphic attributions (i.e., similar explan-
ture encountered. People focusing on cultural ations are provided by the observer and the
universals are typically applying (imposing) actor) are made (Triandis, 1975). An example
ideas of phenomenon as viewed from one’s culture-general training program might be cul-
own cultural perspective and testing it in ture general assimilators that introduce several
another (Segall, Lonner, & Berry, 1998). Dis- scores of critical incidents that represent a var-
coveries from this process will either yield uni- iety of different situations in which an individ-
versal principles or uncover phenomena that ual might find oneself in different cultural
are not so easily transportable across cultures. settings (Brislin, 1986). Through presentation
Culture-general findings are then integrated of the various critical incidents, learners
into training and education programs such improve their interactions with locals and
that deploying men and women develop skills adjust better to their environment (Cushner,
that are believed to be transferrable across 1989).
many cultural boundaries.
The culture-general training approach pro-
Relationship between Regional
vides tools to engage in any culture without
Expertise, Culture, and Language
being a deep expert in each culture. Typically,
to make the lessons resonate and motivating, A training area that has often been con-
culture-general training will draw on culture- founded with culture is language. A great deal
specific content in order to exemplify how of research has been invested in developing
similar affects, behaviors, or cognitions are ways to teach more people foreign languages
derived from different assumptions and values faster, better, and cheaper. And, while these
(e.g., Bhawuk, 1998; Fallon, 2014; Taliaferro improvements on language acquisition have
et al., 2014). Some culture-general topics been blossoming, an erroneous perspective
covered include perspective taking, sensemak- has been that culture knowledge will also
ing, and cultural relativism. These are prac- develop when acquiring new language skills.
tices that enable a sojourner to understand However, this is far from accurate. Culture
and evaluate unfamiliar cultures. A more con- and language are discrete concepts that may
crete example of a valuable skill, perspective- be complementary. For example, knowledge
taking, begins with learning how to think and of another language could actually create
judge behaviors from another’s point of view some intercultural confusion as operating in a
(Lacefield, Tarr, & Malone, 2013; Rasmussen second language interferes with accessing con-
& Sieck, 2013). Through perspective-taking, a cepts from one’s first language. As Morris
person can discover culture’s influence on et al. (2014) note, people speaking their second
people’s affects, behaviors, and cognitions language in the cultural context of the second
and develop inquiry skills to make sense of language (e.g., US students speaking Spanish
situations. Perspective-taking is always a in Spain) have more difficulty accessing words
useful skill, but it becomes even more neces- in their native language than second language
sary in any unfamiliar cultural environment learners in the context of their primary culture
and most critical when interacting with new (e.g., US students speaking Spanish in the
people in unfamiliar cultural environments United States). Additionally, when the pri-
(Howcroft, 2013, 2014; Sieck, Smith, & Ras- mary culture is primed (e.g., Chinese immi-
mussen, 2013). Once an individual is able to grants in the USA are primed with Chinese

cultural artifacts), study participants have (Glazer, Saner, Paletz et al., 2014). For this
more difficulty accessing words in their host reason, reinforcing cultural perspective-taking
language. This type of intercultural ambiguity would enable military personnel to readily
could lead to cultural mistakes. Thus, it is engage interculturally, despite limited or no
important to raise the issue of language learn- knowledge of language. Language is effect-
ing in a chapter on intercultural training in the ively a tool for interaction, but it is not the
military because it has been inherited as “the” only mode of cultural understanding and inter-
most important feature of culture learning, action. Incidental culture learning through
when it may not be (Schroeder, 2018). language is not culture-general knowledge
Throughout the US DoD, culture is often and cannot be applied in a generalizable way
viewed as incidental to language learning or across cultures. The presumption that individ-
that at most they are both required for training uals will learn culture through language, thus,
for cross-cultural competence. However, is problematic and can endanger culture-
regional and cultural expertise does not neces- general efforts within defense departments.
sitate language competence, just as language Another significant difference between lan-
competence may only include very limited guage, regional expertise, and culture is that
regional or cultural expertise (Schroeder, the language community developed and imple-
2018). Thus, counting on language as the main ments rigorous standards and assessments.
path to fruitful intercultural interactions limits However, language has a sixty-year advantage
the possibilities that intercultural interactions in the DoD community (e.g., ILR levels),
could have despite limited language know- while the concepts of culture and regional
ledge. As Howcroft (2013) pointed out, mili- expertise are based on too many unshared
tary partners are not surprised when assumptions that can act as stumbling blocks
Americans arrive with little foreign language to standardization.
capabilities, but would appreciate it if Ameri-
cans would have greater openness to different
approaches to interacting, decision-making, Culture-Related Training and
and relating with others. In order for language Education Programs in the US DoD
to have a major impact on acquisition of
Recent History of Culture Training and
culture-specific knowledge, the language
Research in the US DoD
learner ought to be at a high level of profi-
ciency. Mostly at a high level of language Training for and research on cross-cultural
proficiency, without any other culture training, competence has taken many turns on a roller
is when nuances of the language begin to coaster ride of relevance. It had great appeal in
explain cultural differences. the 1960s and 1970s, during the Vietnam War.
The Defense Language Institute (DLI) is Some of the early works on culture began with
charged with language training. Some of the Stolurow’s development of the culture assimi-
language training, typically at later stages of lator training program from 1962 to 1967
acquisition, includes immersion experiences. (Fielder, Mitchell, & Triandis, 1971). Brislin
However, not everyone can readily learn a (1970), supporting an initiative for the Defense
foreign language (Wen, 2012), though it Language Institute, developed a protocol for
appears possible to train people to adopt alter- evaluating the success of cultural assimilators,
native perspectives when confronted with a a program of critical incidents that present
situation that is not culturally normative social situations and, customs that contrast

452 sharon glazer
the learner from the target. Fielder and col- courses for the Army’s professional military
leagues (1971), with support from the Office of education system and began shifting to cross-
Naval Research, later published a paper that cultural competence by about 2008. In May
positively evaluated the effectiveness of cul- 2005 the Marine Corps’ Center for Advanced
tural assimilators in improving subjects’ Operational Culture Learning (CAOCL),
adjustment and work performance as it per- began working on culture-related curricula
tains to Arab culture (using a sample of US development. By 2006, the US Air Force,
Reserve Officer Training Corps, ROTC, Army, and Marine Corps formally instituted
cadets), Thai culture (using an experimental culture centers (referred to as the Air Force
design with ROTC cadets in two conditions: Culture and Language Center or AFCLC,
cultural assimilator or geography program), TRADOC Culture Center, and CAOCL,
Honduras and Guatemala (using an experi- respectively). By 2007, the Navy also formed
mental design for cultural assimilator vs. cul- the Center for Language, Regional Expertise,
ture and area training among US teenagers and Culture (CLERC) at the Center for Infor-
who traveled to Honduras and Guatemala mation Dominance. These Culture Centers of
for three weeks), and Greece (using US civilian Excellence (see report by McFate, 2005 for
and military advisors). more details on these centers’ missions) were
Another surge for training and research in established to help prepare service personnel
the area of cross-cultural competence again for their intercultural experiences via training
became highly important after the USA initi- activities that would teach them how to inter-
ated authorized military combat with Iraq in act, engage, and understand locals in countries
2003. Regional expertise and culture research where they are stationed.
programs throughout the DoD were popping Despite these culture centers and some
up both within the DoD, as well as with DoD- limited culture-related research starting as
affiliated research centers and private com- early as 2003 (e.g., by 2004, the Air Force
panies (e.g., Cultural Cognition) contracting Research Laboratory, or AFRL, had some
to the government. For the first time ever, culture and team research activities), it was
there was a DoD-wide initiative to codify cul- not until April 2008 that funds were allocated
ture and regional expertise, distinguish it from to support sociocultural research. The Office
language acquisition, propose plans for cur- of Naval Research (ONR) and other Navy
riculum development, and establish centers research centers were the caretakers of the
throughout the DoD focused on language, funds and housed the Office of the Secretary
regional expertise, and culture (Greene Sands, of Defense Human, Social, and Cultural
2016). By February 2017 the Office of the Behavioral (HSCB) Modeling program, a
Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence five-year initiative that began in 2008 and
established clear lines of responsibilities for ended in 2013. The Naval Air Systems Com-
military service members’ management and mand in 2006 (Naval Aviation Enterprise,
use of foreign language, regional, and cultural 2006) also began to incorporate human per-
capabilities. formance science and technology research with
In 2004, the Army was engaging in pre- a focus on culture into their strategic technol-
deployment training on region-specific cul- ogy objectives.
tures. People at the Army’s Training and Doc- Most of the cross-cultural competence
trine Command (TRADOC) were working on research in military organizations had focused
developing culture education and training on the role of knowledge, skills, abilities, and

other characteristics, such as attitudes and Studies, prepared unclassified materials

individual differences (i.e., personality) in regarding basic political, military, economic,
enabling one to develop cross-cultural compe- social, infrastructure, and information systems
tence and developing training and education (PMESII) of Middle Eastern and West Asian
curricula for culture-general, culture-specific, countries and cultures (University of Military
and regional expertise training (Glazer, Hame- Intelligence, n.d.). Although useful founda-
dani et al., 2014). A few military branches tional information, cultural awareness does
engaged in operations research that employed not get at the deep level of culture meta-
computational modeling to forecast behaviors knowledge (i.e., understanding values, beliefs,
and intentions of foreign entities and actors, as and assumptions) and self-regulatory behaviors
well as to simulate human terrain systems (i.e., a learning process, whereby individuals
(HTS) (Glazer, Hamedani et al., 2014, are able to transform their cognitive knowledge
p. 201). HTS was a program sponsored by into skillful behaviors; Rasmussen & Sieck,
the Army in which social scientists worked in 2013) that are required for one to be labeled
tandem with military units and provided mili- as being cross-culturally competent. Nonethe-
tary personnel with guidance to understand less, beginning to know another culture helps
the cultural milieu, support good judgment in open the doors to knowing others, as long as
decision-making situations, and to facilitate the training emphasizes the importance of not
interactions that military personnel might have generalizing one society’s culture to another
with foreigners (Fallon, 2014; Pool, 2011). The nearby society’s culture due to shared world
program ended in 2014 (Connable, 2018). region as compartmentalized by one’s own
In fact, from the time this chapter was ini- nation’s military or branch of military.
tially drafted (in 2015) to the time it was com- Moreover, there had been considerable
pleted, priorities shifted again. Culture and emphasis on language learning and less on
regional expertise training and research pro- culture learning. While language is inherently
grams were no longer emphasized, as evident seeped with culture, knowing a language does
in a major decline in accessible scholarly activ- not mean one knows how to decipher cultural
ity and funding in basic and applied research cues. As part of the effort to increase culture
(see bibliography compiled by Gallus et al. in knowledge through language learning, organ-
2014, and updated in 2016 and 2018). In fact, izations, such as SOCOM, incorporate culture
in 2018 the Army declared that culture, lan- lessons with the language lessons (Military
guage, and regional expertise training was no Intelligence, 2014). Again, however, this
longer required (Myers, 2018). training does not provide cross-cultural com-
petence, but competence in another culture.
The remainder of this section identifies and
Culture Training in the Major Services
discusses the evolution of some culture and
of the US Military: 2003 to 2015
regional expertise training activities each of
From 2003 to 2015 there was a highly active the four US military services, Army, Navy,
wave of culture-related research and training. Marine Corps, and Air Force, supported
Various course offerings for the military focus between 2003 and 2015. As culture and
on students’ knowledge development about regional expertise arenas developed in the
some basic information regarding different DoD, each service was required to stand-up
nations, for example, University of Military unique approaches suited to their specific mis-
Intelligence Cultural Awareness and Terrorism sions and combat modes.

454 sharon glazer
Army. Culture is considered vital for Army deployed to different countries. Currently, the
efforts of collaboration between civilian and US Army continues to prepare soldiers for
military groups, as well as providing ways to situational-specific, regional engagement.
understand societies where religion and They are particularly focused on gathering
governments are linked (FM 3-07 Stability CULINT during peacetime in order to miti-
Operations Report, 2008). In the early 2000’s, gate possible conflicts in the future and design
the Army recognized the necessity for cultural interventions during crises that are culturally
awareness training (Hajjar, 2006). The Army’s appropriate. This type of regional engagement
TRADOC Culture Center (TCC) at Ft. Hua- emphasizes language and culture-specific pro-
chuca, Arizona, officially opened in February ficiency, and reinforces the importance of on-
2006, is devoted to cross-cultural training and time (vs. reactionary) training (The US Army,
education, as well as to encouraging research 2017). However, as of May 9, 2018, the US
and collaboration between military and Army is no longer requiring cultural, regional
academic scholars. TCC includes language expertise, and language training (nor human
programs within the culture center to facilitate relations training; Myers, 2018).
synergy between language and culture (Hajjar, In 2010, the Human Research and Engin-
2006). eering Directorate (HRED) of the Army
The TCC advertised their services as the Research Laboratory (ARL) established the
Army’s central place to find any culture- Relevant Information for Social Cultural
related resources, boasting tailored trainings Depiction group, which focused on helping
to meet service members’ needs (Military Intel- the Army understand its knowledge needs
ligence, 2014). In the one-page advertisement and what actions would minimize negative
of their services, the TCC explained that cross- consequences of interventions abroad. The
cultural competence is critical for all its service Army had a goal to develop culture and for-
members to achieve mission success through eign language capabilities through career
interactions they have with locals in a foreign development and pre-deployment training
country. They emphasized the important role programs (Army Culture and Foreign Lan-
culturally competent leaders play in fulfilling guage Strategy, 2009). Ultimately, for Army
mission objectives. purposes, culture was required for successful
The training products TCC produces are worldwide missions, combat power, govern-
specifically geared toward missions conducted ance, and economic or infrastructural develop-
in six countries and are specific to those coun- ment (Army Culture and Foreign Language
tries. Like with research on the cultural assimi- Strategy, 2009). Regional expertise was dis-
lators in the 1970s (Fielder et al., 1971), one cussed as regional competence, indicating
might question if the product shapes cross- culture-specific knowledge, paired with cross-
cultural competence or competence in a spe- cultural competence to achieve the increasing
cific culture? There is an important difference. levels of cultural awareness, cultural under-
Competence in a single national culture or a standing, and cultural expertise (Army Culture
specific group within a specific country is not and Foreign Language Strategy, 2009).
the same as having culture-general knowledge Another important contributor to the
and flexibility to move around through Army’s efforts in culture training was the
different cultural contexts. If the training is Army Research Institute’s (ARI’s) Culture
sufficient for the focal cultures only, then on- Research Program. ARI’s culture research
going training will be needed as soldiers are program was an applied culture-general

program, currently housed in the Basic encouraging exchanges to build relationships

Research Unit. ARI’s culture researchers with partners (US Naval Language, 2008).
have been encouraging the Army to broaden Beyond programmatic changes, part of the
the education and experiences officers have Navy’s goal was to refresh doctrine, policies,
through professional military training by or planning guidance as needed to reflect the
educating them on culture both before and needs of expanding language, regional expert-
after deployment (Glazer et al., 2011). In gen- ise and culture capabilities in the service (US
eral, ARI’s research focus had been on per- Naval Language, 2008). This effort included
sonnel selection and, in particular, assessing fully developing the Center for Information
learning outcomes and determining training Dominance’s Center for Language, Regional
effectiveness. ARI also assessed culture cap- Expertise and Culture (CLREC) which had
abilities, training, and education, such as the worked to “develop practical, Navy-wide,
benefits of cultural skills development gained cross-cultural skills needed to enhance rela-
by sending an officer to get a civilian master’s tionships with emerging partners” (US Naval
degree, aspects of learners’ experiences that Language Skills, 2008, p. 11). Indeed, the
generalize to working in another culture, Navy has now launched a mobile device cul-
and outcomes of study abroad that prepare tural awareness and language resource app for
a platoon leader to work effectively in Naval personnel and families stationed or
another culture. engaging in Bahrain, Italy, Spain, Japan,
South Korea, and the Philippines (Center for
Navy. According to the US Naval Language Information Warfare Training Public Affairs,
Skills, Regional Expertise and Cultural Aware- 2017).
ness Strategy (2008), the Navy prioritized pre- After a five-year period of performance of
paring its entire force for regional expertise the HSCB Modeling Program, housed in the
and cultural awareness over foreign language ONR, the program closed in 2013. The focus
proficiency. The strategy outlined how these of the HSCB was on connecting the social
capabilities relate to higher level strategies like sciences with technology development. Its
national security and the Defense Language aim was to develop and validate computa-
Transformation Roadmap (Defense Foreign tional models using current regional expertise
Language, 2005). A main goal for the Navy and culture research. The HSCB program
had been to unify various language, regional most recently emphasized computational mod-
expertise, and culture efforts and align capabil- eling (“an externalization of a mental model or
ities with the greater DoD, while ensuring that theory [linking] theory [to] ‘real world’ [phe-
budget allocations are optimized and any nomena]; Friedland et al., 2007) and reasoning
investment in these capabilities aligns with about cultural phenomena, particularly data
future service goals. In order to achieve total collection and management, multi-scale and
force, the Navy defined priorities and object- hybrid modeling of regional and sub-regional
ives, including: implement monitoring of stability, analysis and modeling of non-kinetic
readiness and proficiency of Sailors to meet courses of action, and training methodologies
Fleet requirements; define what Navy require- (Office of Naval Research, 2011). Although
ments and competencies are needed; expand the HSCB is no longer operating, ONR
cultural awareness; identify language, regional administered the DoD Minerva Research Ini-
expertise, and culture gaps; and implement the tiative, and the February 2014 Broad Agency
Navy Foreign Area Officer program while Announcement solicited proposals focusing on

456 sharon glazer
four broad topics: (1) Identity, Influence, and class, ethnicity, and religion), (2) to effectively
Mobilization, (2) Contributors to Societal apply cultural principles in various operational
Resilience and Change, (3) Power and Deter- cultures in different deployment environments,
rence, and (4) Innovations in National Secur- and (3) to internalize frameworks of culture to
ity, Conflict, and Cooperation. Under the first apply in education and pre-deployment set-
broad topic are three subtopics: (1-A) Culture, tings (Salmoni & Holmes-Eber, 2008). In order
identity, and security, (1-B) Belief formation to keep abreast of works on culture, regional
and influence, and (1-C) Mobilization for expertise, and language, CAOCL commis-
change. Subtopic 1-A focused on the inter- sioned a Military Cross-Cultural Competence
action of human nature and human cultures Annotated Bibliography (Gallus et al., 2014),
(Office of Naval Research, 2014). Today, Min- which was updated in 2018 (Mackenzie, Gaul-
erva is administered by the Office of Basic din, & Tarzi, 2018).
Research and the Office of Policy at the US
Department of Defense and the 2018 Minerva Air Force. An Air Force goal for its Airmen is
Broad Agency Announcement no longer spe- to prepare and home their regional, cultural,
cifies interest in culture or human interactions and linguistic expertise so that they are able to
with culture (Office of the Secretary of adapt to joint and coalition warfighting and
Defense, 2018). peacekeeping efforts (Air Force Culture, Region
& Language Flight Plan, 2009). In this
Marine Corps. The regional expertise and cul- approach, the focus in on producing Airmen
ture requirements for Marines support their with cross-cultural negotiation and communi-
mission of training marines to understand the cation skills that can be used with joint and
cultures of the people where they are deployed interagency partners for operational success
so that they may readily navigate the culturally and coalition building (Air Force Culture,
different environments and know how to 2009). The AFCLC was developed to meet the
respond to complex situations in foreign envir- growing need for culturally competent Airmen.
onments (2025 Marine Corps Vision & Strat- The 2011 Developmental Levels for Language,
egy, 2008). CAOCL is charged with the task of Region and Culture Learning in the US Air
training and education that is operationally Force conceptualizes culture as both general
focused to enable a force prepared for any and specific knowledge and divides region into
operating conditions and various human ter- formal, process, and physical definitions. Fur-
rains. Culture and regional expertise are such thermore, culture, region, and language all con-
vital parts of the Marine Corps that the sist of three-tier scales that while independent,
Marine Corps University partnered with make references to the interrelation between
RAND Corporation to write a 357-page book these three concepts as skill sets advance.
devoted to operational culture (Salmoni & To suit Air Force needs, culture, language,
Holmes-Eber, 2008). Operational culture and region are conceptualized as each overlap-
refers to the competencies and knowledge ping concepts – including times when all three
marines need to be effective performers in can be inseparable. The goal is to develop a
any place around the world (MacMillan, total force of Airmen who have mastered
Walker, Clarke & Marc, 2013). The overarch- cross-cultural competence (cross-cultural com-
ing goals are to train Marines (1) to consider petence), as well as encourage foreign lan-
the meaning imposed on demographics and guage career professionals while ensuring that
features of people (i.e., age, gender, kinship, total force Airmen have received appropriate

language exposure (Air Force Culture, 2009). competence requirements for different force
The Air Force defines cross-cultural compe- positions. Despite the successes that culture-
tence as “the ability to quickly and accurately general training may have, the Air Force sim-
comprehend, then appropriately and effect- ultaneously continues to place multilingual
ively act, to achieve the desired effect in a Airmen in units stationed abroad so that they
culturally complex environment” (Develop- can develop their cross-cultural competence
mental Levels for Language, Region and Cul- and become leaders capable of supporting mis-
ture Learning in the US Air Force, 2011). In sions anywhere in the world (86th Airlift Wing
2010, the AFCLC developed a three-tier Public Affairs, 2018).
objective for language, regional expertise, and Table 13.1 summarizes some of the culture-
culture development. The system was evalu- related training activities in which various US
ated and results presented in a five-year impact DoD organizations and affiliates engage.
report showing it has had success in preparing These activities are not identifying the myriad
Airmen with general knowledge and skills, but of training products or toolkits they are
less success in modifying attitudes and demon- adopting, but instead the general thematic pro-
strating ability to apply the culture-general gram addressed, which also has a research
training to specific contexts (http://culture.af.mil/ component associated with it. Glazer, Hame-
assets/impact_report_2015.pdf). The AFCLC, dani et al. (2014) present a table detailing other
in conjunction with Air University, continues research activities around culture and regional
to offer symposia to exchange ideas and expertise that might also inform culture or
programs instructors, researchers, and admin- training for cross-cultural competence.
istrators throughout the DoD, but primarily
Air Force. The most recent Air University
Evaluating Cross-Cultural Competence
Language, Regional Expertise, & Culture
at the Individual Unit of Analysis
Symposium was held in March 2019 at Max-
well Air Force Base, AL (www.airuniversity.af Sutton and Gundling (2005) presented a paper
.edu/AFCLC/Display/Article/1831235/air-uni that introduced the GlobeSmart Commander
versity-and-afclc-hosted-the-fourth-annual-au- online training tool. Additional work by Mat-
lrec-symposium/). sumoto, LeRoux, and Schaab (in review)
Researchers at the Air Force Research reported that even cross-cultural competence-
Laboratory are also leading culture research related training for one hour had some imme-
efforts. AFRL focuses on teamwork and diate gains on soldiers’ openness and training
organizational effectiveness, and its staff often for two hours or more helped former military
work together with researchers at the Naval personnel increase in their emotional sensitiv-
Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division ity and gain some knowledge. The assessments
(NAWCTSD). Further, the AFRL works with were made immediately after the training,
AFCLC on topics such as needs assessment for which is a limitation of this research. Whether
training and education and intend to identify these changes affected on-the-job performance
specific performance criteria related to culture (i.e., information on transfer of training is
training. AFCLC is also responsible for lan- lacking) is not known. The two training
guage, region, and culture research as it samples, one hour versus the two-plus hour,
applies to education and training. In particu- were not the same (active duty in the former
lar, it identifies cross-cultural competencies case and former military personnel in the
and assesses and validates cross-cultural latter case).

458 sharon glazer
Table 13.1 Culture-related training and education programs in the US DoD and affiliated organizations
Programs Agencies
Culture and diversity training & 361 Interactive
education Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute (DEOMI)
Defense Language Institute (DLI)
Center for Advanced Study of Language (CASL)
The Navy Center for Language, Regional Expertise, and
Culture (CLREC)
The Army’s Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC)
Curricula development The Air Force Culture and Language Center (AFCLC)
CASL
Defense Intelligence Agency
DLI
Curriculum comparison eCrossCulture Corp.
Distributed learning AFCLC
Immersive learning DLI
Army’s Simulation and Training Technology Center
Knowledge generation and skill- National Defense University
building
Social task analysis Lockheed Martin
Social networking MITRE
Validation of training/education AFCLC
programs & tools Army Research Institute (ARI)
Cross-cultural competence learning AFCLC
recommendations Marine Corps’ Center for Advanced Operational Culture
Learning (CAOCL)
Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division
(NAWCTSD)
Personnel Decisions Research Institutes (PDRI)
Conceptual and operational AFCLC
definitions ARI
Cross-cultural adaptation/Cultural AFRL
adaptability
Cultural effectiveness Applied Research Associates (ARA)
Global Cognition
Defining cross-cultural competence AFCLC
performance measures ARI
Developing markers for competencies AFCLC
ARI
CASL
PDRI
NAWCTSD
Developmental model of cross- 361 Interactive
cultural competence ARI
Cognitive Performance Group (CPG)
DEOMI

Following the work of Sutton and Gundling This type of study was not sufficiently convin-
(2005), there was little emphasis on culture in cing that each of these factors is important for
military research until 2007, when military predicting cross-cultural competence. Ross’s
departments were working hard to increase approach is, in some ways, self-fulfilling. For
culture knowledge and awareness among mili- example, Ross concluded that tolerance for
tary personnel. It became clear that investiga- ambiguity would be a predictor of someone
tion of aspects of cross-cultural competence with high levels of cross-cultural competence,
related to developing better soldiers was but in Glazer et al. (2011), SMEs did not raise
required. Efforts to conceptualize, operational- tolerance for ambiguity as an important factor.
ize, and train on cross-cultural competence Future research could validate the relevance
were led by program managers who did not of these variables through critical incident stud-
have regional expertise or educational back- ies in which non-experts and non-academics of
grounds on the effects of culture on human cross-cultural competence sort the incidents
affect (including values, emotions, and atti- into piles and label and define those groupings
tudes), behavior, and cognition and social or (Flanagan, 1954). In this way, the critical
group processes. Fortunately, many of the pro- factors that are consistently found to represent
gram managers hired anthropologists or psych- a construct would be considered most closely
ologists to aid in their personnel development representative of the intended criterion. If tol-
efforts. The social scientists were recruited to erance for ambiguity was implicit in the stories
study topics relevant for inclusion in culture or interviewees’ shared, then with lay people
cross-cultural education and training materials. sorting critical incidents, we would expect them
However, AFCLC, CAOCL, and the Army’s to make this concept explicit.
TCC developed cross-cultural competence cur- Selmeski (2009) wrote a Quality Enhance-
ricula (e.g., Gabrenya et al., 2013) before iden- ment Program (QEP), a curriculum for improv-
tifying who would need the training, the types ing Airmen’s cross-cultural competence, and
of job activities that require some levels of Rentsch, Mot, and Abbe (2009), in an ARI-
cross-cultural competence and a framework commissioned study, utilized SME interviews
for building a curriculum. to identify the core content and structure of a
The Defense Equal Opportunity Manage- mental model for cultural understanding. Like
ment Institute (DEOMI) commissioned a study the DEOMI-commissioned study (Ross, 2008),
to operationalize cross-cultural competence the ARI study sample sizes were quite small. In
(Ross, 2008). Through interviews, Ross (2008) the validation portion of the ARI study,
analyzed critical incidents from five military twenty-seven soldiers sorted forty items into
SMEs’ experiences and identified eleven common themes, but two-thirds of the soldiers
personality or individual difference factors con- were inconsistent in their assignment of core
sidered important elements of competence. themes. Thus, results of the validation work
These included: empathy, experience, flexibil- must be interpreted with caution.
ity, interpersonal skills, mental models, Another study commissioned by AFCLC
meta-cognition/self-monitoring, willingness to and conducted by Hardison and team (2009)
engage/openness to experience, tolerance for at RAND Corporation, was focused on
ambiguity, relationship building ability, self- developing and validating a taxonomy of
efficacy, and self-regulation. She then gave nine cross-cultural performance indicators (i.e.,
other military SMEs the incidents to confirm behaviors) by means of a thorough review of
if she had interpreted the incidents correctly. culture-related performance literature. They

460 sharon glazer
identified cross-cultural behaviors that are outcomes and job performance on costs asso-
indicative of cross-cultural competence. They ciated with not having the training. Further-
categorized the fourteen behaviors as either more, research is needed to assess transfer of
enabling behaviors or goal-oriented behaviors. training to on-the-job performance and longi-
Enabling behaviors included foreign language tudinally compare costs and benefits associ-
skills; verbal and nonverbal communication; ated with training or no training in order to
applying appropriate social etiquette; man- obtain evidence on the return on investment.
aging stress in an unfamiliar cultural setting; By 2011 to 2013, more literature reviews of a
changing behavior to fit cultural context; similar nature were being produced, but this
gathering and interpreting observed informa- time, university academics were involved.
tion; applying regional knowledge; self- Their works (e.g., Gabrenya et al., 2013;
initiated learning; and respecting cultural dif- Glazer et al., 2011; Glazer, Hamedani et al.,
ferences. Goal-oriented behaviors (linked to 2014; Reinhart et al., 2011) reiterated much of
specific mission-related activities) included what had been presented by the social scien-
establishing authority; influencing others; tists working in the DoD.
negotiating with others; establishing credibil- Furthermore, by 2013, US Congress called
ity, trust, and respect; and resolving conflict. into question TRADOC’s Human Terrain
Hardison et al. (2009) then developed a System (HTS) program, which put social sci-
survey that more than 6,000 airmen com- entists on the ground with military personnel
pleted. Respondents’ were tasked with rating in order to understand the people’s culture
the importance of these behaviors in relation (Fallon, 2014). Its value was questioned
to their jobs. Analyses took into account rank because of the lives lost, the financial costs
and exposure to people from different nations incurred, and the perceived minimal return
(vis-à-vis deployments). Their study was a first on investment. One of the program’s draw-
step at validating the relevance of cross- backs was mixing nonmilitary civilian social
cultural behaviors in relation to jobs. This scientists with military personnel; ironically,
study’s strengths include the systematic their cultures often clashed. By 2014, the pro-
approach to validate the importance of the gram was closed, but Connable (2018) urges
cross-cultural behaviors and the use of a very the military to evaluate the efficacy of the
large sample that strengthens statistical confi- program so that if it were to be reinstated,
dence in findings. However, missing from the leaders know why they are implementing it
assessment is the frequency with which the and how to implement it. Still, also in 2013,
behaviors need to be engaged. The authors Rotkoff (2013) shared how the University of
also examined the effectiveness of the training Foreign Military and Cultural Studies
the airmen received for addressing the fourteen (UFMCS) has been educating and training
behaviors and found that the importance and tomorrow’s leaders for engaging with people
training needs differ by grade. Nonetheless, in other cultures. Some of the lessons included
they argued for more research on training, developing a nuanced understanding of cul-
developing and validating standards of per- tural differences, deciphering culturally bound
formance, and sequencing training. meanings of actions, honing alternative
Hardison et al. (2009) also discussed a need perspective-taking and challenging one’s own
for developing evaluation tools that would perspectives, delving deeper to understand
link cross-cultural behaviors to performance. values and beliefs in order to understand
They suggested linking metrics on training behaviors, practices, and other artifacts, and

practicing cultural analysis. The value of this task that heavily emphasized socio-cultural
development learning process was based on best factors.
practices, but has not been commissioned for To evaluate training transfer, one week after
systematic evaluation of its predictive utility. participating in one of the eight training work-
However, as a secondary opportunity shops (each time the training was delivered by
derived from a cultural priming study, Glazer, the same presenter), participants received an
Saner, Paletz et al. (2014) presented findings email with a link to an online simulated work
on study participants’ performance on an task where they had to write a cultural analysis
online simulated cultural analytic work task, of approximately 400 words on a fictitious
seven to ten days after having participated (or situation occurring in another country. Com-
not) in a one-day training for cross-cultural paring those who were trained (primed or not
competence program. In this study, sixty US primed) to those who did not participate in
DoD professionals who volunteered to partici- training at all (some of whom were primed
pate in a 7–8 hour training for cross-cultural and others not primed), trained participants
competence program in exchange for profes- performed better on the analytic task that
sional development credit, also completed an was administered approximately one week
online simulated work task. The training con- after training. More specifically, the group that
tent incorporated the development stages and received training performed better than the no
content that Rotkoff (2013) addressed.4 The training group in terms of providing more
training was employed in order to get study culture-relevant words (e.g., identity-related
participants engaged in an activity to evaluate concepts and national pride) in their written
an analytic scenario under a prime or no prime analysis of the scenario. Although not for-
condition. Because there was no way to know mally commissioned, this study is the first
what participants knew in terms of culture- and only one to date that examined US DoD
general knowledge, it was important to train professionals’ performance post-training for
some participants on the concepts to make cross-cultural competence and the findings
sure that they knew them before engaging in are promising. Still, on the basis of participant
a study that primes them on some of the sub- feedback and research observations, Glazer,
ject content. Saner, Paletz et al. (2014) believe that with
The training workshop introduced partici- more training (of approximately two to three
pants to basic concepts of culture from a days), performance on the cultural analytic
cross-cultural psychology perspective and task would be even better.
involved didactic and experiential learning In another study, Kobus and Viklund (2013)
exercises (e.g., detecting possible cultural tested an instrument for assessing changes in
factors from newspaper articles). Training decision-making skills. Although socio-
content emphasized relationship structures cultural factors were not the major foci of the
as an important component of identifying scenario-based training, the technology-based
cultural factors influencing situations. These training program was expected to incorporate
were also the factors that were primed. Thus, skills and knowledge that would strengthen the
the training program embedded learning of
the primed materials. Another thirty-one
4
Though Glazer, Saner, Pavisic, and Barnes’s (2014)
study participants, who could not attend
study was officially documented in 2014, the training
the training, were offered and volunteered was developed at least four years before Rotkoff’s
to participate in analyzing the analytic work (2013) publication.

462 sharon glazer
quality of infantrymen’s decision-making different nations on a computer simulated

skills, including culture-related knowledge role-play game that required players to plan
and skills. Using a pre- and post-training study on allocating resources, to be aware of their
design, Kobus and Viklund found that their situation, communicate, and coordinate their
twenty-one subjects’ decision-making skills activities. Data from fifty-six 4-person teams
improved in one-third of the twenty-seven found the opposite to be true. Although not
decision themes, with greatest improvements raised as potential drawbacks to the study, it
in decisions related to “intra-squad communi- is important to recognize that this was a brief
cation, entering and clearing a building, and team simulation game vs. a long-term real-
detaining personnel” (p. 82). However, world teamwork situation and thus lacked
improvements were also made on tactical ecological validity. These results suggested that
questioning, recognizing or dealing with suspi- a team composed of people who bring in differ-
cious behavior, detaining a villager, cultural ent knowledge and experiences could increase
awareness/sensitivity, and integrating inter- the team’s group efficacy in accomplishing
preter into mission. In short, coupled with tasks. Each person with a unique perspective
realistic scenarios of the kinds of operations on a task could increase team members’ views
infantrymen would be working on, social that the team will accomplish the task.
learning and conditioning (see Morris et al., The complexity and approach to Warren
2014) appear to support the development of and Sutton’s (2008) research design has impli-
intercultural decision-making skills. Indeed, cations for understanding the impact of cross-
the Defense Intelligence Agency is looking into cultural competence on team interactions.
virtual reality culture and language training to More research like this should be conducted
develop intercultural decision-making skills in on a longer-term basis and on integrating
a simulated high-stakes environment real-world issues to determine how different
(Pomerleau, 2018). teams might perform on a task throughout
the development of a team. Further, the extent
to which the multinational teams were com-
Evaluating Cross-Cultural Competence
posed of similar people with similar back-
at the Team Unit of Analysis
grounds in training and work experience, as
One of the earliest works linking culture to the well as the rankings of the people in the teams
development of multinational teams in the mili- was not taken into consideration, yet are
tary was by Sutton and Pierce (2003). They important factors in many present-day teams.
examined the extent to which cultural cognitive Finally, on the point of team or group efficacy,
dimensions impact team performance and it is important to observe a new trend in mili-
developed behavioral operational definitions tary culture knowledge. Taliaferro et al. (2014)
for the intersection between cultural cognition purport that today’s military teams need a
and teamwork performance functions. Their cross-cultural expert as a resource for explain-
framework was validated on the basis of seven- ing individuals’ interactions, behaviors, and
teen SME interviews and three independent intentions in various culturally complex situ-
raters who assessed interviewees’ critical inci- ations. The consultant, however, should pref-
dents. In another study Warren and Sutton erably be a military professional so that the
(2008) hypothesized that teams composed of only cultural adjustments are with the other
members from the same nation would perform military forces and not within the same mili-
better than teams composed of people from tary unit.

which cross-cultural competence components

Future Directions
predict performance outcomes). Unfortu-
Research activities associated with culture- nately, since 2015, the military has reverted
related training programs across some DoD to pre-2003 activities; funding is no longer
organizations is limited by minimal empirical supporting systematic culture-related research
rigor (e.g., see contents of Schmorrow and and published works and reports on cross-
Nicholson’s, 2013 edited volume on cross- cultural competence amongst personnel in the
cultural activities in the military). Part of the Department of Defense has dwindled to nearly
problem stems from “time” being a scarce non-existent. Instead, there are pamphlets and
resource for the military (MacMillan et al., factbooks to help prepare deployed personnel.
2013). The US military operates with urgent On occasion there are intercultural inter-
responsiveness to events and on the topic of actional training experiences too (e.g., Schroe-
cross-cultural preparation they have not yet der, 2018; Winkler & Kerr, 2018), though no
developed a culture of proactive preparation longer required in the Army (Myers, 2018),
in anticipation of events, such as training for and they are not systematically evaluated.
cross-cultural competence during basic There is, however, anecdotal evidence that
training with subsequent reinforcements. With the 3,700 participants in a 13-country NATO
exception of the few articles on developing exercise to understand the way people from
training for cross-cultural competence in the different cultures think, reaped performance
US DoD, to date there are no other published benefits from their multicultural human inter-
and public DoD or DoD-commissioned actions (Schroeder, 2018). Anecdotally, those
empirical papers on cross-cultural competence who experienced the intercultural interactions
that evidence the framework’s utility, the developed a better understanding for why
utility of training for cross-cultural compe- openness and flexibility is necessary, and more
tence, or the predictive validity of cross- important than language, for working with
cultural competence training on performance allies in an international environment (Schroe-
(e.g., Gabrenya, 2018; McCloskey et al., der, 2018). A recent basic empirical study
2010). One exception is an incidental using a random sample of adults and univer-
empirical study on the utility of a one-day sity students showed that multicultural expos-
training for cross-cultural competence on US ure (as one might have by watching a video or
DoD professionals’ performance on an ana- reading a book) will not be as effective in
lytic scenario. promoting creativity or lead to cognitive flexi-
More research linking cross-cultural compe- bility, as multicultural human interactions
tence variables and relevant performance indi- (Aytug et al., 2018). Furthermore, Sassenrath
cators must be explored. Although the cross- et al.’s (2016) hypothesis about the pitfalls of
cultural competence framework has empiric- perspective-taking need further exploration
ally guided curricula development, measures too. Aytug et al.’s (2018) work could be used
of the various components of the framework as a helpful approach for evaluating the
were never evaluated (1) to determine the effectiveness of the NATO exercise and the,
extent to which they converge or diverge, (2) otherwise touted as highly successful,
to assess the extent to which they accurately Afghanistan-Pakistan (AFPAK) Hands pro-
represent the cross-cultural competence com- gram in which military personnel were
ponents they are meant to portray, and (3) to immersed within the cultures and languages
test their predictive validity (i.e., the extent to of the societies (Winkler & Kerr, 2018).

464 sharon glazer
Likewise, Sassenrath et al.’s assertions could Language, Culture, and Environment). D-

be tested with members of the NATO forces. PLACE is pulling the corpus of information
about cultures and languages around the
world and bringing the information into one
Curricula Development
space and will serve as a tool for individuals to
Although curricula developers at the Culture learn about others’ cultural practices (https://
Centers of Excellence typically have the back- d-place.org/home).
ground expertise to develop curricula for cul- More financial resources need to be devoted
ture education and training, the pressure to to developing practices for using tools such as
produce materials too quickly does not permit D-PLACE and helping people develop
them to take full advantage of the science base regional expertise and cross-cultural compe-
that already exists and to plan out a solid tence in order to mitigate the possibility of
design that can be evaluated. The AFCLC’s committing major blunders in intercultural
2018 symposium, for example, had no empir- interactions. However, a major challenge
ical validation studies about the efficacy of today is maintaining the sense of urgency for
culture, regional expertise, and language a DoD-wide regional expertise and culture
training and learning programs. Currently, research strategic plan. The US DoD has
advances are made on the basis of systematic, decreased funding and efforts into studying
but anecdotal, data gathered. The DoD should cross-cultural competence development. One
be able to develop better training and educa- of the most difficult obstacles researchers faced
tion curricula than it already does by finan- in attempts to fulfill the 2011–2016 Strategic
cially supporting efforts to apply the existing plan for language skills, regional expertise, and
basic research toward achieving cultural cultural capabilities (Department of Defense,
training and education objectives for the mili- 2011) has been identifying relevant proxies for
tary. Recent findings from Aytug et al. (2018) performance criteria (Brugman, Reinhart,
suggest incorporating opportunities for mili- Feinberg, Glazer, Falk, & Castle, 2010).
tary personnel to interact with people from Another challenge to overcome is creating a
different cultural backgrounds in order to policy that pleases each of the branches of
stimulate flexible thinking and creativity. service and works with their diverse objectives
The aforementioned example is not the only and goals (Rotkoff, 2013; Taliaferro et al.,
place in which basic and long-term research is 2014). Since Bhawuk’s (1998), the literature
imperative for the development of training and has been suggesting that training for cross-
education technology. The point is that basic cultural competence may be more useful than
social science research would better inform the specific language or culture training because it
types of technology solutions developed. With- holds value for any deployment context (How-
out a proper foundational assessment, tech- croft, 2013) and yet it is possible that it would
nologies continue to be developed that be sufficient for now that only some key
temporarily cover up the source of the prob- members of a team are cross-culturally compe-
lem, but do not rectify it (Fallon, 2014). One tent (Fallon, 2014). The framework set out for
example of a new database serving as a clear- regional expertise and culture research, DoD
inghouse of information about over 1,400 Regional and Cultural Capabilities: The Way
human societies (i.e., a locality where people Ahead (Department of Defense, 2007a),
live and share language and cultural identity) conveys this notion by emphasizing the need
is called D-PLACE (Database of Places, for a culture-general focus. Although most of

the services appear to focus on culture-specific there is a trickling of validation studies (Gab-
training, the DoD framework outlines the uni- renya, 2018; Glazer, Saner, Paletz et al., 2014;
versal agenda for the community, and thus is Hardison et al., 2009; Kobus & Viklund,
able to provide guidance to all of the services, 2013; Rentsch et al., 2009; Ross, 2008; Warren
even with their distinct missions. & Sutton, 2005), more is needed. MacMillan,
From 2007 to 2014, there was a fairly active Freeman, Zacharias, Bullock, and Pfautz
body of basic and applied research activities (2010) stated that models designed for training
throughout the DoD, University Affiliated may be inadequate in that they focus too little
Research Centers (UARCs), Federally on issues related to validation, data collection,
Funded Research and Development Centers and theory development. First, performance
(FFRDCs), and consulting firms (e.g., Booz indicators must be determined in relation to
Allen and Hamilton or HumRRO). CAOCL job and rank. Further, as Winslow et al.
hosts a bibliography of some of the open- (2004) point out, studies must be thoughtful
access studies and documentation (Gallus about participants’ rank and point in career. In
et al., 2014). However, from 2015 through pre- particular, they note that cross-cultural com-
sent day, funding and focus on culture-general petence is not necessarily important to develop
research and training has declined consider- for people who are not ranked high enough to
ably and, in the case of the Army, is no longer have to interact with people from different
required (Myers, 2018). It is possible that cultures. Second, what are the performance
funding decreased substantially because it criteria against which cross-cultural factors,
was redirected to cross-cultural competence including declarative and procedural know-
at the expense of preparing troops to speak ledge, skills, abilities, attitudes, and individual
the language of the society in which they were differences (including personality), need to be
being deployed. For example, Mason (2017) validated? Once performance indicators are
asserted that unlike the War in Vietnam for clearly identified training can be shaped
which 45,000 deployed US military personnel toward the performance criteria.
were trained to speak Vietnamese, few US Third, validation studies should be carried
military personnel were trained to speak out on components of the cross-cultural com-
Pashto or Arabic, as the military opted to rely petence framework. The best validation
on interpreters. Mason contends that lack of approach could employ confirmatory factor
language training was partially responsible for analytic techniques with a sample size of more
the inability for the USA to successfully fulfill than 700 or more. Fourth, it is vital to conduct
missions in Iraq and Afghanistan. a discriminant analytic validation study, which
demonstrates that the variables that are sup-
posedly making up cross-cultural competence
Validating Cross-Cultural Competence
are distinct from each other in order to ensure
Training
the military has the most parsimonious
There is a clear need to move forward from approach to assessing levels of cross-cultural
trying to understand what makes up cross- competence. Too many variables in a frame-
cultural competence to testing if what we think work would nullify the meaningfulness of the
makes up cross-cultural competence really results, as it would be difficult to determine
does (i.e., validation studies) and determining which of the constructs for any given individ-
if the training and education efforts pay off ual is most powerfully influencing or impeding
(i.e., assessing return on investment). Although development of cross-cultural competence.

466 sharon glazer
Fifth, after measurements of the relevant have yet to be validated and such predictive
cross-cultural competence and performance validation is required to determine the return
constructs are determined and tested, it would on investment, as identified through mission
be necessary to conduct concurrent and pre- success (Glazer, Hamedani et al., 2014). How-
dictive validity studies to demonstrate the rela- ever, while a great deal of scientific work goes
tionship between the cross-cultural into informing and developing products – for
competence components and the performance example, training curricula content and pro-
measures. Note, that military personnel of dif- cedures, as well as simulations (Blascovich &
ferent ranks and job duties will require differ- Hartel, 2008) – there is very little basic or
ent kinds of cross-cultural competence applied research on the role of socio-cultural
assessments in relation to performance (Army factors (e.g., regional knowledge and expert-
Culture and Foreign, 2009; Hardison et al., ise) on behaviors and performance outcomes
2009). For example, Privates who prepare of individuals, leadership, and teams. It is not
food on base might only need to be assessed enough to gain culture and regional expertise
on declarative knowledge if preparing food for through training and education programs; it is
prisoners too; Privates who are sent into for- essential to conduct research on their roles and
eign villages would need to be assessed on implications for work processes and oper-
declarative and procedural knowledge (i.e., ational outcomes. Without such research there
knowing the “what” and the “how” of is only minimal trust in the usefulness and
engaging with locals); and Officers communi- importance of regional expertise and culture
cating with locals needs to be evaluated on training and education for the forces (Gelfand,
declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, 2008). The challenge associated with studying
and actual demonstration of negotiation skills. cultural aspects is that they are dynamic and
Only after the above types of studies should abstract. Empirical research must investigate a
training and education content and approach suitable way to measure cultural performance
be modified. Further, training and education (i.e., the application of cultural knowledge
needs should be met by linking the develop- derived from training and education); only
mental cross-cultural competence stage with then can validation studies of cultural training
relevant job duties. Failing to implement be accomplished.
cross-cultural competence on the basis of
needs makes it impossible to assess the effect-
Regional Expertise
iveness of the training and deliver an estimate
on the return on investment. Research on defining regional expertise is
Given these needs, it would appear as beginning to take shape. The term expertise
though a long and challenging road is ahead. implies proficiency, but there is a need to iden-
Due to funding restrictions, despite a number tify the expertise or proficiency required for
of Culture Centers of Excellence having data specific tasks, and for the types of procedural
and open billets, there is no financial support and declarative knowledge, as well as skills
to hire or commission others to perform the and abilities, that can be used as proxies for
requisite statistical analyses. task-specific regional proficiency. Currently,
regional expertise cannot be measured, so cur-
Linking Cross-Cultural Competence to Mission rent efforts in training individuals to be region-
Effectiveness. The efficacy of cross-cultural ally proficient are not grounded in clear
competence training on performance criteria learning objectives. Both PDRI and CASL

researchers developed frameworks and meas- training be culture-specific, region focused,

ures of regional proficiency (Maloney & or culture-general? The second goal was to
Bloomfield, 2012; Wisecarver, Ferro, Foldes, question whether culture training was neces-
Adis, Hope, & Hill, 2012), in part, derived sary at all or if it is sufficient for a deployed
from qualitative data ascertained from For- military unit to have a culture expert on its
eign Area Officers (Reinhart et al., 2011). team? The answers to both questions are not
Future research should focus on assessment provided here because the ultimate obstacle
measures of regional expertise in order to set is finding funding sources to support training
the stage for learning requirements. Some ini- for cross-cultural competence validation
tial validation work of a measurement for research.
regional proficiency has come out of CASL The case for training for cross-cultural com-
(e.g., Paletz, Hughes, & Brugman, 2014; petence has been presented and reinforced from
Paletz, Hughes, Sumer, Brugman, & Bunting, 2003 to 2015 in several publications. Simultan-
2018). eously, military personnel and researchers have
been calling for research to determine the effi-
cacy of training. It is unclear how training can
Teams
improve without empirical evidence. It is an
Multinational coalitions are increasingly used astonishing reality that a potential solution (in
for today’s military operations (e.g., Schroe- the case of this chapter’s topic, training for
der, 2018). An area ripe for empirical inquiry is cross-cultural competence) to impoverished
team cohesion and team efficacy (Glazer et al., cross-cultural competence is training on the
2014). In particular, multinational transitional basis of anecdotal best practices, even though
teams may require a cadre of military profes- for the last decade some of those practices have
sions with high levels of cross-cultural compe- been admonished with disdain (Fallon, 2014).
tence, whereas long-term teams may benefit Indeed, it is no longer required in the Army
from team members of varying cross-cultural (Myers, 2018). Perhaps Howcroft’s (2013)
competence levels and problem-focused short- insights from the USA’s foreign partners’ obser-
term teams might require only one or two vations that Americans oversimplify and take
teammates with high levels of cross-cultural reactive vs. proactive approaches to preparing
competence. Thus, it would be particularly DoD personnel will resonate with US military
interesting to study the composition of differ- leadership to influence a change of heart in the
ent kinds of multinational military teams, importance of training effectiveness research.
composed of varying qualitative levels and After all, without the research there is no solid
quantities of cross-culturally competent foundation from which to discuss training pro-
contributors. gram utility (Gabrenya, 2018; Gelfand, 2008;
Howcroft, 2013).
Conclusion
This chapter focused on training for cross- References
cultural competence efforts in the US mili- 86th Airlift Wing Public Affairs (2018, April 12).
tary. Two primary goals were presented. The An opportunity for multilingual Airmen.
first goal was to elucidate the struggle mili- Retrieved July 9, 2018. www.af.mil/News/
tary leadership has in determining the depth Article-Display/Article/1491589/an-opportunity-
and extent of culture training. Should for-multilingual-airmen/

468 sharon glazer
361 Interactive (n.d.). Retrieved August 17, 2011, and application to US military operational
from www.361interactive.com/ readiness. College Park, MD: University of
Abbe, A., Gulick, L. M. V., & Herman, J. L. (2007). Maryland Center for Advanced Study of
Cross-cultural competence in Army leaders: Language.
A conceptual and empirical foundation (ARI Center for Information Warfare Training Public
Study Report 2008–01). Arlington, VA: US Affairs (2017, Feb.). New CLREC app offers
Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and culture, language tips. Retrieved, July 9, 2018,
Social Sciences. from www.militaryspot.com/news/new-clrec-
Aytug, Z. G., Rua, T., Brazeal, D. V., Almaraz, J. app-offers-culture-language-tips
A., & González, C. B. (2018). A socio-cultural Chief of Naval Operations (2008, Jan.). US Naval
approach to multicultural experience: Why Language Skills, Regional Expertise and Cultural
interactions matter for creative thinking but Awareness Strategy. Retrieved November 9,
exposures don’t. International Journal of 2011 from, www.navy.mil/maritime/Signed_
Intercultural Relations, 64, 29–42. Navy_LREC%20Strategy.pdf
Bennett, J. M., & Bennett, M. J. (2004). Developing Connable, B., Major. (2018). Human Terrain
intercultural sensitivity: An integrative approach Systems is dead, long live . . . what? Building and
to global and domestic diversity. In D. Landis, J. sustaining military cultural competence in the
Bennett, & M. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of aftermath of the Human Terrain System.
intercultural training (3rd ed., pp. 147–165). Military Review, Jan.–Feb., 25–33. Retrieved
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. July 9, 2018 from www.armyupress.army.mil/
Bhawuk, D. P. (1998). The role of culture theory in Journals/Military-Review/English-
cross cultural training: A multi method study of Edition-Archives/January-February-2018/
culture specific, culture general, and culture Human-Terrain-System-is-Dead-Long-Live-
theory-based assimilators. Journal of Cross- What/
Cultural Psychology, 29, 630–655. Cushner, K. (1989). Assessing the impact of a
Blascovich, J. J., & Hartel, C. R. (2008). culture-general assimilator. International Journal
Intercultural competence. In J. J. Blascovich & of Intercultural Relations, 13, 125–146.
C. R. Hartel (Eds.), Human behavior in military Dansby, M. R., & Landis, D. (1996). Intercultural
contexts (pp. 20–28). Washington, DC: National training in the United States military. In D.
Academy of Sciences. Retrieved November 8, Landis & R. S. Bhagat (Eds.), Handbook of
2011, from www.nap.edu/catalog/12023.html intercultural training (2nd ed., pp. 203–215).
Briscoe, J., & Hall, D. (1999). Grooming and Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
picking leaders using competency frameworks: Day, H. R. (1983). Race relations training in the US
Do they work? An alternative approach and new military. In D. Landis & R. W. Brislin, (Eds.),
guidelines for practice. Organizational Handbook of intercultural training (Volume 2):
Dynamics, 28, 37–52. Issues in training methodology (pp. 241–289).
Brislin, R. W. (1986). A culture general assimilator: New York, NY: Pergamon Press.
Preparation for various types of sojourners. Defense Foreign Language Steering Committee
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, (2005, Jan.). Defense language transformation
10, 215–234. roadmap. Retrieved May 2011 from
Brislin, R. W. (1970, Nov.). The content and www.defense.gov/news/Mar2005/
evaluation of cross-cultural training programs. d20050330roadmap.pdf
Arlington, VA: Institute for Defense Analyses Department of Defense (2007a, Oct.). DoD
Science and Technology Division. Paper P-671. regional and cultural capabilities: The way
Brugman, C., Reinhart, G., Feinberg, E., Glazer, S., ahead (OMB No. 0704-0188). Retrieved
Falk, M., & Castle, S. (2010, Sept.). Cross- May 2011 from http://dodreports.com/pdf/
cultural and diversity training: A literature review ada488851.pdf

Department of Defense (2007b, June). DoD Gabrenya, W. K., Jr. (2018). Cross-cultural
Instruction Number 5160.70 Subject: competence to cultural intelligence: Measuring
Management of DoD Language and Regional that certain global something. Part 三 [3]: What
Proficiency Capabilities. Retrieved from www have we done to deserve the Cultural Intelligence
.dtic.mil/whs/directives/corres/pdf/516070p.pdf Scale? In D. Thomas (Chair), Cross-cultural
Department of Defense (2011, Feb.). Strategic plan competence to cultural intelligence: Measuring
for language skills, regional expertise, and that certain global something. Symposium
cultural capabilities: 2011–2016. Retrieved presented at the 24th International Congress of
October 18, 2011, from http://prhome.defense the International Association for Cross-Cultural
.gov/READINESS/DLO/files/STRAT% Psychology, Guelph, Canada.
20PLAN.pdf Gabrenya, W. K., Jr., Griffith, R. L., Moukarzel,
Dinges, N. (1983). Intercultural competence. In D. R. G., Pomerance, M. H., & Reid, P. (2013).
Landis & R. W. Brislin (Eds.). Handbook of Theoretical and practical advances in the
intercultural training, Volume 1: Issues in theory assessment of cross-cultural competence. In D.
and design (pp. 176–202). New York, NY: D. Schmorrow & D. M. Nicholson (Eds.),
Pergamon Press. Advances in design for cross-cultural activities.
Fallon, S. J. (2014, Feb. 23). Some recent Part I (pp. 317–331). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor &
approaches to cultural intelligence gathering. Francis.
Small Wars Journal. Retrieved January 5, Gallus, J. A., Gouge, M., Antolic, E., Fosher, K.,
2015, from http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/ Jasparro, V., Coleman, S. . . . Klafehn, J. L.
some-recent-approaches-to-cultural-intelligence- (2014). Cross-cultural competence in the
gathering Department of Defense: An annotated
Fiedler, F. E., Mitchell, T., & Triandis, H. C. bibliography. (Special Report 71). Fort Belvoir,
(1971). The culture assimilator: An approach to VA: US Army Research Institute for the
cross-cultural training. Journal of Applied Behavioral and Social Sciences. Retrieved July 8,
Psychology, 55(2), 95–102. 2018, from www.dtic.mil/get-tr-doc/pdf?AD=
Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The critical incident ADA599260.
technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51, 327–358. Gelfand, M. (2008). Culture and negotiations. In J.
Fosher, K., Mackenzie, L., Tarzi, E., Post, K., & J. Blascovich & C. R. Hartel (Eds.), Human
Gauldin, E. (2017). Culture general guidebook behavior in military contexts (pp. 85–105).
for the military professional. Quantico, VA: Washington, DC: National Academy of
Center for Advanced Operational Culture Sciences. Retrieved November 8, 2011, from
Learning. www.usmcu.edu/culture-general- www.nap.edu/catalog/12023.html.
guidebook. Glazer, S., Hamedani, N., Kayton, K., Maloney, S.,
Fowler, S. A., & Blohm, J. M. (2004). An analysis & Weinberg, A. (2011, November). Regional
of methods for intercultural training. In D. expertise and culture throughout the Department
Landis, J. M. Bennett, & M. J. Bennett (Eds.). of Defense: The Department of Defense research
Handbook of intercultural training (pp. 37–84). landscape. College Park, MD: University of
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Maryland Center for Advanced Study of
Friedland, L., Shaeff, G. W., & Turnley, J. G. Language.
(2007). Socio-cultural perspectives: A new Glazer, S., Hamedani, N., Kayton, K., & Weinberg,
intelligence paradigm. Report on the conference A. (2014). Culture research landscape
at The MITRE Corporation, McLean, Virginia, throughout the United States Department of
September 12, 2006 (MITRE Technical Report Defense. In L. T. B. Jackson, D. Meiring, F.
MTR70244). Retrieved July 5, 2011, from www J. R. Van de Vijver, E. S. Idemoudia, & W. K.
.mitre.org/work/tech_papers/tech_papers_08/ Gabrenya Jr. (Eds.), Toward sustainable
07_1220 /07_1220.pdf development through nurturing diversity: Selected

470 sharon glazer
papers from the Twenty-First International 9, 2011: www.fas.org/irp/doddir/army/

Congress of the International Association for fm3-07.pdf
Cross-Cultural Psychology. Melbourne, FL: Headquarters, Department of the Army (2009,
International Association for Cross-Cultural December). Army Culture and Foreign Language
Psychology. Retrieved July 12, 2014, from www Strategy. Valid as of March 23, 2011: https://atn
.iaccp.org/sites/default/files/stellenbosch_pdf/ .army.mil/dsp_template.aspx?dpID=2
Glazer.pdf Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences.
Glazer, S., Saner, L., Paletz, S., Pavisic, I., & Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Mathis, A. (2014, July). Attitudes and Howcroft, J. (2013, June 25). Things Americans
performance implications of cross-cultural need to know: How to be better partners. Small
training. In W. Gabrenya & C. Ward (co- Wars Journal. Retrieved January 5, 2015, from
Chairs). Expats, repats, students and the rest: http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/things-
Studies along the lifecycle of generation americans-need-to-know-how-to-be-better-
globalization. Symposium presented at the 22nd partners
International Congress of the International Howcroft, J. (2014, May 3). Things that partners
Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology, need to know about working with Americans.
Reims, France. Small Wars Journal. Retrieved January 4,
Glazer, S., Saner, L., Pavisic, I., & Barnes, M. 2015, from http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/
(2014). Cross-cultural training and education for things-that-partners-need-to-know-about-
detection. In J. D. Egeth, D. Schmorrow, & G. working-with-americans
L. Klein (Eds.), Sociocultural behavior Jex, S. M., & Bliese, P. D. (1999). Efficacy beliefs as
sensemaking: State-of-the-art in understanding a moderator of the impact of work-related
the operational environment. McLean, VA: stressors: A multilevel study. Journal of Applied
MITRE. Psychology, 84, 349–361.
Greene Sands, R. R. (2016). Assessing special Kirkpatrick, R. (1975). Evaluating training
operations forces language, region, and programs. Madison, WI: American Society for
culture needs: Leveraging digital and LRC Training and Development.
learning to reroute the “roadmap” from human Kobus, D. A., & Viklund, E. P. (2013). Assessing
terrain to human domain. Joint Special changes in decision making as a result of
Operations University Report 16–8. MacDill training. In D. D. Schmorrow & D. M.
Airforce Base, FL: The JSOU Press. Retrieved Nicholson (Eds.), Advances in design for cross-
July 9, 2018, from www.hsdl.org/?view&did= cultural activities. Part I (pp. 77–85). Boca
794565 Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis.
Hajjar, R. (2006). The Army’s new TRADOC Kruse, J. E., McKenna, S., Bleicher, N. B., Hawley,
culture center. Military Review, Nov.–Dec., T. E., Hyde, A., Rogers, S., & Fenner, L. M.
89–92. (2008, Nov.). Building language skills and
Hardison, C. H., Sims, C. S., Ali, F., Villamizar, A., cultural competencies in the military: DOD’s
Mundell, B. F., & Howe, P. (2009). Cross- challenge in today’s educational environment.
cultural skills for deployed Air Force personnel: Report for the US House of Representatives
Defining cross-cultural performance. (Air Force Committee on Armed Services, Subcommittee
Research Number: MG-811-AF). Santa on Oversight & Investigations. Retrieved May
Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. As of 2011, from http://prhome.defense.gov/
November 2, 2011: www.rand.org/pubs/ READINESS/ DLO/files/
monographs/MG811. LanguageCultureReportNov08_HASC.pdf
Headquarters, Department of the Army (2008, Kwantes, C. T., & Glazer, S. (2017). Culture,
October 6). Stability Operations (Publication organizations, and work: Clarifying concepts. In
Field Manual No. 3-07). Valid as of November S. Glazer & C. T. Kwantes (Series Eds.),

SpringerBriefs in culture, organizations, & work. .edu/sites/default/files/FS_81235_2012-08_

Cham, Switzerland: Springer. FINAL.pdf
Lacefield, M., Tarr, R., & Malone, N. (2013). Marine Corps Vision and Strategy 2025 (2008).
Instructional strategies for cross-cultural Retrieved May 2011, from www.marines.mil/
perceptual skills in military training. In D. D. news/publications/Documents/Vision%20Strat%
Schmorrow & D. M. Nicholson (Eds.), Advances 20lo%20res.pdf
in design for cross-cultural activities. Part I (pp. Mason. M. C. (2017). Strategic insights: Lost in
23–34). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis. translation. Strategic Studies Institute. Retrieved
Leung, A. K.-y., Lee, S., & Chiu, C.-y. (2013). July 8, 2018, from https://ssi.armywarcollege
Meta-knowledge of culture promotes cultural .edu/index.cfm/articles/Lost-In-Translation/
competence. Journal of Cross-Cultural 2017/08/17
Psychology, 44, 992–1006. Matsumoto, D., LeRoux, J., & Schaab, B. (in
Leung, K., & Bond, M. H. (2004). Social axioms: review). Evaluation of GlobeSmart Commander
A model for social beliefs in multicultural (GSC). Arlington, VA: US Army Research
perspective. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.
experimental social psychology (Vol. 36, McCloskey, M. J., Behymer, K. J., Papautsky, E.
pp. 119–197). San Diego, CA: Elsevier. L., Ross, K. G., & Abbe, A. (2010).
Littrell, L. N., & Salas, E. (2005). A review of cross- A developmental model of cross-cultural
cultural training: Best practices, guidelines, and competence at the tactical level. (Technical
research needs Human Resource Development Report No. 1278). Alexandria, VA: US Army
Review, 4, 3–5, 334. Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social
Mackenzie, L., Gauldin, E., & Tarzi, E. (2018). Sciences.
2018 military cross-cultural competence: An McFate, M. (2005) Anthropology and
annotated bibliography. Center for Advanced counterinsurgency: The strange story of their
Operational Learning, Quantico, VA. Retrieved curious relationship. Military Review, March–
May 9, 2019, from https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/ April, 24–38.
fulltext/u2/1059390.pdf Mendenhall, M., & Oddou, G. (1985). The
MacMillan, J., Freeman, J., Zacharias, G. L., dimensions of expatriate acculturation:
Bullock, B., & Pfautz, J. (2010, August). A review. Academy of Management, 10, 39–47.
Strategic roadmap for human social, cultural, and Mendenhall, M. E., Osland, J., Bird, A., Oddou, G.,
behavioral science and technology. Washington, & Maznevski, M. (2008). Global leadership:
DC: Aptima. Research, practice, and development. London,
MacMillan, J., Walker, A., Clarke, E., & Marc, Y. UK: Routledge.
(2013). Cultural awareness training or Marine Military Intelligence (2014, Jan.–Mar.). TRADOC
Corps Operations: The CAMO [Cultural Culture Center. Retrieved December 28, 2014,
Awareness for Marine Operations] Project. In D. from www.fas.org/irp/agency/army/mipb/2014_
D. Schmorrow & D. M. Nicholson (Eds.), 01.pdf
Advances in design for cross-cultural activities. Miyoshi Jager, S. (2007, Nov.). On the uses of
Part I (pp. 277–286). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & cultural knowledge. Valid as of November 9,
Francis. 2011: www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/
Maloney, S., & Bloomfield, A. (2012, Aug.). pdffiles/PUB817.pdf
Regional Proficiency Assessment Tool: Providing Morris, M. W., Savani, K., Mor, S., & Cho, J.
the capacity to characterize the RP of military (2014). When in Rome: Intercultural learning
personnel. (CASL Fact Research Fact Sheet). and implications for training. Research in
College Park, MD: Center for Advanced Study Organizational Behavior, 34, 189–215.
of Language. Contract No. TTO 81235. Myers, M. (2018, June 5). Good news, soldiers: The
Retrieved January 6, 2015, from www.casl.umd Army has slashed even more mandatory training

472 sharon glazer
requirements. Army Times. Retrieved July 10, Pool, R. (2011). Socio-cultural data to accomplish
2018, from www.armytimes.com/news/your- department of defense missions: Toward a unified
army/2018/06/05/good-news-soldiers-the-army- social framework. Washington, DC: The
has-slashed-even-more-mandatory-training- National Academies Press.
requirements/ Rasmussen, L. J., & Sieck, W. R. (2013).
Naval Aviation Enterprise (2006). Science and Metacognitive underpinnings of 3C
technology strategic plan. Retrieved from Office development. In D. Schmorrow & D. Nicholson
of Naval Research, Valid as of November 9, (Eds.), Advances in design for cross-cultural
2011, from www.navair.navy.mil/osbp /atc/ activities 1 (pp. 332–341). Boca Raton, FL:
presentation/NAE_S&T_Plan_final_wdistro.pdf Taylor & Francis.
Office of Naval Research (2011). Broad Agency Reinhart, G., Maloney, S., Brugman, C., Berens,
Announcement: Human Social Cultural and M., Bloomfield, A., Brecht, R., Falk, M.,
Behavioral Sciences (HSCB) Applied Research Feinberg, E., Golonka, E., Hefright, B.,
and Advanced Technology Development. ONR Karuzis, V., Morrison, M., Slater, R. O., &
BAA Announcement #ONRBAA11–014 Strong, R. (2011, Sept). Assessing regional
Office of Naval Research (2014). Broad Agency proficiency. College Park, MD: Center for
Announcement: Minerva Research Initiative. Advanced Study of Language. Contract No.
ONR BAA Announcement #14-013. Retrieved TTO 81234. Retrieved January 6, 2015, from
January 5, 2015, from www.onr.navy.mil/~/ www.casl.umd.edu/sites/default/files/download_
media/Files/Funding-Announcements/BAA/ 5.pdf
2014/14-013-FINAL.ashx Rentsch, J. R., Mot, I., & Abbe, A. (2009, June).
Office of the Secretary of Defense (2018). Minerva Identifying the core content and structure of a
Research Initiative. WHS-AD-FOA-18. schema for cultural understanding. Technical
Retrieved July 9, 2018, from www.grants.gov/ Report 1251 (Army Project Number
web/grants/view-opportunity.html?oppId= 622785A790). Arlington, VA: US Army
305546 Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social
Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Sciences.
Intelligence (2017, Feb. 14). Defense intelligence Ross, K. G. (2008, Spring). Toward an operational
foreign language and regional and culture definition of Cross-Cultural Competence from
capabilities. DoD Instruction 3300.07. Retrieved interview data. DEOMI Internal Report CCC-
July 9, 2018, from www.hsdl.org/?view&did= 08-1.
798958 Rotkoff, S. (2013, Nov. 7). Educating the force for
Paletz, S. B. F., Hughes, M. M., & Brugman, C. strategic land power. Small Wars Journal.
(2014). RPAT face validity report. College Park, Retrieved January 2, 2015, from http://
MD: University of Maryland Center for smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/educating-the-
Advanced Study of Language. force-for-strategic-land-power
Paletz, S. B. F., Hughes, M. M., Sumer, A., Salmoni, B. A., & Holmes-Eber, P. (2008).
Brugman, C. M., & Bunting, M. (2018). Operational culture for the warfighter: Principles
A preliminary validation of the Regional and applications. Quantico, VA: Marine Corps
Proficiency Assessment Tool (RPAT). Military University Press.
Psychology, 30, 528–546. Sassenrath, C., Hodges, S. D., & Pfattheicher, S.
Pomerleau, M. (2018, Dec. 27). How DIA can (2016). It’s all about the self: When perspective
recreate the stress of learning in a foreign taking backfires. Current Directions in
country. Retrieved May 9, 2019, from www Psychology, 25(6), 405–410. DOI: 10.1177/
.c4isrnet.com/it-networks/2018/12/27/how-dia- 0963721416659253
can-recreate-the-stress-of-learning-in-a-foreign- Schein, E. H. (1990). Organizational culture.
country/ American Psychologist, 45, 109–119.

Schmitt, E. (2004, Aug. 26). The reach of war: Abu Taliaferro, A., Hinkle, W. P., & Gallo, A. O. (2014,
Ghraib report; abuses at prison tied to officers in Nov. 26). Foreign culture and its effect on US
intelligence. The New York Times. Retrieved Department of Defense efforts to train and
July 8, 2018, from https://nyti.ms/2kZzgDJ advise foreign security forces. Small Wars
Schmorrow, D., & Nicholson, D. (Eds.) (2013). Journal. Retrieved December 29, 2014, from
Advances in design for cross-cultural activities 1 http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/foreign-
Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis. culture-and-its-effect-on-us-department-of-
Schroeder, B. (2018, May 8). Soldiers bridge defense-efforts-to-train-and-advise-fore
language, cultural barriers at combined resolve The Minerva Research Initiative (n.d.) Funding
exercise. US Department of Defense. Retrieved opportunities. Retrieved December 28, 2014,
July 9, 2018, from www.defense.gov/News/ from http://minerva.dtic.mil/baa.html
Article/Article/1514673/soldiers-bridge- The US Army (2017, Feb.). The US Army.
language-cultural-barriers-at-combined-resolve- functional concept for intelligence 2020–2040.
exercise/ TRADOC Pamphlet 525-2-1. Retrieved July 9,
Schwartz, S. H. (1999). A theory of cultural values 2018, from https://fas.org/irp/doddir/army/
and some implications for work. Applied tp525–2-1.pdf
Psychology: An International Review, 48, 23–47. Triandis, H. C. (1975). Culture training, cognitive
Segall, M. H., Lonner, W. J., & Berry, J. W. (1998). complexity, and interpersonal altitudes. In R.
Cross-cultural psychology as a scholarly Brislin, S. Bochner, & W. Lonner (Eds.) Cross-
discipline: On the flowering of culture in cultural perspectives on learning (pp. 39–78).
behavioral research. American Psychologist, 53, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
1101–1110. Triandis, H. C., Brislin, R., & Hui, C. H. (1988).
Selmeski, B. (2009). Quality enhancement plan: Cross-cultural training across the individualism–
Cross-culturally competent airmen. Maxwell collectivism divide. International Journal of
AFB, AL: Air University. Intercultural Relations, 12(3), 269–289. DOI:
Sieck, W. R., Smith, J. L., & Rasmussen, L. J. 10.1016/0147-1767(88)90019-3
(2013). Metacognitive strategies for making University of Military Intelligence (n.d.). Cultural
sense of cross-cultural encounters. Journal of awareness and terrorism studies. (Materials for
Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44, 1007–1023. Course 3A-F82/243/F30). Retrieved December
Soeters, J. L., & Recht, R. (2001). Convergence or 28, 2014, from https://rdl.train.army.mil/catalog-
divergence in the multinational classroom? ws/view/100.ATSC/558A0F93-FD12–4496-
Experiences from the military. International 87C5–83858F039AE5–1276037829519/cultural_
Journal of Intercultural Relations, 25, 423–440. awareness/cultural_awareness.htm
Sutton, J. L., & Gundling, E. (2005). Enabling US Air Force (2009, May). Air Force Culture,
cultural adaptability. In Strategies to Maintain Region & Language Flight Plan. Valid as of
Combat Readiness during Extended November 9, 2011: http://cultureandsecurity
Deployments – A Human Systems Approach (pp. .yolasite.com/resources/ flightplan%20Gen%
12.1–12.10). Meeting Proceedings RTO-MP- 20Schwarz%205-09.pdf
HFM-124, Paper 12. Neuilly-sur-Seine, France: US Air Force (2011, March 18). Developmental
RTO. Available from www.rto.nato.int/ Levels for Language, Region and Culture
abstracts.asp. Learning in the US Air Force. [Backgrounder
Sutton, J. L., & Pierce, L. G. (2003, April). from US Air Force Culture and Language
A Framework for Understanding Cultural Center], pp. 1–3.
Diversity in Cognition and Teamwork. Paper Ward, C. (2004). Psychological theories of culture
presented at the 8th International Command and contact and their implications for intercultural
Control Research and Technology Symposium, training and interventions. In D. Landis, J. M.
Vienna, VA. Bennett, & M. J. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of

474 sharon glazer
intercultural training (3rd ed., pp. 185–216). Journal. Retrieved July 9, 2018. http://
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/afpak-hands-
Warren, R., & Sutton, J. (2008, April). Using a time-strategic-review
computer game for research on culture and team Winslow, D., Kammhuber, S., & Soeters, J. L.
adaptability: Lessons learned from a NATO (2004). Diversity management and training in
experiment. In the Proceedings of the NATO non-American Forces. In D. Landis, J. M.
Research and Technology Organization (RTO) Bennett, & M. J. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of
Human Factors and Medicine Panel HFM–142 Intercultural Training (3rd ed.). (pp. 395–415).
Symposium on Adaptability in Coalition Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Teamwork. Copenhagen, Denmark. Retrieved Wisecarver, M., Ferro, G., Foldes, H., Adis, C.,
on January 6, 2015. Hope, T., & Hill, M. (2012, Sept.). Regional
Wen, Z. (2012). Foreign language aptitude. ELT expertise and culture proficiency. Arlington, VA:
Journal, 66, 233–235. Personnel Decisions Research Institutes.
Winkler, H., & Kerr, R. (2018, June 5). AFPAK Contract No. 4003-01C-45-00. Retrieved Jan 6,
Hands: Time for strategic review? Small Wars 2015.

14 Developing Intercultural Competency
Training in Global Organizations
An Examination of the Cadre of Global Managers
Miriam Moeller and Michael Harvey
Introduction community which necessities new and complex

patterns of mobility of overseas managers to
For decades, the literature relative to the
emerge (Klugman, 2009; McNulty & Inkson,
expatriation of managers has been focused on
2013; Permits Foundation, 2012). To effect-
ways of staffing overseas assignments. At its
ively compete, global organizations will have
root, expatriation (Latin from Expatriatus)
to build and maintain a portfolio of various
means “to leave home.” In recent past, never-
types/categories of global managers. For the
theless, the landscape of overseas assignments
purpose of this chapter, we focus our attention
has changed dramatically, which now includes
on three categories of managers: (1) expatri-
a range of assignments each carrying its own
ates, (2) flexpatriates, and (3) inpatriates.
challenges alongside its objectives (see
These assignees come in varying shapes and
McNulty & Inkson, 2013 for an overview of
sizes, meaning that the conditions of the
global assignment). “Leaving home” now no
assignments, the length, and other dimensions
longer means to leave the headquarter location
all differ depending on the overseas assign-
for a predetermined three to four years at a
ment parameters. Therefore, the divergent par-
time. The idea of an overseas assignment can
ameters of each overseas assignment can
now encompass longer or shorter term assign-
dictate the challenges of becoming adjusted
ments, western or eastern destinations, one or
to the lifestyle and working environment
multiple consecutive assignments, and those
deemed necessary to be a successful assignee.
where the assignee and their respective families
At the same time, the type of training must be
may “never” return home (Brewster, Bonache,
customized to meet the divergent needs of each
Cerdin, & Suutari, 2014; GRTS, 2014; Scul-
pool of candidates.
lion, Collings, & Gunnigle, 2007).
This chapters draws on a competency-based
The common denominator among these
view of the firm that expresses, at the
various pools of candidates is that each of the
individual-level, the development of compe-
assignment types is designed to contribute to
tencies required by international assignees for
the formation of a global mindset in the man-
successful overseas assignment completions.
agement of the multinational/global organiza-
Competencies are complex, multifaceted and
tions (see Bowen & Inkpen, 2009; Javidan,
renewable intangible resources (also see
Steers, & Hitt, 2007; Kedia & Mukherji,
resource-based view by Barney [2001], Maho-
1999; Kefalas, 1998; Paul, 2000). It is becom-
ney & Pandian [1992], and Wernerfelt [1984])
ing clearer that this need is accentuated when
that help global managers act and think in a
one looks at the rapid globalization of busi-
way that is complementary to their assignment
ness. Pressures of globalization appear to
circumstances and thus contribute to their
endorse a more interconnected business
well-being on assignment and to the well-being

476 miriam moeller and michael harvey
of the organization overall. According to The literature has used a range of related terms
Harvey, Novicevic, and Speier (2000b), the to discuss and describe intercultural compe-
goal of a competency-based perspective is for tence (Deardoff, 2008, 2009, 2012), including
global organizations to reassess existing com- intercultural communicative competence,
petencies for relevance and to develop new transcultural communication, cross-cultural
competency that channels a global compe- adaptation, and intercultural sensitivity
tency unique to the organization. This chapter among others (Fantini & Tirmizi, 2006). The
examines the types of intercultural competen- common ground for each of these terms is the
cies needed in managers with global careers, ability to step beyond one’s own culture and
meaning those who go beyond the traditional function with other individuals from linguistic-
expatriate career either self-initiated or ally and culturally diverse backgrounds.
company-assigned, as was suggested by recent Herein, we subscribe to Fantini and Tirmizi’s
studies of Cappellen and Janssens (2005), Fro- (2006) definition of intercultural competence
ese and Peltokorpi (2013), and Suutari and as “a complex set of abilities needed to per-
Makela (2007). form effectively and appropriately when inter-
It is proposed that managerial intercultural acting with others who are linguistically and
competencies may create sustained global culturally different from oneself” (p. 12).
competitive advantage if management is able It is now imperative to put in place a system
to exploit unique manager-specific competen- (see Brislin & Pedersen, 1976) that positively
cies. As these intercultural competencies discriminates against global employees to
develop, the resulting outcomes from imple- accommodate their overseas assignment needs.
menting new strategic visions may reshape This would yield a targeted approach to help
the thinking, actions, and even the worldview global managers realize their intercultural
of the management, making it ultimately competency potential. Most recently, the
evolve into a global mindset (Kefalas, 1998; Brookfield Global Relocation Services (2014)
Paul, 2000). A global organizational mindset stated that among the companies surveyed and
has been described as “the ability to develop where intercultural training was offered,
and interpret criteria for personal and business training it was mandatory at 23 percent of
performance that are independent from the companies, leaving an alarming 77 percent of
assumptions of a single country, culture, or overseas managers without adequate cross-
context; and to implement those criteria cultural training. Eighty-five percent of
appropriately in different countries, cultures, respondents surveyed rated intercultural
and contexts” (Maznevski & Lane, 2004, training as having good or great value, with
p. 274). Great responsibility rests on the pool 11 percent rating the value as neutral. It is, of
of global managers, jointly attempting to course, advised to interpret these data with
create global core competency (Prahalad & caution, as employees going through cross-
Hamel, 1990) that ultimately benefits the glob- cultural training of any type are prone to give
alization of the organization. it relatively high ratings, especially when the
Because of the limited knowledge about training was paid for by their employers.
some of the staffing methods and how each The dynamics of global managers, however,
can contribute to the creation of a global makes it difficult to find a common framework
mindset, there is a need to assess and develop that attests to addressing training needs. While
intercultural training (Landis & Brislin, 1983) there are similarities in the need for intercul-
competence to help build this global mindset. tural competency training, the majority of

An Examination of the Cadre of Global Managers 477
assignments diverges for reasons related to the After profiling the global manager “family”
parameters of the assignment itself. The imple- experiences and assignment parameters, the
mentation of a single, uniform intercultural chapter proposes a framework to be imple-
training program would thus prove itself coun- mented by global organizations interested in
terproductive to the development of different developing intercultural competencies or cre-
global managerial kinds. Earley (2002), for ating a “tool set” that reflects the demands of a
example, claimed that many cultural training myriad of assignment types. We do so using a
programs fail because they tend to put too competency-based view. The differences in
much emphasis on culture-specific knowledge intercultural competency needs can then
at the expense of more general learning prin- inform global organizations on the appropri-
ciples. We suggest that emphasis should be put ate actions for training a workforce that is
on both to establish a balance of knowledge vastly different from that of twenty years ago.
that is specific to the destination but also gen-
eral enough to be competent in general busi-
Development of a Theoretical
ness (also see Bhawuk, 2009).
Foundation for Intercultural
The less familiar management is with the
Competency Training for Global
differing training requirements and nuances
Managers
of global managerial roles, the more the
expatriate training competency that served The competency-based perspective acknow-
them in the past may become a liability. We ledges that an organization carries a set of
argue that if the traditional training perspec- competencies inherent in the current manager
tive of expatriates is retained and imposed on pool. As the dynamics of the global environ-
other cadres of global managers, its efforts are ment change, it comes as no surprise that
likely to be misguided by the insulated experi- global organizations’ human resource develop-
ence it gives flexpatriates and inpatriates. An ment (HRD) departments are driven to con-
intercultural competency can thus only be stantly review and update the competencies
gained if training programs are reviewed to required to run a successful, globally intercon-
reflect the parameters of the assignments, nected business model. The competency
which we know to differ greatly at times. The renewal process should include two major
assumption we operate under is that the differ- elements: (1) competency development should
ences in assignments, and thus assignee char- be based on the composition of the global
acteristics, are so extreme that for manager pool and (2) renewal of competencies
organizations not to pay attention to these should be based on their strategic relevance to
differences would be detrimental to the finan- the organization (see Sanchez, Heene, &
cial well-being of the organization. On the Thomas, 1996).
other hand, a well-executed intercultural com- Competencies are usually divided into three
petency training program can be beneficial for distinct categories: input, managerial, and
the global organization’s bottom line perform- transformation-based competencies. Input
ance in that they get to retain employees who competencies represent capital, labor, physical
can perpetuate a global mindset. assets, and other factors input to the organiza-
This chapter generally examines the differ- tion (Barney, 2001; Lado & Wilson, 1994).
ences in characteristics found within the global Managerial competencies then are the capabil-
managerial talent pool consisting of expatri- ities, social knowledge, and internal/external
ate, flexpatriate, and inpatriate assignments. business networks (Javidan, Teagarden, &

Bowen, 2010) that management teams utilize training; and (c) behavioral/experiential sensi-
to build success. Finally, transformation-based tivity training, simulations, field experiences
competencies refer to the ability of manage- (Brislin, 1981); (2) increase global managers’
ment to accomplish the tasks necessary to gain awareness of environmental (internal/external)
a competitive position in the marketplace differences between the home country/organ-
(Harvey, Speier, & Novicevic, 2001). ization and that of their past experience, and
It would appear that a competency-based illustrate how these differences will effect busi-
approach to intercultural training is in need ness operations; (3) increase global managers’
of an analysis of all three competency categor- awareness of cultural/social based issues, indi-
ies to create a competitive advantage. This cating that not all concepts are universally
chapter highlights in particular the managerial shared; (4) provide multidimensional skills
competencies. Managerial competencies focus training in functional business areas, interper-
on the global organization’s vision of what sonal communications/language, skills in
they expect from overseas managers, and the adjustment/adaptation, and stress manage-
decisions and actions necessary to realize those ment (Takeuchi, 2010); and (5) better under-
expectations (Lado, Boyd, & Wright, 1992). stand the global manager’s career path (Cui &
Global managers require intercultural com- Awa, 1992).
petencies to carry out a successful assignment. As part of their intercultural competency
While tangible organizational support (i.e., training outcomes, global managers should in
resources/money) have been reduced over the addition be able to (1) display a level of respect
years, it is highly appropriate to provide the for culture that expresses positive regard; (2)
intangible resource of intercultural training. interact in a non-judgmental way; (3) be
Though both tangible and intangible elements empathetic to other cultures; (4) be flexible in
are needed for a successful assignment experi- their roles; and (5) possess tolerance for ambi-
ence (Brislin, 1981), we suggest that it would guity with little visible discomfort (Ruben,
produce a far worse scenario if we neglect the 1976). State of the art of intercultural training
intangible side in large part. The reduction in elements can be found in Landis, Bennett, and
tangible resources (such as cars and additional Bennett (2004). Intercultural competencies
monetary rewards) has been claimed as disin- must be revisited and renewed over time to
centives to employees who take overseas avoid the depletion of knowledge about cul-
assignments. This notion is similar to that of tures. This renewal suggests that an individual
Herzberg’s (1974) two-factor motivation– should formulate a strategic intent to discover
hygiene theory or satisfaction–dissatisfaction and develop new competencies of relevance to
theory. developing their intercultural competencies as
Basic goals of an intercultural competency they progress through varying overseas
training program would be to (1) appropri- assignments.
ately balance intercultural training methods Intercultural competency represents an inte-
in three areas: (a) cognitive training-learning gral part in a wide spectrum of domains such
information or skills from lecture-type, non- as international schools, medical training facil-
participative sessions; (b) affective training- ities, and short study abroad programs to per-
learning cultural insights through techniques manent residency in foreign culture (Sinicrope,
that arouse affective responses, e.g., cultural Norris, & Wantanabe, 2007). One could argue
assimilation training (Cushner & Brislin, that the importance of intercultural training is
1996), critical incidents, stress reduction one of the most pertinent ones as we currently

find more than 200 million people located measures taken by the global organization to
overseas (McNulty & Inkson, 2013). However, provide a “set of tools” based upon intercul-
not just any activity can be considered tural competencies for this global manager
training. There are instances where training pool. One key issue facing strategic global
programs can be counterproductive to the human resource management departments
development of competencies (Vedantam, now, and in the future, is the development of
2008). Those instances include inappropriate flexible/adaptive competency framework in
training materials or training facilities, cultur- their global workforce structure (Harvey &
ally unaware trainers, and an inappropriate Moeller, 2009). It is thereby imperative to
size or composition of the group of trainees match global managerial needs with compe-
that may accentuate the stress level of the tencies. The first step in accomplishing this
manager (Latham, 1988). assignee-competency match is to assess the
Intercultural competencies can be created characteristics of the global talent pool avail-
before as well as during the overseas assign- able in the organization (Table 14.1). The
ment. Intercultural competencies may also be characteristics of assignments can be denoted
created after an assignment has occurred, upon in terms of assignment length, goals and
reflection of the assignment itself, and possibly objectives, commitment to the organization
before the next assignment has begun, should versus one’s career, flexibility relative to social,
consecutive assignments occur. It would make political, economic, cultural, and family situ-
sense to assume that the longer the time one ations, organization’s cultural “fit,” level of
spends on the assignment, the greater the likeli- peer acceptance, need for internal political
hood that the intercultural training efforts have understanding, level of stress experienced, rela-
become internalized. We suggest that global tive cost characteristics, and destination. These
organizations should ultimately configure a rep- parameters will be elaborated on in the subsec-
ertoire of intercultural competencies necessary tions below.
to fit the assignment needs of the pool of global The next step is to determine how assignees
managers at hand. We claim that each assignee would be differentiated on the basis of inter-
type will have a different “tool set” that he or cultural competency training needs
she needs to gather to be a competent individ- (Table 14.2). Six major and globally pertinent
ual. The competencies in aggregate form will intercultural competencies to differentiate
help build the global mindset (Javidan et al., assignment types’ needs are identified: commu-
2007; Kedia & Mukherji, 1999; Kefalas, 1998; nication skills, relationship building, team-
Ng, Tan, & Ang, 2009; Paul, 2000). It is envi- work, cultural awareness, anxiety/stress
sioned that international assignees’ intercultural management, and listening/information
competency development is a composite of a set gathering/problem solving. These needs are
of competencies catered to specific assignment the derivative of the six leader styles (i.e.,
demands (Thomas & Inkson, 2009). performance-oriented, team-oriented, partici-
pative, humane, autonomous, self or group-
protective) identified in the GLOBE projects
Intercultural Competency Training
(see House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, &
Development: An Application to the
Gupta, 2004). These parameters will also be
Global Manager “Family”
elaborated on in the subsections below.
The level of preparedness for the global assign- The career mobility of global managers
ment is contingent upon the appropriate today is in need of a system that allows them

Table 14.1 International assignee/assignment characteristics
Assignee/Assignment type
Inpatriate
Expatriate Flexpatriate Inward
Assignment parameters Traditional Expatriate Flexible Expatriate Expatriate
(1) Assignment length 3–4 year assignment Series of global Long-term
assignments
(2) Goals and objectives Control and transfer Fill temporary position Transfer
knowledge to HQ/ (using a specific skill) knowledge to
subsidiary HQ
(3) Commitment to Organization/career Organization Organization/
organization vs. career career
(4) Flexibility required Moderate High High
(SPECF)
(5) Organizational Moderate Low Low/moderate
cultural “fit”
(6) Level of peer Moderate/high Low/moderate Low/moderate
acceptance
(7) Need for internal High Low Moderate/high
political understanding
(8) Level of stress Moderate/high Intermitted and Moderate/high
experienced temporary
(9) Relative cost Moderate Moderate/high High
characteristics
(10) Destination/Career International International Global
foci
* SPECF – social, political, economic, cultural, family.
Table 14.2 A framework differentiating assignees on the basis of intercultural competency needs
Assignee/Assignment type
Intercultural competency Expatriate Flexpatriate Inpatriate
*
(1) Communication skills H L/M H
(2) Relationship building M M H
(3) Teamwork H L M
(4) Cultural awareness M/H L/M M/H
(5) Anxiety/Stress management M/H M/H H
(6) Listening/Information Gathering/Problem Solving M/H M H
*Level of appropriateness to administer intercultural competency training prior and/or during overseas
assignments:
High [H], Medium [M], Low [L].

to develop the right competencies at the right ranked low on cultural/social sensitivity and
time for future global assignments (Collings & tend to be less flexible in their ability to adapt
Scullion, 2009). It is necessary to state that the to different social, political, economic, and cul-
possibility exists that the organization may tural contrasts. Intercultural competency
need to select a person for his or her technical training ought to focus as such on building
skills and then train them to make up for their cultural awareness in all respects. As for organ-
lack of intercultural skills. It can be argued izational culture “fit,” expatriates also rank as
that having the right talent at the right time moderate. Organizational culture “fit” is the
and in the right place can help create a com- behavior of humans who are part of an organ-
petitive advantage. Assessing the need for ization and the meaning that the people attach
competencies is a critical point aiding in to their actions. Moderate “fit” is experienced
Human Resource Development (HRD) due to the expatriate assignment’s goals, which
decision-making and planning. Strategic are in part to oversee and control as per the
global human resource management depart- instructions sent by headquarter. The behaviors
ments can devise strategies to track and better and actions exhibited when controlling subsid-
meet the needs of their managers thereby iary operations are different to those of local
retaining these invaluable assets. Three cat- nationals (Caprar, 2011).
egories of global managers have been identi- However, there will be some congruencies in
fied: (1) expatriates; (2) flexpatriates; and (3) action/behavior (e.g., a common mission) that
inpatriates. Each of the three categories of make the expatriate part of the subsidiary
managers will now be defined and explored family. Peer acceptance is then derived from
relative to the dimensions mentioned above. the fit with the organizational culture. The
level of peer acceptance should nevertheless
err on the “high” side for reasons of status.
The Expatriate Profile
Since the expatriate hails from the headquarter
Expatriates are assignees send from headquar- location, the respect and status he/she receives
ter locations and are used to control and over- at the subsidiary is thought to be higher than if
see operations in subsidiaries. Expatriates an “outsider” temporarily joined subsidiary
undertake a limited number of assignments operations.
and usually for a relatively short-term (e.g., Expatriate managers need to develop a plur-
they have less than three to five years of over- alistic management perspective that encour-
seas experience). They are committed to one ages and maintains multiple perspectives in
organization more frequently than not order to solve complex global problems
(Harvey, Fisher, McPhail, & Moeller, 2012; (Aguirre 1997; Reynolds, 1997). Expatriates
McPhail, Fisher, Harvey, & Moeller, 2012). have a tendency to work in a team, much of
Expatriates are commonly known to work in which is composed of local nationals. Mahajan
a cultural setting that is new to them and that and Toh (2013) argue that expatriates are
carries a new set of responsibilities, many more likely to seek information or advice from
times without commensurate authority in a host-country nationals (i.e., their coworkers on
new position. A side effect of this scenario is assignment) if they perceive them to be cred-
that expatriates often experience social and ible. Either way, expatriates must possess high
professional isolation. competency levels to master complex overseas
Initially, and without having had prior inter- assignments (Tharenou & Harvey, 2006;
national experience, expatriates are typically Welch & Steen, 2013).

Expatriate failures have been attributed to a influential models of training and development
multitude of reasons, including lack of training for expatriate managers have been developed
and family issues (Dowling & Welch, 2005). by academics (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985;
Extensive family issues, dual-career issues, an Mendenhall, Dunbar, & Oddou, 1987; Tung,
unwillingness to be relocated, a lack of lan- 1981). Next, we explore the flexpatriate assign-
guage capabilities, high levels of stress, social ment parameters and how these lead to the
and professional isolation, loss of identity, need for intercultural competency training.
and, generally speaking, an inadequate sup-
port for the employee/family extended by the
The Flexpatriate Profile
organization would appear to predict failure
on the part of expatriates on global assign- Flexpatriates, or short-term/time flexible
ments (Fernandez, Mutabazi, & Pierre, 2006; expatriates, are exactly that: global managers
Harvey & Novicevic, 2006; Linehan & Scul- providing temporary technical assistance on
lion, 2002; Scullion & Collings, 2006). overseas projects (McPhail et al., 2012). Flex-
Compared to short-term assignments (e.g., a patriation is characterized by a relatively low
four-six fact finding mission) it may be good to commitment to a global career and numerous
have pre-assignment visits. These “look-and- short-term commuter or virtual foreign assign-
see-trips” are an easy way to gain a realistic ments (Mayerhofer, Hartmann, & Herbert,
impression of the working and living condi- 2004; Mayerhofer, Hartmann, Michelitsch-
tions and also to establish some sort of social Riedl, & Kollinger, 2004). Flexpatriates are
network to become better and more quickly also known as “business travelers” on frequent
integrated (Mayerhofer, Hartmann, & Her- flyer assignments who can also conduct virtual
bert, 2004). For expatriate assignments, foreign assignments. Flexpatriates can be
Mayerhofer and colleagues (2004) suggest that employees across all levels (i.e., executive
it is preferable and makes sense for HR man- senior managers to line managers) if the cir-
agers to visit expatriates on assignment more cumstance calls for the transfer of their tech-
often as a means to obtaining accurate infor- nical skills and/or knowledge in a foreign
mation of their assignment experience and to locations (Mayerhofer, Hartmann, & Herbert,
responding to their request/requirements in a 2004).
timely manner. Research also seems to suggest At the present time, management in global
that more attention could be given to what organizations are considering flexpatriation as
expatriates can do to help them (Feldman & a legitimate and viable method managing
Thomas, 1992). operations overseas (Tahvanainen, Welch, &
Research has predicted that a more-tailored Worm, 2005) and as an alternative staffing
approach to expatriate training could become option that could reduce the dependence on
more important in the future, given that other pools of candidates for overseas assign-
expatriate training needs are changing rapidly ments. The underlying logic is presented
(Brewster & Scullion, 1997; Forster, 2000). In because as globalization continues to happen,
line with predictions made (Forster, 2000; cost effective methods of staffing overseas
Scullion, 2001), the development of global assignments must still be drawn. As alluded
managers will in the future involve a cohort to, flexpatriation presents a viable short-term
that requires more frequent cross-border job visit and cost-effective function compared to
swaps, shorter assignments, and/or assign- other staffing methods such as expatriation
ments to multi-cultural project teams. Several (3–4 years).

The extent of flexibility a flexpatriate is pre- The work–life balance of flexpatriates is

ferred/required to have is showcased by a well- unpredictable, and stress filled, but it can also
qualified flexpatriate who indicated that he be very rewarding for the flexpatriate and the
keeps a suitcase packed at home or in the office organization if psychological contacts (see
in case of a new assignment. The message is McNulty & Inkson, 2013) are not broken
that travel does/can occur with very little (Mayerhofer, Schmidt, Hartmann, & Bendl,
warning. At the same time, organizations’ 2001). Performance measures that gauge the
HR departments may opt to hold a second success of flexpatriates include their commit-
passport for all potential overseas assignees. ment to the organization, a low commitment
This type of lifestyle of course has implications to career, possibly commuter assignments, per-
for family life (Mayerhofer, Hartmann, sonal flexibility, ability to handle multiple
Michelitsch-Riedl, & Kollinger, 2004). We tasks, and technical expertise (Harvey, Kies-
posit that the extent to which families of flex- sling, & Novicevic, 2003; Harvey & Novicevic,
patriates are “on board” with this lifestyle is 2006; Mayerhofer, Hartmann, Michelitsch-
greatly dependent upon the type and amount Riedl, & Kollinger, 2004). Burnout, travel
of organizational support extended to the flex- fatigue, lack of strategic perspective, lack of
patriate and his/her family. In short, flexpatri- support from top management, and increased
ates have to be able to work on projects across family or spouse responsibilities would appear
international destinations (at times simultan- to predict failure on the part of flexpatriates on
eously), communicate across a collage of cul- global assignments (Harvey & Novicevic,
tural settings, and travel at short notice. 2006; Mayerhofer, Hartmann, Michelitsch-
Flexpatriation is perceived to be growing as a Riedl, & Kollinger, 2004).
popular assignment method because it provides Flexpatriation work practices have evolved
organizations with more flexibility than other within organizations frequently without HR
methods of staffing in that it involves lower involvement. Mayerhofer, Mueller, and
costs and lower risks for two parties: the organ- Schmidt (2010) argue that flexpatriates’ needs
ization and the flexpatriate including his family and goals are not homogeneous and that those
(Mayerhofer, Hartmann, Michelitsch-Riedl, & needs and goals cannot simply be met with one
Kollinger, 2004). In addition to that, flexpatria- framework that accommodates the different
tion is utilized for the following reasons: cultural locations. It is, however, also sug-
assisting in short-term projects, providing gested that even with minimal HRM assist-
expert knowledge, and offering technical sup- ance, flexpatriates are seemingly proactive
port for problems that others cannot fix. As a and are able to self-manage their career and
way to establish a company in the light of family issues simultaneously (Mayerhofer,
globalization, flexpatriation is as legitimate an Hartmann, Michelitsch-Riedl, & Kollinger,
option as any other staffing method. The pref- 2004).
erence, however, for such assignments may be Because of the challenges associated with
restricted because of the manager’s spouse flexpatriates, HRM often becomes involved
having an important career, family reasons in developing appropriate policies and prac-
relating to children, or the inability of the tices (Petrovic, 2000). It would appear that a
manager to relocate permanently due to other work–life balance support program should be
career duties (Harvey, Reiche, & Moeller, a priority for an organization to implement if
2011; Mayerhofer, Hartmann, Michelitsch- it wants to competently manage its flexpatriate
Riedl, & Kollinger, 2004). workforce. On the other hand, organizations

may opt to have training administered only to Wong, & Yolles, 2004). The use of inpatriate
those flexpatriates who demand the training. managers can deliver a distinct intercultural
The initiative, therefore, lies with the employee knowledge transfer advantage relative to other
rather than with the organization. This system staffing methods such as expatriation, which
has the self-confessed needs of a flexpatriate are less likely to offer tacit knowledge transfer
and the support structure of the organization advantage (Harvey et al., 2001; Minbaeva &
communicate and optimistically complement Michailova, 2004; Reiche, 2007; Thomas,
each other. Yoko Brannen, & Garcia, 2010).
However, because of the differences in
length of assignment (i.e., long-term commit-
The Inpatriate Profile
ments of inpatriate managers) and the destin-
Inpatriation is the process of selectively trans- ation (i.e., the MNC’s headquarters as
ferring host-county and/or third-country opposed to subsidiaries), it is essential to dis-
national managers into the home/domestic cuss and evaluate the hardships inpatriate
organization of a multinational corporation managers’ experience in this novel context.
(MNC) on a semi-permanent to permanent Extant literature portrays inpatriate managers
basis (Harvey, 1993, 1997; Harvey, Reiche, & as being less likely to encounter the same level
Moeller, 2011; Maley, 2011; Reiche, 2007) of influence, credibility, and respect as expatri-
Inpatriation as such required a characteristic- ates who carry a distinct status as they are sent
ally prolonged time commitment (Harvey, from the headquarters and, therefore, have the
Ralston, & Napier, 2000). Fundamentally, ability to assert influence over other subsidiary
inpatriate managers represent a new and members (Harvey, Novicevic, Buckley, &
viable reservoir of candidates for staffing the Fung, 2005). The likely exception to this state-
global organization that supplement existing ment pertains to professionals (i.e., doctors, IT
(e.g., expatriate and flexpatriate) staffing personnel) who are migrating for specific pur-
methods in developing a global mindset (Javi- poses. With the transference to headquarters,
dan et al., 2007), which is essential for success- inpatriate managers are also susceptible to
fully competing in today’s hypercompetitive greater acculturation pressures submitting
business environment (Morely & Heraty, themselves to changes in national and organ-
2004; Paul, 2000). izational cultures alike (Fenwick, 2004).
It has been argued that inpatriate managers The resulting pressures/stresses on inpatriate
can provide a global perspective in developing managers embarking on extended global
strategy and in managing host-country nation- assignment may become so overpowering that
als in a way that escapes many expatriate their personal and professional environments
managers (Harvey & Buckley, 1997). Inpatri- decline and they are unable to cope with the
ates are viewed as having a different skill set demands they face at headquarters. In other
and exhibiting different motivational configur- words, inpatriates must cope with the pres-
ation, and as such the main goal of inpatriates sures of retaining their cultural heritage while
is to become a knowledge linking-pin between remaining adaptable enough to the headquar-
two cultures. Knowledge transfer within an ter location to be accepted (Moeller, Harvey,
intercultural setting has become increasingly & Williams, 2010; Williams, Moeller, &
significant (Reiche, 2007), yet human resource Harvey, 2010). Because of the novelty of the
managers regularly fail to acknowledge and context inpatriate managers are exposed to,
understand its importance (Iles, Ramgutty- the failure rate of such global assignees has

become a great concern of MNCs (Collings, in a new environment in the headquarters

Scullion, & Morely, 2007). (Harvey, Ralston, & Napier, 2000). Training
Specifically, the failure of global assignees to measures for inpatriates therefore makes sense.
cope with the stress of working at a global We envisage training for inpatriates to be a
headquarters and on a long-term basis is of high priority for global organizations (Harvey,
concern to MNCs as failure rates on global 1997; Harvey & Mejias, 2002; Harvey &
assignments continue to rise (Pricewaterhouse- Miceli, 1999). Extant literature continues to
Coopers 2005; GRTS, 2014). Generally speak- argue that inpatriate training efforts will need
ing, stress is most often conceptualized as a to be modified from the more generic, stand-
psychological state that develops when an indi- ardized training offered to expatriate man-
vidual faces a situation that taxes resources for agers. For example, inpatriates would need a
dealing with the situation (Brislin, 1981; greater amount of training on the corporate
Lazarus, 1966). If unattended, stressors and culture of the home office, something that is
resulting stresses can significantly inhibit the not necessary for the expatriate. To date, inter-
success of inpatriates and lead to anxiety. ventions in the form of socialization (Moeller,
Workplace stress in general has consistently Harvey, & Williams, 2010) appear to showcase
received an extensive amount of attention merits for organizations. Empirical works
from practitioners and academics alike, and determined that intercultural training is the
research on occupational stress has acknow- underpinning factor for relationship building,
ledged that work stressors can be both “good” career advancement, and acceptance of
(e.g., a motivator to succeed) and “bad” (e.g., inpatriates into the headquarters (Harvey &
creating extroverted high levels of stress Miceli, 1999). Harvey (1997) investigates
leading to failure) (Webster, Beehr, & Love, broad aspects of training and develops an
2011). The inability to cope with an excessive intercultural awareness charter that is based
amount of stress eventually can result in on Black, Mendenhall, and Oddou’s (1991)
inpatriate manager burnout (see Spence, Lei- model of in-country adjustment, which applies
ter, Day, & Gilin, 2009; Thomas & Lankau, inductive and deductive learning styles with
2009). individualism and collectivism (e.g., group
Inpatriate managers experience hardships versus individual). Harvey and Mejias (2002)
on their extended overseas assignments which suggest appropriate training combined with
we could attribute to basic stress and long-term educational strategies that can be
heightened stress levels while on assignment. considered by global organizations in training
These are (1) the exposure to potentially vastly inpatriated IT professionals.
distant national and organizational cultures; Furthermore, the inpatriate manager's
(2) difficulties in collaborating with a new cul- exposure to Western-style educational
ture/cultures; (3) demanding workloads and methods is found to influence his/her aptitude
long working hours; and (4) uncertainty in to learn in a Western context (Williams et al.,
the long-term potential of the assignment or 2010). For example, an inpatriate manager
the mission (Harvey et al., 2003). By and large, from Hong Kong may have been exposed to
scholars suggest that extended overseas assign- Western educational methods, whereas, an
ees (i.e., inpatriates) require greater levels of inpatriate manager from China will probably
tolerance than expatriate managers due to the have little exposure (Shen, 2004). Out of Hof-
excessive uncertainty, ambiguity, and stede’s cultural dimensions, Bond (1992) advo-
unfamiliarity captured by the demands faced cates that assessment of the inpatriates’

cultural position relative to the individualism- different groups. If those two groups happen
collectivism dimension is likely in order to to be the same/similar to their home and host
assess learning approaches. country environments, the global manager has
Despite the topic of inpatriation gaining an advantage in how she/he maneuverers in
“traction” over the last two decades, the those domains by using their experiences in
domain of training in an inpatriate sense is still both cultures. We agree with the intercultural
in its infancy. Numerically speaking, it is esti- training literature (Brislin, Landis, & Brandt,
mated that direct annual costs of stress and 1983; Brislin & Yoshida, 1994; Cushner &
maladjustment of expatriates to US MNCs Brislin, 1996; Cutler, 2005; Ko & Yang,
alone is over $2 billion (Morris & Robie, 2011; Selmer & Lauring, 2009) that there is
2000). Research has consistently examined value in attribution training for individuals of
and identified stressors such as role ambiguity, bicultural/multicultural nature. Specifically, it
role conflict, and perhaps role novelty, to be is vital to enable global managers to under-
significant work-related stressors because they stand how they can both cognitively and
generate uncertainty and ambiguity (Cooper & behaviorally (Moritz & Woodward, 2007)
Marshall, 1976; Selye, 1974). Another stressor improve their well-being on assignments. An
for inpatriates may be found in their family intercultural training program should there-
situation. McNulty (2011) notes that the bene- fore be considerate of the undertones of indi-
fits of cultural training, not only for the recipi- viduals in global managerial positions (Littrell
ent manager but also her/his family, have been & Salas, 2005; Littrell, Salas, Hess, Paley, &
found to far outweigh the cost in terms of long- Riedel, 2006).
term benefits to both the individual employee
and the global organization. Training Women and across Generations: From
another diverse perspective, the expatriate
“family” of global managers may also include
Global Manager Training Experience
women, younger early-career employees,
Variations
empty-nesters and semi-retired individuals
Looking beyond the initial impressions of over sixty. We suggest that the contextual
global managers and their training needs and factor of hyper-diversity (Doucerain, Dere, &
experiences, we now in brief contemplate a few Ryder, 2013) in the global workforce matters.
not so obvious variables that can positively/ There is a plethora of interconnected chal-
negatively impact intercultural training com- lenges present within the hyper-diversity occu-
petency inputs and outcomes: (1) training in pying global organizations today. For
the midst of diversity (biculturals/multicultur- example, the multiple generation syndrome,
als); (2) training women and across gener- whereby at any given point three or sometimes
ations; and (3) training for the return from four different generations (i.e., Traditionalists,
one or multiple assignments (Joshua-Gojer, Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Generation
2012). Y) work together, can create implications for
the structure of intercultural competency
Training Biculturals/Multiculturals: Bicultural/ training programs. This idea stems from
Multicultural (i.e., individuals standing at the Lester, Standifer, Schultz and Windsor’s
juncture of two or more cultures) can very well (2012) idea that some generations will be
present a bridge between two culturally working together for the next fifteen to twenty

years, and that across generational cohorts assignment. Patriation, on the other hand,
there are differences in how individuals prefer refers to the return of global expatriate man-
to be treated and managed in the workplace. agers after a sequence of multiple overseas
Training programs must reflect those relocations, for extended time periods (e.g.,
demands/needs. up to twenty years) and/or multiple assign-
At the same time, women are present across ments in a global network organization
these generations. The complexity of the (Harvey & Novicevic, 2006). Little to no
incorporation of women in the workforce stems attempt has been made to conjecture the re-
from the idea that women have traditionally acculturation experiences of someone as they
been seen as the housewife and not necessarily return to their home country, particularly in
as an equal, much less the primary breadwin- the light of their commitment and time away
ner. Yet participation in the workforce by from the home country (see Harvey & Moeller,
women has more than doubled for women in 2012; Harvey & Novicevic, 2006; Linehan &
the age range of twenty-five to sixty-four, Scullion, 2002; Oddou, Osland, & Blakeney,
according to the US Department of Labor 2009; O’Sullivan, 2013).
(Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2012). Overall,
women’s employment statistics have soared in
recent decades (Hansen, 2007), but policies/
Summary and Conclusion
practices seem to lag this trend. As women This chapter proposes an implementation
continue to become a more available and framework for developing intercultural com-
capable demographic, it is demanded that petency training in the cadre of managers
global organizations articulate essential vari- active in global organizations. We propose
ations in training programs to accommodate frameworks that can inform the “best” param-
their strengths, weaknesses, and contributions eter for training programs across expatriates,
to the workforce. Stated differently, organiza- flexpatriates, and inpatriates, noting that vari-
tions should find ways to capitalize on the ations may need to be implemented depending
potential that women have to offer. on generational differences, differences in who
is the breadwinner (i.e., male versus female) as
Training for the Repatriation Process: Finally, well as bicultural/multicultural constituents.
we suggest that the way global managers We draw upon a competency-based view to
return (if ever) to their home countries can form the basis of the critical elements for
have implications for the way the training pro- building intercultural competency in the cadre
grams are developed and administered. The of global managers in MNCs today. If crucial
idea of cultural re-entry (Linehan & Scullion, intercultural competencies are left unattended,
2002) is pertinent to understand when one the lack of developmental efforts on behalf of
leaves the home country as well as when the organization can impact the assignee’s
returning to the home country after one or ability to perform to the extent that an obvious
multiple assignments. Acculturation success, lack of intercultural competencies can be
in this sense, may be best measured by how debilitating to the credibility of the assignee.
well the manager can become reintegrated into Moreover, it is important to have an inventory
his/her home country organization. Repatriate of global managers but simultaneously be flex-
efforts are classified as efforts to bring the ible enough to accommodate changes we see
expatriate back from a three- to five-year over time in mobility trends.

We derive from this chapter that global Bowen, D. E., & Inkpen, A. C. (2009). Exploring
managers experience their assignments and the role of “global mindset” in leading change in
roles therein differently. Differences are international contexts. Journal of Applied
evoked by the boundaries induced either by Behavioral Science, 45(2), 239–260.
Brewster, C., Bonache, J., Cerdin, J. L., & Suutari,
the assignment itself, the expectations they
V. (2014). Exploring expatriate
set, their family situation, and other demo-
outcomes. International Journal
graphic (e.g., age, gender, family lifestyle)
of Human Resource Management, 25,
and personality (e.g. self-efficacy) characteris- 1921–1937.
tics. Due to variation in these elements global Brewster, C., & Scullion, H. (1997). A review and
managers are therefore exposed to different agenda for expatriate HRM. Human Resource
challenges. As a response to these challenges, Management Journal, 7(3), 32–41.
we suggest it in large part to be the responsi- Brislin, R. W. (1981). Cross-cultural encounters,
bility of the organization to develop and in face-to-face interaction. New York, NY:
turn retain their manpower to create a global Pergamon.
mindset. Failing to upkeep training experi- Brislin R. W., Landis D., & Brandt, M. (1983).
ences across the board of global managers is Conceptualizations of intercultural behavior and
training. In D. Landis & R. W. Brislin (Eds.),
likely to make itself known in performance
Handbook of intercultural training: Issues in
measures. The challenge then for HR is to
theory and design, (Vol. 1, pp. 1–35). New York,
source appropriate staff, train them, and
NY: Pergamon Press.
ensure that an appropriate performance man- Brislin, R. W., & Pedersen, P. (1976). Cross-cultural
agement system is provided and implemented. orientation programs. New York, NY: Wiley.
Brislin, R. W., & Yoshida, T. (1994). Improving
intercultural interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA:
References
Sage.
Aguirre, M. (1997). Multiculturalism in a labour Brookfield Global Relocation Services (2014).
market with integrated economies. Management Global relocation trends survey report.
Decision, 35(7), 489–496. Woodridge, IL.
Barney, J. (2001). Resource-based theories of Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). (2012). US
competitive advantage: A ten-year retrospective Department of Labor, “The Editor's Desk,
on the resource-based view. Journal of Women’s share of labour force to edge higher by
Management, 27(6), 643–650. 2008.” Available at: www.bls.gov/opub/ted/
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2009). Intercultural training for 2000/feb/wk3/art01.htm.
the global workplace: Review, synthesis, and Cappellen, T., & Janssens, M. (2005). Career paths
theoretical explorations. In R. S. Bhagat & R. of global managers: Towards future Research.
Steers (Eds.), Handbook of culture, organization, Journal of World Business, 40, 348–360.
and work (pp. 462–488). Cambridge, UK: Caprar, D. V. (2011). Foreign locals: A cautionary
Cambridge University Press. tale on the culture of MNC local employees.
Black, J. S., Mendenhall, M. E., & Oddou, G. R. Journal of International Business Studies, 42,
(1991). Toward a comprehensive model of 608–628.
international adjustment: An integration of Collings, D., & Scullion, H. (2009). Global staffing.
multiple theoretical perspectives. Academy of International Journal of Human Resource
Management Review, 16, 291–317. Management, 20(6), 1249–1252.
Bond, G. (1992). Principles of the individual Collings, D., Scullion, H., & Morely, M. (2007).
placement and support model: Empirical Changing patterns of global staffing in the
support. Psychiatric Journal, 22(1), 11–23. multinational enterprise: Challenges to the

conventional expatriate assignment and Living with funding support from the Center for
emerging alternatives. Journal of World Social Development at Washington University,
Business, 42(2), 198–213. St. Louis, Missouri.
Cooper, C. L., & Marshall, J. (1976). Occupational Feldman, D. C., & Thomas, D. C. (1992). Career
sources of stress: A review of the literature management issues facing expatriates. Journal of
relating to coronary heart disease and mental ill International Business Studies, 23, 271–294.
health. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 49, Fenwick, M. (2004). On international assignment: Is
11–28. expatriation the only way to go? Asia Pacific
Cui, G., & Awa, N. E. (1992). Measuring Journal of Human Resources, 42, 365–377.
intercultural effectiveness: An integrative Fernandez, B., Mutabazi, E., & Pierre, P. (2006).
approach. International Journal of Intercultural International executives, identity strategies and
Relations, 16(3), 311–328. mobility in France and China. Asia Pacific
Cushner K., & Brislin, R. W. (1996). Intercultural Business Review, 12, 53–76.
interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Forster, N. (2000). The myth of the international
Cutler, J. (2005). The cross-cultural communication manager. International Journal of Human
trainer’s manual (Vol. 1–2). Burlington, VT: Resource Management, 11(1), 126–142.
Gower. Froese, F. J., & Peltokorpi, V. (2013).
Deardoff, D. K. (2008). Intercultural competence – Organizational expatriates and self-initiated
the key competence in the 21st century? expatriates: Differences in cross-cultural
Gütersloh/Milan: Bertelsmann Stiftung & adjustment and job satisfaction. International
Fondazione Cariplo. Journal of Human Resource Management, 24,
Deardoff, D. K. (2009). Intercultural competence. 1953–1967.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hansen, F. (2007). More women sent on
Deardoff, D. K. (2012). Intercultural competence: international assignment. Compensation &
An emerging focus in post-secondary education. Benefits Review, 39(2), 14–15.
In D. K. Deardoff, H. de Wit, & J. D. Heyl Harvey, M. (1993). Empirical evidence of
(Eds.), The Sage handbook of international higher reoccurring international compensation
education. London, UK: Sage. problems. International Journal of Business
Doucerain, M., Dere, J., & Ryder, A. (2013). Studies, 24(4), 230–241.
Travels in hyper-diversity: Multiculturalism and Harvey, M. (1997). Inpatriation training: the next
the contextual assessment of acculturation. challenge for international HRM. International
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, Journal of Intercultural Relations, 21(3),
37(6), 686–699. 393–428.
Dowling, P. J., & Welch, D. E. (2005). International Harvey, M., & Buckley, M. (1997). Managing
human resource management – managing people inpatriates: Building a global core competency.
in a multinational context. Mason, OH: Journal of World Business, 32(1), 35–52.
Thomson South-Western. Harvey, M., Fisher, R., McPhail, R., & Moeller, M.
Earley, P. C. (2002). Redefining interactions across (2012) Aligning global organizations’ human
cultures and organizations: moving forward with capital needs and global supply-chain strategies.
cultural intelligence. In B. M. Staw & R. M. Asia-Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 51,
Kramer (Eds.), Research in 4–21.
organizational behavior 24 (pp. 271–299). Harvey, M., Kiessling, T., & Novicevic, M. (2003).
Oxford, UK: Elsevier. Staffing marketing positions during global
Fantini, A., & Tirmizi, A. (2006). Exploring and hypercompetitiveness. International Journal of
assessing intercultural competence. Final Report Human Resource Management, 14(2), 223–245.
of a Research Project conducted by the Harvey, M., & Mejias, R. (2002). Addressing the
Federation of The Experiment in International US IT manpower shortage with inpatriates and

technological training. Journal of Information Herzberg, F. (1974). Motivator-hygiene profiles:

Technology Management, 8(3–4), 1–14. Pinpointing what ails the organization.
Harvey, M., & Miceli, N. (1999). Exploring Organizational Dynamics, 3, 18–29.
inpatriate manager issues: An empirical study. House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman,
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, P., & Gupta, V. (2004). Culture, leadership and
23(3), 339–371. organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies.
Harvey, M., & Moeller, M. (2009). Expatriate Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
managers: A historical review. Iles, P., Ramgutty-Wong, A., & Yolles, M. (2004).
International Journal of Management Reviews, HRM and knowledge migration across cultures:
11(3), 275–296. Issues, limitations, and Mauritian specificities.
Harvey, M., & Moeller, M. (2012). Re-entry of the Employment Relations, 26(6), 643–662.
global cultural “nomads”: The re- Javidan, M., Steers, R. M., & Hitt, M. A. (2007).
conceptualization of repatriation in a global Putting it all together: So what is global mindset
world. In G. Stahl, & I. Björkman (Eds.), and why is it so Important? In M. Javidan, R. M.
Handbook of research in international human Steers, & M. A. Hitt (Eds.), Advances in
resource management (2nd ed., pp. 343–363). international management (pp. 215–226).
London, UK: Edward Elgar. Oxford, UK: JAI Press Elsevier.
Harvey, M., & Novicevic, M. H. (2006). The Javidan, M., Teagarden, M., & Bowen, D. (2010).
evolution from repatriation of managers in Managing yourself: Making it overseas. Harvard
MNEs to “patriation” in global organizations. Business Review, April issue.
In G. K., Stahl, & I. Bjorkman (Eds.), Handbook Joshua-Gojer, A. E. (2012). Cross-cultural training
of research in international human resource and success versus failure of expatriates.
management (pp. 323–346). Cheltenham, UK: Learning and Performance Quarterly, 1(2),
Edward Elgar. 47–62.
Harvey, M., Novicevic, M., Buckley, M., & Fung, Kedia, B., & Mukherji, A. (1999). Global managers:
H. (2005). Reducing inpatriate managers’ Developing a mindset for global
“liability of foreignness” by addressing competitiveness. Journal of World Business, 34,
stigmatization and stereotype threats. Journal of 230–251.
World Business, 40(3), 267–280. Kefalas, A. (1998). Think globally, act locally.
Harvey, M., Novicevic, M., & Speier, C. (2000b). Thunderbird International Business Review, 40,
Strategic global human resource management: 547–562.
the role of inpatriate managers. Human Resource Klugman, J. (2009). Overcoming barriers: Human
Management Review, 10(2), 153–175. mobility and development. New York: United
Harvey, M., Ralston, D., & Napier, N. (2000). Nations Development Programme.
International relocation of inpatriate managers: Ko, H. C., & Yang, M. L. (2011). The effects of
assessing and facilitating acceptance in the cross-cultural training on expatriate
headquarters organization. International Journal assignments. Intercultural Communication
of Intercultural Relations, 24(6), 825–846. Studies, 20(1), 158–174.
Harvey, M., Reiche, S., & Moeller, M. (2011). Lado, A. A., Boyd, N. G., & Wright, P. (1992).
Developing effective global relationships A competency-based model of sustainable
through staffing with inpatriate managers: the competitive advantage: Toward a conceptual
role of interpersonal trust. Journal of integration. Journal of Management, 18(1),
International Management, 17(2), 150–161. 77–91.
Harvey, M., Speier, C., & Novicevic, M. (2001). Lado, A. A., & Wilson, M. (1994). Human resource
A theory-based framework for SGHRM staffing systems and sustained competitive advantage:
policies and practices. International Journal of A competency-based perspective. Academy of
Human Resource Management, 12(6), 898–915. Management Review, 19(4), 699–727.

Landis, D., Bennett, J. M., & Bennett, M. J. (2004). Assignments: A neglected issue in global staffing.
Handbook of intercultural training (3rd ed.). International Journal of Human Resource
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Management, 15(8), 1372–1389.
Landis, D., & Brislin, R. W. (1983). Handbook of Mayerhofer, H., Mueller, B., & Schmidt, A. (2010).
intercultural training (1st ed.). New York, NY: Implications of flexpatriates’ lifecycles on HRM
Pergamon. practices. The Interview Review of Management
Latham, G. (1988). Human resource training and Studies, 2, 155–173.
development. Annual Review of Psychology, 39, Mayerhofer, H., Schmidt, A., Hartmann, L., &
545–582. Bendl, R. (2001). Recognising diversity in
Lazarus, R. S. (1966). Psychological stress and the managing work life issues of flexpatriates.
coping process. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. Equality Diversity and Inclusion: An
Lester, S., Standifer, R. L., Schultz, N. J., & International Journal, 30(7), 589–609.
Windsor, J. M. (2012). Actual versus perceived Maznevski, M., & Lane, H. (2004). Shaping the
generational differences at work: An empirical global mindset: Designing educational
examination. Journal of Leadership & Experiences for effective global thinking and
Organizational Studies, 19, 341–355. action. In N. Boyacigiller, R. M. Goodman, &
Linehan, M., & Scullion, H. (2002). Repatriation of M. Phillips (Eds.), Teaching and experiencing
European female corporate executives: an cross-cultural management: Lessons from master
empirical study. International Journal of Human teachers. London and New York: Routledge.
Resource Management, 13, 254–268. McNulty, Y. (2011, January). Organizational
Littrell, L. N., & Salas, E. (2005). A review of cross- support for the trailing spouse during international
cultural training: Best practices, guidelines, and assignments. Paper presented at the Ministry of
research needs. Human Resource Development Manpower Inaugural Talent Forum.
Review, 4, 305–335. McNulty, Y., & Inkson, K, (2013). Managing
Littrell, L. N., Salas, E., Hess. K. P., Paley, M., & expatriates: A return on investment approach.
Riedel, S. (2006). Expatriate preparation: Business Expert Press.
A critical analysis of 25 years of cross-cultural McPhail, R., Fisher, R., Harvey, M., & Moeller, M.
training research. Human Resource Development (2012). Staffing the global organization:
Review, 5(3), 355–388. “Cultural nomads.” Human Resource
Mahajan, A., & Toh, S. M. (2013). Facilitating Development Quarterly, 23(2), 259–276
expatriate adjustment: The role of advice- Mendenhall, M., Dunbar, E., & Oddou, G. (1987).
seeking from host country nationals. Journal of Expatriate selection, training and career-
World Business, 49(4), 476–487. pathing: a review and critique. Human Resources
Mahoney, J., & Pandian, J. (1992). The resource- Management, 26, 331–345.
based view within the conversation of strategic Mendenhall, M., & Oddou, G. (1985). The
management. Strategic Management Journal, dimensions of expatriate acculturation: a
13, 363–380. review. Academy of Management Review, 10,
Maley, J. (2011). The influence of various human 39–47.
resource management strategies on the performance Minbaeva, D., & Michailova, S. (2004). Knowledge
management of subsidiary managers. Asia Pacific transfer and expatriation in multinational
Journal of Business, 3(1), 28–46. corporations: The role of disseminative capacity.
Mayerhofer, H., Hartmann, L., & Herbert, A. Employment Relations, 26(6), 663–679.
(2004). Career management issues for Moeller, M., Harvey, M., & Williams, W. (2010).
flexpatriate international staffing. Thunderbird Socialization of inpatriate managers to the
International Business Review, 46, 647–666. headquarters of global organizations: A social
Mayerhofer, H., Hartmann, L. C., Michelitsch- learning perspective. Human Resource
Riedl, G., & Kollinger, I. (2004). Flexpatriate Development Review, 9(2), 169–193.

Morley, M., & Heraty, N. (2004). International corporations: A social capital perspective.
assignments and global careers. Thunderbird (Unpublished Doctoral Thesis).
International Business Review, 46, 633–664. Reynolds, C. (1997). Strategic employment of third
Moritz, W., & Woodward, T. S. (2007). country nationals: Keys to sustaining the
Metacognitive training in schizophrenia: From transformation of HR functions. Human
basic research to knowledge translation and Resource Planning, 20(1), 33–40.
intervention. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 20, Ruben, B. (1976). The study of cross-cultural
619–625. competence: Traditions and contemporary
Morris, M., & Robie, C. (2000). A meta-analysis of Issues. International Journal of Intercultural
the effects of cross-cultural training on expatriate Relations, 13, 229–240.
performance and adjustment. International Sanchez, R., Heene, A., & Thomas, H. (1996).
Journal of Training and Development, 5, Dynamics of competence-based competition. New
112–125. York, NY: Wiley.
Ng K.-Y., Tan, M. L., & Ang, S. (2009). Culture Scullion, H. (2001). International human resource
capital and cosmopolitan human capital: The management. In Storey, J. (Ed.), Human
impact of global mindset and organizational resource management (pp. 288–313). London,
routines on developing cultural intelligence & UK: International Thomson Publishing.
international experiences in organizations. In A. Scullion, H., & Collings, D. (2006). Global staffing.
Burton & J. C. Spender (Eds.), The Oxford London, UK: Routledge.
handbook of human capital. Oxford, UK: Oxford Scullion, H., Collings, D., & Gunnigle, P. (2007).
Press. International human resource management in
Oddou, G., Osland, J. S., & Blakeney, R. N. (2009). the 21st century: Emerging themes and
Repatriating knowledge: Variables influencing contemporary debates. Human Resource
the “transfer” process. Journal of International Management Journal, 17(4), 309–319.
Business Studies, 40, 181–199. Selmer, J., & Lauring, J. (2009). Cultural similarity
O’Sullivan, S. L. (2013). The empowering potential and adjustment of expatriate academics.
of social media for key stakeholders in the International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
repatriation process. Journal of Global Mobility, 33, 429–436.
1, 264–286. Selye, H. (1974). Stress in health and disease.
Paul, H. (2000). Creating a global mindset. Boston, MA: Butterworth.
Thunderbird International Business Review, 42, Shen, J. (2004) Cross-border urban governance in
187–200. Hong Kong: The role of the state in a globalizing
Permits Foundation (2012). International mobility city-region. The Professional Geographer 56(4),
and dual-career survey or international 530–543.
employers. Published July 2012. Sinicrope, C., Norris, J., & Watanabe, Y. (2007).
Petrovic, J. (2000). Issues coupled with international Understanding and assessing intercultural
assignments. In Croner’s managing competence: A summary of theory, research, and
internationally mobile employees (p. 5). practice (Technical report for the Foreign
Prahalad, C. K., & Hamel, G. (1990). The core Language Program Evaluation Project).
competences of the corporation. Harvard Second Language Studies, 26, 1–58. Retrieved
Business Review, May–June, 79–91. from www.hawaii.edu/sls/uhwpesl/26(1)/Norris
PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2005). International .pdf
assignments, global policy and practice, key Spence, H. K., Leiter, M., Day, A., & Gilin, D.
trends 2005. London, UK: (2009). Workplace empowerment, incivility, and
PriceWaterhouseCoopers. burnout: Impact on staff nurse recruitment and
Reiche, B. S. (2007). Knowledge sharing through retention outcomes. Journal of Nursing
inpatriate assignments in multicultural Management, 17(3), 302–311.

Suutari, V., & Makela, K. (2007). The career capital Thomas, D. C., & Inkson, K. (2009). Cultural
of managers with global careers. Journal of intelligence: Living and working globally. Berrett-
Managerial Psychology, 22, 628–648. Koehler Publishers.
Tahvanainen, M., Welch, D., & Worm, V. (2005). Tung, R. L. (1981). Selection and training of
Implications of short-term international personnel for overseas assignments. Columbia
assignments. European Management Journal, 23 Journal of World Business, 16(1), 68–78.
(6), 663–673. Vedantam, S. (2008). Most diversity training
Takeuchi, R. (2010). A critical review of expatriate ineffective, study finds. Retrieved April 6, 2015,
adjustment research: Progress, emerging trends, from www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/
and prospects. Journal of Management, 36, article/2008/01/19/AR2008011901899.html
1040–1064. Webster, J. R., Beehr, T., & Love, K. (2011).
Tharenou, P., & Harvey, M. (2006). Examining the Extending the challenge-hindrance model of
overseas staffing options utilized by Austrian occupational stress: the role of appraisal. Journal
headquartered multinational corporations. of Vocational Behavior, 79(2), 1–12.
International Journal of Human Resource Welch, D., & Steen, A. (2013). Repositioning global
Management, 17(6), 1095–1114. staff transfers: A learning perspective,
Thomas, C. H., & Lankau, M. J. (2009). Preventing Human Resource Management, 52(5), 793–808.
burnout: the effects of LMX and mentoring on Wernerfelt, B. (1984). A resource-based view of the
socialization, role stress, and burnout. Human firm. Strategic Management Journal, 5(2),
Resources Management, 48(3), 417–432. 171–180.
Thomas, D. C., Brannen, M. Yoko., & Garcia, D. Williams, W., Moeller, M., & Harvey, M. (2010).
(2010). Bicultural individuals and intercultural Inpatriates’ adjustment to western cultures:
effectiveness. European Journal of Cross- A social/cultural conundrum. Leadership and
Cultural Competence and Management, 1(4), Organizational Development Journal, 31(1–2),
315–333. 71–93.

Part III
Indigenous Psychology

15 Brazilian Cultural Patterns
Cláudio V. Torres, Maria Cristina Ferreira,
and Laura Novaes Andrade
(Caligiuri, Phillips, Lazarova, Tarique, &

Introduction
Bürgi, 2001).
Increased globalization of businesses, However, the intercultural training programs
advances in technology, international mergers, are usually generic (Luthans & Doh, 2009),
and expatriations are all contributing to the when they should be more specific. This high-
expansion in both ties and communication lights the fact that these programs should not be
between nations. As such, more and more based only on cross-cultural findings derived
people are moving abroad to study or to work, from imposed etic (Berry, 1989), as the prin-
which increases the contact with culturally ciples of social sciences derived from studies
diverse individuals, whether in the workplace with people of European ancestry alone may
or in educational institutions. One of the chal- not fit the population of the rest of the world
lenges faced by this new world order is the (Bhawuk, 2008). In other words, intercultural
successful adaptation of the expatriates in the training programs should be based also on the
host country. Therefore, intercultural training findings that take an emic approach (Berry,
becomes essential, inasmuch as it can help 1989) and recognize cultural distinctiveness
expatriates to obtain a better understanding (Asgary & Walle, 2002) as a way to understand
of the culture, customs, and work ethics of the functioning of the individuals in their own
their host country, and to facilitate their adap- cultural context (Kim, Yang, & Hwang, 2006),
tation to living and working conditions in that and to derive theories from the worldview of
country (Forster, 2000). other cultural traditions (Bhawuk, 2008).
The identification of cultural patterns Based on those considerations, the aim of
(Landis & Bhagat, 1996; Triandis, 1995) that this chapter is to discuss issues associated with
come into play during an intercultural encoun- the construction of intercultural training pro-
ter is a basic element of any intercultural grams designed for those who will serve as
training. If the expatriate is aware of the norms expatriates in Brazil. The country takes part
and behaviors more appropriate in the host in the group of BRICS (the grouping acronym
country, his or her adjustment can be facili- adopted by the Economics literature, O’Neill,
tated (Black & Mendenhall, 1990). In the case 2001), along with Russia, India, China, and
of organizations, there is a need to understand South Africa, countries that all used to be
the ways multinational corporations can considered as being in a similar stage of
accommodate culturally specific variations in advanced economic development. Due to this,
values and practices, overcoming the problems they became a symbol of the shift in global
that arise in intercultural working (Smith, economic power from the developed (Western)
2007). For these reasons, research in intercul- countries, toward the developing world.
tural adjustment has received a lot of attention Together, the five BRICS countries used to

498 cláudio v. torres, maria cristina ferreira, and laura novaes andrade
represent over 25 percent of the world’s land the most typical attributes of that culture: an
coverage, and over 40 percent of the world’s informal influence process called Brazilian jei-
population (O’Neill, 2001). Data from the tinho. Then we will illustrate the operation of
World Bank (2017) indicate that the Nominal all these cultural patterns in attitudes and
GDP of the BRICS totaled US$ 18,200.16 behaviors that Brazilians usually adopt in
billion – less than that of the USA, which social encounters. We believe that this infor-
was US$ 19,418.00 billion, but relatively mation can be very useful to build intercultural
higher than that of the European Union, training programs for people going to Brazil.
which totaled US$ 16,429.00 billion.
According to the BRICS thesis, these coun-
tries are divided into two groups: (1) those that
The Economic, Socio-Political, and
in the near future will become the world’s
Historical Roots of Brazilian Society
dominant suppliers of manufactured goods
and services, such as China, and (2) those that Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world,
will become similarly dominant as suppliers of by both area and population, and the largest in
raw materials, such as Brazil (Kobayashi- South America, occupying more than two-
Hillary, 2007). Undoubtedly, these countries thirds of the southern part of the American
are among the biggest and fastest growing Continent, with a territory of more than
economies in the world (Vercueil, 2010), and 8,000,000 km2, and a population of approxi-
should be taken as important business oppor- mately 210,000,000 (Worldometers, 2018)
tunities, especially in terms of foreign invest- inhabitants. Its economy evolved from an
ments. Thus, Brazil has all the conditions of agrarian structure to an industrialized one, at
becoming a major player in the twenty-first the end of the nineteenth century. Throughout
century (Islam, 2010). As such, the under- the first half of the twentieth century, the coun-
standing of historical, cultural, ethnic, and pol- try was stable and characterized by solid and
itical factors that were responsible for the sustainable growth (Martins, 2001). In the
structure of Brazilian society and the Brazilian 1950s, industrial production superseded agri-
way of life, as well as the etic and emic cultural cultural production, and this continued until
patterns that underlie the attitudes and behav- the present day (Chiochetta, Hatakeyama, &
iors of its members, becomes increasingly Leite, 2004).
important. It is our belief that this understand- At the beginning of the 1960s, the country
ing can provide the basis for proposing inter- was marked by political upheavals that cul-
cultural efforts, as well as involving nationals minated in a military coup, establishing a
of this country on investigations on such twenty-one-year military dictatorship from
aspects. 1964 to 1985, after which a president was
To attain these goals, the chapter begins again chosen by popular vote. The initial
with a view of the historical, economic and, period of the dictatorship was characterized
socio-political aspects that were responsible by an economic recession and efforts by the
for the configuration of the Brazilian culture. military to contain the high levels of inflation.
Following this, Brazilian cultural patterns will Following this, however, the country went
be discussed, bridging from anthropological, through a period of industrial expansion,
sociological, and psychological literature, as which created jobs for unskilled workers, an
well as findings of cross-cultural and indigen- economic movement that became known
ous studies, with a special emphasis in one of as the “Brazilian miracle” (Kinzo, 2001).

Brazilian Cultural Patterns and Intercultural Training 499
The term “Brazilian miracle” refers to a period saw an opening in the Brazilian import
of exceptional economic growth in Brazil market, with the entry of foreign capital into
during the rule of the Brazilian military gov- the industrial sector and the implementation of
ernment. During this time the average annual new industry. In summary, Brazil has radically
GDP growth was close to 10 percent. Also changed its business climate from paternalistic
during this period, approximately between and protected to one of free enterprise by the
the years 1969 to 1973, the military govern- decade of 1990s (Ettorre, 1998). This change
ment became directly involved in economy, in business climate is perhaps reflected in the
investing heavily in the urbanization of the core political values (Schwartz et al., 2010) of
country (Baer, 2008). Nevertheless, the high Brazilians. Recently, Koztur and colleagues
inflation rates and economic stagnation, with (2015) noticed that among Brazilians, a polit-
an increase in unemployment rate and ical value named as “Economy Security” – or
tightening down on salaries, would rise again a general concern toward the maintenance of
toward the end of the military government the economic stability of the country and its
and continue to accompany the democratic citizens, assurance of economic growth, and
governments that succeeded it. As such, for fear of the collapse of the country’s economy –
eight years between 1986 and 1994 the country does not predict political consumer behavior
went through a long period of instability, among college students. Rather, political con-
changing the national currency four times and sumerism is positively associated with the pol-
going through six economic major stabilization itical value of equality among Brazilian
plans, of which only the last one – Plano Real – students.
proved to be successful (Kinzo, 2001). Literally, Brazil has had a solid economy and its gross
the Real Plan (Plano Real) was a set of meas- national product (GNP) has grown progres-
ures taken in 1994 with the intent of stabilizing sively up to the first decade of the years 2000.
the Brazilian economy, which involved the For instance, between 2000 and 2010 Brazil’s
introduction of the Real as the national cur- terms of trade improved by around 25 percent.
rency. Led by the Minister of Finance and by In 2010 alone, Brazil’s economy grew by 7.5
the presidente then, Fernando Henrique Car- percent to become the world’s seventh-largest
doso, these measures were based on an analysis economy. The growth in that period was
of the root causes of hyperinflation in the coun- induced by the production structure, i.e., by a
try (Fiúza, 2006). The Real Plan intended to lower intermediate consumption of domestic
stabilize the domestic currency in nominal industrialization, concomitant with a higher
terms after a string of failed plans to control intermediate consumption of services (Messa,
inflation (Brasil, 2018). Due to this plan, the 2013) Yet, it still exists in the country huge
government was able to finally bring inflation economic and social inequalities, as 10 percent
under control and the Brazilian economy of the richest have an income that is 25 times
began to pick up once again. greater than 40 percent of the poorest, as well
From the beginning of the 1990s, the glob- as greater access to education, better jobs, and
alization of the world economy, the increase in a better opportunity for social ascension
competition among organizations and coun- (Motta, 2010). Brazil’s Gini index, for
tries, the growth in technological innovations, example, was of 0.515 in 2016 (OECD,
the increase in demands made by the clients, 2018) – quite far from Norway´s position
and the drop in interest rates would create (Gini = 0.259), one of the least unequal coun-
repercussions in Brazil. As such, the country tries in the world, or even its neighbor Chile

(Gini = 0.505), yet being in a slightest higher written and regulated to what the people actu-
position than Colombia (Gini = 0.535). It ally do.
should be remembered that the Gini is an The historical formation of Brazilian society
index that indicates inequality amongst coun- was also marked by great social hierarchy and
tries, varying from 0 to 1, the highest score by a noted preference toward relationships
indicating highest levels of societal inequality. based on informality and affection (Amado &
As such, more than one-third (i.e., approxi- Vinagre-Brasil, 1991; Motta, 2010). Although
mately 38 percent, based on the official data the Brazilian informality may not be seen as an
provided by the 2010 Census of the Brazilian indigenous process (Smith et al., 2011) the
Institute of Geography and Statistics: Avail- Brazilian jeitinho (“little way out”) is reported
able at www.ibge.gov.br) of Brazilian popula- to be a strong characteristic of behavior in
tion lives below the poverty line.1 In the rural many segments of society in Brazil, including
areas, families are even poorer, with 65.8 per- business organizations (Barbosa, 2006;
cent of them living below the poverty line, Duarte, 2006). The concept is further explored
when compared to the families living in the later in this chapter. The origins of those prac-
urban areas. In the urban areas, in 2010, 27.9 tices are also in the colonial period, when aris-
percent of them lived below the poverty line. tocratic European elite installed itself in the
Concerning its historical-cultural roots, country (Freyre, 1973). This situation was
Brazil has some particularities that differenti- responsible for the patriarchal and enslaving
ates it from other South American countries. family structure, whereby the patriarch had
One of the main characteristics of this country complete domain and power over both the
is that it is the only country in South America individual and property. Such a family struc-
that was a Portuguese colony, and the only ture, centered on masculine authority, is the
Portuguese-speaking one. The interests of basis of Brazilian society and is extrapolated
Portugal during the colonization period were from the private confines to the public ambi-
always linked to predatory exploration of the ence (Holanda, 1973). In this way, the patri-
natural resources of the country and the profits arch exercised his authority on the State,
deriving from its sale (Holanda, 1973). Such a during the first centuries of the country’s his-
posture led to a lack of concern with adequate tory. Later, actions of the politicians and other
development of norms, laws, and structures in public authorities led to the establishment of a
Brazil. This was perpetuated throughout the clear differentiation between the upper and
history of the country, since the legislation in lower classes. Just like in the case of informal-
force nowadays continues to be based on the ity, mentioned above, hierarchy cannot be
foreign models and does not consider, therein, considered as an indigenous aspect of the Bra-
the social-cultural context in which it should zilian culture. Hence, there is no indigenous
have been applied (Zimmermann, 2009). That term for the phenomenon of the Brazilian hier-
situation, as time went by, led to the distancing archy. Yet, as suggested by some authors (e.g.,
of the law from the social practices of the Hofstede, 2003), the Brazilian society can be
country (Zimmermann, 2009), from what is quite hierarchical in several aspects. On one
side there is the elite, the holders of power,
who judge themselves to be above both the
1
The official poverty line is defined as family income
ordinary citizen and the law, and who have
up to half of the Brazilian minimum wage, which
corresponds to R$ 522.50 per month or U$ 3.1 tried to use their privileged position in society
per day. to solve problems imposed by a highly punitive

and coercive legislation. On the other side, At present, due to an extensive variety of
there is the rest of the population, weather, soil, climate, vegetation, and land-
who cannot use the same resources used by scape, Brazil is segmented geographically in
the elite to deal with such situations (DaMatta, five regions (Northern, Northeast, Central-
1986). West, Southeast, Southern). The division had
This same patriarchal family system was the objective of centralizing the political
responsible for another social practice that power toward the Federal Government and is
persists in contemporary Brazilian society, known as the geopolitical division of the coun-
which is the preference for informal social try. The Northeast region has a history char-
relationships. In this sense, the affective ties acterized by the proliferation of sugarcane
and intimacy present in the patriarchal family mills in the seventeenth century, constructed
extrapolated from the private to the public by the African slaves, under the orders of the
scenario, where the preference for a more Portuguese colonizers. The Northern region
intimate and informal relationship at any hier- had a fairly similar type of colonization,
archical level also became the rule (Holanda, whereby Native Brazilians were also enslaved
1973). and were the largest segment of the popula-
In summary, social relationships in Brazil tion. Nowadays, the population of the North-
were, and still are, marked by two apparently ern region is comprises 66.9 percent of
opposing postures, which are the great hier- individuals who declare themselves as natives
archical distances between the different social (available at www.ibge.gov.br)
classes, and the marked preference for infor- The Southern region had a strong influence
mal and affectionate social relationships. of immigrants from European heritage. They
However, there is no contradiction between were driven to Brazil by their endorsement of a
these two dimensions, since such positions challenging life and excitement in the seven-
are very well marked hierarchically in Brazil- teenth and eighteenth centuries – especially
ian society, which allows individuals in both Germans, who between 1824 and 1832 arrived
classes to maintain intimate relationships in this region, creating the “Mother Colonies”
without breaking the hierarchical system (Woortman, 1988) that represented little pieces
(DaMatta, 1986). Concerning its ethnic roots, of Germany in the country, being recognizable
Brazil does not have a predominant ethnic in their traditions and costumes. The
group, which is why it consists of a large exchanges between Native Brazilians and
diversity of races. Brazilians are the fruit from European immigrants (mostly Italians and
a mixture of natives, who inhabited the land Germans) formed an agriculture-based subcul-
when the colonizers arrived; Africans, who ture in this region.
were brought to work as slaves; immigrants Although characterized as mainly an agri-
from Europe and other regions; and the Por- cultural subsistence area, which is used to the
tuguese nationals, who were the first settlers present day as its main social-economic char-
after the country was discovered and who, acteristic (i.e., the development of agricultural
with the relocation of the Portuguese Court and cattle farms), the Central-West region had
there in 1808, became an elite in the society. a remarkable economic and political develop-
They were followed by Dutch, French, Ital- ment after the transference of the country’s
ians, Germans, Japanese, Lebanese etc., who administrative capital to Brasilia in 1960
very quickly became integrated into the local (Torres & Dessen, 2008). Finally, the Brazilian
society. Southeast region has been under a continuous

industrialization process, which started in from the Northeast region. Second, the
1808 with the relocation of the Portuguese Center-South region would comprise all
Court in the region, as mentioned before. This remaining states of the Southern, Southeast,
region, and especially the state of São Paulo, and Central-West regions, as well as one state
had its history initially linked to gold and dia- of the Northern region. Finally, for the author,
mond mining, and later became a notable the Northeast region would coincide with the
industrialized center of South America geopolitical division formerly mentioned, with
(Ettorre, 1998). the exception of one state. The cultural and
It should be noted, however, that Ribeiro’s socio-economic division proposed by Ribeiro
division is not the only one recognized in (1997) does not relate to Geiger’s classifica-
Brazil. Regionalization, defined as the division tion, and although it also does not reflect
of a certain space or territory into areas of entirely the official geopolitical division, it
common characteristics, can be created based builds on it, proposing five subcultures in
on an array of several criteria. Physical char- Brazil.
acteristics, political or economic aspects, and Since the 1950s, we have seen a massive
social-historical development can be cited as movement of multinationals to the Southeast
examples of such criteria. The choice among due to its cheap labor and other favorable
them depends on the objective that one wishes economic conditions, along with an internal
to accomplish, such as political interests, or migration of workers, especially from the
specific economic aspects under consideration. Northeast region, in search of a better pay
Based on political motives, the first division of when compared to their region of origin. Fur-
Brazil into regions was proposed in 1938, and ther, at the beginning of the twentieth century,
established in 1941 (Penha, 1993). Under this an agreement between the Brazilian and Jap-
proposition, Brazil was divided into five anese governments resulted in a large immi-
regions (Northern, Northeast, Central-West, gration of Japanese nationals to the country.
East, and Southern). Later, in 1969, the East Most of these immigrants were settled in the
region was replaced by the Southeast region, Southern and Southeast regions of the coun-
and another modification of the original prop- try, where they have remained to the present
osition was made in 1988, with the addition of day, supported mainly by agricultural prac-
another state into the Northern region. The tices and commerce (Gomes, 2008; Lesser,
1969’s division is still the official geographical 2001). The period of time between 1908 up to
segmentation of Brazil. As originally pro- 1970 was marked by this large displacement
posed, it had the objective of centralizing the and movement of Japanese citizens to Brazil,
political power toward the Federal Govern- with the peak of immigration happening
ment, and used as its main criteria the region’s between 1925 and 1940. For almost seventy
climate, vegetation, and relief or landscape. years of these migratory movements, more
Using only the economic production as a cri- than 250,000 Japanese came to the country to
terion, Geiger (1967) proposed that Brazil work in the agricultural colonies (Costa, 2007).
should be divided into only three areas, which Today, Brazil hosts the largest group of Jap-
he named as geo-economic regions. First, the anese immigrants in the world, estimated in 1.5
Amazon region, which, when compared to the million people (available at www.ibge.gov.br).
previous geopolitical classification, would Official data do not include the Japanese
include all states of the Northern region, one descendants in Brazil, although there is some
state of the Central-West region, and another indication that about 270,000 Brazilian

descendants of those Japanese living in the America (Smith, 2007). Some of these studies
country have immigrated to Japan in a move- have included Brazil as one of the countries of
ment that became known as the “consequence their samples. In the business and management
of the generational change” (Higuchi, 2005). area, one of the most influential of these stud-
The socio-political, economic, and historical ies, according to Søndergaard (1994), has been
roots of Brazilian society were therefore that of Hofstede (1980), although it has also
responsible for the formation of a nation char- prompted some criticisms (House, Hanges,
acterized by a mixture of races, religions, and Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004). Using
subcultures, which gives the country a lack of a data from over fifty countries, Hofstede has
homogeneous essence (DaMatta, 1986). At the proposed a typology of four basic value
same time, however, the people of Brazil speak dimensions: power distance; individualism/col-
a single language across the whole country – lectivism; masculinity/femininity; and uncer-
with the exception of some Native Brazilian tainty avoidance. Hofstede’s scores and
groups that still conserve their original dia- classification of Brazilian culture according to
lects, social structures, and various similar those four cultural dimensions are summarized
customs and traditions. It is possible then to in Table 15.1.
speak of a Brazilian identity associated with In another study after the seminal Hof-
common cultural patterns, in spite of the stede’s study, House et al. (2004), using a data-
regional differences existing in the country. base from sixty-two nations, have proposed a
We will now examine these Brazilian cultural typology of nine dimensions of society values
patterns under a cross-cultural and indigenous (what it should be) and practices (what it is),
perspective. some of which overlap with Hofstede’s dimen-
sions: performance orientation; assertiveness;
future orientation; humane orientation; insti-
Brazilian General Cultural Patterns in
tutional collectivism; ingroup collectivism;
the Context of Cross-Cultural Studies
gender egalitarianism; power distance; uncer-
Research on the differences in cultural values tainty avoidance. Globe’s scores on these
and practices and their relationships with dif- dimensions are in Table 15.2.
ferent social structures has produced many Power distance reflects the interactions with
significant findings in the social sciences, par- authorities, that is, the degree to which
ticularly in social and organizational psych- members of societies accept the unequal distri-
ology. These cross-cultural studies take an bution of power and the large status differ-
etic perspective, inasmuch as they are based ences (Carl, Gupta, & Javidan 2004;
on models and theories developed in North Hofstede, 1997). Brazil’s score in Hofstede’s
Table 15.1 Brazilian scores on the four values dimensions of Hofstede’s study
Dimensions Minimum Maximum Brazil’s score Brazil’s rank in 50

Power distance 11 104 69 14
Individualism 6 91 38 26/27
Masculinity 5 95 49 27
Uncertainty avoidance 8 112 76 21/22
Source: Hofstede (1997)

Table 15.2 Brazilian scores on the nine values and practices dimensions of the GLOBE study
Cultural values Cultural practices

Cultural General General
dimensions Minimum Maximum mean Brazil Minimum Maximum mean Brazil
Performance 4.92 6.58 5.94 6.13 3.20 4.94 4.10 4.04
orientation
Assertiveness 2.66 5.56 3.82 2.91 3.38 4.89 4.14 4.20
Future 4.33 6.20 5.48 5.69 2.88 5.07 3.85 3.81
orientation
Humane 4.49 6.09 5.42 5.68 3.18 5.23 4.09 3.66
orientation
Ingroup 4.94 6.52 5.66 5.15 3.53 6.36 5.13 5.18
collectivism
Gender 3.18 5.17 4.51 4.99 2.50 4.08 3.37 3.31
egalitarianism
Institutional 3.83 5.65 4.72 5.62 3.25 5.22 4.25 3.83
collectivism
Power 2.04 3.65 2.75 2.35 3.89 5.80 5.17 5.33
distance
Uncertainty 3.16 5.61 4.62 4.99 2.88 5.37 4.16 3.60
avoidance
Source: House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, and Gupta (2004)
study, as well as in the practice dimension of other people involved in the same process
the GLOBE study, was relatively high (Javi- (O’Keefe & O’Keefe, 2004) and leaders are
dan, Dorfman, de Luque, & House, 2006). expected to treat people according to their
Moreover, in a replication of Hofstede’s study, organizational levels (Javidan et al., 2006).
Tanure (2004) has observed that the tendency However, the score of the country in this value
toward power concentration in the hands of dimension of the GLOBE study was low, sig-
the few continues to be high in Brazil. nalizing that Brazilian society is demanding a
These results indicate that Brazilian society more equal distribution of power (Bertsh &
is more stratified, as its members in positions Ondracek, 2010). Hence, we have here an
of authority demand respect and obedience example of a phenomenon in which at the
(Javidan et al., 2006). In other words, in national level, where no strata can be clearly
Brazil, social hierarchy is highly valued and identified and there is a demand for equality,
practiced (Pearson & Stephan, 1998). In an whereas at the group and individual levels,
organizational context, Brazilians believe that hierarchy is not only accepted, but expected
authorities must be treated with respect and (Singelis et al., 1995).
deference, and prefer to adopt more formal Individualism/collectivism refers to the kind
relationships between leader and subordinates of relationships that the individual has with
(Javidan et al., 2006). Opinions of senior the group. Individualism is characterized by the
people in organizations are more valued than prevalence of the individual interests over the

group ones, while the collectivism is associated Bhawuk and Gelfand (1995) have proposed
to the prevalence of the group interests over that it should be differentiated in four types,
the individual ones (Hofstede, 1980). House depending on the combination of the import-
et al. (2004) still differentiate between the insti- ance given to the group and to the social rela-
tutional collectivism, which emphasizes the tionships. In horizontal-individualism people
collective distribution of resources, and the need to be distinct from the other members of
ingroup collectivism, which endorses the cohe- their ingroups, but are not concerned with
sion between specific groups such as family status differences, while in the vertical-
and organization. Brazil had moderately high individualism people need to be distinct from
scores on collectivism in Hofstede’s study, as the others and to compete for a higher status
well as on ingroup collectivism practices than the others. For the authors, in horizontal-
(House et al., 2004). Consistent with these collectivism people see themselves as similar to
studies, Pearson and Stephan (1998) found their ingroup members and prioritize the
Brazilian samples to be significantly more col- group goals but do not submit to authorities,
lectivist than their American sample. while in vertical-collectivism people prioritize
These results indeed show that Brazilians’ the collective goals and are prone to show
identity is derived mainly from the immediate deference to authorities (Triandis & Gelfand,
and extended family. The individuals have 1998).
strong social ties with their social groups, espe- Triandis and Gelfand (1998) also suggested
cially with the family, and prefer to make that the discrepancy between income within a
group decisions in general (Bertsh & Ondra- country could be used as a measure of vertical-
cek, 2010; O’Keefe & O’Keefe, 2004). They ity. This measure would be “the ratio of the
avoid internal conflicts to maintain the group incomes of the top 20 percent richer to the
harmony (Javidan et al., 2006). In the organ- bottom 20 percent poorer of the population
izational context, people wait for the organiza- of the country” (p. 126). The authors observed
tion to provide training and professional that in 1993 this ratio in Brazil was about 35,
advancement. Furthermore, they value the and there are reasons to believe that the ratio
personal relationships with business partners, has increased in the past twenty years, and
that is, the intertwine of personal issues with they will keep on increasing (Lesser, 2015).
business ones, which can alleviate conflicts As such, the fact that Brazilians are high in
(O’Keefe & O’Keefe, 2004) and maintain the collectivism (they think of themselves as
group harmony. Members of the same groups members of ingroups) and in power distance
expect special treatment from their ingroup (they accept inequality and differences in status,
counterparts and appreciate the meetings with i.e., social hierarchy, showing respect and
all team members, who are perceived as deference to the authorities), as well as having
equals, in formal and informal occasions (Javi- high income stratification (i.e., ratio of the high
dan et al., 2006). Leaders are expected to treat and low income or an increasing division
their team members as part of their extended between the richest and the poorest social
family (Javidan et al., 2006) and employees classes), and this indicates that Brazilian culture
tend not to like leaders who are perceived as can be characterized as having a preference for
individualistic and independent (Javidan et al., a vertical-collectivist cultural pattern. However,
2006). Guss (2011) observed that participants of his
In an attempt to refine the individualism/ study had high scores on both horizontal-
collectivism construct, Singelis, Triandis, individualism and horizontal-collectivism,

which was attributed to the nature of the stu- which is associated to the extent to which soci-
dent sample. It should be noticed that Brazil eties reward the stereotypical masculine or
also suffers from a similar sampling phenom- feminine behaviors or, on the other hand, seek
enon that Henrich, Heine and Norenzayan to minimize the gender inequalities (House
(2010) named as having a WEIRD sample. et al., 2004). Brazil’s score on this dimension
A phenomenon that infects many psychology was medium in Hofstede’s study, as well as in
and other human science studies, WEIRD the practice dimension of GLOBE, although
refers to an overwhelming participation of col- its score was high on this value dimension of
lege students, who tend to be mainly Western, GLOBE. Although there is not an intention of
educated, and from industrialized, rich, and comparing both studies here, Hofstede’s and
democratic countries. Although the acronym House et al.’s, and also acknowledging the
clearly refers to the USA and perhaps other differences in methodology used in these pro-
Anglo countries, Brazilian college students are jects, such as variation in samples, these results
also highly educated, especially when com- are an indication that Brazilian society is
pared to the rest of the Brazilian population, demanding more tolerance for diversity of
who do not have the same access to college ideas and individuals. O’Keefe and O’Keefe
education. Official data (INEP, 2017) present (2004) suggested, however, that current busi-
that in 2016, about 4.1 percent of the Brazilian nesses in Brazil lean toward the feminine side,
population already had, or were studying to as they attempt to be cooperative and to main-
obtain, a college degree. This is a marked dis- tain jobs, although the beneficiaries are family
crepancy from the approximately one-third or social group members. This is also in line
(31.4%) of the population that is illiterate. with Triandis’s (2001) characterization of col-
Most of the college students are either in the lectivism as being a syndrome where people –
Brazilian Federal District (Brasília – 17.6%), when compared to people in individualist
or in cities of the Southeast region (São Paulo – cultures – tend to define themselves as
11.7% and Rio de Janeiro – 10.9%), exactly the members of groups, and to give priority to
areas where most of the students participants ingroup goals. Thus, family members are usu-
are sampled for psychological studies. Hence, ally hired in Brazilian organizations, a factor
it is possible to hypothesize that these partici- that facilitates the social control of the workers
pants might score higher in individualism and (O’Keefe & O’Keefe, 2004). For instance,
horizontalism, when compared to their fellow Smith et al. (2012) suggest, citing the Brazilian
citizens, biasing some the findings. Actually, Jeitinho, that informal influence processes in
there is some evidence that has already indi- Brazil involve working through others on an
cated that college students respond differently egalitarian basis, with persons who may or
to cultural measures than other Brazilians with may not be previously acquainted. For the
other educational levels (Torres & Pérez- authors, “as social hierarchy is well accepted
Nebra, 2015). in Brazilian culture, the use of jeitinho at dif-
The masculinity/femininity dimension can ferent organizational levels is more a matter of
be viewed as the degree to which the societies magnitude, than of incidence” (Smith et al.,
value a masculine role, characterized by com- 2012, p. 336).
petitiveness and goal attainment, or a feminine Uncertainty avoidance refers to the extent in
role, associated with cooperation and caring which members of different societies are
for others (Hofstede, 1980). It parallels the threatened by unknown or ambiguous situ-
gender egalitarian dimension from GLOBE, ations and seek to avoid them, opting for more

structured situations (Hofstede, 1980). Brazil’s Assertiveness relates to the degree in which
score on this dimension was relatively high in societies emphasize an aggressive style of con-
Hofstede’s study, as well as in this dimension frontation in interpersonal relationships
value of GLOBE. This means that members of (House et al., 2004). Brazil’s score on this
Brazilian society prefer to avoid ambiguity practice dimension was high, but the score on
and risk, and to be in an environment where this value dimension, on the other hand, was
predictability and explicit controls are the low. This can be viewed as a sign that Brazilian
rule – thus being averse to risk (O’Keefe & society makes use of some more aggressive
O’Keefe, 2004). As such, they have a great practices, although it is likely that their
need for consensus, they prefer to rely on members view aggressiveness as being socially
social norms and laws, as well as on formal unacceptable, and value modesty and warmer
procedures – which can be understood as the relationships. Assertiveness as a practice at
collectivist preference for shaping their behav- work was observed by Nascimento (2014).
ior primarily on the basis of ingroup norms, The author saw it as a characteristic of the
when compared to attitudes (Triandis, 1995) – organizational practices in Brazil, which he
and they are resistant to new ideas (Bertsh & named as Sense of Duty, or a commitment to
Ondracek, 2010). obtaining results, and Relationship with
Friedlmeier (1995), who compared the Authority, which relates to the preferred type
implicit theories used by educators, also of decision-making in the organization. Those
observed that Brazilians emphasize conform- practices were based on D’Iribarne’s (1983)
ity – perhaps in order to maintain their rela- conceptualization of organizational practices,
tionship with others, a collectivist which, although are suggested to be a cultural
characteristic (Triandis, 1995) – and adapta- characteristic reflected in the organizational
tion to social rules. In their research, Strohsch- scenario (D’Iribarne, 2009), are not necessarily
neider and Güss (1998) also found that present in the routine societal relationships.
Brazilian college students, when presented The performance orientation dimension
with an ill-defined ambiguous situation, have reflects the degree to which society stimulates
a high tendency to accept the situation as excellent performance (House et al., 2004).
given, and not to inquire about its causes. In Brazil’s score on this value dimension was
a similar way, Brazilian business people prefer high, while its score on this practice dimension
to consider a range of options and build per- was medium (Bertsh & Ondracek, 2010; Javi-
sonal relationships before making decisions. dan et al., 2006). These results indicate that
In doing so, they make a more flexible use of Brazilian people consider it important to per-
time (O’Keefe & O’Keefe, 2004). In other form well and be rewarded for doing so,
words, Brazilians’ relationships with time is although these practices are not always fully
looser, and they are always prone to postpone adopted. This appears to be intrinsically
some tasks to enjoy the present time (Guss, related to the use of creativity and pragmatism
2011) and avoid unexpected risks (O’Keefe & in dealing with routine events – a concept
O’Keefe, 2004). This probably relates to a considered to be part of Brazilian life. Such
polychronic orientation toward time, or a per- jeitinho brasileiro is understood as a strategy
ception that time is an unlimited good and used by all Brazilians (Barbosa, 2006), and
available as needed (Hall, 1966, 1985), which involves ways of achieving one’s goals that
is a Latin American cultural characteristic are quick and indirect, but that do not threaten
(Kotabe & Helsen, 2001). the preservation of interpersonal harmony

(Amado & Vinagre-Brasil, 1991). This special comparison with cultural patterns from other
type of informal influence process will be fur- countries, it is known that some variance in a
ther discussed later in this chapter. In the given culture can be attributed to within-cultural
organizational context, promotion used to be differences. For instance, Triandis (1994) noted
based on achievement (Bertsh & Ondracek, that individuals who live in more industrialized
2010), and training and development are centers tend to be more individualist than those
encouraged (Javidan et al., 2006). who live in rural areas. As suggested by Smith
The future orientation, on the other hand, is and Bond (1999), the population of a specific
characterized by the degree of importance region of a country may endorse certain cultural
societies give to the future planning and invest- patterns that are different from those preferred
ment, in as much as their members believe that by people in other regions of the same country.
their current actions will influence their future In Brazil, specifically, this should be expected
(Bertsh & Ondracek, 2010). Brazil’s value and because of its continental size and the various
practice scores on future dimension were high, regions into which it is subdivided.
which indicates that their members seek to Based on the Brazilian social-economical his-
imagine future contingencies and to develop tory, Ribeiro (1997) proposed a division of
ways of meeting future goals. As such, they Brazil in five subcultures, which does not reflect
can delay rewards and gratifications (Javidan entirely the official geopolitical division of the
et al., 2006). country. He denominates the subculture
Finally, the humane orientation is con- observed in the Northeast region of the country
cerned with the extent to which the societies as the crioula culture and the subculture
reinforce altruism and the caring for others observed in the Northern region as the cabocla
(Javidan et al., 2006). Brazil scored relatively culture. As a result of the very authoritative and
high on this value dimension and medium on quite patriarchal social systems in these regions,
this practice dimension. Therefore, managers as well of the exploitation from the colonizers,
tend to be oriented toward consideration of the non-voluntary immigrants, such as African
others, but probably on an individualized basis slaves (Lesser, 2001) or Native Brazilians, put a
(Bertsh & Ondracek, 2010). GLOBE results lot of emphasis on group norms, group loyalty,
were, in a general way, consistent with the and the maintenance of their own survival,
earlier Hofsted’s results, in spite of being col- values that still persist in these regions. In the
lected within the past decade, and therefore Southern region, the influence of European
confirm continuing cultural differences nationals, which strongly emphasized their
between nations. However, those large inter- traditions and the gender differentiation, were
national studies do not permit evaluations of responsible for the adoption of conservative
intrinsic differences in cultural patterns, as, in values. This region still keeps some of the other
general, they collected data in only one place cultural characteristics of its European immi-
or city in each country. As such, we will exam- grants (Oliven, 1992), probably endorsing
ine in the next section the Brazilian within- values that are in-between those of more col-
cultural differences. lectivist orientation. Concerning the Center-
West region, the novelty of the transfer of
the capital to this region in 1960, appears to
Brazilian Within-Cultural Patterns
have brought an increase in the endorsement
Despite the studies that have been dedicated to of autonomy, self-direction, and other values
describing Brazilian cultural patterns in that relate to openness to change. Yet we could

assume a tendency for an increasing endorse- Minas Gerais), Lenartowics and Roth (2001)
ment of personal-focused values (Schwartz found significant differences in work-related
et al., 2012) in the region because of its rapid values, such as risk aversion, and the import-
economic development. In the Southeast ance for achievement across them. Hofstede
region, the large number of Japanese immi- (1980) also found distinct culture profiles for
grants brought with them their costumes, strict the Brazilian’s official geopolitical regions in
social norms, and high respect for their cultural samples of workers. He found the Southern
traditions (Oliven, 1992). The continuous region to be more individualistic, hierarchical,
industrialization process of the region calls for and masculine, and less formal; the Southeast
endorsement of a subculture that reflects an region was less masculine and shorter time-
individualist focus, whilst its colonization and oriented; the Center-West was less formal; the
immigration history suggests the adoption of Northeast was less hierarchical and masculine,
more group-centered values. and more formal; and the North was more
In more empirical-oriented studies, the informal, masculine, and collectivist. How-
within differences between Brazilian cultural ever, it should be noted that such differences
patterns have also been examined. For instance, were observed in the cultural-level of analysis.
Triandis, McCusker and Hui (1990) have Unfortunately, the majority of the studies
shown a considerable cultural variation among investigating within-culture differences in
regions of Brazil, with Southern Brazilians Brazil have used the cultural dimensions pre-
being more idiocentric (i.e., preferring individu- hoc to provide only context and background or
alistic values) than Northeastern Brazilians. post-hoc to explain unpredicted results without
Van Horn, Garian, Souza, and Feijó (1995) actually measuring the construct. Very few
provided further evidence that Brazil is not studies in other parts of the world have actu-
uniformly collectivist and also that there might ally measured the cultural values (e.g., Hof-
be variation regarding power distance in differ- stede, 1997). Similarly, few studies have
ent regions of the country. Studying middle- actually been conducted to investigate within-
and upper-class mothers and college students cultural differences in Brazil using actual
in Southern Brazil, Van Horn et al. (1995) Brazilian samples. At any rate, here we limit
observed that college students from Southern ourselves to recommending that new revisions
Brazil tend to be low in power distance. Fur- and studies be done to rigorously investigate
thermore, the Brazilian college students were as the differences between the subcultures in the
idiocentric as American students when it came regions of Brazil and identify the impact of
to self-reliance, interdependence, and distance these differences on specific behaviors. We will
from ingroups. They only expressed allocentric now move our focus to the Brazilian specific
attitudes in terms of family integrity. Van Horn cultural patterns revealed in some indigenous
and Marques (1999) also found that middle studies, where the researchers use theoretical
class mothers from Southern Brazil were similar frames of reference derived from the cultural
to their American counterparts in that they context of Brazil (Smith, 2007).
viewed their children as individuals with the
right to exercise personal choice, and did not
Brazilian General Cultural Patterns in
recognize a power differential in the
the Context of Indigenous Studies
parenthood–childhood relationship.
Comparing three states from Brazil’s South- Scholars from the anthropological, social, and
east region (Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, and psychological sciences have attempted to

describe the Brazilian cultural patterns based domain and power over both the slaves and
on the argument that Brazil has some general the property (Freyre, 1973). This led to the
cultural traits, despite the heterogeneity and establishment of a wide gap between the upper
diversity that also characterizes the society. and lower classes as well as within the authori-
Some of this work has also been integrated to tarian attitudes that have characterized the
the management literature as a way to show relationships between the State and its people
the interrelationships between the national and (Freitas, 1997). It is worthwhile mentioning
the organizational culture. Initially, anthro- again that in Hofstede’s (1997) study, Brazil
pologists, (e.g., DaMatta, 1986), historians also scored high in this dimension.
(e.g., Holanda, 1973), and sociologists (e.g.,
Freyre, 1963) have analyzed the historical
and cultural roots of the particular Brazilian The Value of Personal Relationships
way of life. Studies of these first national icons
Brazilians tend to place a great deal of import-
were used afterwards by some authors (Barros
ance on personal relationships and affective
& Prates, 1996; Freitas, 1997; Motta, 2010) to
ties (Barros & Prates, 1996). They emphasize
derive typical Brazilian organizational culture
the emotional expression and the informality
traits from their historical origins. These later
in social and interpersonal situations (Freitas,
studies were also theoretical in nature. More
1997; Motta, 2010), that is, they do not feel
recently, however, some empirical studies have
comfortable in formal situations and, there-
been conducted on this issue. In the Almeida’s
fore, try to change them to more informal
(2007) study, for instance, 2,363 Brazilians
and friendlier situations (DaMatta, 1986).
from a probabilistic sample that covered
Moreover, they mainly trust their relatives
102 Brazilian cities were interviewed in an
and friends to solve problems and attain their
attempt to describe the Brazilian culture pro-
objectives (Freitas, 1997). The origins of this
file. The cultural patterns that have emerged
behavior are also in the colonial period where
from all this literature are described below.
the patriarchal families were regulated by
They are: (1) hierarchy and power concentra-
blood and affective relationships (Holanda,
tion; (2) an increased value in personal rela-
1973).
tionships; (3)paternalism and strong loyalty to
one’s in-group leader; (4) formalism; (5) pos-
ture of spectator; and (6) flexibility.
Paternalism and Strong Loyalty to One’s
Ingroup Leader
Hierarchy and Power Concentration Paternalism can be viewed as a consequence
The concentration of power in the hands of of hierarchy and personal relationships, being
people that are on the top positions of polit- characterized by the kind of relationships
ical, social, or professional hierarchy is one of between leaders and subordinates whereby
the main characteristics of Brazilian society the former provides protection and guidance
(Almeida, 2007; Barros & Prates, 1996; Motta, to the latter, who in exchange gives his/her
2010). As already mentioned previously, its unconditional loyalty and deference (Barros
roots can be traced to colonial times, when & Prates, 1996; Freitas, 1997; Motta, 2010).
aristocratic European elite became responsible In other words, the leader protects the
for the patriarchal and enslaving family struc- members of the group, who in turn trust and
ture, whereby the patriarch had complete recognize his or her authority, and act

according to his/her orders (Barros & Prates, practices of the country (Zimmermann, 2009),
1996). or between what is written and what the people
actually do. For instance, the Brazilian Consti-
tution states that all Brazilian citizens have
Posture of Spectator
been granted social rights, such as salary floor
Brazilians tend to adopt a posture of spectator proportional to the extent and complexity of
toward the interpretations of problems and the work; protection of the labor market for
situations, accepting them passively and with- women; and prohibition of nocturne, danger-
out criticism, as though they are magic or ous or unhealthy to minors under eighteen –
fables (Almeida, 2007; Barros & Prates, and any work to children under sixteen, except
1996). This means that the employees only as an apprentice from the age of fourteen. Yet
engage in solving those problems when they none of these points have been respected.
have an order to do so. As a consequence of Women have systematically had fewer job
this passive and fatalist behavior, ideas and offers than men, and when offered a job their
solutions are imported from abroad, or even income is on average 62.5 percent less than that
come from the government, while the responsi- of their male colleagues. Children’s work is
bility of the mistakes and difficulties are in also not protected. More than 2.7 million
general attributed to the leaders of the groups. youngsters between five and seventeen years
The origins of this trait are in the power con- of age work in the country, including 79,000
centration and in the paternalism that has children who are between five and nine years
marked the structure of the Brazilian society old (IBGE – Brazilian Institute of Geography
(Barros & Prates, 1996) and which establishes and Statistics, 2018). About 30 percent of child
even more hierarchical relations. labor is concentrated in the agricultural sector,
and 60 percent is concentrated in the North
and Northeast regions. Of those, 65 percent of
Formalism
the children are Black and 70 percent are boys.
Despite its characteristic informality in social
relations, Brazilian society tends to create a lot
of rules and norms as a strategy to deal with
Flexibility
ambiguity, uncertainty, and risk as well as to
resist change. At the same time, however, these This trait represents the capacity of the Brazil-
rules and norms are not always obeyed, that is, ian people to adapt to the excessive formality
in many occasions what is written is not what and hierarchy of the society (Barros & Prates,
is done, since people accept the rules, but do 1996). It represents, therefore, the use of cre-
not follow them in practice (Barros & Prates, ativity as a way of acting between what is and
1996). As already mentioned, this excessive what is not allowed, between the impersonal
formalism of Brazilian society is also attrib- and personal relationships, demonstrated in
uted to the colonial period and to the fact that communication, ways of dressing, perception
legislation in force since that time was based of time, and so on (Freitas, 1997). The best
on the foreign models and does not consider expression of this flexibility is the Brazilian
the Brazilian social-cultural context in which jeitinho (Barros & Prates, 1996) – presented
it should have been applied (Zimmermann, in the next section – which can be considered
2009). Over the years, this situation has led one of the most typical traits of the Brazilian
to the distancing of the law from the social culture.

In summary, the general cultural patterns with its counterparts and is reported to be a
suggested as typical of the Brazilian society strong characteristic of behavior in many seg-
were well synthesized a long time ago by Can- ments of society in Brazil, including business
dido (1972). Using a metaphor to discuss the organizations (Barbosa, 2006; Duarte, 2006).
Brazilian national culture, the author contends The concept refers to creative ingenuity in rap-
that Brazil can be represented by the image of idly achieving short-term solutions to prob-
a big family in which there is a consensus lems. There is no need for any kind of
regarding the authority of the father. previous relationship between the parties
involved in this process, both usually
remaining as anonymous figures bounded only
Is Jeitinho a Brazilian Indigenous
by one’s necessity, and the other’s power to
Cultural Pattern?
grant it. The path to achieving the jeitinho
People exhibit variations in indigenous cul- may include ways of circumventing bureau-
tural expressions, one being the type of infor- cratic rules or ways of handling potential diffi-
mal influence process typically used by culties with superiors in a strongly hierarchical
individuals in those societies. Researchers have context.
identified distinctive modes of interpersonal In the Brazilian society, this process is
influence in collectivistic cultures (Amado & described by Barbosa (2006) in the center of a
Vinagre-Brasil, 1991; Aycan, 2008; Cunning- continuum, in which the positive extreme
ham & Sarayrah, 1993; Xin & Pearce, 1996). approaches a favor-like action, while the nega-
These models of indigenous influences, tive approaches the idea of corruption. Bar-
according to Smith, Huang, Harb and Torres bosa (2006) distinguishes between dar um
(2011), have mostly been proposed by jeitinho (“to have a way out”) and the jeitinho
researchers located within more collectivistic brasileiro (“Brazilian way out”). The first
cultures. For the authors, most models used expression can be described as the solution to
to describe informal influence processes have a problem no matter what, even when it seems
originated within individualistic cultures. that it cannot be solved through legal or offi-
Examples of indigenous informal influence cial procedure. In this sense, dar um jeitinho
processes are the amae in Japan, and the wasta has a negative connotation and its meaning is
in Muslin countries. close to corruption. The second term, on the
An important indigenous informal influence other hand, is seen as using originality and
process in Brazilian culture is jeitinho (Amado simplicity to deal with everyday events.
& Vinagre-Brasil, 1991; Barbosa, 2006; Droo- Having a positive connotation, jeitinho brasi-
gers, 1988), which is a very important concept leiro refers to, for example, using a hair pin to
to consider when trying to understand Brazil- make a broken machine work, or using some
ians’ worldview. As cited before, Jeitinho is a books to make a desk stable. This phenom-
Portuguese term that is difficult to translate, enon is explicit and legitimate in the Brazilian
which means that a problem should be society and may be used by everyone, includ-
accepted as given, and that “there might be ing different organizational levels, as men-
no ways to reach the goal, but in a certain tioned before (Almeida, 2007).
way we will achieve it anyway” (Droogers, Yet, for the use of the jeitinho, what matters
1988; p. 699). most are not the laws or social status, but
This influence process appears to be com- rather the rupture of hierarchy, leading
monly used in business negotiations of Brazil toward equality and a positive and diffuse

reciprocity. The decisiveness of succumbing or namely conservatism and self-transcendence.

not to jeitinho lies greatly in the social abilities By focusing on mean differences at the
of the asking individual (the petitioner). It national level, the authors showed some evi-
involves working through others on an egali- dence that prevailing values can provide a
tarian basis. The effectiveness of the jeitinho guide as to whether these types of influence
relies deeply on factors that are opposite to processes would be frequent and evidence for
those expected in a bureaucratic system, such their distinctiveness.
as the Brazilian one (Dessen & Torres, 2002). Building on these results, Smith et al. (2012)
It has an intrinsic appeal to the emotional, had managers in five nations, including Brazil,
rather than rational side of people. Jeitinho rate scenarios exemplifying indigenous forms
involves the use of behavioral tactics, such as of informal influence processes, including jei-
excuses and justifications, where the reasoning tinho. It was observed that while jeitinho was
is based on a personal situation that differenti- found to be widely disseminated in business
ates the person asking for the jeitinho from environments in Brazil, they occur more fre-
others in the society. quently in contexts characterized by high self-
As jeitinho represents a social procedure enhancement values, low self-transcendence
implicitly learned; it does not actually have values, and high endorsement of business cor-
any specific systematic registering (Torres & ruptibility. The authors had an intriguing find-
Dessen, 2006). It is embedded in the nucleus ing that “while there is evidence for the
of the Brazilian society, and is usually passed distinctiveness of jeitinho to Brazil, the Brazil-
on through the daily experienced situations, or ian ratings of positivity were particularly low
oral tradition, throughout the generations in and lowest of all in respect of jeitinho” (Smith
the country. Attempts have been made to et al., 2012, p. 343) The distinctive Brazilian
empirically investigate the differences between combination of frequent informal influence
jeitinho and other indigenous informal influ- processes and their relatively lesser popularity
ence process, as well as its impact on different underlines the need for distinctive Brazilian
variables. In this way, Smith et al. (1994) management practices (Tanure & Duarte
observed a great similarity between the Brazil- 2005).
ian jeitinho and the notion of improvisation Pilati et al. (2011), in an effort to systematize
found in other Hispanic cultures. Smith, the ways Brazilians conceptualize jeitinho,
Huang, Harb, and Torres (2011) investigated identified seven themes related to the process:
the cultural specificity of jeitinho among stu- sympathy, harm to others, trickery, disregard
dents, along with three other informal influ- for social rules, innovative processes, power
ence processes (i.e., guanxi, wasta, and pulling relation, and compensation. As a result, the
strings) present in other cultures. Brazilian par- authors defined jeitinho as an innovative
ticipants understood jeitinho as being more problem-solving strategy whereby the individ-
representative of the locally indigenous pro- ual uses social influence combined with cun-
cess, but saw it as moderately typical and less ning tricks to achieve goals, despite the fact
frequent than some other types of influence in that it breaks formal rules (e.g., using a family
Brazil. Also, individual values predicted the connection to achieve a prominent position).
positivity of jeitinho, with self-enhancement Exploring the structure and psychological
values having a stronger predictor of positivity makeup of jeitinho, Ferreira et al. (2012) pro-
than the values that are often thought of as vided evidence that it can be described by a
more characteristic of collectivist cultures, three-dimensional structure: corruption,

creativity, and social norm breaking. They and experiences about Brazil and its people,
have also shown that moral leniency is associ- which were posted online on the web, or pub-
ated with more corruption and social norm lished in Brazilian newspaper articles as inter-
breaking, which leads to the understanding of views with expatriates from different countries
jeitinho as a complex sociocultural strategy and also with Brazilian managers. We believe
that has distinct functional components at the that they can also help us to understand the
personal and normative levels. Brazilian way of life and of doing business,
Similar aspects should be noticed in all the and to provide more elements for the building
above-mentioned studies. In the methodo- of intercultural training programs with a
logical point of view, all of them investigated focus on Brazilian culture. These materials
jeitinho with the help of scenarios, which were categorized in four clusters (communica-
appears to be a good strategy for investigating tion, perception of time, relationships, and
indigenous processes, at least in Brazil. management and business styles) and are pre-
Regarding the pragmatic value of these con- sented below.
cepts locally, their comparative testing can
contribute to the development of culture-
general models of social influence processes.
Communication
Finally, it should be noticed that jeitinho,
whether a truly indigenous aspect of the Bra- Brazilians tend to be warm, uncomplicated,
zilian culture or not, appears to be a critical relaxed, and thoughtful, and their tone of con-
aspect in Brazilian interactions. This is more versation reflects this outlook. When they meet
even so in business organizations, where the someone for the first time they usually shake
process is often used to achieve short-term hands. When meeting the same person again,
solutions to problems. Rather than being most men tend to shake hands with men and women
focused on the relations between superiors and tend to kiss each other twice on alternating
their organizational subordinates, such as cheeks, that is, they touch their cheeks and kiss
other informal influence process like guanxi the air. Men and women kiss each other in the
(e.g., Cheung et al., 2009), jeitinho appears to same fashion, but not usually at the first meet-
occur in and across all hierarchical levels of the ing. Professional titles and Mr. or Mrs. are
organization, and is definitely something to be used in general only in introductions or with
looked upon when doing business in Brazil. bosses, since Brazilians address their col-
leagues and supervisors on first name basis in
a very informal way.
Conclusion They also tend to speak with their hands and
We have presented the main Brazilian cultural body, and to get physically close to each other
patterns that have emerged more frequently in when a conversation is taking place, no matter
etic and emic cultural studies. Some of these what the relationship is between them. When
patterns have appeared in both type of studies, they are talking, their hands and arms make a
while others are specific to etic or emic studies. lot of movements, and when the other person
However, these patterns manifest themselves is talking they use a lot of head movements
through attitudes and behaviors that are and say supportive remarks, showing their
adopted in social encounters. As a way of agreement, or at least understanding. A touch
illustrating the operation of these cultural pat- on the arm or a pat on the back is common in
terns, we analyzed some narratives, stories, normal conversation and even in business

relations, no matter the gender or status in the If Brazilians are late because a previous engage-
relationship. ment took longer than expected, they will view
Eye contact is also important, as a demon- the delay with another meeting as a natural
stration of sincerity and interest in the conver- consequence. Deadlines can be flexible,
sation and in the person being spoken to. depending very much on the situation. How-
However, if another person is consciously ever, if a subordinate encounters difficulties
attempting to communicate sincerity with a meeting the original dates, he or she is expected
Brazilian, he or she should avoid giving the to discuss the issue with his or her supervisor.
impression that he or she is crossing the line The best time to call a Brazilian executive is
into flirting. This is especially important if a between 10 a.m. and noon and again between 3
woman is communicating with a man. The p.m. and 5 p.m. In social occasions, the time
“okay” sign used in North America (thumb tolerance is larger than in the workplace, and
and index finger joined in an “o”) closely the more people involved, the more time toler-
resembles an offensive Brazilian hand gesture, ance is granted. People invited to a Brazilian
with a sexual, offensive and defiant connota- house are expected to arrive at least thirty min-
tion, similar to two fingers forming a V sign, utes late if the invitation is for dinner, but if the
palm inward, in England, or the “middle invitation is to a party or a large gathering the
finger” gesture in the USA. In Brazil the expectation is that people will arrive at least one
“thumbs-up” sign is used to indicate approval. hour late. All this seems to be a reflection of
Brazilians, like their Latin neighbors, dis- what Levine (1997) observed as an interaction
play their emotions openly and do not hold between the pace of life and some ecological
back their feelings. Affection is shown mainly elements, such as weather. For the author, the
between siblings, parents, friends, and rela- stereotype about life being slower in warmer
tives. It’s common to see young couples places has proved to be true in Brazil. On his
embracing in public places. To attend a party thirty-one-country study about the establish-
means to celebrate, to laugh loud, and to ment of tempo norms, of the nations with
dance, and there is nothing wrong with singing slowest pace of time, Brazil, along with Mexico
in public either. On the other hand, when one’s and Indonesia, was one of the countries with
mother dies or one is injured in love, showing the slowest pace of time. As noticed by the
emotions by crying is acceptable for both men scholar, in Brazil three hours late may be
and women. If one is not happy with service in acceptable, although it might depend on the
a restaurant, it is common to complain loudly. situation. For the author, Brazilians understand
There is always a good chance of other people people who are late for appointments as being
getting involved, either agreeing with the com- more relaxed and happier, interpreting that in
plainant, or taking the opposite view. the country a person’s feelings are more import-
ant than time accuracy – whichcan be con-
sidered as a collectivistic characteristic.
Perception of time
In Brazil, the perception of time differs
Relationships
according to the context. At the workplace,
punctuality is expected, although a ten-minute Brazilians put great emphasis on building and
tolerance is usually acceptable. However, busi- maintaining personal relationships with col-
ness meetings usually start later than scheduled, leagues as well as with clients, since they tend
and anything up to a one-hour delay is normal. to believe that making friends and enjoying life

is a very important goal to be achieved. In team’s work, pointing to the right direction.
doing business, they seek to establish personal He or she should also make sure that condi-
relationships before getting to business because tions within the team are established so that
they need to know who they are doing business everyone can feel comfortable. Contacts with
with before they can work effectively. As such, subordinates are usually informal and they are
they often invite their clients to dinner at their treated as colleagues, as long as there is respect
home, to dine out with the respective spouses, and understanding of each other’s roles, and
or to a family weekend at their summer house clarity around authority and one’s position in
at the beach or on the hills. Many real negoti- the hierarchy.
ations take place in these parallel informal Ideas are frequently generated at the very
meetings instead of at the negotiation table. top of the organization and seldom come from
Another way Brazilians establish relation- lower levels. For this reason, discussions, as
ships, is by spending some time at the begin- well as offering opinions or recommendations
ning of every business meeting discussing to one’s immediate supervisor about project
generic topics other than the specific objective ideas, would seem intrusive. There will, of
of the meeting (such as a soccer match, a course, be exceptions. Performance occurs on
tourist travel, or the weekend). Whereas men demand, that is, the general expectation is that
will joke with each other when initiating a employees are given a task and need to com-
meeting, they will seldom do so with women, plete it with compliance. Regulations are
with whom they will speak politely. pretty well defined.
Favors and preferential treatments to per- In negotiations, Brazilians tend to use a flex-
sonal friends and colleagues are often expected ible and spontaneous style that does not
and seen as natural among Brazilians (not as always follow logical steps or have a clear
corruption or bribery). If people are friends goal. They are never in a hurry and prefer to
with the boss, if they come from a higher social discuss matters exhaustively before making
class, or if they are related to a prominent decisions, which are usually guided not only
family, they are expected to have advantages rationally, but also by intuition. There are,
over others. When something is threatening however, important differences between pri-
the success of a project, a single call from one vate and public institutions. As such, the Bra-
friend to another can get things moving again. zilian public sector is more formalized and
The focus on personal relationships makes bureaucratic than private sector organizations,
Brazilians avoid conflicts. In order to do so, while the private sector tends to have more
they prefer to use an indirect communication entrepreneurial-minded people, with fewer
style that does not cause embarrassment, and layers of decision-making than the public-
resolve disagreements in a friendly manner sector organizations.
rather than doing it aggressively. It is not
acceptable, for instance, to lose patience with
Final Remarks
employees. The situation needs to be recon-
sidered in some way to avoid conflicts. Brazil’s continental dimensions, as well as the
profound miscegenation that marked the for-
mation of its people, were responsible for the
Management and Business Styles
configuration of the Brazilian geographical
The effective manager is perceived as a team regions and the subcultures associated to it
player and should act as the facilitator of the (Caldas, 2009). As such, it is difficult to

conceive a unique image of Brazil (Samara, Baer, W. (2008). The Brazilian Economy: Growth
2010). Therefore, in this chapter, we did not and Development. Boulder, OH, and London,
have the intention of characterizing the multi- UK: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
plicity of Brazilian constructs, as this would Barbosa, L. (2006). O jeitinho brasileiro: A arte de
ser mais igual do que os outros [The Brazilian
be, we believe, an impossible task in the enor-
Jeitinho: The art of being more equal than
mous diversity of the social contexts in Brazil.
others]. São Paulo, Brazil: Campus.
Despite the great heterogeneity and diver-
Barros, B. T., & Prates, M. A. S. (1996) O estilo
sity that are present in Brazilian culture, the brasileiro de administrar [Brazilian management
country does have some general cultural pat- style]. São Paulo, Brazil: Atlas.
terns or national traits that tend to appear not Berry, J. (1989). Imposed etics-emics-derived etics:
only in cross-cultural quantitative studies, but The operationalization of a compelling idea.
also in qualitative indigenous studies. This is International Journal of Psychology, 24,
an indication that these regular tendencies 721–735.
underlie the heterogeneity of the culture Bertsch, A., & Ondracek, J. (2010). The risks and
(Islam, 2010). It is then possible to speak of rewards of doing business in Brazil: Can Brazil
Brazilian cultural common patterns that have escape the fate of Greece? Mountain Plains
Journal of Business and Economics, 11, 23–42.
socio-historical origins and underlie the most
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2008). Globalization and
frequent Brazilian behaviors and attitudes
indigenous cultures: Homogenization or
(Freitas, 1997). This does not mean to say that
differentiation? International Journal of
these cultural patterns are fixed or immutable, Intercultural Relations, 32, 305–317.
since they coexist at present with the cultural Black, J. S., & Mendenhall, M. (1990). Cross-
patterns brought about by globalization, tech- cultural effectiveness: A review and a theoretical
nology advancements, and all other develop- framework for future research. Academy of
ments characteristic of contemporary societies, Management Review, 15(1), 113–136.
giving space to multiple behavior codes and Brasil: Banco Central do Brasil (2018). The Real
showing the challenges of a relational society. Plan stabilization program. Retrieved February
12, 2018, from www.bcb.gov.br/en/
monetarypolicy/realplan
References Caldas, M. P. (2009). Culturas brasileiras:
Entendendo perfis culturais no plural e em
Almeida, A. C. (2007). A cabeça do brasileiro [The mutação [Brazilian cultures: Understanding
head of Brazilians]. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: cultural profiles in the plural and mutation]. In
Record. L. Barbosa (Ed.), Cultura e diferença nas
Amado, G., & Vinagre-Brasil, H. V. (1991). organizações: Reflexões sobre nós e os outros
Organizational behaviors and cultural context: [Culture and difference in organizations:
The Brazilian “Jeitinho.” International Studies of Reflecting about us and the others]. São Paulo,
Management and Organization, 21(3), 38–61. Brazil: Atlas.
Asgary, N., & Walle, A. H. (2002). The cultural Caligiuri, P., Phillips, J., Lazarova, M., Tarique, I.,
impact of globalisation: Economic activity and & Bürgi, P. (2001). The theory of met
social change. Cross Cultural Management, 9(3), expectations applied to expatriate adjustment:
58–72. The role of cross-cultural training. International
Aycan, Z. (2008). Cross-cultural perspectives on Journal of Human Resource Management, 12(3),
work-family conflict. In K. Korabik & D. Lero 357–372.
(Eds.), Handbook of work-family conflict (pp. Candido, A. (1972). The Brazilian family. In T. L.
359–371). London, UK: Cambridge University. Smith & A. Marchant (Eds.), Brazil: Portrait of

half a continent (pp. 291–312). Westport, CT: Duarte, F. (2006). Exploring the interpersonal
Greenwood Press. transaction of the Brazilian jeitinho in
Carl, D., Gupta, V., & Javidan, M. (2004). Power bureaucratic contexts. Organization, 13, 509–528.
distance. In D. House, P. J. Hanges, M. Javidan, Ettorre, B. (1998). A business case for today’s Brasil
P. Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, and Argentina. Management Review, 87(9),
leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study 10–15.
of 62 societies (pp. 513–563). Thousand Oaks, Ferreira, M. C., Fischer, R., Porto, J. B., Pilati, R.,
CA, Sage. & Milfont, T. (2012). Unraveling the mystery of
Cheung, M. F. Y., Wu, W.-P., Chan, A. K. K., & Brazilian jeitinho: A cultural exploration of
Wong, M. M. L. (2009). Supervisor-subordinate social norms. Journal of Cross Cultural
guanxi and employee work outcomes: The Psychology, 38(3) 331–344.
mediating role of job satisfaction. Journal of Fiúza, G. (2006). 3.000 dias no bunker. Rio de
Business Ethics, 88, 77–89 Janeiro, Brazil: Record.
Chiochetta, J. C., Hatakeyama, K., & Leite, M. L. Forster, N. (2000) Expatriates and the impact of
(2004). Evolução histórica da indústria brasileira: cross-cultural training. Human Resource
Desafios, oportunidades e formas de gestão Management Journal, 10(3), 63–78.
[Historical evolution of Brazilian industry: Freitas, A. B. (1997). Traços brasileiros para uma
Challenges, opportunities and management análise organizacional [Brazilian traits for
models]. In Congresso Brasileiro do Ensino de organizational analysis]. In M. P. Caldas & F.
Engenharia-COBENGE2004 [Brazilian Congress C. P. Motta (Eds), Cultura organizacional e
of Engineering Teaching]. Brasília: COBENGE. cultura brasileira [Organizational culture and
Accessed at: www.pg.cefetpr.br/ppgep/Ebook/ Brazilian culture]. Sao Paulo, Brazil: Atlas.
ARTIGOS/17.pdf Freyre, G. (1973). Casa grande & senzala [The big
Costa, J. P. C. (2007). De decasségui a emigrante. house and the house of slaves] (12th ed.).
Brasília: Fundação Alexandre Gusmão Brasilia: UnB.
Cunningham, R. B., & Sarayrah, Y. K. (1993). Friedlmeier, W. (1995). Subjektive
Wasta: The hidden force in Middle Eastern Erziehungstheoreien im Kulturvergleich
society. Westport, CT: Praeger. [Subjective educational theories in cultural
DaMatta, R. (1986). O que faz o brasil, Brasil? comparison]. In G. Trommsdorff (Ed.), Kindheit
[What does brazil, Brazil?]. Rio de Janeiro, und Jugend in verschiedenen Kulturen (pp.
Brazil: Rocco. 43–64). Weinheim, Germany: Juventa.
Dessen, M. A., & Torres, C. V. (2002). Family and Geiger, P. P. (1967). Geografia e planejamento.
socialization factors in Brazil: An overview. In Revista Brasileira de Geografia, 29(3), 25–58.
W. J. Lonner, D. L. Dinnel, S. A. Hayes, & D. Gomes, M. A. (2008). Antes do Kasato Maru:
N. Sattler (Eds.), Online readings in psychology Centenário da colônia agrícola japonesa na
and culture (Vol. 13, pp. 1–11).Washington, DC. fazenda Santo Antônio [Before Kasato Maru:
D’Iribarne, P. (1983). La logique d’honneur: gestion The centenary of the agricultural Japanese
des entreprises et traditions nationales. France: colony in the Santo Antonio farm]. Macabú, Rio
Éditions du Seuil. de Janeiro, Brazil.
D’Iribarne, P. (2009). Conceptualizing national Guss, D. C. (2011). Fire and ice: Testing a model on
cultures: An antthropological perspective. culture and complex problem solving. Journal of
European Journal of International Management. Cross-Cultural Psychology, 42(7) 1279–1298.
3(2). 167–175. DOI: 10.1504/EJIM.2009.02432 Hall, E. T. (1966). The hidden dimension. New York,
Droogers, A. (1988). Brazilian minimal religiosity. NY: Doubleday.
In G. Banck & K. Koonings (Eds.), Social Hall, E. T. (1985). Hidden Differences: Studies in
change in contemporary Brasil (pp. 165–175). International Ccommunication. Hamburg,
Amsterdam, Netherlands: CEDLA. Germany: Grunder and Jahr.

Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). Cross cultural lessons in leadership from project
The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and GLOBE. Academy of Management Perspectives,
Brain Sciences, 33(1), 61–135. DOI: 10.1017/ February, 67–90.
S0140525X0999152X Kim, U., Yang, K., & Hwang, K. K. (Eds.). (2006).
Higuchi, N. (2005). Brazilian migration to Japan – Indigenous and cultural psychology:
Trends modalities and impact. Expert group Understanding people in context. New York, NY:
meeting on international migration and Springer SBM Publications.
development in Latin America and the Caribbean. Kinzo, M. D. (2001). A democratização brasileira
Cidade do México, Mexico: Population [The Brazilian democratization]. São Paulo em
Division, Department of Economic and Social Perspectiva, 15, 3–12.
Affairs, United Nations Secretariat. Kobayashi-Hillary, M. (2007). Global services:
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: Moving to a level playing field. London, UK:
International differences in work related values. British Computer Society.
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Kotabe, M., & Helsen, K. (2001) Marketing global
Hofstede, G. (1997). Cultures and organizations: marketing. Mexico: Limusa Wiley.
Software of the mind. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. Kotzur, P. F., Torres, C. V., Kedzior, K. K., &
Hofstede, G. (2003). Cultures and organizations. Boehnke, K. (2015). Political consumer behaviour
Software of the Mind (3rd ed.). New York, NY: among university students in Brazil and Germany:
McGraw-Hill Education. The role of contextual features and core political
Holanda, S. B. (1973). Raízes do Brasil [Roots of values. International Journal of Psychology, 52(2),
Brazil] (7th ed.). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Livraria 126–135. DOI: 10.1002/ijop.12204
José Olympio Editora. Landis, D., & Bhagat, R. (1996). Handbook of
House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan,M., Dorfman, intercultural training (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks,
P. W., & Gupta, V. (Eds.). (2004). Culture, CA: Sage.
leadership and organizations: The GLOBE study Lenartowics, T., & Roth, K. (2001). Does
of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. subculture within a country matter? A cross-
IBGE – Brazilian Institute of Geography and culture study of motivational domains and
Statistics. (2018). Aspectos demográficos: Notas business performance in Brazil. Journal of
Estatísticas. Retrieved March 6, 2018, from International Business Studies, 32(2), 305–325.
http://stat.correioweb.com.br/euestudante/censo/ Lesser, J. (2001). Negotiating national identity:
2016/notas-estatisticas-censo-da-educacao- Immigrants, minorities, and the struggle for
superior-2016.pdf ethnicity in Brazil. New York, NY: Duke
INEP – Instituto Nacional de Estudos e Pesquisas University Press.
Educacionais Anísio Teixeira. (2017). Censo da Lesser, J. (2015). A invenção da brasilidade:
Educação Superior 2016: Notas Estatísticas. Identidade nacional, etnicidade e políticas de
Retrieved March 21, 2018, from www.ibge.gov imigração [The invention of the Brasilianity:
.br/home/estatistica/populacao/condicaodevida/ National identity, ethnicity, and immigration
indicadoresminimos/tabela1.shtm policies]. São Paulo, Brazil: Editora Unesp.
Islam, G. (2010). Between unity and diversity: Levine, R. (1997). A geography of time: The
Historical and cultural foundations of Brazilian temporal misadventures of a social psychologist,
management. Insper Working Paper 218. or how every culture keeps time just a little bit
Accessed at www.insper.edu.br/working-papers/ differently. New York, NY: BasicBooks.
working-papers-2010/between-unity-and- Luthans, F., & Doh, J. P. (2009). International
diversity-historical-and-cultural-foundations-of- management: Culture, strategy and behaviour
brazilian-management/ (7th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Irwin.
Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., de Luque, M. S., & Martins, M. A. C. (2001). Regimes constitucionais,
House, R. J. (2006). In the eye of the beholder: crescimento e estagnação na economia brasileira:

1947–1999 [Constitutional regime, growth and Pilati, R., Milfont, T., Ferreira, M. C., Porto, J., &
stagnation in Brazilian economy: 1947–1999]. Fischer, R. (2011). Brazilian jeitinho:
Brasília: Universidade de Brasília. Accessed at Understanding and explaining an indigenous
www.aeconomiadobrasil.com.br/artigo.php? psychological construct. Interamerican Journal
artigo=87 of Psychology, 45, 29–38.
Messa, A. (2013). Structural change in the Brazilian Ribeiro, D. (1997). O povo brasileiro: a formação e
economy in the 2000s. Revista de Economia sentido do Brasil [Brazilian people: The
Contemporânea, 17(3), 452–467. DOI: 10.1590/ formation and meaning of Brazil]. São Paulo,
S1415-98482013000300003 Brazil: Companhia das Letras.
Motta, F. C. P. (2010). Cultura e organizações no Samara, E. M. (2010). Família, mulheres e
Brasil [Culture and organizations in Brazil]. In povoamento: São Paulo, século XVII [Family,
F. C. Motta, & M. & Caldas (Eds.), Cultura women and population: São Paulo, 17th
organizacional e cultura brasileira century]. São Paulo, Brazil: EDUSC,
[Organizational culture and Brazilian culture] Editora da Universidade do Sagrado
(pp. 25–37). São Paulo, Brazil: Atlas. Coração.
Nascimento, T. G. (2014). Performance compétente: Schwartz, S. H., Caprara, G. V., & Vecchione, M.
Relations avec valeurs, pratiques et identité dans (2010). Basic personal values, core
le service de police. Doctoral Thesis obtained at political values, and voting: A longitudinal
the Centre d’Études et de Recherche en analysis. Political Psychology, 31,
Gestion – CERGAM – l’École Doctorale de 421–452.
Sciences Économiques et de Gestion de Schwartz, S. H., Cieciuch, J., Vecchione, M.,
l’Université d’Aix–Marseille. Marseille, France. Davidov, E., Fischer, R., Beierlein, C., Ramos,
OECD: OECD Income Distribution Database A., Verkasalo, M., Lönnqvist, J.-E., Demirutku,
(IDD): Gini, poverty, income, Methods and K., Dirilen-Gumus, O., & Konty, M. (2012).
Concepts. Retrieved March 1, 2018, from www Refining the theory of basic individual values.
.oecd.org/social/income-distribution-database Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
.htm 103(4), 663–688.
O’Keefe, H., & O’Keefe, W. M. (2004). Business Singelis, T. M., Triandis, H. C., Bhawuk, D. P. S.,
behaviors in Brazil and the USA: Understanding & Gelfand, M. J. (1995). Horizontal and
the gaps. International Journal of Social vertical dimensions of individualism and
Economics, 31(5/6), 614–622. collectivism: A theoretical and measurement
Oliven, G. R. (1992). A parte e o todo: A diversidade refinement. Cross-Cultural Research, 29,
cultural no Brasil-nação [The part and the whole: 240–275.
The cultural diversity in Brazil]. Petrópolis, Smith, P. B. (2007). Towards studies of
Brazil: Vozes. organizational behaviour with greater local
O’Neill, J. (2001). Building better global economic relevance. Revista de Psicología, 25(2),
BRICs. Global Economics Paper No: 66. 177–198.
Accessed at www.goldmansachs.com/ideas/brics/ Smith, P. B., & Bond, M. H. (1999). Social
building-better-doc.pdf psychology: Across cultures (2nd ed.). Boston,
Pearson, V. M., & Stephan, W. G. (1998). MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Preferences for styles of negotiation: Smith, P. B., Huang, H. J., Harb, C., & Torres, C.
A comparison of Brazil and the U.S. V. (2011). How distinctive are indigenous ways
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, of achieving influence? A comparative study of
22, 67–83. guanxi, wasta, jeitinho, and “pulling strings.”
Penha, E. A. (1993). A criação do IBGE no contexto Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1–18.
da centralização política do Estado Novo. Rio de Smith, P. B., Peterson, M. F., Akande, D., Callan,
Janeiro, Brazil: CCDI/IBGE. V., Cho, N. G., Jesuino, J., D’Amorim, M. A.,

Koopman, P., Leung, K., Mortazawi, S., Torres, C. V., & Pérez-Nebra, A. R. (2015).
Munene, J., Radford, M., Ropo, A., Evaluación del individualismo-colectivismo
Savage, G., & Viedge, C. (1994). Organizational vertical-horizontal en Brasil: una propuesta
event management in fourteen countries: de medida. Perspectivas en Psicología, 12(2),
A comparison with Hofstede’s dimensions. In A. 9–21.
M. Bouvy, F. van der Vijver, P. Schmitz, & P. Triandis, H. C. (1994). Cross-cultural industrial and
Boski (Eds.), Journeys into cross-cultural organizational psychology. In H. C. Triandis,
psychology (pp. 364–373). Amsterdam, M. D. Dunnette, & L. M. Hough (Eds.),
Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger. Handbook of industrial and organizational
Smith, P. B., Torres, C. V., Leong, C. H., Budhwar, psychology (Vol. 4, 2nd. ed., pp. 103–172). Palo
P., Achoui, M., & Lebedeva, N. (2012). Are Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
indigenous approaches to achieving influence in Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and
business organizations distinctive? collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview
A comparative study of guanxi, wasta, jeitinho, Press.
svyazi, and “pulling strings.” International Triandis, H. C. (2001). Individualism–collectivism
Journal of Human Resource Management, 23, and personality. Journal of Personality, 69(6),
333–348. 907–924. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-
Søndergaard, M. (1994). Research note: Hofstede’s 6494.696169
consequences: A study of reviews, citations and Triandis, H. C., & Gelfand, M. J. (1998).
replications. Organization Studies, 15(3), Converging measurement of horizontal and
447–456. vertical individualism and collectivism. Journal
Strohschneider, S., & Güss, D. (1998). Planning and of Personality and Social Psychology, 74,
problem solving: Differences between Brazilians 118–128.
and German students. Journal of Cross-Cultural Triandis, H. C., McCusker, C., & Hui, C. H. (1990).
Psychology, 29, 695–716. Multimethod probes of individualism and
Tanure, B. (2004) Gestão à Brasileira (3rd ed.) collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social
[Management made in Brazil] Sao Paulo, Brazil: Psychology, 59, 1006–1020.
Atlas. Van Horn, K. R., Garian, K. R., Souza, E. Z., &
Tanure, B., & Duarte, R. G. (2005). Leveraging Feijó, M. (1995). Cultural attitudes and values in
competitiveness upon national cultural traits: Brazilian and US college students. XXV
The management of people in Brazilian Interamerican Congress of Psychology. San Juan,
companies. International Journal of Human Porto Rico.
Resource Management, 16, Van Horn, K. R., & Marques, J. C. (1999).
2201–2217. Development of interpersonal negotiation
Torres, C. V., & Dessen, M. A. (2006). The strategies in Brazilian adolescents. Interamerican
Brazilian jeitinho: Brazil’s sub-cultures, its Journal of Psychology, 32, 21–31.
diversity of social contexts, and its family Vercueil, J. (2010). Les pays émergents. Brésil-
structures. In J. Georgas, J. W. Berry, F. J. R. Russie-Inde-Chine: Mutations économiques et
van de Vijver, C. Kagitçibasi, & Y. H. Poortinga nouveaux défis. Paris, France: Bréal.
(Eds.). Families across cultures: A 30-nation Xin, K. R., & J. L. Pearce. (1996). Guanxi:
psychological study (pp.259–267). Connections as substitutes for formal
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University institutional support. Academy of Management
Press. Journal, 39, 1461–1568.
Torres, C. V., & Dessen, M. A. (2008). Brazilian Woortman, E. F. (1988). Colonos e Sitiantes: um
culture, family, and its ethnic-cultural variety. estudo do parentesco e reprodução camponesa
Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies, 12, [Colonizees and Invators: A study of the
41–62. parenthood and country reproduction].

[Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Worldometers (February 28, 2018). Retrieved from

Department of Anthropology, University of www.worldometers.info/world-population/
Brasília, Brazil. brazil-population/
World Bank (April 20, 2017). Retrieved from http:// Zimmermann, Z. (2009). Law and society in Brazil:
data.isdb.org/pxfdrcg/world-bank-development- The prevailing perceptions of law in Brazilian
indicators-wdi-2017-idb-aggregates?tsId= society. International Journal of Private Law, 2,
1009900 15–30.

Landis Dan Bhawuk Dharm p Eds the Cambridge Handbook of Inte

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Landis Dan Bhawuk Dharm p Eds the Cambridge Handbook of Inte

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Cambridge Handbook of Intercultural Training

With the number of international migrants globally reaching an estimated

d a n l a nd i s is Afﬁliate Professor of Psychology, University of Hawaii, USA,

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

Published online by Cambridge University Press

With the number of international migrants globally reaching an estimated

d a n l a nd i s is Afﬁliate Professor of Psychology, University of Hawaii, USA,

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

Published online by Cambridge University Press

With the number of international migrants globally reaching an estimated

d a n l a nd i s is Afﬁliate Professor of Psychology, University of Hawaii, USA,

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

Published online by Cambridge University Press

With the number of international migrants globally reaching an estimated

d a n l a nd i s is Afﬁliate Professor of Psychology, University of Hawaii, USA,

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press

List of Figures page xii

1 Introduction and Theoretical Framework

Part I Theoretical Foundations of Intercultural Training

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Part II Practice of Intercultural Training

Part III Indigenous Psychology and Intercultural Training

Part IV New Interdisciplinary Approaches to Intercultural Training

Published online by Cambridge University Press

22 Emotional Contagion, Intimate Intercultural Relationships,

Published online by Cambridge University Press

1.1 Multilevel framework for developing intercultural training programs. page 14

Published online by Cambridge University Press

2.1 Most cited authors page 40

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press

research in the areas of international management, cross-cultural training and

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Institute in Portland, Oregon, and is a Founding Fellow of the International Acad-

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press

(awarded Honors) in Intercultural Communication, he has returned to focusing on

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press

earned a BA from Oberlin College, an MA from Temple University, and a PhD in

Published online by Cambridge University Press

international conferences in Russia, Poland, Japan, Germany, Greece, France, and

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press

She earned her PhD in Industrial/Organizational Psychology from Florida Inter-

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press