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Open Radio Access Network
(O-RAN) Systems
Architecture and Design
This page intentionally left blank
Open Radio Access Network
(O-RAN) Systems
Architecture and Design
Wim Rouwet
NXP Semiconductors, Austin, TX, United States
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom
525 B Street, Suite 1650, San Diego, CA 92101, United States
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our
arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be
found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as
may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our under-
standing, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any infor-
mation, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be
mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any
injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or
operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
v
vi Contents
References 260
Further reading 262
Index 365
This page intentionally left blank
About the authors
Wim Rouwet is a distinguished member of technical staff at NXP Semiconductors. He has
an MSc in electrical engineering from the Eindhoven University of Technology in the
Netherlands. He had spent more than 15 years in Motorola, Freescale, and NXP in network-
ing and network processing, wireless algorithm development, and system and modem archi-
tecture roles. His focus is on 3GPP LTE and 5G as well as 802.11 processing stacks and their
implementation. In his job, he has been responsible for 4G and 5G stack development, small
cells, and CRAN implementations associated with many wireless infrastructure projects. He
has led key next-generation R&D projects including multistandard modem architecture, vir-
tualization, 5G macro and small cell, and client-side products.
Contributing Authors
David Spencer is a product line manager for Timing Solutions at Skyworks Inc., formerly
Silicon Labs I&A division. He has a degree in physics and an over 30-year career in technol-
ogy spanning technical writing, hardware and software design, applications engineering, and
product marketing. For the past 15 years, David has focused on synchronization solutions
and is considered an expert in both physical layer sync technologies and IEEE 1588 packet-
based timing, having presented papers at multiple international conferences such as WSTS
and ITSF and represented various companies in the ITU-T standards body. In his current
role, David is responsible for driving the definition and implementation of hardware and
software enabling Synchronous Ethernet and IEEE 1588 sync in a wide range of systems
including 5G RAN networks.
Vishwapathi Rao Tadinada works as a director of test at NXP Semiconductors where he has
to ensure the quality of networking applications and customer solution product lines. He has
over 20 years of extensive experience leading product testing in 4G, 5G, Security,
Networking, Cloud, SDN, NFV, and Embedded Industry. He has several presentations at
international conferences and papers on IoT, security, and virtualization. He has BSc from
Kanpur University, India.
xi
This page intentionally left blank
Preface
Across the IoT, Autonomous Driving (ADAS), edge compute, and service provider ecosystem,
5G is understood to not “just” be about enabling a faster data connection to the end-user
device. 5G evolves both existing technologies (radio access and home networks) while laying
the foundation for new applications across consumer and industrial automation with the
self-driving car being a prime example.
Even though 5G is very much hyped since 2016, infrastructure rollout has only started in
2019, with subscriber devices having become available in volume starting 2020. At the same
time, 4G/LTE standards will continue to evolve and add more subscribers.
4G and 5G (projected) subscriber growth (multiple public sources, indicated with data points).
During 2G, 3G, and 4G network rollouts, wireless service providers and their system ven-
dors built networks that, although providing predictable and high performance, are often
characterized by their complexity, inflexibility, and associated high barrier to entrance.
Like the wireline network transformation when migrating from circuit-switched to packet-
switched (PS) networks in the early 2000s, the wireless network is migrating from this propri-
etary nature to a true open-standards approach that allows “out-of-the-box” thinking and
disruptive solutions in physical implementation and deployment. Consider, for example, the
cost and execution requirements imposed by new operators like Reliance Jio in India, DISH
in the United States, and Rakuten in Japan, needing to support fast ramp-up (quick provi-
sioning), or the Facebook Terragraph project, bringing high-speed connectivity at a fraction
of fiber deployment cost through the use of an unlicensed 60 GHz spectrum.
xiii
xiv Preface
At the same time, there is a lot of catching up to do. The institutionalized knowledge
from the big wireless systems vendors takes a long time to catch up to, in systems, hardware,
and software design. This book is a jump-start to engineers who are developing O-RAN hard-
ware and software systems and provides a top-down approach to O-RAN systems design. We
cover wireless and systems history as an introduction into why wireless systems look the way
they do today, before introducing relevant O-RAN and 3GPP standards. The remainder of
the book discusses hardware and software aspects of O-RAN system design, including
dimensioning and performance targets. We include real-life examples of relevant elements
of detailed hardware and software design where needed as a guide for developers. Lastly,
we show a few practical examples of where O-RAN designs play in the market and how those
examples map to hardware and software architectures.
The target audience includes hardware and software engineers as well as product managers
and consumers of O-RAN products who are looking to understand better what O-RAN is.
This book is organized as follows:
Chapter 1, Open Radio Access Network Overview, gives an overview of the O-RAN stan-
dard and its origins and covers related topics like 5G and spectral availability for 5G deploy-
ment. This provides a background for a discussion on deployment options, which defines
the hardware and software architecture.
Chapter 2, System Components, Requirements, and Interfaces, outlines the requirements
and architecture of key system components such as the central unit (CU), distributed unit
(DU) and RU.
Chapter 3, Hardware System Dimensioning, establishes key performance metrics such as
front/backhaul throughputs, memory requirements, interconnect performance, as well as
latency and other metrics.
Chapter 4, Hardware Architecture Choices, talks about the different hardware implementa-
tion options, from server-based designs to more embedded implementation options for CU/
DU as well as options for RU system design. We discuss the pros and cons of each architec-
ture approach.
Chapter 5, System Software, is like the hardware architecture choice but more software
centric in nature. We cover OS components such as Linux and DPDK/bbdev as well as
required software drivers.
Chapter 6, User-Plane Application Components, covers relevant details of the Physical and
Layer 2 application stacks. We outline functions implemented by these stacks. This includes
3GPP defined functions such as PDCP, RLC/MAC, and PHY and implementation-specific
parts such as Air Interface Scheduler, O-RAN eCPRI fronthaul, and DFE.
Chapter 7, Wireless Scheduling and Quality of Service Optimization Techniques, delves
deeper into the most complex and differentiating piece of the User-Plane stack: the wireless
scheduler algorithm. We explain commonly used algorithms for time and frequency domain
scheduling and outline the potential structure of a scheduling algorithmic framework.
Chapter 8, Synchronization in Open Radio Access Networks, covers requirements as well
as implementation on CU/DU and RU side for time and frequency synchronization including
relevant standards and implementation methods.
xvi Preface
Chapter 9, Software Performance, discusses key performance metrics of the O-RAN sys-
tems, such as L1/L2 algorithmic performance as well as user performance in terms such as
latency, throughput, and capacity.
Chapter 10, Interoperability and Test, establishes standards software techniques for inte-
gration and test before covering 3GPP/O-RAN specific system integration and test aspects.
Chapter 11, Differentiation by Use Case, shows a few “off the normal” O-RAN use-cases/
implementations to give the reader insight into what kinds of products can be established
with an O-RAN systems architecture. These systems are discussed as practical implementa-
tions that showcase O-RAN strengths of ecosystem-based development and software
centricity.
Acronyms
3GPP Third-Generation Partnership Project
5GC 5G Core
5QI 5G QoS Identifier
ACIA Alliance for Connected Industries and Automation
ACL Access Control Lists
ACLR Adjacent Channel Leakage Ratio
ACPR Adjacent Channel Power Ratio
ADAS Advanced Driver-Assistance Systems
ADC Analog to Digital Converter
AGC Automatic Gain Control
AM Acknowledged Mode
AMF Access and Mobility Management Function
APD Analog Pre Distortion
API Application Programming Interface
ARP Allocation and Retention Priority
ARPU Average Revenue Per Unit
ARQ Automatic Repeat Request
ASIC Application Specific Integrated Circuit
ASN1 Abstract Syntax Notation 1
ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode
AWGN Additive White Gaussian Noise
AxC Antenna Container
BCCH Broadcast Control Channel
BCH Broadcast Channel
BE Best Effort
BER Bit Error Rate
BFWA Broadband Fixed Wireless Access
BLER Block Error Rate
BPSK Binary Phase-Shift Keying
BD Buffer Descriptor
BE Best Effort
BS Base Station
BWP Bandwidth Partitioning
CB Code Block
CCH Common Control Channel
CF Crest Factor
CFR Crest Factor Reduction
C-ITS Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems
CLI Command Line Interface
CoMP Cooperative Multipoint
COTS Commercial Off-The-Shelf
CP Control Plane
CPI Certified Professional Installer
xvii
xviii Acronyms
FR Frequency Range
FWA Fixed Wireless Access
GBR Guaranteed Bit Rate
GFBR Guaranteed Flow Bit Rate
GNSS Global Navigation by Satellite Systems
GPP General-Purpose Processor
GPRS General Packet Radio Services
GPS Global Positioning System
GSM Global System for Mobile communication
GTP GPRS Tunneling Protocol
GTP-C GPRS Tunneling Protocol Control
GTP-U GPRS Tunneling Protocol User
GTPS Giga Transactions Per Second
GW Gateway
gNB gNodeB or Next Generation NodeB or 5G Base Station
HAAT Height Above Average Terrain
HARQ Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request
HBM High Bandwidth Memory
HLS Higher Level Split
HNB Home NodeB
HPF High Priority Fronthaul
IBW Instantaneous BandWidth
IDFT Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform
IPC Inter Process Communication
IOT Internet of Things
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IETF Internet Engineering Task Force
IFFT Inverse Fast Fourier Transform
IP Internet Protocol or Ingress Protection
IPSec Internet Protocol Security
ISA Instruction Set Architecture
ISC Integrated Small Cell
ITU International Telecommunications Union
LBRM Limited Buffer Rate Matchin
LLR Log Likelihood Radio
LLS Lower Level Split
LPF Low Priority Fronthaul
LTE Long Term Evolution
MAC Medium Access Control
MEC Metro Edge Compute
MeNB Master eNB
MFBR Maximum Flow Bit Rate
MIB Master Information Block
MIMO Multiple Input Multiple Output
MMU Memory Management Unit
MP Management Plane
MPF Medium Priority Fronthaul
MPLS Multi Protocol Label Switching
MPS Maximum Payload Size
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