2.

0 OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS:

There is much type of optical fibers as on today but we will study in the
beginning two types of optical fibers which are the basic fibers for light transmission
as follows:

(i) Multimode fibers

(a) Step index fibers

(b) Graded index fibers

(ii) Single mode fibers (step index)

A standard multimode step index fiber consists of a core having diameter of 62.5 µm
and cladding diameter of 125 µm. The refractive index of core (n 1) is kept more than
the cladding refractive index (n2). It’s done to achieve total internal reflection at the
core cladding boundary. When n2< n1 the light can travel inside the core along central
path way but also at various discrete angles to the centerline, without leaving the core
and light will be guided throughout inside the core. See fig 2.1 (a) (b) & (c).

Figure 2.1
The ultrapure glass optical fiber is made of silica and difference in core and cladding
refractive index is achieved by doping silica i.e., core and cladding with different
dopants. A third layer on top of cladding is also applied which is generally plastic
coating and serves to protect cladding and known as Buffer coating or Encapsulation.

2.1 Total Internal reflection (TIR):

Light ray propagates within different medium at different speed. The speed of light (c)
in free space is 3 x 10 8 m/sec. Infect; different media resist light propagation with
different strengths. This property of a medium is called refractive index or index of
refraction. So, if v is the light velocity within the medium and c is the speed of light in
free space than refractive index can be calculated by the following formula

c
v
n= (1)

The refractive index for some media are given in table 2. 1

Table 2.1

Material Air Water Glass Diamond

Refractive 1.003 1.33 1.52 – 1.89 2.42

index

From optical point of view, higher the refractive index, denser will be the material.
All characteristics of light in free space are changed inside the material, velocity
becomes c/n and wavelength becomes /n. When a light ray strikes the boundary of
two media, the incident beam splits into two beams: reflected and refracted (see figure
2.2).
 Figure 2.2

Snell’s Law describes the relationship, between incident and the refracted rays at the
boundary and is given by:

n1 sin1 = n2 sin2

As the angle of incidence 1increases 2 increases and at critical angle (1 = c) the
refracted beam becomes parallel to glass – air interface (2 = 90o) as shown in figure
2.3.

Figure 2.3
For incident angle, more than critical angle (1>c) no light escape in air and only
reflection takes place as shown in figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4

This condition is called as Total internal reflection. The critical angle is given by

n1 sin 1 =n2 sin 2 (snells Law)

n1 sin c = n2 sin 90o

n2
n1
sinc =

( )
n2
n1
or c = sin-1

For Glass-air interface

n1 (Glass) = 1.5

n2 (Air) = 1.0
 [ ] 1
1 .5
 c = sin-1

Or c 41.8o (2)

2.2 CRITICAL INCIDENT ANGLE AND CRITICAL PROPAGATION

ANGLE:

See Figure 2.5

The critical propagation angle c is the angle the light beam makes with center line of
the optical fiber axis the critical incidence angle sin 1c = is the angle the light beam
makes with the line perpendicular to the fiber axis as shown in figure 2.5.

If we consider right angle triangle ABC, than

c = 90o - 1c

If we consider core refractive index n1 = 1.48 and cladding refractive index n2 = 1.46
then the condition for the light to be trapped inside the fiber will be given by snell’s
law

Figure2.5

n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2

n1sin 1c = n2 sin 2

 n2
n1
sin1c = . Sin 90o = n2/n1

or 1c = sin
[ ]
-1
n2
n1

[ ]
1 . 46
1 . 48
= sin-1

= sin-1 0.9865

1c = 80.57o

 c = 90o - 1c

Or, c = 9.43o (3)

This critical propagation angle decides the condition of total internal reflection inside
an optical fiber. It >c than incident beam will be refracted out in cladding and
portion of the beam will be reflected inside the fiber. But since light rays strikes the
core – cladding interface millions of times while travelling through the fiber, even if
extremely small portion of light is lost every time there will be very high attenuation
of optical energy and the light will be completely lost after travelling very short
distance. Hence to achieve total internal reflection, light rays must strike the core –
cladding boundary at critical propagation angle or even at lesser angle than c. It may
be noted that αc and 1c are supplement to each other. In Terms of n1 and n2, formula
for c can be derived as follows

n1 sin 1c = n2 sin 90o

n2
n1
sin1c =

( )
n2
n1
1c = sin-1
∵
c = 90o- 1c

sin1c = cos c

n2
n1
 cosc =

(1−cos 2 α c )
or, sin c =

√ ( )
2
n2
1−
n1
=

√ ( )
2
n2
1−
n1
or, c = sin-1 (4)

It may be noted that critical angle of propagation c is determined by only two

refractive indexes i.e., n1 & n2.

2.3 Cone of Acceptance angle:

See figure 2.6

 Figure 2.6

Snell’s law gives

na sin a = n1 sin c

n1
na
or sina = sin c

sina = n1 sin c (5)

For total internal reflection to take place in a fiber all light rays must propagate at a
critical angle c or less than that. To maintain angle c or less than that light must be
directed from source to fiber at an angle a or less. This a is a spatial angle. Hence for
total internal reflection to take place light must be directed within cone of angle 2a.
2ais called as cone of acceptance angle.

2.4 Numerical aperture (NA)

One of the most often quoted characteristics of an optical fiber is its “Numerical

Aperture”. The NA is intended as a measure of the light capturing ability of the

fiber. The Numerical Aperture is the sine of the largest angle contained within the
cone of acceptance. (acceptance angle = sin-1 NA)

NA is defined as

NA = na sina

= sina = n1 sin c

√ ( )
2
n2
1−
n1
Since, sin c =
 √ ( )
2
n2
1−
n1
NA = sina = n1

NA ¿ (n12-n22)1/2 (6)

Hence, numerical aperture is the ability of an optical fiber to gather light from a
source and then ability to preserve it inside an optical fiber for total internal reflection
to take place.

Let n1 = 1.5 and n2 =1.48 then NA = ((1.5)2 – (1.48)2)1/2 = 0.244

Therefore, Acceptance angle = sin-1 0.244 = 14.12° (See figure 2.7) (7)

Figure 2.7

If there are two fibers with the same core diameter but different NAs, then the fiber
with the larger NA will accept more light energy radiated from a light source than the
fiber with smaller NA. If there are two fibers with the same NAs but different
diameters then the fiber with the larger diameter will allow more light energy into the
core than the fiber with the smaller diameter.

2.5 ∆:
Another term in optical communication is  which is the relative refractive index
difference of core and cladding define as

n1 −n2
n1
 Is called relative index, and is defined as  = (8)

Where, n1n2

 NA = (n12_n22)1/2

√(n1−n 2)(n 1+n2 )

=

√(n1−n 2)(n 1+n2 )

NA =

= (Δn1* 2n1)1/2

√2 Δ
= n1 (9)

Above equation snows that fiber NA only depends on n1 and . Its unit less
quantity and always less than 1. Δ= 0.01 in telecommunication grade fibers.

Reasons for keeping Δ<< 1

 If Δ is less pulse broadening is less i.e., dispersion is less.

 If Δ is less than scattering losses are less.
 If Δ<< 1 therefore n1≈n2 and the transcendental equation solution is simple. We
get LP modes having two-fold degeneracy.
Multimode step index and graded index fibers have a large NA. This is a major
advantage since it enables them to be used with relative low cost optical components
and light sources such as light emitting diodes (LEDs) and vertical cavity surface
emitting lasers (VCSELs). LEDs and VCSELs which have large spot sizes can be
easily coupled to multimode fibers.
In contrast, single mode fibers, which have a small NA, typically use narrow line
width lasers as power sources and carry only one mode of light straight through a very
narrow core. Transmitter alignment and tolerances must be very precise to couple the
small beam of light into the tiny core of a single mode fiber. This drives up the cost of
single mode components. The small NA makes coupling efficiency poor but turns out
to improve the fiber’s bandwidth. Also, higher NA in SM fibers results in higher
attenuation in the fiber. Silica fibers (single mode) are designed to have NA about 0.1
whereas for graded index multimode fibers used in data communication the standard
NA are 0.20 for 50/125 µm fiber and 0.275 for 62.5/125 µm fiber. Figure 2.8 shows
cone of acceptance or light gathering capacity of an optical fiber.

Figure 2.8

2.6 TYPES OF FIBERS

(i) By refractive index profile:

Step-index fiber: the refractive index profile of fiber core is step function.

Graded-index fiber: the refractive index of fiber core depends on the radius
distance.
 (i) By sustainable propagation mode:
Single-mode fiber: support only single propagation mode.

Multi-mode fiber: support multiple propagation mode.

(ii) By dispersion characteristics:

Non-dispersion-shifted fiber (NDSF): standard SMF with zero dispersion at
1.3 um.

Dispersion-shifted fiber (DSF): zero dispersion at 1.55um .

Non-zero dispersion shifted fiber (NZDSF): small but non-zero dispersion

at 1.55um.

(iii) By polarization characteristics:

Polarization maintaining fiber (PMF): polarization preserved.

(iv) By bending performance:

Bend insensitive Fibers.

(v) Holey fibers:

Photonic band gap and photonic crystal fibers .

(vi) Leaf fibers

As discussed in para 2.0 the basic fiber types are MM step index fiber, MM graded
index fiber and Single mode step index fibers. (See figure 2.9) First we will be
discussing basic fiber types than after we will be discussing advance fiber types.
 Figure 2.9

2.7 BASIC OPTICAL FIBER TYPES:

Basic optical fibers classification includes

(i) Step index multimode fibers

(ii) Graded index multimode fibers

(iii) Step index single mode fibers

Variation in the refractive index of the core and cladding give rise to the two basic
types of fibers, step index and graded index fibers. In case of step index fibers the
refractive index of the core is uniform through ought and undergoes an abrupt change
(or step) at the cladding boundary. In case of graded index fibers refractive index
varies as a function of the radial distance from the center of the fiber. Figures 2.10,
2.11 shows step index and graded index fibers and how total internal reflection takes
place in case of graded index fibers.

Figure 2.10

Figure 2.11

2.7.1 Multimode step index fiber

The refractive index profile for multimode step index fiber is as follows

n (r) = n1 r < a (core)

n2 r ≥ a (cladding) (10)

Figure 2.12

As shown in figure 2.12 Multimode fibers come in two flavors 50/125 µm or 62.5/125

µm, fiber dimensions are sometime specified as 50/125 µm and 62.5/125 µm, to
include the diameter of cladding.
 Figure 2.13

Initially when optical fiber was introduced for 10 Mbps and then 100 Mbps Ethernet,
LED light sources and 62.5 µm fiber were used. As shown in figure 2.13.

But to achieve 1 Gbps performance, modern technology was needed. The light source
was up- graded to vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VCSEL), a laser technology
that was economical to produce. VCSELs can switch more rapidly than LEDs,
making them better for higher data rates. As shown in figure 2.14 with a VCSEL light
source, all the light is coupled into the fiber. In fact, a larger core diameter transmits
the light less efficiently because of modal dispersion. Use of 50 µm fiber decreased
modal dispersion and there by increased the reach of 1 Gbps fiber cabling.
 Figure 2.14

2.7.2 Multimode graded index fiber:

In these fibers, core is designed with different refractive indexes so that the light beam
travelling farthest distance does so at the highest velocity and the beam travelling the
shortest distance propagates at the slowest velocity. In this way intermodal dispersion
can be minimized and higher bit rate can be increased. The refractive index variation
in multimode graded index fiber is given as

n1 ( 1- 2 ∆ (r/a)α)1/2 ) r < a (core)

n(r) =

n1 ( 1-2 ∆ )1/2= n2 r ≥a (cladding)

Where, r = Radial distance from the fiber axis

a = core radius

n1 = Refractive index of core axis

n2 = Refractive index of the cladding

 = Dimensionless parameter, defines the shape of the profile

  = Relative refractive index difference

Figure 2.15 shows refractive index profile for various values of 

Figure 2.15

When  = 2, we get near parabolic profile and this profile is most suitable to eliminate
intermodal dispersion.

Number of modes in graded index multimode fiber is given by

( α
)
v2
α+2 2
M= (12)

Where, v = normalized frequency for the fiber

v = n1k a (2)1/2 (13)

For parabolic refractive index profile  = 2

v2
4
 M= for graded index fibers (14)

whereas Total number of modes in step index fiber when  =  are

v2
2
M= (15)
2.7.3 An idealized refractive index profile of graded index multimode fiber:

The glass core of a multi-mode graded index fiber has a graded refractive index that
decreases radially from the center. The precise shape of this refractive index profile is
critical to the fiber's information carrying capacity as measured by bandwidth.
Refractive index profiles are routinely measured on glass preform rods before they are
drawn out into fiber. A preform consists of many concentric layers of glass produced
sequentially using an MCVD (modified chemical vapor deposition) process. Index
gradations are constructed by varying the chemical doping in successive layers of
glass. The overall shape of the refractive index profile and its layer structure are
evident in the idealized profile measurement shown in the figure 2.16.

Both the overall shape and the layer structure potentially influence the bandwidth of
fibers drawn from a preform. Optics theory predicts that a near-quadratic refractive
index profile will produce high bandwidth fibers. The theory, however, is ill-suited to
profiles with layer structure or larger scale departures from the ideal shape. For this

reason profiles need fine-tuning and the work is somewhat empirical.

Figure: 2.16 an idealized refractive index profile

2.7.4 Single-mode Fiber

Single-mode fiber allows for a higher capacity to transmit information because it can
retain the fidelity of each light pulse over longer distances, and it exhibits no
dispersion caused by multiple modes (Intermodal dispersion). Single-mode fiber also
enjoys lower fiber attenuation than multimode fiber. Thus, more information can be
transmitted per unit of time. Like multimode fiber, early single-mode fiber was
generally characterized as step-index fiber meaning the refractive index of the fiber
core is a step above that of the cladding rather than graduated as it is in graded-index
fiber. Modern single-mode fibers have evolved into more complex designs such as
matched clad, depressed clad and other exotic structures.

Single-mode fiber has disadvantages. The smaller core diameter makes coupling light
into the core more difficult. The tolerances for single-mode connectors and splices are
also much more demanding. Single-mode fiber has gone through a continuing
evolution for several decades now. As a result, there are three basic classes of single-
mode fiber used in modern telecommunications systems. The oldest and most widely
deployed type is non-dispersion-shifted fiber (NDSF). These fibers were initially
intended for use near 1310 nm. Later, 1550 nm systems made NDSF fiber undesirable
due to its very high dispersion at the 1550 nm wavelength. To address this
shortcoming, fiber manufacturers developed, dispersion-shifted fiber(DSF), that
moved the zero-dispersion point to the 1550 nm region also attenuation is minimum at
1550 nm hence we get zero dispersion and minimum attenuation at 1550 nm
wavelength. Years later, scientists would discover that while DSF worked extremely
well with a single 1550 nm wavelength, it exhibits serious nonlinearities when
multiple, closely-spaced wavelengths in the 1550 nm were transmitted in DWDM
systems. Recently, to address the problem of nonlinearities, a new class of fibers was
introduced. These are classified as non-zero-dispersion-shifted fibers (NZ-DSF).
The fiber is available in both positive and negative dispersion varieties and is rapidly
becoming the fiber of choice in new fiber deployment.

2.7.4.1 NDSF:
Commonly referred to as standard single-mode silica fiber, this optical fiber is also
known as non-dispersion-shifted fiber (NDSF). SMF-28, made by Corning, is
among the most popular NDSF fibers deployed today. The standard single mode fiber
(corning SMF-28 ITU-T G.652), which was deployed in 2001 by over 47 countries
worldwide and this fiber till today is operational everywhere. NDSF exhibits zero
chromatic dispersion (called λ0) at a wavelength of 1310 nm. Transmission
wavelengths used with Erbium doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) systems (1550 nm
window) undergo significant chromatic dispersion with NDSF and require dispersion
compensation, particularly at 10-Gbit/s or higher data rates. Typical optical losses
range from 0.21 to 0.25 dB/km.

Note: The fiber zero dispersion wavelength, or λ 0, is the wavelength at which

chromatic dispersion is zero. Chromatic dispersion causes a wavelength pulse to
spread out as it travels along a fiber and is due to the fact that the different wavelength
components that constitute the wavelength pulse travel at slightly different speeds in
the fiber. The farther away the channel wavelength is from λ 0 the greater the degree of
dispersion and hence distortion.

2.7.4.2 DSF:

To minimize chromatic dispersion at 1550 nm, a new fiber called dispersion-shifted

fiber (DSF) was introduced in the early 1980's. By changing the index profile and
reducing the core radius, fiber designers were able to move λ 0 from the 1310 nm
window to the 1540 to 1560 nm window. Though effective in greatly reducing
chromatic dispersion effects, which limits bandwidth, the positioning of λ 0 in close
proximity to the operating wavelengths resulted in a tendency to a nonlinear distortion
effect called four wave mixing (FWM). This is especially troublesome in DWDM
applications with more than eight wavelengths. Typical losses range from 0.25 to 0.30
dB/km.

Note: Standard DSF fiber has a λ0 of 1557.5 ±12.5 nm (i.e. 1544.5 nm to 1569.5 nm).

2.7.4.3 NZ-DSF:

NZ-DSF was developed to counteract the FWM limitations of DSF. The idea is to
move λ0 to either end of the 1550 nm band, thus ensuring that all of the wavelength
channels have slightly different optical speeds in the fiber. Common brands are True
Wave Classic (λ0 < 1530 nm), True Wave Plus (λ 0 = 1497 nm), True Wave RS (λ 0
< 1452 nm) by Lucent, and SMF-LS (λ0 > 1560 nm) by Corning. The advantage
that these fibers have over DSF is a compromise solution of a slightly lower degree of
integrated dispersion compensation for a higher tolerance to non-linear distortion
effects. Available with positive dispersion (+D) NZ-DSF and negative dispersion (-D)
NZ-DSF as shown in figure 2.17.

Figure 2.17

2.7.5 Large Effective Area Fiber (LEAF):

Allows the light to be transmitted in a larger total area of the fiber in order to reduce
the concentration of high powers that may cause adverse nonlinear effects.

In Shannon’s channel capacity limit study fiber nonlinear coefficient is of 1.27/w/km,

a value typical of SSMF’s, with lower nonlinear coefficient, high nonlinear limit and
thus higher capacity can be allowed. Lower nonlinear coefficient can be realized by
using larger effective fiber core area (Aeff). In fact, pure silica core fibers (PSCF)
have Aeff of 118 μm², which is about 50% larger than that of SSMF (80 μm²).
Theoretical study has recently shown that Aeff as large as 160 μm² can be achieved
with PSCF. Increasing the fiber effective area improves the spectral efficiency and is
most valuable for long haul transmission system. Figure 2.18 shows the difference
between traditional NZ-DSF fibers and LEAF fibers.

Figure 2.18

2.7.6 All Wavelength Fibers (Zero water peak fibers):

They remove the attenuation peak at 1400 nm to increase the range of possible
wavelengths that can be transmitted at low loss.

2.7.6.1 LUCENTS ALL WAVE BROADBAND FIBER (Figure 2.19)

 Figure 2.19

Figure 2.20 shows zero water peak SMF fibers characteristics.

Figure 2.20

2.7.7 POLARIZATION- MAINTAINING (PM) FIBERS:

One additional important variety of single-mode fiber is polarization-maintaining

(PM) fiber. All other single-mode fibers discussed so far have been capable of
carrying randomly polarized light. PM fiber is designed to propagate only one
polarization of the input light. This is important for components such as external
modulators that require a polarized light input. Figure 2.21 shows the cross-section of
a type of PM fiber. This fiber contains a feature not seen in other fiber types. Besides
the core, there are two additional circles called stress rods. As their name implies,
these stress rods create stress in the core of the fiber such that the transmission of only
one polarization plane of light is favored. Single-mode fibers experience
nonlinearities that can greatly affect system performance in fiber optics, polarization-
maintaining optical fiber (PMF or PM fiber) is optical fiber in which the polarization
of linearly polarized light waves launched into the fiber is maintained during
propagation, with little or no cross-coupling of optical power between the polarization
modes. Such fiber is used in special applications where preserving polarization is
essential.

Several unique designs of PM fiber are used. Most work by inducing stress in the core
via a non-circular cladding cross-section, or via rods of another material included
within the cladding. Several different shapes of rod are used, and the resulting fiber is
sold under brand names such as "panda" and "bow-tie". The differences in
performance between these types of fiber are subtle.

Polarization-maintaining optical fibers are used in special applications, such as in

fiber optic sensing, interferometry and quantum key distribution. They are also
commonly used in telecommunications for the connection between a source laser and
a modulator, since the modulator requires polarized light as input. they are rarely used
for long-distance transmission, because PM fiber is expensive and has higher
attenuation than single mode fiber.
 Figure 2.21: PM Fibers

2.7.8 Additional; Types of Fibers based on Refractive Index Profiles:

There are two basic types of single mode step-index fibers: matched clad and
depressed clad. Matched cladding means that the fiber cladding consists of a single
homogeneous layer of dielectric material. Depressed cladding means that the fiber
cladding consists of two regions: the inner and outer cladding regions. Matched-clad
and depressed-clad single mode step-index fibers have unique refractive index
profiles. A matched-clad single mode step-index fiber has a core of radius a and a
constant refractive index n1. A cladding of slightly lower refractive index surrounds
the core. The cladding has a refractive index n 2. The figure 2.22 shows the refractive
index profile n(r) for the matched-clad single mode fiber. The figure2.22 also shows
the refractive index profile n(r) for the depressed-clad single mode fiber. A depressed-
clad single mode step-index fiber has a core of radius a with a constant refractive
index n1. A cladding, made of two regions, surrounds the core. An inner cladding
region surrounds the core of the fiber and has a refractive index of n 2. The inner
cladding refractive index n2 is lower than the core's refractive index n 1. An outer
cladding region surrounds the inner cladding region and has a higher refractive index

n3 than the inner cladding region. However, the outer cladding refractive index n 3 is
lower than the core's refractive index n 1. The depressed-cladding design decrease
bending losses through tighter confinement of the mode field within the core
without the need for heavy doping.

Figure 2.22

Single mode step-index fibers propagate only one mode, called the fundamental
mode. Single mode operation occurs when the value of the fiber's normalized
frequency is between 0 and 2.405. The value of V should remain near the 2.405 level.
When the value of V is less than 1, single mode fibers carry a majority of the light
power in the cladding material. The portion of light transmitted by the cladding
material easily radiates out of the fiber. For example, light radiates out of the cladding
material at fiber bends and splices.

The history of different styles of refractive index profiles depend on the history of
Chromatic dispersion as optical fiber manufacturers tried to achieve minimum
dispersion and minimum attenuation together and shifted the transmission window to
1550 nm from the conventional 1310 nm. The waveguide dispersion can be
influenced to a great extent by changing the refractive index profile structure. The
refractive index of a typical single mode fiber is a step index profile with a refractive
index difference delta.

For this refractive index profile structure, the sum of the material and waveguide

dispersions is zero near 1300 nm wavelength. If it is good to shift this zero dispersion
wavelengths to another wavelength having less attenuation, then the waveguide
dispersion and with it the refractive index profile structure of the optical fiber must be
changed. This is the reason for multistep or segmented refractive index profiles. The
index profiles of dispersion shifted single mode fibers, dispersion flattened single
mode fibers, dispersion compensated single mode fibers and Non-zero dispersion
shifted single mode fibers are shown in figure 2.23. Standard step index profile i.e.,
simple step index or matched cladding profile is shown in figure (a).

Single mode optical fibers having such profiles are called Single Mode Matched
clad fibers (SM MC). You might have noticed optical fiber cables printed on the
outer jacket as SM MC. Step index profile with reduced refractive index in the
cladding region near to the core region is shown in figure (b). This type of index
profile for cladding is also known as depressed cladding and single mode fibers
having this profile is called Single mode depressed clad fibers or SM DC. Both SM
MC and SM DC fibers are dispersion un-shifted fibers. This means simply the
conventional optical fibers.

Optical fibers with dispersion shifted characteristics and Non-zero dispersion shifted
characteristics are shown below. There is segmented profile with triangular core
profile as shown in figure (c), Triangular profile as shown in figure (d) and segmented
profile with a double step refractive index in the cladding also known as double clad
as shown in figure (e).

Optical fiber with dispersion flattening have segmented profile with a 4-fold step in
refractive index of the cladding in some cases as shown in figure (f) and ‘W’ profile
or double clad in some cases as shown in figure (g).
 Figure 2.23

2.7.9 Bend Insensitive/Bend optimize Single Mode Fibers:

Bend insensitive optical fibers are being produced to support the fiber to the home
(FTTH) applications. FTTH is growing and the demand for optical fibers suitable for
transmission at 1550 nm to utilize the DWDM application spectrum is increasing in
the backbone networking. 1550 nm is sensitive to bending and nowadays the trend is
to use smaller cabinets and fiber storage mediums in order to reduce the installation
space. If backbone cables are sensitive to bending, the fiber optic cables will show
increase in attenuation over a period of time under small bends. To overcome these
problems, optical fiber manufacturers have come up with bend insensitive/bend
optimize optical fibers that can be used in the feeder cables as well as backbone
cabling network. Bend-optimized fiber is designed for use in FTTx and premises
applications to minimize the effects of increased attenuation resulting from macro
bends and micro bends in single-mode fiber. Optimized bend performance is valuable
in many cable and connectivity applications including low-count cables, small
enclosures, or any application where small bend radii may be encountered. The trend
in the FTTH (Fiber to the home) scenario is moving towards further small bends and
the demand from FTTH installation field’s reaches up to 5 millimeters. These fibers
also help improve cable performance in high-stress and low-temperature
environments by providing double the micro bending performance of conventional
single-mode fibers.

Optical fibers would not be practical if they had to be kept perfectly straight to guide
light. However, deviations from a straight path (“bends”) can cause light to scatter
and escape from the core of the optical fiber. Bends fall into two categories. Macro
bends are bends that are large enough to be seen by the human eye; micro bends are
microscopic deviations along the fiber axis. A macro bend could be caused by the
routing of a jumper in a patch panel; a micro bend could result if fiber is squeezed by
cable buffer or jacket material as it contracts at very low temperatures. Both types of
bends can result in increased attenuation that can degrade system performance.

ITU-T G.657.A fibers were developed to be bend tolerant up to 15 mm radius

ITU-T G.657.B fibers were developed to be bend tolerant up to 7.5 mm radius

Figure 2.24 gives G.657 Single Mode optical fiber (bend insensitive) specifications
 Figure 2.24

Figure 2.25 shows types of bends encountered generally in fiber to home (FTTH)
installations. When a standard 50 µm multimode fiber is bent 90 ° the loss is 3.25 dB
whereas bend insensitive fiber shows the loss of only 0.32 dB. Hence standard
multimode fibers when bent to 90 °services are disrupted but with bend insensitive
fiber services are maintained. See figures 2.26, 2.27, 2.28.
Figure 2.25

Figure 2.26
 SERVICE

DISRUPTED

SERVICE

MAINTAINED

Figure 2.27

Figure 2.28
Bend optimize fibers results in reduce cabinet size as shown in figure 2.29.There are

many fiber design with improved performance as shown in figure 2.30.

Figure 2.29

Figure 2.30
Hole assisted fibers gives superior bending performance in comparison of standard
single mode fibers as shown in figure 2.31.

Figure 2.31

2.7.10 Holey Fibers:

Photonic crystal fibers (PCFs) were first demonstrated in 1996 and have generated
much attention since then. PCFs are optical fibers that employ a micro structured
arrangement of material in a background material of different refractive index. The
background material is often undoped silica and a low index region is typically
provided by air voids running along the length of the fiber.
PCFs may be divided into two categories, high index guiding fibers and low index
guiding fibers. Like conventional fibers, high index guiding fibers are guiding light in
a solid core by the Modified Total Internal Reflection (M-TIR) principle. The total
internal reflection is caused by the lower effective index in the micro structured air-
filled region.

Low index guiding fibers guide light by the photonic bandgap (PBG) effect. The light
is confined to the low index core as the PBG effect makes propagation in the micro
structured cladding region impossible.

The strong wavelength dependency of the effective refractive index and the inherently
large design flexibility of the PCFs allow for a whole new range of novel properties.
Such properties include endlessly single-moded fibers, extremely nonlinear fibers and
fibers with anomalous dispersion in the visible wavelength region.

2.7.10.1 High index guiding fibers

It relies on a high index core region, typically pure silica, surrounded by a lower
effective index provided by the micro structured region. The refractive index of the
micro structured cladding in PCFs exhibits a wavelength dependency very different
from pure silica - an effect which allows PCFs to be designed with a complete new set
of properties not possible with standard technology. As an example, the strong
wavelength dependence of the refractive index allows design of endlessly single-
moded fibers, where only a single mode is supported regardless of optical wavelength.
Furthermore, it is possible to alter the dispersion properties of the fibers, thereby
making it possible to design fibers with an anomalous dispersion at visible
wavelengths.

2.7.10.2 The band gap effect – low index guiding fibers

The periodic microstructure in the PBG fiber cladding results in a so called photonic
bandgap, where light in certain wavelength regions cannot propagate. In a PBG fiber,
the core is created by introducing a defect in the PBG structure (e.g. an extra air hole),
thereby creating an area where the light can propagate. As the light can only
propagate at the defect region, a low index guiding core has been created. This is not
possible in standard fibers, and the low index guiding of PBG fibers therefore opens a
whole new set of possibilities. In this way, it is possible to guide light in air, vacuum
or any gas compatible with the fiber material.

2.7.10.3 Hollow core PBG fibers

A special class of PBG guiding fibers is the hollow core fibers, where the field is
confined to an air-filled core. Like other PBG fibers, air-core fibers only guide light in
a limited spectral region. For fibers guiding around 1550 nm, a typical bandwidth is
~200 nm. Outside this region, the fiber core is anti-guiding.

Guiding light in a hollow core holds many promising applications like high power
delivery without the risk of fiber damage, gas sensors or extreme low loss guidance in
vacuum. Furthermore, this class of fiber has other spectacular properties not found in
any other fiber type. They are almost insensitive to bending (even at very small
bending radii) and they have dramatically reduced sensitivity to Kerr effect,
temperature transients, and Faraday Effect. (See figure 2.32, 2.33, 2.34)

Figure 2.32
Figure 2.33
 Figure 2.34

Table 2.2 shows several types of fibers and their typical specifications.
 Table 2.2

Fiber Types and Typical Specifications

Core/Cladding Attenuation Bandwidth Applications/Notes

Multimode Graded-Index

@850/1300 nm @850/1300 nm

50/125 microns 3/1 dB/km 500/500 MHz-km Laser-rated for GbE LANs

2000/500 MHz-
50/125 microns 3/1 dB/km Optimized for 850 nm VCSELs
km

62.5/125 microns 3/1 dB/km 160/500 MHz-km Most common LAN fiber

100/140 microns 3/1 dB/km 150/300 MHz-km Obsolete

Single mode

@1310/1550 nm

HIGH! Telco/CATV/long high speed

8-9/125 microns 0.4/0.25 dB/km
~100 Terahertz LANs

Multimode Step-Index

@850 nm @850 nm

200/240 microns 4-6 dB/km 50 MHz-km Slow LANs & links

POF (plastic optical fiber)

@ 650 nm @ 650 nm

1 mm ~ 1 dB/m ~5 MHz-km Short Links & Cars

2.7.11 V NUMBER (NORMALIZED FREQUENCY PARAMETER)

V number decides that how many modes a fiber can support. It’s given as

V = a ko (n12-n22)1/2 (16)

Where, a = fiber core diameter

Ko=2π/ʎ

(n12 – n22) 1/2= NA

Hence, V = 2π/ʎ*a*NA

= 2π/ʎ*a *n1*(2Δ)1/2 (17)

For single mode operation

V < 2.4048

V< 2.405 (18)

Practical V values are normally between 2 to 2.4

As the fundamental mode extends into the cladding material, it becomes increasingly
sensitive to bending loss. Single mode fiber designs include claddings of sufficient
thickness with low absorption and scattering properties to reduce attenuation of the
fundamental mode. To increase performance and reduce losses caused by fiber
bending and splicing, fiber manufacturers adjust the value of V. To adjust the value of
V, they vary the core and cladding sizes, relative refractive index difference (Δ) and
NA.
2.7.12 Cutoff Wavelength (ʎc)

The wavelength at which a mode ceases to propagate is called the cutoff wavelength
for that mode. However, an optical fiber is always able to propagate at least one
mode, the fundamental mode. The fundamental mode can never be cut off. The cutoff
wavelength of a single mode fiber is the wavelength above which the fiber propagates
only the fundamental mode. Practical transmission systems are generally operated
close to the effective cutoff wavelength in order to enhance the fundamental mode
confinement, but sufficiently distant from cutoff so that no power is transmitted in the
second-order LP11 mode.

Single mode fiber cutoff wavelength is the smallest operating wavelength when single
mode fibers propagate only the fundamental mode. At this wavelength, the 2nd-order
mode becomes lossy and radiates out of the fiber core. As the operating wavelength
becomes longer than the cutoff wavelength, the fundamental mode becomes
increasingly lossy. The higher the operating wavelength is above the cutoff
wavelength; the more power is transmitted through the fiber cladding. The cutoff
wavelength of a single mode fiber is the wavelength above which the fiber propagates
only the fundamental mode. Below cut-off, the fiber will transmit more than one
mode. An optical fiber that is single-moded at a particular wavelength may have two
or more modes at wavelengths lower than the cutoff wavelength. The effective cutoff
wavelength of a fiber is dependent on the length of fiber and its deployment and the
longer the fiber, the lower the effective cutoff wavelength. Or the smaller the bend
radius of a loop of the fiber is, the lower the effective cutoff wavelength will be. If a
fiber is bent in a loop, the cutoff is lowered. The cutoff wavelength of a fiber is
reduced when it is cabled.

. Determining the cutoff wavelength of a single mode fiber involves finding the
wavelength above which the power transmitted through the fiber decreased abruptly.
This power decrease occurs when the second-order mode propagating in the fiber is
cut off. The cutoff wavelength of single mode fibers depends on the fiber length and
bend conditions. The effects of length and bending are different on different fibers
depending on whether they are matched-clad or depressed-clad in design. The cutoff
wavelength of matched-clad fibers is more sensitive to bends than the cut off
wavelength of depressed-clad fibers. The cutoff wavelength of depressed-clad fibers
is more sensitive to length than the cutoff wavelength of matched-clad fibers.

Cutoff wavelength (ʎc) for single mode fibers is given as ʎc = 2πan1(2Δ)1/2/2.405

(i) ʎc decides the operating wavelength for single mode operation i.e., ʎ>ʎc
for given a, n1 and Δ.
(ii) If ʎ<ʎc than more than one mode will be supported by the fiber.
(iii) ʎc decides the core diameter of fiber for different wavelengths once n 1 and
Δ are fixed.

2.7.13 MODE FIELD DIAMETER (MFD)

Mode-field diameter is a measure of the spot size or beam width of light propagating
in a single-mode fiber. Mode-field diameter is a function of source wavelength, fiber
core radius, and fiber refractive index profile. The vast majority of the optical power
propagates within the fiber core, and a small portion propagates in the cladding near
the core (Figure 2.35). Mismatches in mode-field diameter can affect splice loss.
Fibers with varying mode-field diameters also display different bend loss sensitivities.

The mode field diameter(MFD) represents a measure of the transverse extent of the
electromagnetic field intensity of a mode of light in a fiber cross section. In optical
fiber, this typically is larger than the fiber core, since a portion of the light propagates
through the cladding. The MFD is determine by international standard measurement
of Petermann II method, a rigorous approach that calculates MFD by integrating the
actual intensity distribution over the range of far field angles.
 Figure 2.35

2.7.13.1 Mode field diameter or spot size: (See figure 2.36)

 Figure 2.36
 As the V value approaches 2.405 the spot size approaches the fiber radius
 For V<2 the spot size is significantly larger than the core size
 For V < 2 the beam is partially contained within the cladding and loss
increases
 For this reason, V should be between about 2 and 2.405

2.7.14 Meridional and skew rays

For propagation of light inside the core there are two possibilities.

1. A light ray is launched in a plane containing the axis of the fiber. We can then
see the light ray after total internal reflection travels in the same plane i.e., the
ray is confined to the plane in which it was launched and never leave the
plane. In this situation, the rays will always cross the axis of the fiber. These
are called the Meridional rays. A meridional ray is one that has no φ
component –it passes through the z axis, and is thus in direct analogy to a slab
guide ray. Meridional rays can be classified as bound or unbound rays. Bound
rays remain in the core and propagate along the axis of the fiber. Bound rays
propagate through the fiber by total internal reflection. Unbound rays are
refracted out of the fiber core. Figure 2.37 (a) shows a possible path taken by
bound and unbound rays in a step-index fiber. In general, meridional rays
follow the laws of reflection and refraction.
2. The other possibility is that the ray is not launched in a plane containing the
axis of the fiber. For example if the ray is launched at some angle such that it
does not intersect the axis of the fiber, then after total internal reflection it will
go to some other plane. We can see that in this situation the ray will never
intersect the axis of the fiber. The ray essentially will spiral around the axis of
fiber. These rays are called the Skew rays. (See figure 2.37 (b), (c), (d)). Ray
propagation in a fiber is complicated by the possibility of a path component in
the φ direction, from which arises a skew ray. Such a ray exhibits a spiral-like
path down the core, never crossing the z axis. The addition of skew rays also
increases the amount of loss in a fiber. Skew rays tend to propagate near the
edge of the fiber core. Substantial portions of the number of skew rays that are
trapped in the fiber core are considered to be leaky rays.

(a) (b)

Figure 2.37 (a) Meridional rays (b) Skew rays

 Figure 2.37 ©

Figure 2.37 (d)

2.7.15 Modes:

The light traveling down the fiber is a group of electromagnetic (EM) waves
occupying a small band of frequencies within the electromagnetic spectrum, so it is a

simplification to call it a ray of light. Light therefore, is propagated as an

electromagnetic wave along the fiber. The two components, the electric field and the
magnetic field, form patterns across the fiber. These patterns are called modes of

Figure 2.38

transmission. Modes means methods, hence methods of transmission. An optical

fiber that carries more than one mode is called a multimode fiber (MM). The number
of modes is always a whole number. In a given piece of fiber, there are only a set
number of possible modes. This is because each mode is a pattern of electric and
magnetic fields having a physical size. The dimensions of the core determine how
many modes or patterns can exist in the core, the larger the core, the more modes. The
smaller the core, the fewer the modes. When the core is reduced sufficiently, the
number of modes can be reduced to just one, SMF. The core size of SMF, or single
mode fiber, is between 5µm and 10 µm, whereas MMF has core diameter of 50 µm or
62.5 µm. Note that as the diameter starts to approximate the wavelength of light, then
only one mode will travel down the fiber. This state is referred to as ‘single mode’ or
‘mono mode’ propagation. Figure 2.38 illustrates the rate at which the number of
modes increases with increasing core diameter. The number of modes supported by a
fiber ranges from 1 to over 100,000. Thus, a fiber provides a path of travel for one or
thousands of light rays, depending on its size and properties.

2.7.15.1 Vectoral characteristics of modes in optical fibers:

 TE (i.e. Ez= 0) and TM (Hz= 0) modes are also obtained within the circular
optical fiber. These modes correspond to meridional rays (pass through the
fiber axis).
 As the circular optical fiber is bounded in two dimensions in the transverse
plane,

=>two integers, l and m, are necessary to specify the modes

i.e. We refer to these modes as TE lm and TM lm modes.

Hybrid modes are modes in which both Ez and Hz are nonzero. These modes result
from skew ray propagation (helical path without passing through the fiber axis). The
modes are denoted as HElm and EH lm depending on whether the components of H
or E make the larger contribution to the transverse field.

The full set of circular optical fiber modes therefore comprises: TE, TM (meridional
rays), HE and EH (skew rays) modes.

2.7.15.2 Weak-guidance approximation

The analysis may be simplified when considering telecommunications- grade optical

fibers. These fibers have the relative index difference Δ << 1 (Δ = (ncore –
nclad)/ncore typically less than 1 %). Since the propagation is preferentially along
the fiber axis (θ ≈ 90°). i.e. the field is therefore predominantly transverse.

Therefore, modes are approximated by two linearly polarized components. (Both Ez

and Hz are nearly zero)
 Figure 2.39

These linearly polarized (LP) modes, designated as LPlm, are good approximations
formed by exact modes TE, TM, HE and EH. The mode subscripts l and m describe
the electric field intensity profile. There are 2 l field maxima around the the fiber core
circumference and m field maxima along the fiber core radial direction. (See figure
2.39 & 2.40 )

Figure 2.40

2.7.15.3 Modes of an Optical Fiber: (See figure 2.41 & 2.42)

 They are the Transverse Electric modes (TE modes) of a wave guide known as
bound or trapped modes
 They are the guided electromagnetic field distributions traveling inside an
optical fiber
 These modes travel with a definite state of polarization and group velocity and
without change in it is field distribution with propagation
 Only certain discrete number of modes can travel along a wave guide. These
modes are solution of Maxwell’s equations
 For telecommunication grade fibers, these modes are known as linearly
polarized modes (LP modes)

Figure 2.41
 Figure 2.42

2.7.16 Leaky modes

An unusual phenomenon is noted when the NA for very short lengths of fiber is
compared to the NA for very long lengths of fiber. For example, the NA of 3 meters
of multimode fiber may be measured at 0.36 but for 1 km of the same cable, it may be
measured at 0.3. The reason for this spurious result is due to the way NA is measured.
A certain amount of light will escape into the cladding at the point of connection with
the light source and will transverse down the cladding and be detected by the
receiving detector several meters away. As NA is a measure of the light acceptance
ability of the fiber, it appears to have a larger NA than it actually has. The light that
enters the cladding will be very small in amplitude and will radially leak out of the
cladding with any slight bends in the fiber. Therefore, the light traveling in the
cladding will have significantly dispersed after 10 or 20 meters only. These are
referred to as leaky modes. Leaky mode or tunneling mode in an optical fiber or
other waveguide is a mode having an electric field that decays monotonically for a
finite distance in the transverse direction but becomes oscillatory everywhere beyond
that finite distance. Such a mode gradually "leaks" out of the waveguide as it travels
down it, producing attenuation even if the waveguide is perfect in every respect. For a
leaky mode to be definable as a mode, the relative amplitude of the oscillatory part
(the leakage rate) must be sufficiently small that the mode substantially maintains its
shape as it decays.

Leaky modes correspond to leaky rays in the terminology of geometric optics. The
propagation of light through optical fiber can take place via meridional rays or skew
rays. These skew rays suffer only partial reflection while meridional rays are
completely guided. Thus the modes allowing propagation of skew rays are called
leaky modes. Some optical power is lost into cladding due to these modes.

2.7.17 Difference between Group velocity and Phase velocity:

The phase velocity is the speed of propagation of an electromagnetic wave in some
medium. In fiber optics it is the speed of the planar phase front of the mode as it
propagates along the fiber. It is just the speed of light divided by the “effective index”
of the fiber.

V phase = c / n effective

The effective index is a single number situated between the refractive index of the
core and the cladding which summarizes the effects of both.

Group velocity is the usual way of discussing the speed of propagation on a fiber. It is
the speed of propagation of modulations along the fiber. It is generally a little less
than the phase velocity. The reason that group velocity is different from phase
velocity is related to the amount of dispersion of the medium. If there is no dispersion
in the medium then group velocity and phase velocity are the same.

2.7.18 Single Mode Fibers vs. Multi-mode fibers:

MMFs have several advantages over SMFs. The core radius of a multi-mode fiber
(25–35 μm) is much larger than that of a single-mode fiber (4–9 μm). Therefore, it is
easier to launch optical power into a MMF and also to splice two MMFs. The large
core of a MMF facilitates simple fiber-to-fiber or fiber-to-transceiver alignment and,
hence, is best suited to local area network (LAN) applications. The relative index
difference Δ of a MMF is larger than that of a SMF. Therefore, the numerical aperture
of a MMF is large, which implies more light can be launched to the fiber from an
inexpensive optical source that has a large angular spread, such as a LED. To have a
reasonable power coupling efficiency, SMFs are excited with laser diodes.
Inexpensive short-haul fiber-optic links can be designed using LEDs and multi-mode
fibers. However, multi-mode fibers are not used for long-haul and/or high-bit-rate
applications because of intermodal dispersion. Although the dispersion can be
reduced to some extent using graded-index multi-mode fibers, the pulse broadening
increases linearly with distance and becomes unacceptably large for a fiber-optic link
that is hundreds of kilometers long. Typically, the transmission reach of a MMF fiber-
optic link at a bit rate of 1 Gb/s is limited to a few kilometers. Intermodal dispersion
would be absent if there was only one mode. Therefore, single-mode fibers are used
for long-haul (1000 km–30,000 km) and high-bit-rate (10Gb/s–100 Gb/s)
applications. From the information theory point of view, the channel capacity of a
multi-mode fiber is larger than that of a single-mode fiber. This is because, in
principle, each mode of a MMF can carry as much information as a SMF. When
different modes of a MMF carry independent sets of data it is known as mode-
division multiplexing, which has attracted significant attention recently. In an ideal
MMF with M guided modes, there is no power coupling among modes and the
channel capacity can be enhanced by the factor M. However, due to refractive index
fluctuations along the fiber, there is an exchange of power among modes, leading to
cross-talk between channels of a mode division multiplexed system. This cross-talk
can be compensated for by using digital signal processing techniques.

2.8 DEVELOPMENT OF NOVEL FIBERS FOR OPTICAL

COMMUNICATIONS

The Current fibers include standard single mode fibers (SMFs), NON-Zero
Dispersion shifted fibers (NZ-DSFs), and dispersion managed lines (DMLs). Even
though these fibers show quite high and matured properties, the internet traffic is
continuously growing, and around 2015-2020, it is expected that the current
transmission fibers would become inadequate. To prepare for the future ultra-high-
capacity transmission, there are three important R&d directions for transmission
fibers.

(1) Reducing non-linearity by means of enlarging Aeff and/or reducing attenuation

loss. It is very important in the case of transmission systems using new multi-level
signal formats.

(2) Expanding the transmission band more than the current C and/or L-band by
utilizing new transmission fibers. For example, holey fibers (HFs), which have an
endlessly single mode (ESM) property, are one of the interesting candidates of the
new transmission fibers.

(3) Using space division multiplexing (SDM) by using multi-core fibers. The multi-
core fiber literally multiples the core number within a fiber dimension, which enables
multiple transmission capacity per one fiber. Figures 2.43 describe the multi core
fiber technology.
2.8.1 Researchers have set a new world record for data transmission over a
single strand of optical fiber (Multi Core Fiber):

Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation (NTT) worked alongside three partners
Fujikura Ltd., Hokkaido University and the Technical University of Denmark. One

Petabit (1000 terabits) per second was transferred over a distance of 53.4 km (32.75
mi)

Figure 2.43

using 12- core (light paths) in a single strand of optical fiber, more than 10 times the
capacity of the previous record for conventional optical fiber. This bandwidth is
equivalent to sending 5,000 HDTV videos of two hours each in a single second. This
remarkable achievement was reported at the European Conference and Exhibition on
Optical Communications (ECOC 2012), the largest conference on optical
communication in Europe.

2.8.1 Spatial multiplexing: The next frontier:

Figure 2.44 shows various dimensions for modulation and multiplexing to increase
system capacity in optical fiber communications. Space division multiplexing is the
latest dimension to explore.

Figure 2.44

A fundamentally innovative approach will be needed to meet the continuously

increasing capacity of the world’s long haul optical communications networks and to
prevent a “capacity crunch” as hyper-growth in demand for data continues. That
increase will only be possible with a step-change in state-of-the-art optical technology

Optical networks form the backbone of modern communications networks,

transporting data traffic anywhere from a few kilometers right up to distances on a
transcontinental scale. These fiber “highways” have already evolved significantly
since their inception. When fiber technology started to replace copper wire in the
1980s, first generation systems operated at bit rates of 45 Mb/s and needed support
from repeaters every 10 km. Today’s long-haul networks offer 100 Gb/s per
wavelength, thanks to the arrival of coherent technology

Coherent technology blends optics and electronics, transforming the optical signal to
the electrical domain by mixing it with a reference of the carrier frequency. This
enables data to pass between the two domains complete with amplitude, polarization
and phase information, which were not previously possible. Today’s coherent systems
typically use a so-called 50 GHz grid. They have a reach in excess of 2,500 km
depending on fiber type and system configuration.

Coherent detection with digital signal processing (DSP) improves receiver sensitivity,
spectral efficiency and impairment compensation to increase the robustness and
performance of the system. Finally, the transmitter and receiver structures remain the
same regardless of the modulation format. This makes it possible to deploy flexible
rate transponders that use varying modulation formats depending on the given reach
in the system.

100 Gb/s technology will be at the core of long haul networks for years to come, yet
even these data rates will not be enough to cope with future demand.

The boom in traffic associated with the rise in smart devices, video-based applications
and developments such as machine-to-machine communication shows no signs of
slowing. Network operators are already looking ahead to find ways to deliver future
applications, which will require data rates approaching 400 Gb/s and1 Tb/s. This in
turn demands some fresh thinking, because it will take a combination of approaches
to overcome the technical challenges of providing these data rates.

In practical terms, today’s combination of standard single-mode fibers and erbium

doped fiber amplifiers (EDFA) is fundamentally incapable of delivering data rates of
400 Gb/s or 1 Tb/s over distances of more than 1,000 km including end of life system
margins.

There are several approaches that may boost the capacity of standard, single-mode
fibers, but they all have their limitations.
The first is to look at changing the modulation format to achieve higher spectral
efficiency. All else being equal, the best this is likely to manage is a doubling of
capacity, because the signal will be affected by noise as it passes through multiple
amplifiers and nonlinear effects from the transmission process.

Going any further would in theory require the use of “super-channels” that include
multiple sub-bands beyond the 50 GHz grid. Basic fiber characteristics such as loss
and refractive index mean that this approach depends on the availability of advanced
fiber types with lower non-linearity and loss that would not need such frequent
amplification, as well as swapping EDFA technology for less noisy Raman (optical)
amplification. Even with these advances, the reach will remain limited, so that 400
Gb/s and 1 Tb/s running on legacy systems will be unable to bridge distances greater
than 2,000 km in long haul links with high spectral efficiency.

These issues all lead to a theoretical maximum achievable spectral efficiency for 2000
km of single-mode fiber of less than 7 b/s/Hz. With traffic volumes increasing by
around 40% each year, this means that optical networks face a capacity crunch unless
a step-change in technology can be achieved. There are several ways to increase
optical transmission system capacity over a fixed bandwidth, and most of them are
already being used, including modulation using different amplitude levels, two
orthogonal subcarriers (cosine and sine modulation) and polarization. Frequency is
also used in wavelength division multiplexing (WDM).

In fact, the only remaining unused dimension is space, and there are two basic
strategies for achieving spatial separation within a fiber , multi-core and multi-mode
operation.

2.82 Space Division Multiplexing:

A new milestone in the evolution of fiber optic communication Multi-core fibers have
several cores embedded in the fiber cladding. However, the cores are not fully
separated so there will be crosstalk between them, which ultimately limit the
transmission performance or require complex DSP to untangle the signals. In
addition, a single-mode glass fiber core will not be able to achieve a lower loss or
higher non-linear tolerance than standard single-mode fibers, since these are basic
properties of the material. That limits any increase in capacity in step with the number
of cores in the fiber.
On the other hand, multi-mode fibers allow the propagation of several independent
modes within a single core.

The number of modes that a fiber supports is determined by the core size and the
refractive index of the fiber. Increasing the size of the core allows for more modes to
be supported inside the fiber. Typical commercial multi-mode fibers support several
tens to hundreds of modes and are used for short distances.

Multi-mode fibers offer more efficient amplification than multi-core fibers, leading to
potentially lower amplification costs, revealing a path towards a large ROADM
integration based on wavelength selective switching of multi-mode signals, and with
a lower nonlinearity than single-mode fibers due to the larger effective area.

That is we should Increase the core size to enable the transmission of more than one
mode. Hence Information can be carried on both fundamental mode and higher order
modes.

Figure 2.45 Multi mode or Few Mode fibers

2.8.3 Hollow-core fibers:

As fundamental physical constraints, loss and non-linear tolerance hold the key to
increasing spectral efficiency, especially if they can be improved alongside multiple
modes and perhaps even a wider spectrum of wavelengths for transmission.

Hollow-core fibers have the potential to offer a solution. In these fibers, the signal
propagates in air, not glass. As well as offering a possible answer to capacity issues,
they also offer lower latency, which is increasingly important in many applications
like cloud computing. Latency is a critical factor in an increasing number of
applications, ranging from data center applications to economically critical financial
transactions. Hollow-core fiber offers a 30% lower inherent latency than common
silica glass and can reduce transmission times by several milliseconds, which
represents a true game changer for latency-critical applications

Whereas glass fibers guide the light using total internal reflection, hollow-core fibers
confine the light to the core using a cladding structure that acts as a grating. Offering
a potential loss of smaller than 0.1dB/km and a nonlinear coefficient 1,000 times
lower than a conventional single-mode fiber, hollow-core fibers promise huge
increases in spectral efficiency. However, hollow-core fiber deployments will not be
here for some time. For example, state-of-the-art hollow core fibers still have a loss
several times higher than standard single-mode fibers. One of the main challenges lies
in bringing this loss down.

2.9 TWISTING LIGHT SENDS DATA SPEED SOARING

photonics.com 2013 June Research and technology

LOS ANGELES and BOSTON, June 28, 2013:

The data capacity of single-mode optical fibers, while having increased by four orders
of magnitude over the last 30 years, is rapidly reaching the limits imposed by the
fiber's nonlinear effects. But a team of scientists has devised a new fiber optic
technology that promises to increase bandwidth dramatically, meeting today's ever-
increasing demand for data-intensive activities like cloud computing, video streaming
etc. As rapidly increasing demand for bandwidth strains the Internet's capacity, a team
of engineers has devised a new fiber optic technology that promises to increase
bandwidth dramatically. The new technology could enable Internet providers to offer
much greater connectivity from decreased network congestion to on- demand video
streaming.

New research by optical fiber experts at Boston University and optical

communications systems experts at the University of Southern California created a
new kind of optical fiber stable enough to transmit donut-shaped laser beams called
optical vortices, also known as orbital angular momentum (OAM) beams.(See figure
2.46) The technology centers on donut-shaped laser light beams called optical
vortices, in which the light twists like a tornado as it moves along the beam path,
rather than in a straight line. OAM beams are generating interest in optical
communications.

“For several decades since optical fibers were deployed, the conventional assumption
has been that OAM-carrying beams are inherently unstable in fibers,” said BU
engineering professor Siddharth Ramachandran, who designed the new fiber. “Our
discovery of design classes in which they are stable has profound implications for a
variety of scientific and technological fields that have exploited the unique properties
of OAM-carrying light, including the use of such beams for enhancing data capacity
in fibers.”

In new work published in Science 2013, Ramachandran, USC electrical engineering

professor Alan Willner and colleagues demonstrate not only the stability of the beams
in optical fiber, but also their potential to boost Internet bandwidth.

Data flow inside an optical fiber with an output in an orbital angular momentum (as
characterized by the twisted phase pattern of the output beam). These novel fibers
enable the use of orbital angular momentum as an additional degree of freedom for
data transmission, helping scale bandwidth.

Since the 1990s, bandwidth has been increased by sending multiple data streams
down the cable fiber optic line by making each stream a different wavelength, or
color, a process known as wavelength division multiplexing(WDM). An emerging
strategy to boost bandwidth today is to send the light through the fiber along
distinctive paths, or modes, each carrying a cache of data from one end of the fiber to
the other. Unlike the colors, however, data streams from different modes mix
together; determining which data stream came from which source requires
computationally intensive and energy-hungry digital signal-processing algorithms.

Scientists packed several colors into each mode and used multiple modes. Unlike in
conventional fibers, OAM modes in these specially designed fibers can carry data
streams across an optical fiber while remaining separate at the receiving end.

The OAM fiber had four modes (an optical fiber typically has two), and it's shown for
each OAM mode, they could transmit 400 Gb/s in just a single wavelength of light or
1.6 Tb/s across 10 wavelengths over the course of 0.68 miles (1.1 km). The
equivalent of transmitting eight Blu-Ray DVDs every second.

2.9.1 No crosstalk

The different orbital-angular-momentum states are orthogonal, which means that

there is no "crosstalk" between the beams. As a bonus, since quantum mechanics
allows you to know both the orbital and the spin angular momentum of a photon at
the same time, the researchers managed to perform both polarization multiplexing and
orbital-angular-momentum multiplexing on their beams of light. This doubled the
number of states available and allowed the transmission to reach terabit speeds.

Figure 2.46