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Automotive Service: Inspection,
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Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Automotive
Service
Inspection,
Maintenance,
Repair
Sixth Edition
Tim Gilles
Professor Emeritus
Santa Barbara City College
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
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Maintenance, Repair
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2018
Table of Contents
PREFACE xvi Safety 44 • Transmission Jack Safety 45 • Battery

ACKNOWLEDGeMENTS xviii Safety 45 • Refrigerant Safety 46 • General Safety
DEDICATION xxiii Around Automobiles 46 • Hot Tank Safety
Precautions 46 • Hazardous Materials and
ABOUT THE AUTHOR xxiii
Environmental Safety 47 • Hazardous
FEATURES OF THE TEXT xxiv
Communication Standards 48 • Safety Data
Sheets 48 • Hazardous Materials Common to the
Section 1 Automotive Industry 49 • Cleaning Solvent Safety
The Automobile Industry Precautions 50 • Skin Care Safety Precautions 51 •
Breathing Safety 51 • Welding Safety 52
Chapter 1
Introduction to the Automobile 2 Chapter 4
Shop Management, Service Records, and Parts 55
Introduction 2 • Body and Chassis 2 • Engine Parts
and Operation 3 • Engine Support Systems 5 • Introduction 55 • Customer Relations 55 • Service
The Powertrain 9 • Accessory Systems 10 Records 56 • Keep the Car Clean 57 • Linen
Service 58 • Wholesale and Retail Distribution of
Chapter 2 Auto Parts 58
Automotive Careers and Technician Certification 16
Chapter 5
Introduction 16 • Automotive Career
Locating Service Information and
Opportunities 16 • Technician Certification Specifications 62
and Licensing 19 • Technician Skill Levels and
Pay 22 • Other Areas of Specialization 22 • Introduction 62 • Service Literature 62 •
Other Automotive Careers 23 • On the Job as an Manufacturers’ Service Information 64 •
Automotive Technician 24 Generic Service Manuals 64 • Lubrication and
Maintenance Service Specifications 64 • Owner’s
Manual 65 • Owners’ Workshop Manuals 67 •
Section 2 Electronic Service Information 67 • Technical
Shop Procedures, Safety, Tools, Service Bulletins 68 • Hotline Services 69 • Trade
and Equipment Magazines and Internet 70
Chapter 3 Chapter 6
Shop Safety 31 Measuring Tools and Systems 72
Introduction 31 • General Personal Safety 31 • Introduction 72 • Metric System 72 • Measuring

Fire Safety 33 • Evacuation Plan 33 • Fire Tools 73 • Precision Measuring Tools 74
Extinguishers 33 • Flammable Materials 35 • Chapter 7
Fuel Fires 35 • Electrical Fires 37 • Shop Hardware, Fasteners, Drills, and Thread Repair 87
Habits 37 • Electrical Safety Precautions 38 • Introduction 87 • Characteristics of Fasteners 87 •
Cooling Fan Safety 39 • Coolant Burns 39 • Fastener Failures 91 • Drill Bits 92 • Taps
General Hand Tool Safety 39 • Puller Safety 41 • and Threads 94 • Dies 97 • Repairing Broken
Machinery Safety 41 • Electric Drill Safety 41 • Fasteners 97
Grinder Safety 41 • Wire Wheel Safety 41 •
Compressed Air Safety 42 • Impact Wrench Chapter 8
Safety 42 • Air Chisel Safety 42 • Die Grinder/ Shop Tools 106
Air Drill Safety 42 • Press Safety 43 • General Introduction 106 • Tools of the Trade 106 •
Lifting Safety 43 • Hydraulic Floor Jack (Service Pullers 118 • Air Tools 120 • Special Service
Jack) Safety 43 • Shop Crane (Engine Hoist) Tools 124
iii
iv Table of Contents
Chapter 9 Inspection 207 • Chassis Lubrication 208 •

General Shop Equipment 126 Suspension and Steering Checks 210 • Driveline
Shop Equipment 126 • Hydraulic Equipment 126 • Checks 212
Shop Electric Machinery 132 • Other Electric
Equipment 134 • Other Shop Equipment 135 Section 4
Chapter 10 Engine Operation
Cleaning Equipment and Methods 142
Chapter 15
Introduction 142 • General Shop Housekeeping Introduction to the Engine 219
Practices 142 • Cleaning Methods 143 • Cleaning
Introduction 219 • Basic Engine Operation 219 •
the Outside of the Engine 144 • Environmental
Four-Stroke Engine Operation 220 • Engine
Concerns with Engine Cleaning 144 • Cleaning
Upper End 221 • Valve Train 221 • Cylinder
Internal Parts 144 • Chemical Cleaning 145 •
Head 222 • Engine Front 225 • Cylinder Block
Thermal Cleaning 152 • Vibratory
Assembly (Lower End) 225 • Short Block and
Parts Cleaners 153 • Other Cleaning
Long Block 227
Methods 153 • Marking Clean Parts 154
Chapter 16
Chapter 11
Engine Classifications and Types 232
Lifting Equipment and Air Compressors 155
Introduction 232 • Engine Classifications 232 •
Introduction 155 • Lift Types 155 • Frame-Contact
Cylinder Arrangement 232 • Firing Order 234 •
Lifts 155 • Wheel-Contact Lifts 158 • Wheel-Free
Engine Cooling 235 • Valve Location 235 •
Jacks 158 • In-Ground Lifts 159 • Surface Mount
Camshaft Location 236 • Other Cylinder Head
Lifts 160 • Lift Safety 161 • Air Compressors 163
Variations 237 • Combustion Chamber
Designs 237 • Spark and Compression
Section 3 Ignition 239 • Alternate Engines 240
Vehicle Inspection (Lubrication/ Chapter 17
Safety Check) Engine Size and Measurements 244
Chapter 12 Introduction 244 • Engine Size

Engine Lubrication 168 Measurements 244 • Compression
Ratio 246 • Physical Principles of
Introduction 168 • Engine Oil 168 •
Work 248 • Torque 249 • Horsepower 249 •
Engine Oil Licensing and Certification 172 •
Dynamometer 250 • Dynamometer Safety
Oil Additives 174 • Changing Engine Oil 178 •
Concerns 254 • Engine Efficiency 255 • Mean
Oil Filter 181 • Changing the Oil Filter 184
Effective Pressure 256
Chapter 13
Chapter 18
Underhood and Body Inspection (Vehicle on
Ground) 188 Engine Upper End 258
Introduction 188 • Brake System Inspection 188 • Introduction 258 • Cylinder Head
On-Ground Steering and Suspension Checks 190 • Construction 258 • Valve Guides 259 •
Fuel System Inspection 192 • Cooling System Valve Guide Seals 259 • Valves 261 • Retainers
Inspection 193 • Belt Inspection 194 • Electrical and Valve Locks 264 • Valve Springs 264 •
System Inspection 195 • Check Operation of Pushrods and Rocker Arms 265 • Camshaft 266 •
Lights 196 • Visibility Checks 197 • Other Safety Number of Cams and Lobes 266 • Camshaft
Checks and Service 199 Performance 267 • Valve Lifters and
Lash Adjusters 269 • Roller Cam and
Chapter 14 Lifters 270 • Hydraulic Lifters 270 • Camshaft
Undercar Inspection and Service 205 Drives 271 • Valve Timing 274 • Variable Valve
Introduction 205 • Tire Visual Inspection 205 • Timing 275 • Electric Cam Phasers 278 • Active
Undercar Brake Checks 206 • Exhaust System Fuel Management 279
Table of Contents v
Chapter 19 Service 338 • Locating Leaks 340 • External

Engine Lower End and Lubrication System Leaks 341 • Internal Leaks 342 • Recovery Tank
Theory 283 Service 345 • Cooling System Repairs 345 • Water
Introduction 283 • Cylinder Block Pump Service 347 • Electric Cooling Fan
Construction 283 • Core Plugs 284 • Cylinder Service 349 • Heater Core Service 349
Bore 285 • Cylinder Sleeves 285 • Main Bearing Chapter 22
Caps 285 • Lifter Bores 285 • Crankshaft Automotive Belts 353
Design 285 • Crankshaft End
Introduction 353 • Belt Material 353 • V-Ribbed
Thrust 287 • Direction of Crankshaft
Belts 353 • Serpentine Belt Drive 353 • Stretch
Rotation 287 • Vibration Damper 287 • Crankshaft
Belts 353 • Timing Belts 354 • Drive Belt
Hardness 288 • Bearings 288 • Connecting
Service 356 • Belt Inspection and Adjustment 357 •
Rods 290 • Pistons 291 • Piston
Replacing Belts 358
Head 291 • Piston Ring Grooves 291 • Heat
Transfer 292 • Cast and Forged Chapter 23
Pistons 293 • Piston Skirt 293 • Piston Automotive Hoses 365
Pin Offset 294 • Piston Pins 295 • Piston Introduction 365 • Hose Construction 365 •
Rings 296 • Compression Hose Size 365 • Unreinforced Hose 365 •
Rings 296 • Compression Ring Radiator Hose 365 • Hose Types 365 • Hose
Design 297 • Oil Control Rings 299 • Engine Clamps 369 • Hoses 371 • Hose Inspection
Balancing 299 • The Lubrication System 300 • Oil and Service 372 • Replacing Hoses 373 •
Pumps 300 • Pressure Relief Valve 302 • Oil High-Performance Hoses and Fittings 376
Pump Screen By-Pass Valve 302 • Oil
Chapter 24
Pressure 303 • Windage Tray and Baffles 303 • Dry
Automotive Plumbing: Tubing and Pipe 380
Sump Lubrication Systems 304 • Semi-Dry
Sump 305 Introduction 380 • Tubing 380 • Flared
Connections 382 • Compression Fittings 383 •
Pipe Fittings 385 • Shutoff Valves 385 • Tubing
Section 5 Service 386 • Installing Tubing 390 • Transmission
Cooling System, Belts, Hoses, and Oil Cooler Line Repairs 390 • Nylon Fuel Injection
Plumbing Tubing 391 • Pipe Service 391
Chapter 20
Cooling System Theory 308 Section 6
Introduction 308 • Liquid and Air Cooling 308 • Electrical System
Liquid Cooling System Parts 308 • Cooling Theory and Service
System Circulation 309 • Coolant 310 • Racing
Coolants 311 • Heat-Transferability of Water Chapter 25
and Coolant 311 • Cooling System Pressure Basic Electrical System Theory and Repairs 394
Cap 314 • Coolant Recovery System 315 • Introduction 394 • Electron
Radiator 316 • Thermostat 317 • Temperature Flow 394 • Basic Automotive Electrical
Warning Light or Gauge 320 • Fans 321 • Fan System 396 • Electrical Terms 397 • Circuitry
Clutch 322 • Radiator Shroud 322 • Heater and Ohm’s Law 401 • Magnetic
Core 322 Fields 403 • Capacitors 405 • Automotive
Electronics 405 • Basic Electrical
Chapter 21
Tests 406 • Voltage Drop Testing 407
Cooling System Service 325
Introduction 325 • Diagnosing Cooling Chapter 26
System Problems 325 • Radiator Battery Fundamentals 416
Cap 327 • Coolant Service 329 • Testing Introduction 416 • Battery Parts and Operation 417 •
Coolant Condition and Strength 334 • Thermostat Battery Recharging and Discharging 420 •
vi Table of Contents
Battery Capacity Ratings 422 • Battery Types 423 • Chapter 32

Battery Plate Size 426 • Battery Selection 427 • Lighting and Wiring Fundamentals 508
Battery Service Life 427 • Battery Cables 428 • Introduction 508 • Wire and Cable 508 • Circuit
Battery Holddowns 429 • Reasons for Battery Protection Devices 509 • Lighting 511 •
Failure 429 • Electric Vehicle Battery Types 429 Headlamps 512 • Taillights 521 • Incandescent
Chapter 27 Light Bulb Identification 522 • Turn Signals 524 •
Battery Service 431 Signal Flasher Operation 524 • Hazard Flashers 525 •
Introduction 431 • Battery Inspection 432 • Battery Back-Up Lights 525 • Electrical Instrumentation and
Service 432 • Replacing a Battery 435 • Battery Instrument Panel 529 • Miscellaneous Gauges 531
Testing: Measuring Battery State of Charge (SOC) 441 • Chapter 33
Battery Charging 446 • Battery Chargers 447 • Lighting and Wiring Service 536
Storing a Vehicle 451 • Battery Capacity Tests 451 •
Analyzing Electrical Problems 536 • Wiring
Battery Testing Using an Amp Clamp 454 • Battery
Service 536 • Trim Removal 538 • Crimp
Drain Test/Parasitic Load 454 • Battery Jump-
Terminals 540 • Selecting Replacement Wire 545 •
Starting 455
Adding Electrical Accessories 545 • Soldering 545 •
Chapter 28 Broken or Damaged Ground Straps 548 • Wiring for
Starting System Fundamentals 459 a Trailer or RV Tow Car 549 • Circuit Testing and
Introduction 459 • Starter Motor 459 • Starter Service 550 • Finding Grounds 550 • Fuse Testing
Motor Fundamentals 459 • Starter Drives 462 • and Service 550 • Fuse Link Service 552 •
Starter Electrical Circuit 463 • Gear Reduction Headlamp Service 552 • Headlamp Aiming 554 •
Starters 466 • Brushless DC Motors 466 Tail Lamp and Park Light Service 557 • LED
Service 558 • Stoplight Switch Service 558 •
Chapter 29 Back-Up Lights 558 • Turn Signal Switch 559 •
Starting System Service 468 Signal Flasher/Relay 559 • Locating a Signal
Introduction 468 • Starting System Flasher 560 • Windshield Washer Service 560 •
Service 468 • Starting System Tests 469 • Cranking Horn Service 561 • Gauge Testing 561
Voltage and Amperage Test 470 • Circuit Resistance
Test 470 • No-Crank Tests 473 • Solenoid Chapter 34
Problems 474 • Starter Repair 475 • Starter Safety, Security, Comfort Systems, and Electrical
Accessories 564
Disassembly 475 • Starter Drive
Service 476 • Starter Reassembly 478 Introduction 564 • Supplemental Restraint
Systems 564 • Active and Passive Restraints 564 •
Chapter 30 Restraint System Service 575 • Security, Navigation,
Charging System Fundamentals 480
and Electrical Accessories 578 • Security Systems 578 •
Introduction 480 • Charging System 480 • AC GPS Vehicle Tracking/Navigation Systems 584 •
Generator/Alternator 481 • Alternator Pulleys 485 • Other Comfort Systems 587 • Vehicle Audio
AC Generator Bearings 485 • AC Generator Fan 486 • Systems 587 • Cruise Control 604 • Body Electronic
Voltage Regulator 486 • Computer-Controlled Voltage System Testing and Service 606 • Precollision/
Regulation 487 • Charging System Indicators 490 • Collision Avoidance Systems 606 • Lane Departure
High-Voltage Charging Systems 491 Warning System 607 • Autonomous Driving
Chapter 31 Vehicles 607 • The Future of Autonomous Vehicles 608
Charging System Service 493
Introduction 493 • Charging System Service 493 • Section 7
Preliminary Charging System Tests 494 • Testing Heating and Air Conditioning
the Charging System 495 • Charging System Output
Tests 495 • Regulated Voltage Test 497 • Diode Chapter 35
Tests 499 • Charging System Voltage Drops 500 • Heating and Air-Conditioning Fundamentals 612
AC Generator Service and Repair 502 • AC Introduction 612 • Sources of Heat 612 •
Generator Reassembly 505 Ventilation 612 • Heating 613 • Air Distribution
Table of Contents vii
System 613 • Air Conditioning 615 • Air- Chapter 38

Conditioning Principles 616 • Heat Transfer 616 • Ignition System Service 697
Humidity 617 • States of Matter 617 • Latent Ignition System Service and Repairs 697 • Spark
Heat 617 • Air-Conditioning System Plug Service 697 • Spark Plug Diagnosis 698 •
Operation 618 • Reducing Humidity 619 • Installing Spark Plugs 701 • Repairing Damaged
Compressing the Refrigerant 620 • Spark Plug Threads 702 • Spark Plug Cable
Transferring Refrigerant Heat to Outside Service 704 • Ignition Timing 706 • Electronic
Air 620 • Flow Control Devices 622 • Ignition Distributor Service 706 • Static
Air-Conditioning Compressors 625 • Timing 709 • Electronic Ignition System
Compressor Lubrication 628 • Muffler 628 • Service 709 • Lab Scope Testing 712 • Types
Accumulator or Receiver/Dryer 629 • Evaporator of Scope Patterns 713 • Other Scope
Icing Control 630 • System Switches 631 • Tests 717 • Other Diagnostic Instruments 718
Heating and Air-Conditioning Controls 632 •
Automatic Air-Conditioning Sensors 633 • Chapter 39
Refrigerants and the Environment 634 • Petroleum Fuels and Alternative Fuel
Temperature and Pressure 637 Technologies 720
Introduction 720 • Crude Oil 720 • Diesel Engines
Chapter 36
and Diesel Fuel 721 • Gasoline 725 • Air-Fuel
Heating and Air-Conditioning Service 640
Mixture 728 • Spark Knocks, Carbon Noise,
Heater Service 640 • Air-Conditioning and Abnormal Combustion 729 • Abnormal
Service 640 • Air-Conditioning System Combustion 730 • Excessive Carbon Buildup 733 •
Service and Diagnosis 641 • System Regular Versus Premium Fuels 733 • Octane
Performance Test 642 • Pressure Standards 734 • Gasoline Additives 735 •
Testing 642 • Static Pressure Reading 644 • Reformulated Gasolines 735 • Oxygenated Fuels/
Diagnosing HVAC Electronic Problems 649 • Alcohols 735 • Alternative Fuels 737 •
Air Distribution System Diagnosis 650 • Leak Natural Gas 738 • Compressed Natural Gas 739 •
Detection 656 • Common Air-Conditioning Refueling CNG 740 • Liquified Natural Gas 742 •
Component Problems 659 • Refrigerant Engine Rebuilding Concerns with Alternative Fuel
Oil 660 • Evaporator Problems 661 • Engines 743 • Hydrogen 743
Thermal Expansion Valve or Orifice Tube
Problems 662 • Compressor Service 663 • Chapter 40
Evacuating a System 668 • Evacuate the Fuel System Fundamentals, Gasoline and Diesel 745
System 669 • Air-Conditioning Service Introduction 745 • Fuel System 745 • Fuel
Equipment 670 • Refrigerant Charging 670 • Tanks 745 • Fuel Lines, Hoses, and
Follow-Up 672 • Refrigerant Storage 673 • Fittings 746 • Fuel Pumps 746 • Fuel Filters 747 •
R-1234YF Service 673 Fuel Injection and Carburetion 748 • Pressure
Regulator Operation 753 • Electronic Fuel System
Operation 754 • Airflow Measurement 755 •
Section 8 Idle Speed Control 756 • Fuel Pump Control
Engine Performance Diagnosis: Theory Module 757 • Computer-Controlled Fuel
and Service Systems 758 • Feedback Fuel Systems 758 •
Diesel Fuel Systems 763 • Diesel Fuel
Chapter 37
Subsystem 765 • Diesel Fuel Filters 765
Ignition System Fundamentals 677
Introduction 677 • Basic Ignition System 677 • Chapter 41
Primary Circuit 677 • Secondary Ignition Fuel System Service 768
Parts 680 • Spark Plugs 681 • Electronic Introduction 768 • Fuel Supply System
Ignitions 683 • Electronic Ignition Variations 686 • Service 768 • Fuel Filter Service 772 • Throttle
Ignition Modules 690 • Ignition Timing 690 • Linkage 772 • Fuel System Problems and
Detonation Sensor 692 • Distributorless Service 772 • Exhaust Gas Analysis 774 • Fuel
Ignition 692 Injection Diagnosis and Service 774 • EFI Computer
viii Table of Contents
Self-Diagnostics (OBD) 775 • Air-Fuel Mixture Replacement 850 • Analyzing Exhaust

Problems 775 • Injector Problems 778 • Throttle Emissions 850 • Emission Analyzers 851 •
Plate Service 781 • EFI Adjustments 782 • Sensor Hydrocarbons 852 • Carbon Monoxide
Service 783 • Throttle Position Sensor 783 • (CO) 853 • Carbon Dioxide 853 • Oxygen
Oxygen Sensor Service 783 • Coolant Temperature (O2) 855 • Oxides of Nitrogen 855 • Catalytic
Sensor 785 • Inlet Air Temperature Sensor 785 • Converter Tests 858 • Diesel Emission Control
Map Sensor Diagnosis 785 • Mass Airflow Service 860 • Diesel Exhaust Fluid (DEF)
(MAF) Sensor Diagnosis 786 • Testing Other Service 860 • Diesel Particulate Filter Service 861
Sensors 787 • Computer Service 787 • Mechanical
Injection 787 • Carbon Deposit Service 788 • Chapter 45
Diesel Engine Fuel Service 788 Electronics and Computer Systems
Fundamentals 864
Chapter 42 Introduction 864 • Semiconductors 864 •
Intake and Exhaust Systems/Turbochargers and
Diodes 865 • Transistors 867 • Electronic
Superchargers 792
Instrument Displays 868 • Automotive Computer
Introduction 792 • Intake System Fundamentals 792 • Systems 868 • Parts of a Computer System 869 •
Manifolds 793 • Intake Manifolds 793 • Exhaust On-Board Computer 870 • Information
System Fundamentals 797 • Exhaust Manifolds 797 • Processing 871 • Computer Memory 872 •
Exhaust Tubing 798 • Exhaust System Service 800 • Communication Rate 873 • Sensors and
Turbochargers and Superchargers 802 • Actuators 873 • Types of Sensors 874 •
Turbochargers 803 • Aftercooler/Intercooler 807 • Thermistors 874 • Voltage Dividers 874 •
Belt-Driven Superchargers/Blowers 812 Piezoelectric and Piezoresistive Sensors 874 •
Chapter 43 Heated Resistive Sensors 875 • Variable DC
Emission Control System Fundamentals, Gasoline Frequency Sensors 875 • Voltage Generators 875 •
and Diesel 819 Wheatstone Bridges 876 • Switches 876 • Types
Introduction 819 • Air Pollution 819 • Automotive of Actuators 877 • Solenoid Actuators 877 • Relay
Emissions 819 • Pollution Control 821 • Actuators 877 • Motor Actuators 877 • Actuator
Automobile Emission Control Systems 821 • Switches/Modules 878 • Adaptive Strategy 879 •
Crankcase Ventilation 822 • PCV Valve Testing 824 • Ignition Advance 880 • Knock Sensor 880 •
Exhaust Gas Recirculation 824 • EGR System Electronic Throttle Control/Drive-By-Wire 881 •
Operation 826 • Computer-Controlled EGR On-Board Diagnostics 881 • Diagnostic Trouble
Systems 827 • Catalytic Converter 828 • Types Codes 881 • Computer Self-Diagnostics 881 •
of Catalytic Converters 829 • Evaporative Multiplexing 881 • Network Sizes and Types 883 •
Controls 832 • Other Parts of the Fuel Tank CAN Systems 883 • Supplemental Data Bus
System 834 • On-Board Diagnostics 835 • Networks 887 • Telematics 889 • Wireless
Engine Emission Modifications 835 • Diesel Engine Networks 889 • DSRC 890
Emission Control 836
Chapter 46
Chapter 44 Electronics and Computer Systems Service 892
Emission Control System Service 841 Introduction 892 • Inspection Sequence 892 •
Introduction 841 • Inspecting Emission Control Perform Diagnostic Tests 893 • On-Board
Systems 841 • Computer-Controlled Emission Diagnostics 894 • Reading Trouble Codes 895 •
Service 842 • Crankcase Ventilation System Scan Tools 896 • Breakout Box 897 • Retrieving
Service 842 • Evaporative Control System Trouble Codes 897 • Working with Codes 898 •
Service 843 • Evaporative System Maintenance 844 • Erasing Trouble Codes 898 • Scan Tool
Evaporative System Problem Diagnosis 844 • EGR Snapshot 898 • Closed Loop 900 • Fuel Trim
System Service 846 • Air Injection System Diagnosis 901 • Digital Waveforms 902 •
Service 848 • Catalytic Converter Service 849 • Logic Probe 907 • Sensor and Actuator
Converter Testing 849 • Catalytic Converter Testing 907 • Diagnosing Sensor Problems 907 •
Table of Contents ix
Sensor Tests 908 • Oxygen Sensor 908 • Load Pushrods 990 • Overhead Cam Cylinder Head
Sensors 911 • Map Sensor 911 • Baro Removal 992 • Cylinder Block Disassembly 994
Sensors 912 • Vacuum Sensors 912 • Throttle
Chapter 51
Position Sensor 912 • Coolant Temperature
Engine Sealing, Gaskets, Fastener Torque 1001
Sensor 913 • Air Temperature Sensors 914 • Airflow
Sensor Service 915 • Knock Sensor Service 916 • Introduction 1001 • Clamping Force 1001 •
Actuator Service 917 • Repair the Problem 917 • Torque and Friction 1001 • Torque Wrenches 1002 •
Computer Wiring Service 917 • Static Electricity 921 • Torque-To-Yield 1003 • Torque by Degrees 1004 •
Electrical Damage to a Circuit 921 Fastener Clamping Load 1004 • Gaskets and
Seals 1005 • Cleaning the Head 1009 • Head
Chapter 47 Gasket Installation 1011 • Other Engine
Advanced Emissions and On-Board Diagnostics Gaskets 1012 • Valve Cover, Timing Cover, and Oil
(OBD) 926 Pan Service 1012 • Gasket Sealers 1016 • Silicone
Introduction 926 • History of On-Board RTV Sealant 1018 • Seals 1019 • Rear Main
Diagnostics 926 • OBD II Operation 927 • Society Seals 1020 • Transmission Front Pump Seal 1022
of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Standards 928 •
Chapter 52
Trouble Codes and the Malfunction Indicator
Engine Diagnosis and Service: Cylinder Head and
Lamp 930 • OBD II Codes 931 • OBD II Diagnostic
Valve Train 1024
Testing 933 • Emission Testing Programs 942
Introduction 1024 • Head Disassembly 1024 •
Chapter 48 Carbon Removal 1028 • Cylinder Head
Diagnosing Engine Performance Problems 945 Inspection 1029 • Resurfacing by Grinding, Cutting,
Introduction 945 • Visual Checks 945 • Ignition or Sanding 1031 • Straightening Cylinder
System Checks 945 • Engine Performance Heads 1031 • Crack Inspection 1032 • Crack
Testing 946 • Compression Loss 946 • Vacuum Repair 1033 • Checking Valve Springs 1033 •
Testing 947 • Other Vacuum Checking Valve Stems 1034 • Valve Guide
Tests 948 • Compression Problems 949 • Cylinder Service 1034 • Guide Repair 1034 • Grinding
Leakage Test 955 • Carbon-Related Problems 956 Valves 1035 • Grinding Valve Seats 1038 •
Checking Valve Stem Installed Height 1038 • Solvent
Testing the Valve and Seat 1040 • Reassembling the
Section 9 Head 1040 • Valve Guide Seal Installation 1040 •
Automotive Engine Service and Repair Install the Valve and Spring Assembly 1041 •
Pushrod Engine Rocker Arm Service 1041 • Inspect
Chapter 49 Pushrods 1041 • Inspect OHC Camshaft 1041 •
Diagnosing Engine Mechanical Problems 959 Reassembling OHC Heads 1042 • Camshaft
Introduction 959 • Diagnosing Problems Before Service 1044 • Lifter Service 1044 • Cam and Lifter
a Repair 959 • Oil Consumption 959 • Causes Break-In 1045 • Timing Chain and Belt Service 1045 •
of Oil Consumption 960 • Testing for Oil Timing Belt Service 1045 • Timing Belt
Leaks 963 • Engine Performance and Compression Replacement 1046 • Timing Chain Service 1048
Loss 964 • Engine Noises 964 • Engine
Chapter 53
Knocks 965 • Oil Pressure Problems 969 • Cooling
Engine Diagnosis and Service: Block, Crankshaft,
System Problems 970 • Internal Engine
Bearings, and Lubrication System 1053
Leakage 970 • Seized Engine 971 • Electronic
Failures/Engine Damage 973 • Engine Performance Introduction 1053 • Cleaning the Block 1053 • Oil
and Fuel Mixture Problems 973 and Water Plug Removal 1053 • Oil Gallery
Plug Installation 1055 • Inspect and Clean
Chapter 50 Lifter Bores 1055 • Checking Main Bearing
Engine Removal and Disassembly 975 Bore Alignment 1055 • Check the Deck
Introduction 975 • Engine Removal 975 • Surface for Flatness 1057 • Clean All
Engine Disassembly 988 • Engines with Threaded Holes 1057 • Inspecting Cylinder
x Table of Contents
Bores 1057 • Measuring the Bore 1058 • Deglazing the Lubrication System 1111 • Pressure
the Cylinder Bore 1059 • Clean the Block of Priming 1111 • Install Valve Covers 1112 •
Grit 1060 • Boring for Oversized Pistons 1061 • Ignition System Installation and Timing 1112 •
Block Distortion 1062 • Honing After Boring 1063 • Engine Starting and Initial Break-in 1112 • Valve
Sleeves 1064 • Cam Bearing Installation (Cam-In- Clearance Adjustment 1114 • Road Test and
Block Engines) 1064 • Front Cam Bearing Break-in 1114 • Final Inspection 1114 • Returning
Installation 1065 • Checking Crankshaft the Car to the Customer 1114 • Engine Repair—
Condition 1066 • Crankshaft and Bearing Engine in the Vehicle 1115 • Valve Job or Head
Wear 1067 • Crankshaft Journal Tolerance 1068 • Gasket Repair 1115 • Valve Job or Complete
Regrinding the Crankshaft 1069 • Measuring Engine Overhaul 1116 • Head Gasket Problems 1116 •
Bearing Clearance with Plastigage 1069 • In-Chassis Lower End Repairs 1116 • Removing the
Lubrication System Service 1070 • Checking Oil Oil Pan 1116 • Remove the Piston and Rod
Pumps for Wear 1071 • Oil Pump Screen Assembly 1118 • Remove the Timing Cover 1118 •
Service 1071 • Oil Pump Failure 1072 • Installing Freewheeling and Interference Engines 1119 •
the Oil Pump 1073 Replace the Timing Components 1119 • Crankshaft
Seal Replacement 1119 • Flywheel Ring Gear
Chapter 54
Service 1119
Engine Diagnosis and Service: Piston, Piston Rings,
Connecting Rod, Engine Balancing 1075
Introduction 1075 • Piston Service 1075 • Piston
Ring Service 1078 • Installing Pins in Connecting
Section 10
Rods 1080 • Installing Rings on Pistons 1080 • Brakes and Tires
Oil Ring Installation 1080 • Connecting Rod Chapter 57
Service 1082 • Engine Balancing Service 1084 Brake Fundamentals 1123
Chapter 55 Introduction 1123 • Brake Linings 1123 • Drum
Ordering Parts, Short and Long Blocks, Engine and Disc Brakes 1124 • Hydraulic Brake System
Assembly 1089 Operation 1124 • Hydraulic Brake Fluid 1126 •
Introduction 1089 • Ordering Parts 1089 • Engine Brake Hose 1127 • Brake Tubing 1128 • Hydraulic
Kits 1089 • Determining Part Sizes 1091 • Types System Operation 1128 • Low Brake Pedal 1129 •
of Engine Rebuilds 1091 • Selecting the Correct Split Hydraulic System 1132 • Quick Take-Up
Replacement Engine 1092 • Warranty 1092 • Master Cylinder 1133 • Drum Brakes 1133 •
Reassembly 1092 • Begin Reassembly 1092 • Drum Brake Adjustment 1135 • Disc Brakes 1136 •
Prepare the Crankshaft for Installation 1093 • Hydraulic System Valves and Switches 1140 • Power
Install the Crank 1094 • Install the Cylinder Brakes 1143 • Parking Brake 1146 • Types of
Heads 1102 • Install OHC Heads 1102 • Install Parking Brakes 1147 • Stoplight Switches 1149 •
the Cam Drive (Pushrod Engines) 1103 • Install Brake Pedal Position Sensor 1149 • Antilock
the Oil Pump 1103 • Install the Timing Brakes 1149
Cover 1103 • Install the Crankshaft Damper/ Chapter 58
Pulley 1104 • Install the Oil Pan 1104 • Install Brake Service 1152
the Intake Manifold 1105 • Install the Thermostat
Introduction 1152 • Brake Inspection 1152 •
and Water Outlet Housing 1106 • Completing the
Check Brake Pedal Feel 1152 • Master Cylinder
Assembly 1106 • Install Exhaust Manifold(s) 1106
Inspection 1152 • Brake Diagnosis 1154 •
Chapter 56 Undercar Checks 1155 • Disc Brake
Engine Installation, Break-In, and In-Chassis Inspection 1155 • Inspecting Drum Brake
Repairs 1109 Assemblies 1159 • Brake Fluid Service 1161 •
Introduction 1109 • Engine Routine Brake Fluid Replacement 1161 • Brake
Installation 1109 • Install Engine Fluid Testing 1162 • Bleeding Brakes 1163 • Brake
Mounts 1109 • Install the Engine 1109 • Priming Bleeding Methods 1164 • Drum Brake
Table of Contents xi
Adjustment 1168 • Master Cylinder Service 1169 • Load Rating 1249 • Tire Life and Age 1250 •
Master Cylinder Removal 1169 • Master Cylinder All-Season Tires 1251 • Snow Tires 1251 •
Disassembly 1169 • Bench Bleeding a Master Tire Pressure Monitoring System 1253 • Uniform
Cylinder 1170 • Brake Job 1171 • Drum Brake Tire Quality Grading 1255 • Changing Tire
Lining Removal 1172 • Reassembling a Wheel Size 1255 • Wheels 1257 • Custom Wheels 1258 •
Cylinder 1174 • Removing Wheel Cylinders 1174 • Lug Studs 1259 • Lug Nuts 1259 • Tire Valve
Replacing Drum Brake Shoes 1174 • Adjusting Stems 1259
Drum Brake Clearance 1175 • Drum and Rotor
Service 1175 • Drum Service 1177 • Rotor Chapter 62
Tire and Wheel Service 1262
Service 1179 • On-Vehicle Rotor Machining 1181 •
Disc Brake Service 1182 • Rear Disc Pad Introduction 1262 • Tire Inflation 1262 •
Installation 1184 • Rebuilt Calipers 1185 • Disc Checking Air Pressure 1262 • Adjusting Tire
Caliper Rebuilding 1185 • Selecting Brake Pressure 1264 • Tire Wear 1266 • Sidewall
Linings 1187 • Disc Brake Noise 1189 • Parking Checks 1267 • Tire Age 1267 • Tire
Brake Cable Service 1191 • Vacuum Power Brake Rotation 1267 • Removing and Tightening
Service 1191 • Brake Warning Lamp Diagnosis 1195 • Lug Nuts 1269 • Tire Rotation with
Antilock Brake System (ABS) Service 1196 TPMS 1270 • Repairing Wheel Studs 1271 •
Removing and Mounting Tires on Rims 1271 •
Chapter 59
Inspecting the Tire and Wheel 1274 • Valve Stem
Antilock Brakes, Traction, and Stability
Service 1274 • Rubber Lubricant 1276 • Install the
Control 1198
Tire 1277 • Mounting High-Performance
Introduction 1198 • Antilock Brakes 1198 • Parts Tires 1280 • Bead Roller Tire Changer 1280 •
of an Antilock Brake System 1199 • Types Installing the Valve Core 1281 • Tire Runout 1281 •
of Antilock Brake Systems 1202 • Antilock Tire Repair 1282 • Repairing a Tire 1283 •
Brake System Operation 1204 • Traction Preparing a Tire for Repair 1284 • Patching a
Control System 1206 • Antilock Brake (ABS) Tire 1285 • Tire and Wheel Balance 1286 • Types
Service 1207 • ABS Brake Fluid Service 1210 of Wheel Balance 1288 • Couple Imbalance 1289 •
Chapter 60 Dynamic Balance 1289 • Using a Computer
Bearings, Seals, and Greases 1218 Balancer 1291 • Centering the Wheel on the
Introduction 1218 • Plain Bearings 1218 • Balancer 1291 • Match Mounting 1294 • Force
Frictionless Bearings 1218 • Bearing Loads 1219 • Variation 1294 • Installing the Wheel 1294 • Tire
Ball Bearings 1219 • Roller Bearings 1220 • Wheel Pressure Monitoring System Service 1296 • TPMS
Bearings 1222 • Greases 1223 • Wheel Bearing Service 1300 • TPMS Service 1301
Seals 1227 • Seal Materials and Design 1228 •
Seal Tolerance 1228 • Wheel Bearing Diagnosis
and Service 1228 • Wheel Bearing Adjustment 1229 • Section 11
Disc Brake Caliper Removal 1232 • Repacking Suspension, Steering, Alignment
Wheel Bearings 1232 • Bearing Inspection and
Chapter 63
Diagnosis 1234 • Diagnosing Wheel Bearing Suspension Fundamentals 1307
Noise 1236 • Replacing Bearing Races 1236 •
Servicing Front-Wheel-Drive Bearings 1238 Introduction 1307 • Suspension 1307 • Frame and
Suspension Designs 1308 • Springs 1308 •
Chapter 61 Suspension Construction 1310 • Independent
Tire and Wheel Theory 1240 and Solid Axle Suspensions 1311 • Suspension
Introduction 1240 • Tire Construction 1240 • Types 1312 • High-Performance Suspensions 1314 •
Tubeless Tires 1241 • Tire Tread 1241 • Tire Shock Absorbers 1314 • Hydraulic Shock Absorber
Tread Material 1242 • Tire Cord 1243 • Tire Ply Operation 1315 • Compression and Rebound
Design 1243 • Tire Sidewall Markings 1244 • Resistance 1317 • Bump Stops and Limiters 1318 •
Euro-Metric Commercial Tires 1245 • Gas Shocks 1318 • Other Front End Parts 1319 •
xii Table of Contents
Stabilizer Bar 1319 • Air Shocks/Leveling Tie-Rods 1366 • Steering Wheel, Column, and Air
Devices 1320 • Suspension Leveling Bag Service 1367 • Air Bag Service 1367 • Steering
Systems 1322 • Active Suspensions 1326 Wheel Service 1369 • Steering Column
Service 1369 • Steering Gear Service 1370 •
Chapter 64
Rack-and-Pinion Service 1370 • Rack-and-Pinion
Suspension System Service 1328
Steering Looseness 1370 • Power Steering System
Introduction 1328 • Diagnosing Suspension System Service 1371 • Power Steering System Flushing 1371 •
Problems 1328 • Shock Absorber Service 1329 • Bleeding Air from the Hydraulic System 1372 •
Testing Shock Absorbers 1329 • Macpherson Strut Power Steering Pump Replacement 1372 • Repairing
Service 1332 • Inspect the Upper Strut Bearing 1333 • Power Steering Pump Oil Leaks 1372 • Power
Install the Coil Spring 1333 • Reinstall the Strut Steering Pressure Diagnosis 1373 • Power Steering
Assembly 1334 • Suspension Bushing Pump Service 1374 • Power Steering Hoses 1374 •
Service 1334 • Strut Rod Bushing Service 1335 • Refilling the Power Steering System 1375 • Power
Stabilizer Bar Service 1335 • Spindle Service 1336 • Steering Gear Service 1375 • Replacing Rack-
Ball Joint Service 1336 • Measuring Ball Joint and-Pinion Units 1375 • Variable Power Steering
Wear 1337 • Separating Tapered Connections 1337 • Service 1377 • Electronically Controlled Power
Replacing a Ball Joint 1338 • Coil Spring Steering System Service 1377
Service 1338 • Adjusting Spring Height 1340 •
Coil Spring Replacement 1340 • SLA Coil Spring Chapter 67
Replacement 1340 • Wheel Alignment 1343 • Wheel Alignment Fundamentals 1379
Electronic Suspension Service 1343 • Electronically Introduction 1379 • Wheel Alignment
Controlled Shock Absorbers 1344 Angles 1379 • Toe 1379 • Camber 1380 •
Chapter 65 Caster 1381 • Steering Axis Inclination 1382 •
Steering Fundamentals 1346 Scrub Radius 1383 • Turning Radius 1384 •
Steering Systems 1346 • Steering Gears 1346 • Geometric Centerline and Thrust Angle 1385 •
Recirculating Ball and Nut Steering Gear 1347 • Tracking 1385 • Setback 1385 • Special Handling
Rack-and-Pinion Steering 1347 • Steering Characteristics 1386
Linkage 1348 • Parallelogram Steering Linkage 1348 •
Chapter 68
Ball Sockets 1348 • Tie-Rods 1348 • Steering
Wheel Alignment Service 1388
Arm 1350 • Rack-and-Pinion Steering
Linkage 1350 • Steering Column 1351 • Power Introduction 1388 • Prealignment Inspection 1388 •
Steering 1352 • Power Steering Pump 1353 • Types Tire Wear Inspection 1388 • Ride Height
of Power Steering 1354 • Electronically Controlled Check 1390 • Toe Change 1390 • Torque
Variable Effort Power Steering 1355 • Electronically Steer 1391 • Suspension Looseness 1391 •
Controlled Steering Systems 1357 Test Drive 1392 • Tire Checks 1392 •
Inspection Checklist 1393 • Wheel Alignment
Chapter 66 Procedures 1393 • Measuring Alignment 1394 •
Steering System Service 1362 Measuring Camber 1395 • Measuring Caster 1396 •
Introduction 1362 • Fluid Level Checks 1362 • Road Crown and Pull 1396 • Measuring
Type of Fluid 1362 • Diagnosing Steering Steering Axis Inclination 1399 • Measuring
Problems 1363 • Noise Diagnosis 1363 • Hard Toe 1400 • Adjusting Toe 1401 • Centering a
Steering 1363 • Tire Wear 1363 • Steering Steering Wheel 1403 • Recalibrating Steering
Part Inspection 1363 • Steering Linkage Position 1404 • Checking for Toe Change 1404 •
Inspection 1363 • Steering Gear Looseness 1363 • Measuring Turning Radius 1404 • General
Parallelogram Steering Inspection 1364 • Rack-and- Wheel Alignment Rules 1405 • Four-Wheel
Pinion Steering Linkage Inspection 1364 • Steering Alignment 1406 • Performing a Four-Wheel
Linkage Repairs 1364 • Idler Arm Replacement 1365 • Alignment 1407 • Compensating the Alignment
Pitman Arm Replacement 1365 • Tie-Rod Heads 1408 • Measuring Caster and Camber 1408 •
End Replacement 1365 • Rack-and-Pinion Adjusting Rear-Wheel Alignment 1409
Table of Contents xiii
Section 12 Four-Speed Transmission Power Flow 1449 •

Five-Speed Transmission 1452 • Speedometer
Drivetrain Output 1452 • Switches and Sensors 1453
Chapter 69
Clutch Fundamentals 1413 Chapter 72
Manual Transmission Diagnosis and Repair 1455
Introduction 1413 • Clutch Parts and Operation 1413 •
Clutch Disc 1414 • Pressure Plate 1415 • Types of Introduction 1455 • Transmission Diagnosis 1455 •
Clutch Covers 1415 • Coil Spring Clutch 1415 • Lubricant Checks 1456 • Transmission
Diaphragm Clutch 1416 • Pilot Bearing or Removal 1456 • Transmission Disassembly 1457 •
Bushing 1418 • Release Bearing 1418 • Clutch Disassemble the Mainshaft Assembly 1459 •
Fork 1419 • Clutch Release Methods 1419 • Clutch Synchronizer Service 1459 • Synchronizer
Cable 1419 • Hydraulic Clutch Operation 1420 • Inspection 1460 • Inspect Blocker Rings 1461 •
Clutch Free Travel 1420 • Dual Clutch Inspect Input Shaft and Mainshaft 1461 • Replace
Transmissions 1421 Worn Bearings 1462 • Reassemble the
Transmission 1462 • Reassemble the
Chapter 70 Synchronizers 1462 • Reassemble the
Clutch Diagnosis and Service 1423 Mainshaft 1462 • End Play 1463 • Needle Bearing
Introduction 1423 • Diagnosis of Clutch Installation 1463 • Install New Gaskets 1464 •
Problem 1423 • Clutch Noises 1423 • Transmission Complete the Transmission Reassembly 1464 •
Noise 1424 • Pedal Problems 1424 • Slipping Install the Transmission 1465 • Add
Clutch 1424 • Dragging Clutch 1425 • Oily Lubricant 1465 • Test Drive 1465
Clutch Facings 1425 • Damaged Friction
Surfaces 1426 • Chattering or Grabbing Clutch 1426 • Chapter 73
Automatic Transmission Fundamentals 1468
Clutch Service 1427 • Servicing Hydraulic
Components 1427 • Clutch Replacement 1428 • Introduction 1468 • Automatic Transmission
Removing a Transmission or Transaxle 1429 • Parts 1468 • Power Transmission 1469 •
Clutch Removal 1429 • Flywheel Removal 1430 • Flexplate 1469 • Torque Converter 1470 • Torque
Flywheel Starter Ring Gear Replacement 1430 • Multiplication 1470 • Torque Converter
Flywheel Installation 1431 • Inspect New Operation 1470 • Stator Clutch Operation 1473 •
Parts 1431 • Pilot Bearing and Bushing Stall Speed 1473 • Lock-Up Torque
Service 1432 • Clutch Disc Service 1433 • Converters 1474 • Planetary Gears 1475 • Simple
Clutch Cover/Pressure Plate Service 1433 • Planetary Gearset 1475 • Simple Planetary
Clutch Installation 1433 • Release Bearing Operation 1476 • Simpson Compound Planetary
Service 1435 • Clutch Housing Installation 1436 Operation 1477 • Driving and Holding
Devices 1482 • Clutches 1482 • Clutch
Chapter 71 Operation 1482 • One-Way Clutches 1484 • Dog
Manual Transmission Fundamentals 1439 Clutches 1484 • Accumulator 1486 • Hydraulic
Introduction 1439 • Purpose of a System 1486 • Fluid Pump 1486 • Types of
Transmission 1439 • Using Gears to Increase Pumps 1486 • Transmission Valves 1488 •
Torque 1439 • Gear Ratio 1440 • Transmission Pressure Regulator 1488 • Hydraulic Valve
Gear Ranges 1440 • Fifth Gear 1441 • Body 1489 • Transmission Automatic Shift
Overdrive 1441 • Final Drive Ratio 1441 • Gear Selection 1490 • Automatic Transmission Fluid
Types and Operation 1441 • Spur Gears 1442 • (ATF) 1491 • Automatic Transmission
Helical Gears 1443 • Idler Gears 1443 • Cooling 1491 • Auxiliary Cooler/Heat
Transmission Parts 1443 • Transmission Exchanger 1494 • Park Pawl 1494 • Electronic
Lubrication 1444 • Transmission Bearings 1444 • Automatic Transmissions 1494 • Electronic
Transmission Gears and Shafts 1445 • Synchronizer Automatic Transmission Operation 1497 •
Assembly 1445 • Gear Shift Mechanisms 1447 • Electronic Torque Converter Control 1498 •
Shift Patterns 1448 • Transmission Power Flow 1449 • Electronic Pressure Control 1498 •
xiv Table of Contents
Transmission Shift Control 1498 • Continuously Driveshaft Service 1557 • Universal Joint
Variable Transmission 1500 • Hybrid Planetary Disassembly 1557 • Universal Joint Reassembly 1559 •
Transmission Operation 1501 Driveshaft Installation 1561 • Two-Piece Driveshaft
Service 1561 • Differential and Axle Diagnosis and
Chapter 74
Automatic Transmission Diagnosis and Service 1503
Service 1561 • Problem Diagnosis 1561 • Axle
Bearing Diagnosis 1562 • Axle Bearing Service 1563 •
Introduction 1503 • Automatic Transmission Removing a Bearing-Retained Axle 1563 • Axle
Identification 1503 • Automatic Transmission Bearing Replacement 1564 • Axle Bearing
Maintenance 1504 • Transmission Fluid Installation 1565 • Reinstall the Axle 1565 •
Service 1504 • Fluid Level 1505 • Check Fluid Full-Floating Axle Service 1566 • Differential
Condition 1505 • Changing Transmission Pinion Seal Replacement 1567 • Differential
Fluid 1506 • Transmission Filter Service 1506 • Repair 1568 • Removing a Third Member 1568 •
Remove and Replace the Filter 1507 • Refill the Disassembling a Salisbury Axle 1569 • Clean and
Transmission 1507 • Diagnosing and Repairing Inspect Parts 1569 • Differential Reassembly 1570 •
Leaks 1508 • Leaks from the Converter Adjusting a Differential 1570 • Pinion Gear
Housing 1508 • Pump Bushing Replacement 1511 • Depth 1570 • Ring Gear Backlash 1571 • Side
Reinstalling the Transmission 1511 • Rear Oil Seal Bearing Preload 1572 • Contact Pattern 1573 •
and Bushing Replacement 1512 • Automatic Backlash Pattern Change 1574 • Pinion Depth
Transmission Problem Diagnosis 1512 • Pattern Change 1574 • Pinion Bearing Preload 1575 •
Test-Drive 1513 • Slippage 1513 • Transmission Ring and Pinion Noise 1575 • Four-Wheel-Drive
Drainback 1513 • Noises 1517 • Flexplate 1517 • Service and Repair 1575
Transmission Tests 1517 • Valve Body
Removal 1520 • Electronic Transmission Chapter 77
Service 1522 • More Tests Before Transmission Front-Wheel-Drive (Transaxle and CV Joint)
Removal 1525 • Hybrid Automatic Transmission Fundamentals 1581
Service 1525 • Remanufactured Automatic Introduction 1581 • Front-Wheel Drive 1581 •
Transmissions and Transaxles 1525 • Transmission Manual Transaxles 1582 • Shift Linkage 1582 •
Rebuilding 1525 • Transmission Reassembly 1528 Transaxle Differential 1582 • Transaxle Power
Chapter 75 Flow 1583 • Automatic Transaxle 1586 • Front
Driveline Operation 1531 Drive Axles 1587 • Axle Shaft Parts 1587 •
Introduction 1531 • Driveshaft (RWD) 1531 • Slip CV Joint Construction 1588 • Axle
Yoke 1532 • Universal Joints 1533 • Two-Piece Shafts 1590 • CV Joint Boots 1590
Driveshaft 1534 • Driveshaft Angle 1535 •
Chapter 78
Constant Velocity Joints 1536 • Differential 1537 •
Front-Wheel-Drive (Transaxle and CV Joint)
Differential Construction 1538 • Differential Service 1592
Housing 1538 • Differential Operation 1539 •
Differential Gears 1540 • Gearsets 1540 • Axle Introduction 1592 • Transaxle and Front-Wheel-
Ratio 1541 • Limited-Slip Differential 1541 • Types Drive Service and Repair 1592 • Leaking CV Joint
of Limited-Slip Differentials 1541 • Viscous Boot 1592 • CV Joint Boot Service 1592 • Axle
Coupling Differentials 1546 • Drive Axles and Inspection and Diagnosis 1593 • CV Joint
Bearings 1547 • Semi-Floating Axle Bearing Diagnosis 1593 • Axle Shaft Removal 1593 •
Types 1547 • Independent Rear Suspension CV Joint Replacement 1596 • Fixed Joint
Axles 1548 • Gear Oils 1548 • Four-Wheel Disassembly and Inspection 1597 • CV Joint
Drive 1549 • Four-Wheel-Drive Axle Boot Clamps 1599 • Servicing an Inner
Assembly 1549 • Transfer Case 1550 • Tripod Joint 1600 • Double Offset Plunge
Locking Hubs 1552 • All-Wheel Drive 1552 Joints 1601 • Cross Groove Joint Service 1601 •
Rebuilt Halfshafts 1601 • Installing the Axle 1601 •
Chapter 76 Transaxle Repair 1601 • Transaxle Removal 1602 •
Driveline Diagnosis and Service 1556 Manual Transaxle Repair 1602 • Automatic
Introduction 1556 • Driveshaft Diagnosis 1556 • Transaxle Repair 1602 • Transaxle Differential Side
Universal Joint Diagnosis and Service 1557 • Bearing Adjustment 1603 • Install the Transaxle 1604
Table of Contents xv
Chapter 79 Service 1651 • Hybrid High-Voltage Battery

Driveline Vibration and Service 1606 Service 1653 • High-Voltage Battery
Vibration Analysis 1606 • Types of Vibrations 1607 • Rebuilding 1655
Vibration Test Instruments 1607 • Vibration and Chapter 82
Frequency 1608 • Driveshaft Runout 1610 • Other New Vehicle Technologies: Battery Electric, Fuel Cell
Causes of Vibration 1610 • Driveshaft Electric, and Hydraulic Hybrid 1660
Balance 1610 • Driveshaft Angle 1612 Introduction to Battery and Fuel Cell Electric
Vehicles 1660 • Battery Electric Vehicles 1660 •
Lithium-Ion Batteries 1663 • Electric
Section 13 Vehicle Battery Construction 1666 • Plug-In
Hybrid and Electric Vehicles Hybrids 1668 • Energy Cost and Electric Vehicle
Economy 1668 • Extended Range Electric
Chapter 80
Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamentals 1617
Vehicles 1669 • Electric Vehicle Charging
Systems 1670 • Standards For EV Electrical
Introduction to Hybrid Vehicles 1617 • Series and Connectors 1672 • Motor/Machine for Electric
Parallel Hybrids 1618 • Hybrid Types and Vehicles 1675 • EV Motor Types 1675 •
Levels 1622 • Battery Types: Hybrid Electric EV Motor Construction 1678 • Inverter/
Vehicle and Others 1628 • Capacitors in Converter/Electronic Controls 1679 • Electric
Hybrid Vehicles 1632 • Supercapacitors/ Vehicle Service 1681 • Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles
Ultracapacitors 1632 • Hybrid Brushless (FCEVs) 1682 • Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicles 1684
DC Motors 1634 • Hybrid Vehicle Air
Conditioning 1634 • Hybrid Vehicle
Brakes 1634 • Hybrid Planetary Transmission Appendix 1687
Operation 1635 Glossary 1700
Chapter 81 Index 1734
Hybrid Vehicle Safety and Service 1640
Hybrid Vehicle Safety and Service 1640 • Hybrid Note to Student: Learn to use the index. It has
Electrical Shock Hazard 1644 • High been constantly updated and will help you find what
Voltage Precautions 1646 • Hybrid Battery you need in the book.
Preface
Automotive Service: Inspection, Maintenance, Repair, The automotive repair industry of today continues to
6th edition evolved in part from my participation in a suc- evolve into more of a maintenance industry as vehicles last
cessful articulation program between local high schools longer and require fewer repairs. Long-term customer rela-
and the community college where I was a teacher for tionships, ethics, and professionalism have become even
38 years. The text and art manuscripts of this best-selling more important to the success of a business. There are also
book have once again been updated and improved in this environmental concerns today that were not a part of the
sixth edition revision. This is not a training manual. It is a industry of the past. The text includes chapters on safety,
textbook. Its primary purpose is to help you to think criti- hand tools, and vehicle maintenance and lubrication that
cally and learn to make decisions. are more comprehensive than those found in most com-
An array of excellent technical reviews by a dedicated parable texts. An accompanying lab manual emphasizes
group of professional teachers and technicians ensures that the ASE Education Foundation Automotive Maintenance
this is the most technically accurate and up-to-date com- and Light Repair (MLR) Program tasks, those jobs done in
prehensive automotive textbook available in the market- service stations, fast-lube outlets, and mass merchandisers
place. The text has been written from a carefully detailed (such as Sears, Goodyear, Firestone, or Walmart).
outline to allow each chapter to follow a logical, easy-to- Automobiles have become so complex in the last
understand path. Many new original color photographs 30 years that to remain competent, many of today’s tech-
and sketches have been added to update and supplement nicians specialize in one or more systems of the car. Basic
earlier material. theory of all automotive and light truck systems is covered
The transportation industry in North America is vast, so that service personnel will understand the function of
with one in every six people contributing to it in some way. the parts being serviced. When working in the industry,
These include people of many levels of understanding and there is often no time for basic theory. Therefore, automo-
ability. With that in mind, the introductory fundamentals tive class work could be the one and only chance students
chapters are written at a lower level for all the students, have to learn how systems operate so they can become bet-
whereas the service chapters are for those who have master diagnosticians in the future.
tered the introductory material. This book is comprehensive in that it deals with the
As a teacher, my philosophy is to challenge the best entire car and aims to teach theory of vehicle systems at an
students in anticipation that the rest will be brought to introductory student level, followed by service, diagnosis,
a higher level: “A rising tide raises all boats.” In writing and repairs at a more advanced student level. The book
this textbook, my target was to provide everything within focuses on the basic skills and understanding required to
one cover that would provide a student with all of the fix a vehicle. Students will learn the principles that gov-
knowledge needed to make a job-entry level apprentice. ern the different systems, rather than technical details of
The text can be used for a variety of educational purposes, a particular vehicle. The latter details will be learned from
including: technical service information or in manufacturer or after-
market training programs.
As an accompanying text to any automotive repair
Most of the systems used in automobiles today are
class
strikingly similar. Repair techniques universal to all auto-
To educate entry-level or apprentice technicians
mobiles are discussed, and procedures or conditions
To prepare more experienced technicians for ASE
unique to one specific manufacturer of automobiles are
certification
purposely avoided. The reader is encouraged to refer to
Automotive Service: Inspection, Maintenance, Repair, service and repair information for the specific vehicle in
6th edition is divided into 82 chapters that cover both the question.
ASE Education Foundation Automotive Maintenance and A major challenge for me as an automotive author is to
Light Repair (MLR) Program tasks and A1–A9 (the nine keep the scope of the book from growing out of control by
ASE automotive specialty areas). Advanced engine perfor- expanding into areas of in-service training best covered by
mance and emission controls are also covered in detail. manufacturers and aftermarket educators. My objective is
In addition to coverage of the usual repairs performed in to take an abundance of sometimes complicated informa-
almost any automotive repair facility, the reader is intro- tion and to condense and simplify that information so it
duced to the most frequently performed inspection and can be understood by a student preparing for the job-entry
service procedures—from safety inspections to tire and level. Following the completion of this text, better students
wheel service. Hybrid and electric vehicles are also cov- will be at a high job-entry level, at a skill level suitable for
ered in detail. entry as an apprentice in one or more of the specialty areas
xvi
Preface xvii
of automotive repair in a new car dealership or an inde- Up-to-date and technically accurate coverage through-
pendent repair facility. out ensures that you have access to the latest “need to
A primary objective of this book is to help the reader know” automotive information.
develop confidence in both thinking skills and problem- The following are examples of some of the new and
solving ability. One unique aspect of automotive educa- updated information to Automotive Service, 6th edition.
tion is that many automotive graduates venture into other
New material has been added for self-parking
professions and skilled trades, such as engineering or con-
vehicles, autonomous (self-driving) vehicles, future
struction. They will find much of the material learned in
trends, telematics, and advanced body electronics.
automotive classes to be very valuable and useful in their
The ABS chapter has been entirely updated and
chosen fields. This aspect of the student’s education is espe-
revamped, including active wheel speed sensors and
cially valuable when one considers how middle school and
the latest technologies in adaptive braking including
high school industrial arts programs have been scaled back
active brake assist, rain-drying brakes, knock back
in recent years. Dealing with such things as tools, solder-
mitigation, electronic brake force distribution, and
ing, basic electrical repairs, and repairing broken fasteners
electronic stability control. Updates to ABS service
helps to provide some measure of practical education.
include testing digital wheel speed sensors with a
The tremendous decline in the number of corner gas-
graphing meter or scan tool.
oline service stations has resulted in a loss of those jobs
The latest tire pressure monitoring information has
formerly available in abundance to students. Successful
been incorporated into the tire chapters.
service personnel who possess necessary basic automo-
The cooling system chapters have been revised
tive skills must continually learn new things in order to
and updated to include the most recent coolant
progress into other (higher-paying) specialty areas. The
recommendations and service information. Ed Eaton
Lab Manual for Automotive Service lists service jobs that
has been an important contributor to this revision.
students should be able to perform before enrolling in an
Mr. Eaton is an engineer who is a member of the ASTM
advanced automotive specialty area class.
International Committee D15 on engine coolants.
He is an expert in engine coolants, and his input was
Note to Teachers—Log on to timgilles.com and www invaluable in updating the cooling system chapters.
.cengage.com/sso to access photos and ancillary materi- R1234yf refrigerants are now supplied in most
als to use in preparation for your classes. new vehicles. The air conditioning chapters have
been revised and updated to include this and new
refrigerant laws and technology.
Updates and Other chapters in the book have been revised and
Enhancements to
updated to remain current.
Up-to-date ASE Education Foundation coverage
the Sixth Edition includes the latest information on ASE Education
Producing a new edition of a successful book is a lot of Foundation Automotive Maintenance and Light
work! It is rewarding for the author to be able to update Repair, as well as the eight ASE Master Technician
and improve on an earlier project. The world of Automotive areas.
Technology is in a state of constant flux. This book has been The updated Instructor Resources, now available
developed with the student in mind, by an author with many online and on DVD, are designed to improve
years of teaching experience. It would not be the most accu- the organization and quality of time spent in the
rate and up-to-date book on the market without the many classroom and shop. An updated Lab Manual and
competent reviewers who have provided so much valuable all-new MindTap for Automotive Services are also
input over the years and in this new edition. New informa- available (see the Supplements page for more detail).
tion and updates to Automotive Service: Inspection, Main- All automotive terms, abbreviations, and acronyms
tenance, Repair, 6th edition follow closely on the heels of the used in this text comply with the SAE Technical
substantial updates and new chapters in the previous edition. Standards Board Publication SAE J1930.
Acknowledgements
I would like to extend special thanks Rich Cregar, Department Head Cheryl Weakliem who has
to the following individuals, organi- of Advanced Transportation assisted with excellent reviews,
zations, and companies: Technologies at Wilson Commu- suggestions, and text edits in
nity College in North Carolina, is the areas of electricity, air con-
Cengage Learning Designer
another talented contributor who ditioning, and science. Cheryl is
Mary Clyne for overseeing
helped me understand alterna- a chemistry teacher with a PhD
and organizing this project.
tive fuels and hybrid and electric in Chemistry and an associate
Her organizational skills and
vehicles. degree in Automotive Technology.
dedication to excellence were
Jack Rosebro, of Toyota and Per- Friends and colleagues Tony
very important to the over-
fect Sky, Inc., has been another Mollica, Bob Stockero, Dave
all improvement of this sixth
wonderful helper with my books. Brainerd, Josue Miranda, Russell
edition.
He contributed much about Granger, and Gary Semerdjian,
Denise Denisoff, Chris Shortt,
hybrid vehicles. He has reviewed of Santa Barbara City College
and Matthew Thouin, develop-
hybrid materials in this and and Chuck Rockwood of Ven-
mental editors in earlier editions
previous editions and is always tura College for their continuous
of the text. I have truly been
ready to help with any difficult input and support.
fortunate to have such excellent
question. Members of the North American
editorial support!
Steve Cartwright has always been Council of Automotive Teachers
Cheri Plasse, Senior Content
my go-to guy for suspension, (NACAT) and California Auto-
Manager, who managed the
steering, and brakes. Steve is a motive Teachers (CAT), who
art, design, and production of
longtime friend who recently provided a tremendous amount
the text. Cheri has worked on
retired after a long career as an of input.
several of my projects in the past
instructor at Federal Mogul’s Physics professor Mike Young of
and is always a pleasure to work
training center in Saint Louis. Santa Barbara City College for
with.
He has provided much valuable his help with the Science Notes.
Sharon Rounds, who worked
insight for this textbook. Bernie Carr, Senior Engineer
tirelessly behind the scenes
Alan Nagel worked for many at Bosch Diagnostics in Santa
securing art permissions. Sharon
years at GM Canada and SAIT. Barbara, who has reviewed and
is a joy to work with. She has a
He is one of many friends I have helped with controller area net-
wonderful way of dealing with
made at NACAT conferences. works (CAN) and other vehicle
different manufacturers that has
Alan is extremely knowledge- electronics material.
resulted in many gems of input
able about hybrid and electric Casey Knecht is an automotive
coming my way from industry
vehicles. He has helped with teacher at Daytona State College
experts.
reviews on several editions of in Daytona Beach, Florida. He
Pradhiba Kannaiyan, Senior
this textbook. Alan is now with regularly sends me helpful sug-
Project Manager, and the staff at
Sun Country Highway, Canada, gestions and clarifications.
SPi Global whose professional
talent and effort with the text continuing to stay at the top of
his field.
and art ensured a quality final
Sean Bennett is a colleague and
Special Thanks
product.
fellow Cengage author. He is Every new edition of this book has
Many of the staff at all of the
always helpful with valuable one or more “super-reviewers” who
campuses of Universal Technical
input on diesels and diesel go way beyond expectations.
Institute have provided helpful
reviews of the manuscript that fuels. The top of the list for this edition
they use in their classes. Steve Landis is a Senior Product is Tony Mollica who has helped
Walt Hazelton from Eastern Manager for the Independent me once again as my very able
Florida State College. Walt is a Aftermarket with Continental assistant on this 6th edition
really smart guy who provided Automotive Group. Steve is an revision. Tony is a very talented
much help in updating electrical expert in tire pressure monitor- friend and colleague from Santa
and air conditioning chapters. He ing systems and has provided a Barbara City College. I’ve always
is responsible for substantially good deal of insight into this area been able to call on Tony for
improving this textbook. of technology and service. help, and he always provides
xviii
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
vinegars; sauces; food adulteration; preservation of foods;
heat and energy
CHAPTER V
REPAIR AND ELIMINATION OF WASTE
(METABOLISM)
emical changes in foods in body; work of assimilation; food
reserve; digestion, its processes and ferments; absorption of 130-
food; economy in food; selection of foods for need of body; 150
mouth and nasal passages
CHAPTER VI
ORGANS AND CONDITIONS AFFECTING DIGESTION
e liver, the muscles, the nerves, the kidneys, the skin, the
intestines, the blood, summary of work of organs and
tissues; season and climate; habit and regularity of eating; 151-
frequency of meals; exercise and breathing; ventilation; 184
fatigue; sleep; influence of thought; the circulation; gum
chewing; tobacco and alcohol
CHAPTER VII
COOKING
portance of proper cooking; purposes of cooking; meats; 185-
cereals and cereal products; vegetables; fruits 199
CHAPTER VIII
FOOD REQUIREMENTS OF THE SYSTEM
ments determining quantity of food necessary; selection of
dietary food required by workers at various occupations; 200-
average requirement; energy derived from various foods; 215
mixed diet versus vegetarian diet
CHAPTER IX
DIETS
nstructing balanced meals; in sedentary occupations; the girl
or boy from thirteen to twenty-one; the athlete; the laboring 216-
man; condition of “age”; model diets; tables of use in making 241
up a balanced diet
CHAPTER X
DIET IN ABNORMAL CONDITIONS
portance of proper diet in conditions of disease; anemia:
indigestion or dyspepsia; gastritis, dilatation of the stomach;
intestinal disorders; constipation; derangements of the liver; 242-
gall stones; neuralgia; kidney derangements; excess of uric 304
acid; asthma; tuberculosis; neurasthenia; skin diseases;
when traveling; in convalescence; leanness; obesity
CHAPTER XI
RECIPES FOR FOODS FOR INVALIDS AND SEMI-INVALIDS
ters; fruit juices; liquid foods; farinaceous beverages; meat 305-
juices; semi-solid foods; gruels; souffles 319
CHAPTER XII
INFANT FEEDING
blem of correct feeding; breast feeding; wet nursing; contra-
indications to nursing; anatomy and physiology of the infant;
intestinal disturbance; times of feeding; water; normal
development in the breast-fed; weaning; artificial feeding;
320-
bacteriology; composition of human milk; top-milk; top-milk
356
mixture; certified milk; milk modifications; sterilizing and
pasteurizing; comparative analysis of milks and infant foods;
gruels; vomiting; colic; the stools in infancy; constipation;
diarrhea; anemia rickets; scurvy; feeding the second year
APPENDIX
357-
asures and Weights
359
361-
ex
366
ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Susanna Cocroft Frontispiece
Diagrammatic Representation of Villus 146
What to Eat and When
CHAPTER I
PURPOSES OF FOOD
T HE purposes of food are:

To supply the material out of which the body may rebuild the
tissues.
To produce heat, and to liberate muscular and mental energy.
Every particle of body substance is constantly changing. The new
material for cells and tissues, the substance to supply the energy
needed in the metabolic work of tearing down and rebuilding, the
energy used in the digestive process of converting the food into
condition to be assimilated, and the energy used in muscular, brain,
and nerve movement must all be supplied by food.
Every effort of the brain in the process of thinking, every motion,
and every muscular movement requires energy which the food must
supply.
The body is composed of a vast number of cells varying according
to the tissue or organ in which they are found. The characteristic of
all living matter is that it constantly reproduces itself. Cells perform
their appointed work, wear out, and must be replaced by new ones
or derangements follow.
The new cells constantly being formed, increase in size and in so
doing push the worn-out, dying, and dead cells out of the way. The
process of building and eliminating continues within the body and on
its surface every instant of life.
An idea of the number of dead cells constantly being thrown off
from every part of the body may be gained by noticing the amount of
dead skin cast off. The fine scales of “scarf” or “dead” skin, which we
easily rub off in a friction bath, are composed of these dead cells
which have been crowded out by the hosts of vital cells constantly
forming beneath. The process is the same in every tissue and organ.
The dead or worn-out matter within the body is burned by oxygen
and put in condition to be carried by the blood to the organs of
elimination, the kidneys, intestines, lungs, and skin.
Much waste is eliminated in liquid form through the sweat glands.
It is said that stokers throw off four pounds of water and waste a day
through the skin.
In the growing child the process of building and of eliminating is
active and rapid. In the youth it is less rapid, in the adult still less, but
unless the process is kept active, stagnation and death ensue.
Daily exercise is necessary to keep up the body activities; yet very
few take the trouble to secure daily a complete, thorough circulation
of blood, especially through the vital organs and the deeper tissues.
Perfect circulation is the key-note of health.
Activity of any kind necessitates the expenditure of energy. The
process is a chemical one and in all chemical processes heat is
necessary to cause the decomposition of elements and their
recomposition into different substances.
Heat in its turn has two functions. It enables the chemical changes
to be carried on which fit the food for the use of the various tissues,
and it burns to an ash the worn-out products of the body’s activity,
fitting them for elimination.
It keeps the tissues flexible and the secretions fluid; coagulation
takes place when the secretions become cold.
As previously stated, food in the body, then, is needed for two
purposes:
(1) to build and maintain the cell until its work is done;
(2) to furnish the heat necessary to decompose the food into its
elements, and to produce the energy by which all the body
processes are carried on.
That the food may be appropriated by the body it
must be not only proper in kind and quantity, but Food Elements
the body must also be in condition to digest,
absorb, and assimilate it and to eliminate the waste, otherwise the
body needs are not met.
It is the nourishment which the body assimilates and appropriates
to its needs which counts in food economy, not necessarily the
amount consumed.
Therefore if the food is to economically serve its purpose, the body
must be in a condition to digest and assimilate it—this condition
depends largely on perfect circulation, correct position of organs,
and correct breathing habits.
Of the fifteen to twenty substances contained in foods and
comprised in the body, the principal ones are oxygen, hydrogen,
carbon, nitrogen, chlorin, sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron,
calcium, phosphorus, and sulphur. The differences in the forms of
matter lie in the proportions in which these elements are combined.
Those containing the largest proportion of nitrogen are called
Nitrogenous foods or Protein—such as meat, eggs, and some
vegetables.
Those containing the largest proportion of carbon are known as
Carbonaceous—such as cereals, sugar, and fat.
The four food elements, indispensable to life, either of plant or
animal, are oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen.
Carbon combined with oxygen forms carbon dioxid.
Oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxid largely form the air.
Oxygen and hydrogen form water.
Calcium, iron, magnesium, sodium, and potassium are used in the
formation of the various tissues and secretions of the body.
The substances contained in living organisms are the same as
those in inorganic matter, only in different complexities as
appropriated to the needs of each organism.
The difference between living and non-living matter is in the
relative proportion and arrangement of the same elements.
Before it is fit to supply the needs of the body, the raw material
must undergo a chemical change.
It has been demonstrated by scientific investigation that no
unorganized elements, such as pure nitrogen, pure iron or
magnesium, are assimilated by the system and converted into its
various structures.
While the body needs carbon, it cannot use coal; it needs nitrogen,
yet it cannot appropriate it to rebuilding bone and muscle, until, by
chemical action with other elements, it has been converted into
complex substances called proteins.
The muscles, ligaments, and labor-performing structures contain
the largest amount of nitrogen.
The fat contains the largest amount of carbon.
The brain, the nerves, and the bones contain the largest
proportion of phosphorus compounds.
Yet, while the brain contains phosphorus, and the tissues nitrogen,
the brain cannot be built up by eating elementary phosphorus, nor
the muscles by pure nitrogen, but compounds rich in phosphorus or
nitrogen may be utilized.
Plants use the simple compounds of the earth, air, and soil, and,
within their own cells, build them up into such complex substances
as starch, sugar, protein, fat, and salts, putting them in condition for
man and other animals to appropriate to their use.
All plant life is compounded from the elements in the soil, air, and
water, by the action of the sun’s rays. The rays of heat and light store
something of their power in latent heat and energy in these plant
compounds.
The end of plant life is the completion of its compounds—when it
has matured them, the plant dies.
All organic matter is thus formed by the action of the sun’s rays on
inorganic matter.
The gluten of wheat is formed from the chemical union of nitrogen
in the air and nitrogen in the soil with other substances.
The starch of wheat and other grains is from carbon which the
plant has taken from the soil and combined with other substances.
All meats are largely derived from plants which have appropriated
the elements from the soil, water, and air. The chemical processes of
the animal convert the energy latent in the plant foods into the more
concentrated form of meat. The animal thus performs a part of the
chemical work for man—the digestive organs of one animal convert
the food contained in certain plants, into a substance more easily
assimilated by another animal.
Man would need to eat a large amount of nitrogen-containing
plants in order to get as much protein as is contained in one egg or
in a piece of lean meat the size of an egg. It is because the nitrogen
is in such condensed form in meat and eggs that one is likely to take
more than the system can handle, if he eats too freely of these two
foods, particularly of meat. We will discuss this question more fully
under “Proteins.”
Most domestic animals take their food elements from air and
water, as well as from the compounds which the plants have formed,
while wild animals and some domestic ones, such as hogs and
chickens, make use of meat as well.
The greater part of muscle, nerve, and gland is composed of
protein.
When the muscles are exercised constantly they use up their
protein and must have it resupplied, or the muscle substance will
waste. When the muscles are exercised freely, as in the laborer, or
the athlete, they need more building material.
The skeleton is composed largely of deposited salts, as calcium.
If, therefore, the growing child be not supplied with a sufficient
amount of this substance, the bones will be weak and liable to
deformity and the teeth will be slow in coming or will be small and
malformed. Children need foods rich in lime.
The elements which supply heat and keep up muscular activity are
starches, fats, and sugars.
It must be apparent to every thoughtful person, that, since the
nerves, muscles, and glands are composed largely of protein and
the skeleton largely of calcium salts, in order to furnish the body with
the elements necessary for growth and repair, all of these elements,
as also the energy-producing substances, must be provided.
Each individual, therefore, should learn how much he requires to
replace his daily waste, both for rebuilding tissue and for supplying
heat and energy.
The day laborer, though he may do more muscular work than an
athlete in training, expends scarcely any nervous energy. Therefore
he needs less protein in his diet than one does who expends both
nervous and muscular activity, as does the athlete.
CHAPTER II
CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD ELEMENTS
B Y foodstuffs are meant the chemical elements appropriated by

the animal for the use of the body, as previously described.
By foods are meant those articles of diet found in the market which
contain the chemical elements used by the body in various
combinations. Bread, for example, contains all of the foodstuffs and
has been called the staff of life, because it sustains life. This refers to
bread made from the whole of the grain. White bread, as commonly
eaten, is not the “staff of life.”
Foods may contain elements, not foodstuffs, and not used by the
body, but cast out as waste. Certain foods, such as sugar, corn-
starch, olive oil, and egg albumin, contain only one foodstuff, as will
be noted in the following classification, in which the foodstuffs are
grouped according to the body uses.
The classification of foods is based on the principal organic
foodstuffs they contain. The preponderance of the elements in any
one food determines its chief use in the body.
It will be remembered that the chief uses of foods are to produce
heat and energy, to build the tissue of the growing child, and to
repair the tissues in the child and the adult.
Nearly all foods are made up of a combination of substances.
The following tabulations give the classification of foods based on
their predominating elements.
Nitrogenous foods:
Lean meat
Eggs
Gluten
Carbonaceous foods:
Sugars
Starches
Root and tuberous vegetables
Green vegetables
Fruits
Fats
Carbo-nitrogenous foods:
Cereals
Legumes
Nuts
Milk
Vegetables are mixtures of sugars and starches;
Fruits are mixtures of sugars, vegetable acids, and salts;
Milk, legumes, cereals, and nuts contain a more equal division of
sugars, fats, and proteins, and are therefore represented as carbo-
nitrogenous;
Lean meats, with the exception of shellfish, contain no starch, but
all meats contain protein, fat, and water.
Water Corn-Starch
Inorganic
Salts Starches Sago
Tapioca
Carbonaceous Glucose
(producing Cane Sugar
Sugars
heat & energy) Syrups
Honey
Foodstuffs
Lard
Organic Fats Olive Oil
Butter
Egg Albumin
Nitrogenous Proteins Gluten
(for growth Lean Meat
and repair)
In the above tabulation, examples are given of foodstuffs which
are almost pure representatives of their classes.
Corn-starch, sago, and tapioca are practically pure starch,
containing very little of any other element;
Glucose, cane sugar, syrups, and honey are almost pure sugar;
Butter, lard, and olive oil are nearly all pure fat;
Egg albumin, gluten of flour, and lean meat are almost pure
protein.
As previously stated, however, no food contains but one element
of foodstuffs.
NITROGENOUS FOODSTUFFS OR PROTEINS
Protein is a complex combination consisting of seventeen

elements. The digestive organs split up protein into these seventeen
substances, and they enter the blood thus split. When they reach the
tissues, each tissue selects the elements it needs and recombines
them according to its own peculiar functional uses.
Meat and eggs contain the complete protein.
Protein exists in all vegetables, but few vegetables contain protein
which is made up of the whole seventeen substances, hence more
vegetable food has to be eaten to secure the protein in the quantity
and combination necessary to maintain life.
Of these seventeen elements the predominating ones are
nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphates. The predominance of nitrogen
has given the proteins the name nitrogenous.
Proteins are the tissue builders.
In this connection it may be well to state that blood is a tissue; thus
meat and eggs build the blood, as well as muscle and sinew.
All nitrogenous foods contain considerable carbon—mostly in the
form of fat in the meat elements—but the carbonaceous foods
contain so little protein that the protein elements do not appreciably
enter into the nutrition.
Carbon and nitrogen in the carbo-nitrogenous foods are about
equal in proportion.
The nitrogenous or protein elements in the body constitute about
one-fifth of its weight. They form the basis of blood, lymph, muscle,
sinew, bone, skin, cartilage, and other tissues.
Worn-out body tissue is constantly being torn down and eliminated
and the protein in the foods must daily furnish material for repair, as
well as for building new tissue.
A young animal’s first need is for growth, as it has not learned to
exercise sufficiently to use much latent energy. The first food it
receives is an animal product—milk to babes and other mammals—
while the young chicken or bird is nourished by the yolk of the egg
contained within it. Sufficient yolk substance remains within the chick
when it is hatched to sustain its life for the first day or two.
Nitrogenous foods are more concentrated and contain less waste;
thus a smaller bulk is required than of vegetables and fruits.
According to recent experiments, the average adult requires from
two to four ounces of nitrogenous foods a day, to repair the waste.
Happily, when more is consumed, the system has the power up to a
certain limit (depending on the physical condition and the daily
activity), to eliminate an excess.
It is needless to say that if the daily waste is not replaced,
digestion and nutrition suffer. The system must have the two to four
ounces necessary to supply the nitrogen daily excreted, or the
tissues themselves will be consumed.
The proteins, of which meat is the principal member, are classified
as:
Albuminoids: albumin (white of eggs), casein (curd of milk),
myosin (the basis of lean meat and gluten of wheat);
Gelatinoids: (connective tissue of meat);
Extractives: (appetizing and flavoring elements).
If protein material is taken into the body in excess of its needs the
excess is used as fuel. While vastly more expensive, an excess of
protein is worth no more as fuel than starch is; 1 gram of protein
produces 4.1 calories of heat, no more than 1 gram of starch.
The proteins produce heat and energy when the supply of sugars,
starches, and fats is exhausted, but proteins alone form muscle and
the larger part of blood and sinew. They are, in this sense, the most
important of foods; they are also the most costly.
An excess of protein, usually eaten in the daily intake of food,
then, is of no practical use and can be eliminated with great benefit
to the pocketbook. Meat once a day is sufficient. The excessive
consumption of meat can be lessened with no lack of nutrition to the
body. The trouble is that meat is the first thing thought of for a meal;
it is easily prepared and housewives are not willing to use the
thought and effort necessary to secure a balanced meal without it.
CARBONACEOUS FOODSTUFFS
The carbonaceous foods are those used by the body for heat and
energy and are so named because they contain a large proportion of
carbon—the heat-producing element.
It is the carbon in wood, which, uniting with oxygen, produces heat
and light.
The carbonaceous foods are all composed of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen, the difference between them being in the different
proportions in which these elements are combined.
They are divided into two classes, Carbohydrates and Fats.
The carbohydrates embrace the sugars and

starches and include such substance as the Carbohydrates
starches of vegetables and grains (notably corn,
rice, wheat, and the root vegetables), and the sugar of milk, of fruits,
vegetables, and the sap of trees. Their chief office is to create
energy.
The starches are converted into sugar, so they are together given
the one name of carbohydrate. The name means that carbon and
hydrogen are contained in them in such a proportion that when
oxygen unites with the hydrogen, water is produced and the carbon
is liberated. In this chemical process heat is produced. One gram of
carbohydrate produces 4.1 calories of heat.
They are almost entirely absent from meat and eggs, the animal
having converted them into fats.
When the digestive organs are in a normal condition
carbohydrates are easily digested.[2] They do not play a large part in
the growth of the body tissues, but they are utilized by the body to
spare the consumption of the fat which is stored in the tissues as a
reserve. This explains their action in preserving but not producing
fat. When there is an excess of fat and the desire is to reduce, the
carbohydrates should be limited that the body may call on the
reserve fat for heat and energy.
Few realize that after the starches and fats have been consumed
in heat and energy the tissues are consumed.
The assimilation of the carbohydrates is almost complete, so that
the energy derived from them may be closely calculated.
SUGAR
There are many varieties of sugar. Those commonly used as

foods are, cane sugar (sucrose), fruit sugar (levulose), sugar of milk
(lactose), sugar of malt (maltose), sugar of grapes or corn (glucose),
maple sugar, honey, and saccharin—a coal-tar product. They are
derived from plants, from trees, and from tubers or other vegetables.
Cane sugar (sucrose) is derived from the juice of the sugar cane
and from beets. One-third of the world’s supply of sugar is derived
from the sugar cane and two-thirds from beets. From two to ten per
cent. of sucrose may be obtained from the maple tree. It is also
found in the sugar pea.
All sugars are carbohydrates—carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen—
the oxygen and hydrogen being in the proportions which form water
(two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen).
Brown sugar is granulated sugar in an early stage of refinement.
Maple sugar is obtained by boiling down the sap of the maple tree.
It is often adulterated with other sugars or with glucose from corn,
because they are cheaper. This adulteration does not make it
unwholesome, but causes it to lose its distinct maple taste.
The nutritive value of sugar is said to be about ninety-five per cent.
Glucose was formerly derived almost entirely from grapes. Later
the process was discovered by which the starch in corn was
converted into glucose. It is produced so much more cheaply from
corn that this is now the chief source of supply.
Glucose is also found in most of the fruits, in combination with
other sugars. It needs little change to be absorbed by the system
and quickly overloads the digestive apparatus if much of it is eaten.
It is pure, wholesome, and cheap, and for this reason it is often
combined with other sugars. It is not so sweet as cane sugar, though
just as nutritious. Many of the syrups on the market are made from it.
Candy is often made from glucose instead of from molasses or
cane sugar.
Much candy, unless one is actively exercising, tends to produce
indigestion.
While glucose is wholesome, it ferments readily.
Before sugar can be used by the system, it is changed into the
easily absorbed form of the sugar in grapes, by a ferment in the
small intestine. Hence digested sugar in the body is called grape
sugar.
Milk sugar needs less chemical change than other sugars and is
taken almost at once into the circulation. It is contained in the natural
food for the infant.
The digested sugar (grape sugar) is further changed in the body
into glycogen. When an excess of sugar or starch is consumed, it is
stored within the body as glycogen, until required.
Sugar is perhaps a better food than starch, because less force is
required for its digestion and it is easily assimilated, being more
readily converted into dextrose than are starches.[3] Moreover it
furnishes the heat and energy needed by those having small power
to digest starch.
Sugar is soon oxidized, and, for this reason may be eaten by
those who need to use an extra amount of muscular strength, or to
get strength quickly. It yields heat and energy within thirty minutes
after eating, and in times of great exertion or exhausting labor, the
rapidity with which it is assimilated gives it advantage over starch.
Because it is so quickly converted into energy it is valuable for
children at active play.
Experiments with soldiers on forced marches, and in Arctic
explorations, have shown the value of sugar as a food, in enabling
the men to withstand hunger, thirst, and fatigue. Taken in excess,
however, particularly by those of sedentary habits, it clogs the
system as does any other excess of material, creating difficulties for
the liver and kidneys.
During muscular activity, four times as much sugar is consumed in
the body as is ordinarily used in the body processes.
Used in limited quantities, therefore, according to the muscular or
brain power exercised, sugar is one of the best foods for the
production of energy.
When much sugar is eaten the starches and fats in the food
should be lessened to avoid overloading the system.
When eaten in excess, sugar may temporarily appear in the urine
unaltered.
It might be inferred that, as all starch must be converted to sugar
before it can be used by the body, starches might be discarded and
replaced by sugars. A small quantity of sugar, however, soon surfeits
the appetite, and if the foods were confined to those having a surplus
of sugars, sufficient food would not be eaten to supply other needs of
the body. This lack of appetite occasioned by an excess of sugar is
due, partly, to the fact that the gastric juice is not secreted so freely
when there is much sugar in the stomach.
Because of the slower secretion of gastric juice and the surfeit of
the appetite occasioned by them, sweetened foods should not be
used at the beginning of a meal, and, while a moderate amount of
sugar is desirable, a surfeit will cause indigestion. This is particularly
liable when one eats sufficient starch and sugar at a meal and then
eats candy between meals.
Sugar is so readily oxidized and supplies heat and energy so
promptly, that the fats stored in the tissues are not called on until the
latent energy in the sugar is used. The power of sugar to fatten thus
lies in sparing the use of body fat; when starch and fat are used in
addition to sugar an excess of fat quickly results. Therefore, those
who wish to reduce in flesh should eat sparingly of sugar that the
starches and fats may be used to furnish energy, but sugar should
be as freely used as the system can handle it, by those who wish to
build up in flesh.
Broadly speaking, about one-fourth of a pound of sugar, daily, in
connection with other foods, is well utilized by the system, the
quantity depending on whether one leads an active or a sedentary
life.
The natural flavor of fruits and grains is very largely destroyed by
sugar, which is used too freely on many articles of diet. Sugar should
never be added to fruits while cooking, if intended for immediate use,
as the acids of the fruits neutralize a portion of the sugar. More sugar
is thus used than is needed after the cooking process is completed.
The sweet taste in all fruits and vegetables is due to the presence
of sugar. Sweet potatoes, beets, carrots, parsnips, turnips, grapes,
figs, and dates are especially rich in sugar, and when these are
furnished with a meal, in any appreciable quantity, the starches
should be restricted—notably bread, Irish potatoes, and rice.

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Introduction 31 • General Personal Safety 31 • Introduction 72 • Metric System 72 • Measuring

Chapter 9 Inspection 207 • Chassis Lubrication 208 •

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Chapter 19 Service 338 • Locating Leaks 340 • External

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T HE purposes of food are:

B Y foodstuffs are meant the chemical elements appropriated by

NITROGENOUS FOODSTUFFS OR PROTEINS

Protein is a complex combination consisting of seventeen

The carbohydrates embrace the sugars and

There are many varieties of sugar. Those commonly used as

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Chapter 79 Service 1651 • Hybrid High-Voltage Battery