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Carnivoran Ecology
Carnivoran Ecology
The Evolution and Function of
Communities

Steven W. Buskirk
Professor Emeritus, University of Wyoming
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
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© Steven W. Buskirk 2023
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
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above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2022944176
ISBN 978–0–19–286324–9
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DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192863249.001.0001
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Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
 Preface
This book arose from my several decades of interest
in and research on carnivorans. Like many young
people with naturalist tendencies, I was particu-
larly intrigued by my early encounters with wild
carnivorans—their rarity, elusiveness, and implicit
threat to my well-being. I vividly recall seeing my
first bear track on a solo backpacking trip in the
Sierra Nevada of California, followed by a sleep-
less night spent contemplating my fate. I recall the
horror of my older sister when I asked her to stop
our parents’ car so that I could retrieve a road-killed
domestic cat and add its skull to my collection. In
the summers of my college years, working as a tour
guide in Mount McKinley (now Denali) National
Park, Alaska, I observed regular interactions involv-
ing wolves, caribou, brown bears, moose, red foxes,
and other species. Some of these observations were
dramatic and photogenic, but curious as well. Why
did 150-kg brown bears invest so much effort to
capture 200-g ground squirrels? Why did wolves
give birth in the same dens for decades on end,
even though they were well known and prone
to human disturbance? Why were coyotes deathly
afraid of being anywhere near wolves, while red
foxes merely stayed out of their grasp?
My PhD research and subsequent faculty
appointment in Zoology and Physiology at the
University of Wyoming gave me opportunities
to pursue these kinds of questions. While most
carnivoran research of that time gravitated to
intraspecific and predator–prey interactions,
my interests ranged more widely. My research
addressed various mechanisms by which car-
nivorans might be limited: thermal energetics,
allometry, tooth morphology, fasting endurance,
genetic variability, and interspecific competition.
I learned that predator–prey interactions were
a small part of our growing understanding of
what limits the distributions and abundances of
carnivorans.
During those early years, I depended on the stan-
dard academic references of the day: journal arti-
cles, monographs, book chapters, theses, disserta-
tions, and R. F. Ewer’s (1973) The carnivores. Ewer’s
monograph was the definitive source for carnivo-
ran biology—especially paleontology and behavior.
Writing the current account nearly fifty years on,
I benefitted from a wealth of high-quality material
facilitated by the revolution in publishing—a prolif-
eration of journal titles, many of them open access,
expanded opportunities for scientists in develop-
ing countries to publish their work, and many more
women working and publishing as scientists. The
period since 2000 has offered unprecedented oppor-
tunities to write a book such as this, and the pan-
demic of 2020–22 gave my isolation and focus new
purpose.
What qualifies me to write a book about all car-
nivorans? I am not the most prolific author of car-
nivoran papers, nor the one with the broadest geo-
graphic experience. Others have spent more time
in the field, or are more quantitative than I. How-
ever, my interests extend in multiple directions,
all of which relate to how carnivorans succeed or
fail in the wild. I am as intrigued by answers to
big ecological questions as by solutions to specific
conservation problems. I am as satisfied by under-
standing of some ecological puzzle as by watching
a large carnivore stalk an ungulate. I appreciate new
discoveries in natural history as much as I do stud-
ies of functional genomics. I also value those who
study carnivorans and share their findings with sci-
entists and the public. This group overlaps strongly
with those committed to assuring the presence and
vi P R E FA C E

importance of carnivorans in future communities. References cited

This book is really about, for, and the result of
Ewer, R.F. (1973). The carnivores. Ithaca: Cornell University
the work of carnivoran biologists, conservationists, Press.
and naturalists, both professional and amateur. It
is about their passion. Last of all, hopefully it is a
motivation for others to follow in their tracks.
Steven W. Buskirk
Professor Emeritus, University of Wyoming
December 10, 2022
Silver City, New Mexico, US
 Acknowledgments
Many people supported and aided me in writing
this book. My wife Beth encouraged me at every
stage and tolerated many interruptions to our rou-
tine so that I could spend time writing. Close col-
leagues Dennis Knight and Carlos Martinez del Rio
were reliable discussants and sources of encour-
agement early in the conception and early writing
phases. Hannah Sease produced all graphic arts
work, keeping pace with my requests throughout
her graduate studies in graphic arts.
The William Robertson Coe Library at the Univer-
sity of Wyoming provided outstanding support, fill-
ing scores of requests for materials, and the J. Cloyd
Miller Library at Western New Mexico University
provided additional assistance. My academic home,
the Department of Zoology and Physiology at the
University of Wyoming, provided office space and
other support for most of duration of the project.
I benefitted from reviews by over thirty scien-
tists, eight of them commissioned by Oxford Uni-
versity Press, and others solicited by me, who
generously reviewed chapters or shorter sections:
Benjamin Allen, Rudy Boonstra, Jeff Bowman,
Joseph Bump, Emiliano Donadio, Jacob Goheen,
Henry Harlow, Dennis Knight, Serge Lariviere,
Paul Leberg, Jason Lillegraven, Carlos Martinez
del Rio, Sterling Miller, Robert Naiman, Richard
Ostfeld, Jonathan Pauli, James D. Rose, Oswald
Schmitz, John Schoen, Qian-Quan Sun, Blaire
Van Valkenburgh, Lars Werdelin, and Andrzej
Zalewski. Collectively, the reviewers corrected
errors of fact, identified important omissions, pro-
vided more pertinent or more recent references,
and improved the organization and presentation.
Without their help the project would not have been
possible.
The illustrations strengthen the narrative
throughout, and some of the finest artwork and
photography were contributed gratis or licensed
at reduced rates. I particularly thank Justin Binfet,
Darin Croft, Walton Ford, Stan Gehrt, Don Gutoski,
Esperanza Iranzo, Jeffrey Kerby, Janet Kessler,
Débora Kloster, Susan McConnell, Chris Mills,
Larissa Nituch, Velizar Simeonovski, Alejandro
Travaini, Juan Zanón, the Philmont Scout Ranch,
and Kasmin Gallery. Although I have tried to
select photos taken under natural conditions, I
cannot assure that none was staged or in some way
contrived.
The staff of Oxford Press were most support-
ive and encouraging. Ian Sterling was immediately
receptive when I approached him with my pro-
posal, and consistently improved my presentation
as well as my understandings of how the book could
be made most useful. Charlie Bath provided excel-
lent suggestions on draft chapters, and Katie Lakina
shepherded the project through the editorial and
production processes.
Contents

1 Introduction to Carnivoran Ecology 1

1.1 “Carnivoran” vs. “carnivorous” 1
1.2 The carnivorans—who and where? 5
1.3 The growth of knowledge 5
1.4 Purpose and organization of the book 7
1.5 Context in carnivoran ecology 8
1.6 Nomenclature 8
References 9

2 Functional morphology 11
2.1 The skull 11
2.1.1 Dentition 12
2.2 Post-cranial skeleton 15
2.2.1 Fossorial movement 16
2.2.2 Running and walking 16
2.2.3 Climbing 17
2.2.4 Swimming and deep diving 18
2.3 Other adaptations to aquatic living 19
2.4 Gut morphology 20
2.5 The integument 20
2.6 The major ecomorphotypes 22
2.6.1 Scansorial ecomorph 23
2.6.2 Dog-like ecomorph 23
2.6.3 Cat-like ecomorph 23
2.6.4 Scavenger ecomorph 24
2.6.5 Semi-fossorial ecomorph 24
2.6.6 Semi-aquatic ecomorph 24
2.6.7 Marine ecomorph 25
2.6.8 Intermediate and unique ecomorphs 25
Key points 25
References 26

3 Evolution and historical biogeography 29

3.1 Evidence for mammalian phylogeny 29
3.2 Early mammals 29
x CONTENTS

3.3 Early carnivorans 31

3.3.1 Continental biogeography 31
3.3.2 Early carnivoran radiations 36
3.4 Body size in macroevolution 43
Key points 44
References 45

4 Physiological ecology 49
4.1 Digestion 49
4.1.1 Soluble carbohydrates 50
4.1.2 Gut passage 51
4.2 Dietary requirements 52
4.2.1 Amino acids and fatty acids 52
4.2.2 Macronutrients 53
4.3 Metabolism and growth 53
4.3.1 Metabolism 53
4.3.2 Growth 55
4.4 Body temperature and torpor 55
4.4.1 Body temperature 55
4.4.2 Torpor 56
4.5 Energy storage and fasting 56
4.6 Osmoregulation and kidney function 58
4.7 Detoxification and self-medication 60
4.8 Reproduction 61
4.8.1 General patterns 61
4.8.2 Embryonic diapause 61
4.8.3 Induced ovulation 63
4.9 Scaling physiology to populations 64
Key points 65
References 65

5 Sensory biology and neuroanatomy 71

5.1 The senses 71
5.1.1 Tactile 71
5.1.2 Chemosense 71
5.1.3 Hearing 75
5.1.4 Electromagnetic radiation 75
5.1.5 Geomagnetic 78
5.2 Brain morphology 78
5.2.1 Brain size 79
5.2.2 Brain regional size 81
Key points 81
References 82

6 Community ecology 87
6.1 Nutrient cycling and transport 87
6.2 Direct effects on soil 90
 CONTENTS xi

6.3 Disease ecology 92

6.3.1 Factors affecting disease prevalence in carnivorans 92
6.3.2 Predation and disease prevalence in prey 93
6.3.3 Trophic transmission and prey behaviors 94
6.4 Scavenging and access to carrion 95
6.5 Direct effects on plant life cycles 96
6.5.1 Pollination 96
6.5.2 Seed dispersal 97
6.5.3 Seed exploitation 98
Key points 99
References 99

7 Interactions with non-prey animals 103

7.1 Facilitation 103
7.2 Competition and coexistence 106
7.2.1 Exploitation competition 106
7.2.2 Interference competition 106
7.2.3 Influences on interference 109
7.2.4 Mesopredator release 110
7.2.5 Demographic effects of interference 111
7.2.6 Coexistence or interference? 111
7.2.7 Abiotic factors and interference 114
7.2.8 Human influence on interference 116
7.3 Domestic dogs as competitors with wild carnivorans 119
7.4 Carnivorans: apex, meso-, and other 120
Key points 121
References 121

8 Interactions with prey 127

8.1 Who eats whom? 127
8.2 Do carnivorans limit prey abundance? 128
8.2.1 Bottom-up vs. top-down effects on herbivores 130
8.3 Trophic diversity and limiting effects 132
8.4 How herbivores avoid predation 132
8.4.1 Antipredator structures 132
8.4.2 Antipredator chemicals 134
8.4.3 Induced predator defenses 135
8.5 Physiological and demographic responses to risk 138
8.6 Carnivorans and prey population cycles 140
8.7 “Prudent” and “wasteful” predators 142
8.8 Apparent competition 143
Key points 145
References 146

9 Cascades 153
9.1 Ecological cascades 153
xii CONTENTS

9.2 Trophic cascades 157

9.2.1 Density-mediated trophic cascades 157
9.2.2 Strength of density-mediated trophic cascades 162
9.2.3 Behaviorally mediated trophic cascades 162
9.2.4 Strength of behaviorally mediated trophic cascades 167
9.2.5 Evidence required for trophic cascades 168
Key points 169
References 169

10 Population ecology 173

10.1 How carnivorans die 173
10.2 Demography 174
10.3 Spatial aspects of population organization 175
10.3.1 Dispersal and homing 175
10.3.2 Migration 176
10.3.3 Population genetic structure 177
10.3.4 Hybridization and introgression 179
10.4 Carnivoran life histories 182
10.5 Social and mating systems 184
10.6 Adaptation in populations 186
Key points 187
References 188

11 How carnivorans affect humans 193

11.1 Negative effects 193
11.1.1 Attacks on humans 193
11.1.2 Attacks on domestic animals 194
11.1.3 Killing wild animals valued by humans 196
11.1.4 Limiting species of conservation concern 197
11.1.5 Interfering with tourism 197
11.2 Positive effects 198
11.2.1 Direct benefits to humans 198
11.2.2 Ecological services 203
11.3 Mixed effects 203
11.3.1 Roles in disease ecology 203
11.3.2 Roles in conserving other species 205
11.4 Spiritual and emotional values 208
Key points 208
References 212

12 How humans affect carnivorans 219

12.1 The state of the carnivoran fauna 219
12.2 Mechanisms of effects 220
12.3 Direct mortality: poisoning, hunting, and trapping 221
12.4 Other agents of direct mortality 226
12.5 Physical exclusion 226
 CONTENTS xiii

12.6 Effects on behavior 227

12.7 Habitat- and prey-mediated effects 229
12.8 Disease-related effects 229
12.9 Recolonizations, reintroductions, and restorations 230
12.10 Reintroduction and restoration outcomes 232
12.11 Trophic subsidies 234
12.12 Other subsidies 235
12.13 Mediation of competitive interactions 236
12.14 Conservation genetics 236
12.15 Global climate change 239
Key points 242
References 243

Appendix I List of extant carnivoran species 251

References 256

Appendix II List of non-carnivoran species mentioned 257

Glossary 259
Index 263
 CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Carnivoran Ecology
Order Carnivora represents one of the most species-
rich, phenotypically diverse, widely distributed,
and ecologically influential mammalian lineages.
Its extant members live on all continents and in
all oceans and range from vole-sized (c. 30 g)
to larger than a rhinoceros (c. 4,000 kg). They
eat diverse foods including leaves, fruits, insects,
honey, marine invertebrates, and mammals larger
than themselves. Some species live below ground
for weeks at a time, a few live mostly in the
forest canopy, and others live at sea for months
on end. Many are wilderness dwellers, wary of
humans and their activities, while some non-
domestic species thrive in major cities, largely
dependent on humans for food, shelter, or protec-
tion from larger, wilder carnivorans. No other mam-
malian order approaches Carnivora in the breadth
of adaptive suites shown and ecological niches
occupied.
Humans have always been keenly interested in
carnivorans. Our hominin ancestors were preyed
on by carnivorans and competed with them for
food. Both species hunted the same prey and drove
each other away from prey carcasses (Figure 1.1)
(Espigares et al., 2013). Paleolithic humans con-
verted a potential competitor, the wolf, to a partner.
The resultant dog was the first domesticated animal,
and became essential to human lives, providing a
food source, vigilance against intruders, transport
of possessions, and assistance in hunting and herd-
ing (Figure 1.2). Dogs became so important to early
humans that they are credited with shaping human
evolution as much as humans shaped theirs (Pierotti
and Fogg, 2017).
The life-or-death nature of predation elicits strong
human emotions—either the predator eats and
lives, or the prey escapes and survives. These
Carnivoran Ecology. Steven W. Buskirk, Oxford University Press. © Steven W. Buskirk (2023). DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192863249.003.0001
emotions are stronger when we imagine ourselves
or animals we own as prey. As a result, we have long
imbued carnivorans with spiritual powers to match
their impressive physical abilities, and our ances-
tors represented carnivorans in some of the earliest
figurative art (Figure 1.3) (Hart and Sussman, 2008;
Azéma, 2015). Today, we continue to use carnivo-
rans to symbolize wildness, ferocity, and indepen-
dence in visual and literary arts. Every pocket and
fold of most human cultures—languages, parables,
spiritual beliefs, and symbols—is rich with carnivo-
ran references.
1.1 “Carnivoran” vs. “carnivorous”
The terms “mammalian predator,” “mammalian
carnivore,” and “carnivoran” are not precisely syn-
onymous. Predators are animals that kill and con-
sume multicellular animals (Taylor, 1984), whether
one at a time, or filtered from water by the thou-
sands. Eagles, dragonflies, and blue whales are
predators. By contrast, a carnivore consumes the
flesh of animals, whether it kills or scavenges it; vul-
tures, snakes, and Venus fly traps are carnivores and
carnivorous. Carnivorans, the subject of this book,
are exclusively mammals in Order Carnivora—a
branch of the tree of life. Species in the order
may pursue and kill vertebrates, eat termites exca-
vated from soil, or subsist entirely on plant parts
(Figure 1.4). “Hypercarnivore” sometimes indicates
a species with a diet exceeding some threshold level
of vertebrate prey, typically killed rather than scav-
enged. Most members of the cat family, the Felidae,
are considered hypercarnivores. Other terms, such
as “mesopredator,” “apex predator,” and “keystone
predator,” have imprecise meanings that I parse as
they arise in the book.
2 CARNIVORAN ECOLOGY

Figure 1.1 The first contact between humans and the saber-toothed Smilodon in America, interpreted by Velizar Simeonovski. Carnivorans have
been competitors with and potential predators of hominins from before we became humans through to today.
Painting: © Velizar Simeonovski.
 I N T R O D U C T I O N TO C A R N I V O R A N E C O L O G Y 3

Figure 1.2 Lions (right) depicted on the walls of Salle du Fond in Chauvet-Pont d’Arc Cave, France, dating to 32,000–30,000 years ago. The lions
appear to be watching a rhinoceros on a distant panel. Carnivorans were subjects of some of the earliest figurative art. Vertical scratches in the
lower right and on the rhinoceros painting were made by cave bears trapped in deep chambers.
Photo: J. Clottes in Azéma (2015), CC 4.0.

As is often the case in biology, the defining traits
of the Carnivora—the traits held by all members
of the lineage, both living and extinct—are difficult
to state without qualification. Traditionally, biolo-
gists have cited the presence of cheek teeth that have
shearing functions, comprising the upper fourth
premolar (P4 ) and lower first molar (M1 ). All living
carnivorans have ancestors with this trait. However,
living genets, bears, and seals have secondarily lost
the shearing function of those teeth, and at least
one species has lost those teeth completely. Some
prehistoric linages of other carnivorous mammals
had shearing cheek teeth, but they occupied other
positions in the tooth row, for example M1 and M2 .
They were not homologous to modern carnassials,
and the lineages that exhibited them have no living
descendants. The fused scaphoid and lunate carpal
bones (the scapholunate) are sometimes regarded as
defining the group, because all modern species have
that trait, but some early carnivorans did not.
Predatory placental mammals—those that pri-
marily kill other animals for food—occur in several
orders, including shrews and moles (Order Sorico-
morpha), bats (Chiroptera), whales (Cetacea), pan-
golins (Pholidota), and hairy anteaters (Pilosa). If
we broaden our frame of reference to include mar-
supial predators, several additional orders must
be included as mammalian carnivores. Even some
obligate herbivores, among them ungulates and
rodents, prey on or scavenge vertebrates oppor-
tunistically (Boonstra et al., 1990; Dudley et al., 2016).
Finally, many extinct non-carnivoran lineages were
at least partially carnivorous. Clearly, Order Car-
nivora is not unique among mammals in killing and
eating vertebrates. This book is about a mammalian
lineage, not a foraging style or trophic niche.
4 CARNIVORAN ECOLOGY

Figure 1.3 Rock art in northwestern Saudi Arabia showing dogs resembling modern Canaan dogs assisting with lion hunting. Various glyphs
from this site include the earliest depictions of dogs on leashes, 12,000–10,000 years old. The upper image is shaded to show relief that is less
visible in the lower, unaltered image.
Photo: Guagnin et al. (2018, Figure 10) by permission.
 I N T R O D U C T I O N TO C A R N I V O R A N E C O L O G Y 5

Herbivorous Carnivorous
mammals Carnivora mammals

Figure 1.4 Venn diagram of the

relationships between carnivory, herbivory,
and Order Carnivora. Herbivorous mammals
overlap with the Carnivora, and the
Carnivora overlap with carnivorous
mammals. Elephants are herbivorous
non-carnivoran mammals. The giant panda
is an herbivorous carnivoran. The brown
bear is an omnivorous carnivoran, neither
fully herbivorous nor carnivorous. The tiger is
a carnivorous carnivoran, and the killer Elephant Killer whale
whale is a carnivorous non-carnivoran
mammal. In this book I use “carnivorous” to Giant panda Tiger
denote diet, and “carnivoran” to denote
phylogeny—inclusion in Order Carnivora. Brown bear

1.2 The carnivorans—who and where? nearly cosmopolitan, found on all continents except
Antarctica and Australia before humans trans-
The approximately 287 extant species of carnivo-
ported them. On the other hand, the eight species
rans are organized into fifteen currently recognized
of Eupleridae occur only on Madagascar Island,
families (Appendix I) and occur on all continents, if
their common ancestor having rafted there from
we include seals that haul out on Antarctic beaches.
the African mainland around 20 million years ago
These numbers change as we learn more about
(Ma). The thirty-three extant species of seals, sea
how mammal lineages are related. For example, the
lions, and walrus make up the pinniped (ear foot)
neotropical olinguito recently has been identified as
group—a lineage comprising two or three families
distinct from other olingos, and the African golden
that arose from a single aquatic ancestor. “Fissiped”
wolf was judged a separate species from the golden
(split foot), on the other hand, denotes the remain-
jackal, (Gaubert et al., 2012; Helgen et al., 2013). On
ing, mostly terrestrial, non-pinniped carnivorans.
the other hand, the long-recognized red wolf of east-
ern North America is now regarded as an ancient
hybrid of the wolf and the coyote, with uncertain 1.3 The growth of knowledge
endangered species status (vonHoldt et al., 2016, but
Before 1900, understanding of carnivoran ecology
see Hohenlohe et al., 2017). At the level of taxo-
(as opposed to natural history) was limited, often
nomic families, the skunks and stink badgers were
based on lore and conjecture. Much of our knowl-
grouped with weasels and otters in the Mustelidae
edge of their genetics, behavior, and reproduction
before Family Mephitidae was recognized as war-
at that time resulted from observing domestic cats,
ranting recognition (Dragoo and Honeycutt, 1999).
ferrets, and dogs, and farmed minks and foxes
With each such discovery, our knowledge of car-
(Figure 1.5). Very little scientific knowledge about
nivoran classification becomes more reflective of
wild carnivorans existed, and most interest cen-
evolutionary history, as revealed through genetic
tered on the value of their furs or other body
and morphological studies.
parts and the threat they posed to agriculture. They
Carnivoran species are distributed unevenly
were difficult to study directly because of their low
across lineages and continents. Family Mustel-
densities, elusive behaviors, and constant persecu-
idae holds sixty species, whereas the Nandiniidae,
tion near humans. Well into the twentieth century,
Ailuridae, and Odobenidae hold a single species
the leading ecological questions about carnivorans
each. The Felidae, Canidae, and Mustelidae are
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Zilboorg

− Nation 111:sup424 O 13 ’20 190w

 “We do not know of any book from which the American reader can
get a better photograph of Russian Bolshevism as portrayed and
interpreted by the Bolshevists themselves.”

+ Outlook 126:111 S 15 ’20 220w

“The conclusions reached are irrefutable. Mr Walling is entirely

fair in his selections and it is unnecessary for him to indulge in an
argumentative attack.”

+ Review 3:270 S 29 ’20 1550w

R of Rs 62:221 Ag ’20 90w
The Times [London] Lit Sup p430 Jl 8
’20 900w

WALPOLE, HUGH SEYMOUR. Captives. *$2

(1c) Doran
 20–20321

Captives of their inheritance and environment are the two leading

figures of this psychological novel. Maggie Cardinal’s youth had been
loveless and her father’s, the miserly, sordid, unlovable vicar’s,
religion repellent to her. His death, when Maggie was nineteen, was a
liberation; now she would lead her own life. But she only escapes to
more fanatical religion, in the house of her aunts, and her natural
truthfulness and the absence of early training in conventional forms,
make her both a religious and social rebel. Martin Warlock’s early
fetters had been different. His intense love for his father, preacher of
the Kingscote Brethren, had included the father’s religion. Long
years of wandering over the earth had preserved the love but
dimmed the religion. The love becomes Martin’s chain. It also
becomes his conscience when Maggie’s trust confronts him with his
past life. To save Maggie from himself he goes away. The story
resolves itself into Maggie’s courageous struggles to remain true to
her self and to her love for Martin in spite of her marriage to an
unloved clergyman and of the demands of conventional society.

“We cannot, with the best will in the world, see in the result more
than a task—faithfully and conscientiously performed to the best of
the author’s power—but a ‘task accomplished,’ and not even
successfully at that. For we feel that it is determination rather than
inspiration, strength of will rather than the artist’s compulsion,
which has produced ‘The captives.’” K. M.

− Ath p519 O 15 ’20 1150w

“One is especially interested in the environment, but feels a lack of

the spontaneity of other Walpole novels.”
 + − Booklist 17:161 Ja ’21

“A long looked-for and worthy successor in the Walpole line. It is

bigger in theme than its predecessors, more than ever a novel of life
as opposed to the episodic novel.”

+ Bookm 52:369 D ’20 180w

“Its criticism of life in general, and specifically with the elements of

life with which it deals, presents a many sided view so that we are
able to understand clearly the weaknesses and strength of all the
characters. As a chronicle of these times and as a portrayal of people
we all may easily come into contact with, it is an eloquent example of
the consummate art of a literary artist.” E. F. Edgett

+ Boston Transcript p4 N 13 ’20 1400w

“‘The captives’ makes Mr Walpole’s previous books look like

agreeable fragments. For the wealth of substance here is not more
notable than the display of architectonic power. ‘The captives’
scarcely ranks below ‘Clayhanger’ and not very greatly below ‘Of
human bondage,’ and is, therefore, one of the foremost British novels
of the period.”

+ Nation 111:735 D 22 ’20 1050w

“No reader will set ‘The captives’ down without the figure of
Maggie Cardinal having been permanently limned upon his memory.
The portrait is consistent throughout. The pictures of the band of
religious fanatics, some of them charlatans, and of their sincere
leader are particularly forceful. Mr Walpole’s method is that of the
realist, but he has scarcely employed it to the best of its possibilities.”

+ − N Y Times p18 N 7 ’20 1000w

“In distinction of literary workmanship Mr Walpole is at his best in

this story.” R. D. Townsend

+ Outlook 127:31 Ja 5 ’21 330w

“While the direct subject of the volume concerns the religious

teachings of one narrow sect in England, which he designates as the
Kingscote Brethren, the application of his theme is as wide as the two
continents.” Calvin Winter

+ Pub W 98:1890 D 18 ’20 350w

Reviewed by H. W. Boynton

Review 3:384 O 27 ’20 200w

“The book is full of perturbed and uneasy striving, and is elemental

both in its energy and the simplicity of its theme.”

+ Spec 125:473 O 9 ’20 640w

“The characters are essentially unlovely though undeniably strong.

Despite all this, it is a story of rare power—sober, to be sure, but
never morbid—and one that emphasizes the author’s advanced
position in the ranks of contemporary novelists.”
 + Springf’d Republican p7a D 12 ’20 620w

“There is something wanting to make the æsthetic pleasure of

reading this book as intense as it should be, which argues something
wanting in the performance. It is not that one misses the mystery
and excitement of ‘The dark forest,’ and ‘The secret city,’ but there is
the unavoidable feeling that, after the keenest appreciation of so
much artistic skill, it should be possible to put the book down with
the exhilaration of having read a masterpiece; and it is not possible.”

+ − The Times [London] Lit Sup p633 S 30

’20 900w

WALSH, JAMES JOSEPH. Medieval medicine.

*$2.75 Macmillan 610.9

“This book, by an American medical authority, belongs to the

series of Medical history manuals, edited by Dr John D. Comrie. It
embraces the history of about 1,000 years, during which the
achievements in medicine and surgery were quite as remarkable as
the achievements of the middle ages in other spheres.”—The Times
[London] Lit Sup

+ Ath p463 Ap 2 ’20 110w

“The volume is fully within the comprehension of any educated

reader, and is as entertaining as a novel.”
 + Cath World 112:112 O ’20 570w

“As to the learning and competence for his task, no question can be
raised, but the method he elects to adopt is one which has brought
much work on the history of science into not unjustified contempt.”
C: Singer

− + Nature 105:127 Ap 1 ’20 950w

+ Spec 124:831 Je 19 ’20 1250w

“Severe compression has been necessary; but the process has not
interfered with the lucidity or the interest of this instructive little
book.”

+ The Times [London] Lit Sup p142 F 26

’20 70w

[2]
WALSH, JAMES JOSEPH. Religion and
health. *$2.25 (2c) Little 265.8

20–21211

The argumentation of the book turns on the influence of the mind

on the body and attempts to show how a trusting faith in God tends
to produce an equilibrated mind, which is the foundation of psychic
health, and, by interaction, of physical health. The book is indexed
and contains much sound advice as to the way of achieving both
kinds of well-being. The contents are: Can we still believe? Prayer;
Sacrifice; Charity; Fasting and abstinence; Holydays and holidays;
Recreation and dissipation; Mortification; Excesses; Purity; Insanity;
Nervous disease; Dreads; Suffering; Pain; Suicide and homicide;
Longevity; The Bible and health; Health and religion.

WALSH, THOMAS. Don Folquet, and other

poems. *$1.50 Lane 811

20–4773

The title poem has for its theme an episode of French history and
tells how Don Folquet, a trader’s son, was first celebrated at the court
of Toulouse as Prince of song, how he tired of court life and became a
monk and later the Bishop of Toulouse and as such pronounced a
ban on the city for its wickedness. Among the other poems are a
Mother Goose sonnet series; Murillo paints “The assumption”;
Catullus anent his Lesbia; The sigh for Deirdre; Ad limina.

Ath p833 D 17 ’20 160w

“Mr Walsh has composed a medieval and monastic narrative in

effete, Tennysonian pentameters which singly are good but which in
the aggregate are wearisome.” Mark Van Doren

− + Nation 111:sup415 O 13 ’20 40w

“To this reviewer ‘Don Folquet’ is less interesting than other things
in the book. It is a poem for those who would forget reality. ‘The
brownstone row,’ written in the kind of unrhymed cadence now in
vogue, shows that Mr Walsh could do something with reality if
romance charmed him less.”

+ − N Y Times p15 Ja 9 ’21 600w

“The execution falls short of the motive. Its merit is confined to

grace, and the grace is confined to landscape.” O. W. Firkins

+ − Review 3:171 Ag 25 ’20 60w

WALSH, THOMAS, ed. Hispanic anthology. $5

Putnam 861.08

20–20332

“A collection of translations, ‘by northern Hispanophiles, of

Spanish poems into English verse,’ offered as an affectionate tribute
to the Spanish poet of today, whether he writes in the old world or
the new. Dr Walsh, besides contributing a large portion of the
versions, has garnered almost eight hundred pages of translations
into something like a chronological unity, providing the selections
with short prefatory notes and interspersing them with some twenty-
nine portraits of ancient and modern Spanish poets.”—Freeman

“With the material at hand he has produced a creditable collection

that should be at the elbow of every Hispanic student.”

+ Bookm 52:274 N ’20 190w

 “Masefield’s rendering of Gustave Adolfo Becquer’s ‘They closed
her eyes,’ is one of the most beautiful poems in the collection.”

+ Boston Transcript p4 Ja 5 ’21 250w

“Catholic readers will especially rejoice to possess, in this

delightful form, some of the most impressive work of the great
Spanish mystical poets, Fray Luis de Leon, St John of the Cross, and
St Teresa.”

+ Cath World 112:542 Ja ’21 270w

“A valuable book not alone for its well-arranged collection of

poems, but for the fine reproductions of famous portraits and for the
biographical notes.”

+ − Dial 70:233 F ’21 100w

“The volume, despite its shortcomings, should be owned by every

Hispanophile; it represents a pioneer-effort in a field agape with
pitfalls, and, however much one may criticize the result as it now
stands, Dr Walsh, by the mere fact of having initiated it and brought
it forth, has earned the thanks of his fellow enthusiasts.” I: Goldberg

+ Freeman 2:214 N 10 ’20 720w

“Never has Spanish poetry been done so good or complete a turn

in English as Mr Walsh now does it.” D. M.

+ Nation 111:784 D 29 ’20 600w

 “Mr Walsh has not only edited this volume, providing it with
valuable typographical and critical notes, but he has supplied it with
the bulk of the translations, translations which show him possessed
in an uncommon degree of one of the most valuable, as it is one of
the most unselfish of literary gifts.” R: Le Gallienne

+ N Y Times p10 Ja 9 ’21 1800w

“The plan of his anthology is remarkable for its comprehensive

inclusion of selections from the work of every significant figure in
Hispanic poetry from the unknown author of the ‘Poema del Cid’ to
the latest of Porto Rican modernistas, born in 1898. Equally
important, and especially so from the point of view of the American
reader unacquainted with the Spanish language, is the finely
judicious selection which Mr Walsh has made in choosing not only
the original Spanish poems most representative of their authors but
the translations into English which constitute the anthology. For the
most part these translations are of highly poetic quality.” L. R.
Morris

+ Outlook 126:237 O 6 ’20 820w

WALSH, WILLIAM SEBASTIAN. Psychology

of dreams. *$3 (2½c) Dodd 135

20–9817

The author views dreams from many points of view and is not
pledged to any one theory. He presents the theories made popular by
recent writers on psycho-analysis, but also sets forth the opinions of
Freud’s critics. Contents: Historical sketch; The mind in sleep; The
material of dreams; The instigators of dreams; The peculiarities of
dreams; Dreams as wishes; The effects of dreams; Typical dreams;
Prodromic dreams; Prophetic dreams; Nightmare; Night terrors;
Somnambulism; Miscellany; The analysis of dreams; Day-dreams.
There are two indexes, to proper names and to subjects. The author
is a practicing physician and he has endeavored to make the work as
practical as possible with a view “toward aiding sufferers from
nervous affections, as well as toward promoting a better
understanding of various normal and abnormal mental processes.”

“What he has written is a book of popular medicine rather than

one of popular psychology. Upon psychology he does not appear to
have any theories, and his very opinions are undecided. But when he
writes about the ‘night terrors’ of children and the best means of
mitigating them, he is full of common sense, and proves himself an
admirable popular doctor.”

+ Ath p553 O 22 ’20 120w

“For all practical purposes, ‘The psychology of dreams’ is an

adequate exposition of interesting data, carefully collected. The
chapter on prodromic dreams is perhaps as interesting as any in the
book.” C. K. H.

+ − Boston Transcript p6 Jl 17 ’20 320w

“The chapter dealing with daydreams is especially interesting and

instructive and, like the other chapters, is written in so clear a
manner that the beginner will have little difficulty in becoming
acquainted with the dream mechanism and its meaning. On the
whole it can be said that the work is an excellent medium for the
student who wishes to become acquainted with the workings of the
unconscious.” L. P. Clark
 + Mental Hygiene 4:983 O ’20 300w

Reviewed by R: Le Gallienne

+ N Y Times 25:4 Jl 11 ’20 2900w

“Not intended for professional reading, but distinctly popular in its

appeal, this book will have lively interest for the general reader who
likes to be entertained while he is being instructed. There are many
sensible hygienic suggestions.”

+ Outlook 125:507 Jl 14 ’20 40w

“Dr Walsh might have made his point of view clearer, but he at
least presents attractively a good deal of interesting material.”

+ − Springf’d Republican p9a Jl 4 ’20 210w

The Times [London] Lit Sup p622 S 23
’20 80w

WALSH, WILLIAM SEBASTIAN. Yours for

sleep. *$2.50 Dutton 613.7

20–3569

“The title of Dr William S. Walsh’s book, ‘Yours for sleep,’ is

somewhat misleading, as appears from the first sentence in his
preface: ‘The object of this little volume is not only to help the
sleepless to sleep, but also to instruct them on a few of the principles
of right living, a disregard of which is most often the sole cause of
their disorder.’ People who are not in the pink of condition will be
interested in the author’s treatment of such subjects as indigestion,
eye defects, diseases of the teeth and gums, value of exercise and
fresh air, and general hygiene.”—N Y Times

“No one has written more helpfully or collected more valuable

information for the sleepless than Dr William S. Walsh.”

+ N Y Times 25:21 Jl 25 ’20 220w

+ Outlook 124:563 Mr 31 ’20 40w

“It is a valuable contribution to the subject and amply repays

perusal. The book is evidently the product of reflection, erudition
and experience.” J. E. Kelly, M. D.

+ Survey 44:252 My 15 ’20 200w

WALSTON, SIR CHARLES (SIR CHARLES

WALDSTEIN). Eugenics, civics and ethics; a
lecture delivered to the summer school of eugenics,
civics and ethics on August 8th, 1919, in the Arts
school, Cambridge. *$1.60 Macmillan 171

“A strong plea is made in this lecture for the organisation and

development of the study of ethics, or, as the author prefers to call it,
ethology. The interdependence of eugenics and civics, and the
foundation of both in ethics, are discussed, and warning is given
against striving to produce the perfect physical specimen of man
without due consideration of character and mental attributes.
Towards the end of the lecture the progressive nature of ethical codes
is made clear, and great stress is laid on the importance of the
establishment of our ideal of the perfect man and the teaching of
such practical ethics in both schools and homes.”—Nature

Nature 105:804 Ag 26 ’20 100w

“This lecture provides an excellent introduction to the author’s

somewhat forbidding larger works.” B. L.

+ Survey 45:332 N 27 ’20 100w

The Times [London] Lit Sup p539 Ag
19 ’20 100w

WALTERS, L. D’O., comp. Anthology of recent

poetry. *$1.75 Dodd 821.08

20–20447

An anthology of modern British verse. Harold Monro, who writes

the introduction, supplies the key to the collection when he says,
“The best poetry is always about the earth itself and all the strange
and lovely things that compose and inhabit it.” The first object, he
says later, is to give pleasure. “Moreover, it is adapted to the tastes of
almost any age, from ten to ninety, and may be read aloud by
grandchild to grandparent as suitably as by grandparent to
grandchild. It is an anthology of poems, not of names.” Among the
poems and their authors are April, by William Watson; The lake isle
of Innisfree, by W. B. Yeats; The donkey, by G. K. Chesterton; The
south country, by Hilaire Belloc; The west wind, by John Masefield;
Full moon, by Walter de la Mare; A dead harvest, by Alice Meynell;
The great lover, by Rupert Brooke; Star-talk, by Robert Graves;
Stupidity street, by Ralph Hodgson; The oxen, by Thomas Hardy.

+ Booklist 17:147 Ja ’21

“It is a good coat-pocket anthology.”

+ Ind 104:383 D 11 ’20 30w

Nation 112:188 F 2 ’21 110w

“This collection includes some charming things by living hands of

real distinction, and some others which make us regret young poets
lost in the war. The anthologist has given us real pleasures, and we
forego the reviewer’s privilege of grumbling about the inclusion of
this or the exclusion of that.”

+ Sat R 130:398 N 13 ’20 190w

“The poems are few but well chosen from the standpoint of the
seeker after clear language and well-defined images. There is little of
that strained impressionism and hazy, finespun introspection which
are the bane of modern verse.”

+ Springf’d Republican p8 N 16 ’20 270w

 WALTON, GEORGE LINCOLN. Oscar
Montague—paranoiac. il *$1.50 (3c) Lippincott

19–15667

In this novel Dr Walton embodies the ideas prevalent in his non-

fiction books, “Why worry,” “Those nerves,” and others. Ruth Fulton,
chronic fusser, in a fit of pique, jilts her steady serious-minded fiancé
and marries the town rake, who thinks most men are against him.
Oscar, their son, grows up spoiled, idle, badly educated, boon
companion of ruffians and loafers. He has the obsession that
everyone is in a conspiracy against him, and secretly cherishes the
illusion that one Nicky Bennett is trying to harm him. Accidentally
meeting Nicky when in an evil mood he pulls out a revolver and
shoots him; pleads insanity to escape the electric chair, but once
inside the asylum finds that the law refuses to let him out. The
daughter of Ruth and Gerrold is normal and lovable, and happily
marries the son of her mother’s old sweetheart, after having by a bit
of clever detective work “on her own,” saved the lad from being
falsely convicted for the murder of her father.

“The characters are clearly drawn, and are thoroughly lifelike

people, whose lives, without anything brilliant or startling, are full of
quiet interest, humorous or pathetic.”

+ Ath p258 F 20 ’20 130w

“Amateurish is the only adjective to describe adequately this novel,

with its wooden puppets in place of characters and its obviously
mechanical situations. The book’s two redeeming features, are the
occasional flashes of whimsical humor the author displays, and the
disarmingly naïve manner in which he pokes fun at his own
inexperience as a novelist.”

− + N Y Times 25:85 F 8 ’20 700w

“The only person of any interest in the book is the daughter, Helen,
and the only episode of any interest is Helen’s discovery of the real
culprit who had run over and killed her father. This has not much to
do with Oscar Montague—paranoiac, who is quite a secondary
character in a poor novel.”

− + The Times [London] Lit Sup p126 F 19

’20 160w

WARD, HARRY FREDERICK. New social

order. *$2.50 Macmillan 304

19–19067

“Prof. Harry F. Ward of Union theological seminary, in his new

book, ‘The new social order,’ writes on social and industrial change
both from economic and from ethical standpoints. His book
considers in part 1 the underlying principles of the new order, in part
2, various programs, such as those proposed by the British labor
party, the Russian soviets, the league of nations, various movements
in the United States, and the churches.”—Springf’d Republican

“Dr Ward has been developing a very unusual fluency of speech,

mental power, and moral insight that appear strikingly in this book.
Although some of the chapters on the principles might well have
been a little shorter and crisper, the style is always interesting, at
times rising to natural and impressive eloquence; and the thought is
throughout clear and weighty. This is one of the most important
books for the citizen of this generation to read thoughtfully, and read
at an early date.” C. J. Bushnell

+ Am J Soc 25:645 Mr ’20 1100w

Reviewed by C. G. Fenwick

Am Pol Sci R 14:341 My ’20 260w

Booklist 16:190 Mr ’20

“Dr Ward has rendered a real service in bringing together in

compact form so many expressions of the new spirit. He knows that
they are signs rather than realities, but it is a poor skipper who cares
not which way the veering flaw blows. Christians and pagans will do
well to ponder them.” C: A. Beard

+ New Repub 23:208 Jl 14 ’20 950w

R of Rs 61:336 Mr ’20 80w
Springf’d Republican p6 F 3 ’20 80w

“In this latest of his several volumes Professor Ward makes his
most notable contribution to the religious interpretation of the
changing social order. Professor Ward’s discussion of the
controverted points dealt with is frank and fearless, notwithstanding,
perhaps the more because of, the criticism he has all along met from
certain ecclesiastical and special interest groups.” Graham Taylor
 + Survey 44:121 Ap 17 ’20 850w
The Times [London] Lit Sup p407 Je
24 ’20 150w

“The chapter on the Russian soviet constitution is far and away the
ablest and clearest statement yet given to us upon that very
important subject. Mr Ward is to be envied for his twofold gift of
grasping details and of strong speculative thinking; and this
combination makes his book a singularly valuable and safe guide for
the student.” R. R.

+ World Tomorrow 3:157 My ’20 150w

WARD, JOHN. With the “Die-hards” in Siberia.

*$2.50 (3c) Doran 957

20–7944

The author commanded a detachment of British troops sent to

Siberia to support Kolchak. He blames his own government for its
halfhearted support of the enterprise it had undertaken, and is
especially bitter against the Americans and the Japanese. The book
was written, he says, “for the private use of my sons in case I did not
return.” Among the chapters are: From Hong Kong to Siberia;
Bolshevik successes; Japanese methods and Allied Far-eastern
policy; Administration; Omsk; Along the Urals; Russian labour; In
European Russia; American policy and its results; Japanese policy
and its results; General conclusions. There is an index.