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INTERNATIONAL
POLITICAL ECONOMY SERIES
SERIES EDITOR: TIMOTHY M. SHAW

A Political Economy of
Free Zones in Gulf Arab
States
Robert Mogielnicki
 International Political Economy Series

Series Editor
Timothy M. Shaw , University of Massachusetts Boston,
Boston, USA;
Emeritus Professor, University of London, London, UK
The global political economy is in flux as a series of cumulative crises
impacts its organization and governance. The IPE series has tracked its
development in both analysis and structure over the last three decades.
It has always had a concentration on the global South. Now the South
increasingly challenges the North as the centre of development, also
reflected in a growing number of submissions and publications on
indebted Eurozone economies in Southern Europe. An indispensable
resource for scholars and researchers, the series examines a variety of capi-
talisms and connections by focusing on emerging economies, companies
and sectors, debates and policies. It informs diverse policy communities as
the established trans-Atlantic North declines and ‘the rest’, especially the
BRICS, rise. NOW INDEXED ON SCOPUS!

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/13996
 Robert Mogielnicki

A Political Economy
of Free Zones in Gulf
Arab States
Robert Mogielnicki
Arab Gulf States Institute
Washington, DC, USA

ISSN 2662-2483 ISSN 2662-2491 (electronic)

International Political Economy Series
ISBN 978-3-030-71273-0 ISBN 978-3-030-71274-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71274-7

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.
in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for
general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and informa-
tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither
the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This monograph is dedicated to Joan Barry & Jack Mogielnicki
 Acknowledgments

Any multiyear intellectual undertaking involves many more people than

can be acknowledged appropriately at its eventual conclusion. What
follows is a brief and admittedly incomplete list of knowing and
unknowing supporters. Beyond serving as a wonderful academic super-
visor, Dr. Philip Robins was involved in this journey through the Gulf’s
free zone system from its beginning, when free zones proved a vexing
variable during my early graduate studies at the University of Oxford. I
have benefited enormously from his steady guidance. My partner, Grace,
offered wise advice garnered from her publishing experience as well as
consistent support. My family—Jack, Dave, and Dan—provided necessary
distractions from the research and writing process. Anne, Yousri, Kevin,
and others served as good friends along the way. Last-minute, holiday
editing from Mary at AGSIW helped to ensure the timely delivery of the
manuscript draft. The strongest elements of this work are a reflection of
these personal influences.

vii
 Contents

1 Mapping Free Zones in the Gulf: Trends

and Dislocations 1
Links in the Global Capital Accumulation Circuit 6
The Internationalization of Gulf Economies 8
Academic Foundations for Free Zones 11
Commercialized Rents: A Theoretical Contribution 12
Structure of the Monograph 16
References 18
2 Regulating Free Zones: A History of Ownership,
Labor, and Fees 23
Pearls, Hydrocarbons, and Non-Oil Industries 25
Foreign Ownership 28
Expatriate Labor 33
Customs Duties and Other Fees 37
References 42
3 The Dubai Model and UAE Free Zones 49
Early Emergence and Dominance of Dubai’s Free Zones 50
Tracing Free Zone Development in Abu Dhabi 58
The Northern Emirates 69
Sharjah 71
Ajman & Umm al Quwain 72
Ras al Khaimah 75

ix
x CONTENTS

Fujairah 77
References 81
4 Free Zones in Oman, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar,
and Kuwait 89
Omani Free Zones 90
Saudi Free Zones 99
Bahraini Free Zones 109
Qatari Free Zones 117
Kuwaiti Free Zones 121
References 125
5 Elite Embeddedness in Free Zone Development 133
Gulf Ruling Families and Free Zone Ownership 134
Elite Balancing: Mixing Business and Politics 146
Other Institutional Mechanisms of Elite Control 153
References 158
6 Free Zones as Spheres of Regional Contestation 165
Inter-Emirate Competition in the UAE 166
The Competitive Regionalization of Gulf Capital 175
Ramifications of the 2017 Rift with Qatar 181
Gateways for Iranian Influence in the Gulf? 184
References 189
7 A Commercial Nexus Between East and West 199
Buying Asian Partners in Bulk 200
Brand Recognition of American and European Firms 207
Border Zones: Iraq and Yemen 210
Other Regional Actors: Turkey, Egypt, & Israel 213
References 218
8 The Fraught Future of Free Zones in Gulf Arab States 227
Ongoing Free Zone Development 228
Economic Diversification & Reform Agendas 230
Rentierism Revisited 235
Moving Beyond the Gulf 238
References 239

List of Free Zones 243

Index 255
 About the Author

Dr. Robert Mogielnicki is a Resident Scholar at the Arab Gulf States

Institute in Washington. He previously worked as a human resource
development consultant and in journalism across the Middle East and
North Africa, and he holds a D.Phil from the University of Oxford. His
published work has appeared in Foreign Policy, The Banker, World Poli-
tics Review, Cairo Review of Global Affairs, and Axios. Dr. Mogielnicki
regularly provides commentary for international media outlets, including:
Bloomberg, Forbes, The Wall Street Journal, Financial Times, Reuters,
HuffPost, Nature, BBC World News TV , VOX , Voice of America, Wash-
ington Post, Los Angeles Times, AFP, Nikkei Asian Review, and S&P
Global.
Dr. Mogielnicki received his D.Phil from the University of Oxford’s
Magdalen College, where he conducted research in conjunction with the
Oriental Institute and Middle East Centre. Drawing on extensive field-
work in the United Arab Emirates, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, and Kuwait, his
doctoral dissertation examined the political economy of free zones in Gulf
Cooperation Council countries. He earned his M.A. in modern Middle
Eastern studies from St Antony’s College, University of Oxford, and
completed a master’s thesis on labor policy formulation and implementa-
tion in the emirates of Abu Dhabi and Dubai. He received his B.A. from
Georgetown University as a double major in Arabic and government,
graduating magna cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa.

xi
xii ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Mogielnicki specializes in the intersection of politics and economics

across Gulf Arab states. He is particularly interested in how these
geostrategic states engage in processes of economic transformation
through trade and investment policies, labor market interventions,
economic diversification, and technological innovation. He created and
leads a long-term research initiative, “Next Gen Gulf,” that explores
how the latest trends in technology are shaping the economies and
governments of Gulf Arab states.
He speaks Modern Standard Arabic and the Egyptian dialect and
possesses a working knowledge of the Tunisian dialect. He is a former
recipient of the Sultan Qaboos Arabic Language Scholarship (2007–
2011) and served as a Critical Language Scholar in Tunisia in 2011.
Dr. Mogielnicki has lived in the United Arab Emirates, Egypt, Tunisia,
Morocco, Turkey, Jerusalem, the United Kingdom, and a number of
European countries. He currently resides in Arlington, Virginia, with his
partner and an energetic golden retriever.
 Abbreviations

ABRFZ Ahmed Bin Rashid Free Zone

ADAFZ Abu Dhabi Airport Free Zone
ADGM Abu Dhabi Global Market
ADNOC Abu Dhabi National Oil Company
ADPC Abu Dhabi Ports Company
AFZ Ajman Free Zone
BIA Bahrain International Airport
BIIP Bahrain International Investment Park
BIW Bahrain Investment Wharf
BLZ Bahrain Logistics Zone
BRI Belt and Road Initiative
DAZ Dubai Auto City
DBRZ Dammam Bonded and Re-Export Zone
DHCC Dubai Healthcare City
DIAC Dubai International Academic City
DIC Dubai Internet City
DIFC Dubai International Financial Centre
DLD Dubai Land Department
DMC Dubai Media City
DMCC Dubai Multi Commodities Centre
DTMFZ Dubai Technology and Media Free Zone
DUBAL Dubai Aluminum
DWC Dubai World Central
EC Economic City
EDB Bahrain Economic Development Board
EGA Emirates Global Aluminium

xiii
xiv ABBREVIATIONS

EPZ Export Processing Zone

EZ Economic Zone
EZW Economic Zones World
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
FEWA Federal Electricity and Water Authority
FFZ Fujairah Free Zone
FTA Free Trade Agreement
FTZ Free Trade Zone
FZ Free Zone
GAFTA Greater Arab Free Trade Area
GCC Gulf Cooperation Council
HFZ Hamriyah Free Zone
IHC International Humanitarian City
IPIC International Petroleum Investment Company of Abu Dhabi
JAZFA Jebel Ali Free Zone Authority
JV Joint Venture
KBSP Khalifa Bin Salman Port
KFTZ Kuwait Free Trade Zone
KIZAD Khalifa Industrial Zone Abu Dhabi
KOM Knowledge Oasis Muscat
LNG Liquified Natural Gas
MACNA Maritime Company for Navigation
NREC National Real Estate Company
OBU Offshore Banking Units
OPAZ Public Authority for Special Economic Zones and Free Zones
PCFC Ports, Customs, and Free Zone Corporation
PEIE Public Establishment for Industrial Estates
QFC Qatar Financial Centre
QFZA Qatar Free Zone Authority
QIZ Qualifying Industrial Zone
QSTP Qatar Science and Technology Park
RAK Ras Al Khaimah
RAK FTZ Ras Al Khaimah Free Trade Zone
RAKIA Ras Al Khaimah Investment Authority
RST Rentier State Theory
SAGIA Saudi Arabian General Investment Authority
SAIF Zone Sharjah International Airport Free Zone
SCAD Statistics Centre Abu Dhabi
SDRS Saudi Development and Re-Export Services Company
SEZ Special Economic Zone
SEZAD Special Economic Zones Authority in Duqm
SFZ Salalah Free Zone
SIPC Sohar Industrial Port Company
 ABBREVIATIONS xv

SISCO Saudi Industrial Services Company

SOE State-Owned Enterprise
Tameer Al Khaleej Development Company
TANMIA Oman National Investments Development Company
TECOM Dubai Technology and Media Free Zone Authority
Texmas Textile Merchants Group
UAQ FTZ Umm Al Quwain Free Trade Zone
VAT Value-Added Tax
World FZO World Free Zones Organization
WTO World Trade Organization
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Table of employment figures in select free zones in Dubai

(2016) 36
Fig. 3.1 Snapshot of JAFZA’s economic contribution (2016) 53
Fig. 3.2 Graph of operating free zones in Dubai 54
Fig. 3.3 Graph of free zone creation in Abu Dhabi 59
Fig. 3.4 Graph of free zone development in the GCC & adjusted
oil prices 65
Fig. 3.5 Box and whisker plot of free zones in the northern emirates 70
Fig. 3.6 Graph of Ajman Free Zone firm registrations (2010–2015) 74
Fig. 3.7 Table of selected Ras Al Khaimah free zone Figs. (2016) 76
Fig. 3.8 Table of Fujairah’s overall free zone trade 77
Fig. 4.1 Table of Omanization requirements in Omani free zones
(2016) 96
Fig. 4.2 Table of the value of Saudi Arabia’s imported goods
and services 102
Fig. 5.1 Table of the global distribution of public and private free
zones 142
Fig. 5.2 Author’s own image of the traditional Gold Souq
and the Gold and Diamond Park in Dubai 154
Fig. 5.3 Diagram of organizational hierarchy of free zones in Dubai
(2016) 156
Fig. 6.1 Author’s own image of a deserted RAK Media Free Zone,
August 15, 2016 170
Fig. 7.1 Graph of Qatar Financial Center firms by geographical
origin 208

xvii
 List of Interviews

The author personally conducted all interviews and kept them strictly confi-
dential; however, professional affiliations and interview locations provide back-
ground and context for the interview subjects. General references to “staff
members” resulted from the evolution of a system that balances accessibility
against confidentiality.
Interview 1. Director of a defense consultancy. Dubai. July 14, 2014.
Interview 2. Former head of HR for a major UAE bank. Dubai. July 30, 2014.
Interview 3. HR consultant in oil and gas sector. Dubai. July 30, 2014.
Interview 4. Former advisor in Dubai’s Executive Office. Dubai. August 6, 2014.
Interview 5. Head of HR for a UAE financial authority. Dubai. August 7, 2014.
Interview 6. Vice chairman of major real estate company. Abu Dhabi. August 7,
2014.
Interview 7. Regional director of a graduate business school. Dubai. August 14,
2014.
Interview 8. Project manager from an economic think tank. Dubai. August 14,
2014.
Interview 9. Consultant specializing in Saudization for major HR consultancy.
Dubai. August 19, 2014.
Interview 10. Manager of major Dubai bank. Dubai. August 19, 2014.
Interview 11. Director of HR for a major UAE hotel group. Oxford. October 9,
2014.
Interview 12. Owner of a consultancy specializing in Emiratization. Oxford.
October 30, 2014.
Interview 13. A member of one of the Emirati royal families. Oxford. November
4, 2014.

xix
xx LIST OF INTERVIEWS

Interview 14. Singaporean diplomat specializing in GCC youth issues. Oxford.

November 25, 2014.
Interview 15. Vice president of HR for an oil and gas company in Abu Dhabi.
December 5, 2014.
Interview 16. Former UK Ambassador to the UAE. Oxford. December 12, 2014.
Interview 17. Owner of British consulting firm registered in Abu Dhabi’s Masdar
Free Zone. Dubai. March 24, 2016.
Interview 18. Senior member of marketing team from a major Dubai free zone.
Dubai. March 24, 2016.
Interview 19. Emirati manager at Jebel Ali Free Zone. Dubai. March 31, 2016.
Interview 20. Director of Dubai Silicon Oasis. Dubai. April 3, 2016.
Interview 21. Program head at Hamriyah Free Zone. Sharjah, UAE. April 12,
2016.
Interview 22. British owner of consulting firm registered in Abu Dhabi’s Masdar
Free Zone. Abu Dhabi. April 14, 2016.
Interview 23. Manager at Masdar Free Zone. Abu Dhabi. April 14, 2016.
Interview 24. Senior corporate manager of Fujairah Free Zone. Fujairah, UAE.
April 18, 2016.
Interview 25. Sales representative of Creative City. Fujairah, UAE. April 18,
2016.
Interview 26. Director at Bahrain Center for Strategic, International and Energy
Studies (Derasat). Awali, Bahrain. April 26, 2016.
Interview 27. Consultant for Bahrain International Investment Park. Hidd,
Bahrain. April 27, 2016.
Interview 28. Economic officer at the Economic Development Board. Manama,
Bahrain. April 27, 2016.
Interview 29. Partner at Dubai-based law firm. Dubai, UAE. May 11, 2016.
Interview 30. Managing director of an economic zones consultancy and secretary
general of a global EPZ association. Remote call from Dubai. May 11, 2016.
Interview 31. Manager at Gold and Diamond Park. Dubai, UAE. May 15, 2016.
Interview 32. Manager at Sohar Freezone office in Dubai. Dubai, UAE. May 19,
2016.
Interview 33. Managing director of an economic zones services company
sponsored by TECOM. Dubai, UAE. May 23, 2016.
Interview 34. Partner at UK training company based in Abu Dhabi but registered
to RAK Free Zone. Remote conversation fromDubai, UAE. May 28, 2016.
Interview 35. Former consultant at JAFZA and managing director of consultancy
focusing on special economic zones. Dubai, UAE. May 31, 2016.
Interview 36. Manager of Sohar Port and Freezone. Sohar, Oman. June 6, 2016.
Interview 37. Business editor at Omani daily newspaper. Muscat, Oman. June 7,
2016.
Interview 38. Public service department officer of Duqm Special Economic Zone.
Duqm, Oman. June 8, 2016. [Arabic]
 LIST OF INTERVIEWS xxi

Interview 39. Staff member at Salalah Free Zone. Salalah, Oman. June 9, 2016.
Interview 40. Senior industrial estate and free zone manager. Salalah, Oman.
June 9, 2016.
Interview 41. Staff member from Duqm Special Economic Zone. Muscat, Oman.
June 12, 2016.
Interview 42. Director from the Public Establishment for Industrial Estates.
Knowledge Oasis Muscat, Oman. June 12, 2016.
Interview 43. President of the National Association of Foreign-Trade Zones.
Washington, DC. June 17, 2016.
Interview 44. Analyst at International Trade Department, World Bank. Wash-
ington, DC. June 20, 2016.
Interview 45. Manager at USA Regional Trade Centre. Sharjah, UAE. July 21,
2016.
Interview 46. Manager at Economic Zones World. Remote conversation from
Dubai, UAE. July 23, 2016.
Interview 47. Consultant at Khalifa Industrial Zone Abu Dhabi (KIZAD). Abu
Dhabi, UAE. July 24, 2016.
Interview 48. Senior manager at Abu Dhabi Global Market. Abu Dhabi, UAE.
July 24, 2016.
Interview 49. Business journalist at Thomson Reuters. Abu Dhabi, UAE. July
24, 2016.
Interview 50. Manager at Dubai Design District. Dubai, UAE. July 25, 2016.
Interview 51. Manager at Dubai International Academic City. Dubai, UAE. July
25, 2016.
Interview 52. Senior corporate manager of Dubai Healthcare City combined with
remote interview question responses. Dubai, UAE. July 26, 2016.
Interview 53. Manager of Bahrain International Investment Park. Remote conver-
sation in Dubai, UAE. July 26, 2016.
Interview 54. Senior Corporate Manager of World Free Zones Organization.
Dubai, UAE. August 1, 2016.
Interview 55. A director from Hamriyah Free Zone. Sharjah, UAE. August 11,
2016. [Arabic]
Interview 56. Staff member at Ajman Free Zone. Ajman, UAE. August 11, 2016.
Interview 57. Staff member at Sharjah International Airport Free Zone. Sharjah,
UAE. August 11, 2016.
Interview 58. Manager at Ras Al Khaimah Investment Authority (RAKIA). Ras
Al Khaimah, UAE. August 14, 2016.
Interview 59. Source closely associated with RAK Maritime City. Remote
conversation in Dubai, UAE. August 16, 2016.
Interview 60. Senior manager at Dubai Auto Zone. Ras Al Khor, Dubai, UAE.
August 18, 2016.
Interview 61. Staff member at Manateq. Doha, Qatar. August 21, 2016
xxii LIST OF INTERVIEWS

Interview 62. Manager at Qatar Science and Technology Park. Doha, Qatar.
August 21, 2016
Interview 63. Director at Qatar Financial Centre. Doha, Qatar. August 21, 2016
Interview 64. Manager at Um Alhoul Special Economic Zone. Um Alhoul Site,
Doha, Qatar. August 22, 2016.
Interview 65. Business editor at The Peninsula newspaper. Doha, Qatar. August
22, 2016.
Interview 66. Director at Bahrain Investment Wharf. Hidd, Bahrain. August 23,
2016.
Interview 67. Senior corporate manager at Bahrain Logistics Zone. Hidd,
Bahrain. August 23, 2016.
Interview 68. Business editor at Gulf Daily News. Manama, Bahrain. August 24,
2016.
Interview 69. Staff at Bahrain Business Incubator Centre. Hidd, Bahrain. August
23, 2016.
Interview 70. Senior free trade zone official, Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
Kuwait City, Kuwait. August 25, 2016. [Arabic]
Interview 71. Head of major Kuwaiti newspaper. Kuwait City, Kuwait. August
25, 2016.
Interview 72. Economic specialist, U.S. Embassy Kuwait. Remote conversation
from Jerusalem. September 6, 2016.
Interview 73. Commercial service officer, U.S. Embassy in Doha, Qatar. Remote
conversation from Jerusalem. September 21, 2016.
Interview 74. Head of business and trade Council on Saudi Arabia. Remote
conversation from Oxford. November 21, 2016.
Interview 75. Former U.S. Ambassador to Bahrain. Washington, D.C. January
17, 2018.
Interview 76. Senior U.S. trade official responsible for the Middle East and North
Africa. Washington, D.C. January 29, 2018.
Interview 77. Dubai-based sanctions investigator for financial crime compliance
department of a European bank. Remote conversation from Washington, D.C.
February 15, 2018.
 CHAPTER 1

Mapping Free Zones in the Gulf: Trends

and Dislocations

As the first book-length empirical study of free zones in Gulf Coop-

eration Council (GCC) countries, this volume systematically illustrates
the development processes behind free zones in Gulf Arab states and
assesses the impact of these commercial entities on regional integration,
global trade and investment trends, and the foreign relations of Gulf
countries. The work maps how economic strategies involving free zones
evolve alongside varying levels of resource availability and state capacity
on a local level. In the process, the work reveals how development paths
are impacted by regional and global accumulation circuits and the ensuing
linkages to Gulf Arab states. Free zones reflect the past: These trade
and investment hubs are products of long-run historical processes and
shaped by both economic and political institutions. At the same time,
free zones offer a glimpse into the future, insomuch as these commer-
cial entities facilitate the accumulation of global capital. Yet free zone
development is an under-examined topic in the broader literature on
the Gulf. The empirical findings and theoretical implications of the work
therefore provide an original contribution to prevailing political economy
discussions concerning the Gulf region.
The dearth of political economy scholarship on Gulf free zones
contrasts with the substantial degree of political and economic capital
invested in these initiatives. Governments in resource-scarce GCC poli-
ties have long promoted free zones as essential components of economic

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2021
R. Mogielnicki, A Political Economy of Free Zones in Gulf Arab States,
International Political Economy Series,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71274-7_1
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
and that is the only absolute.”
Newton, whose spatio-temporal premises Henri Poincaré
vigorously refused to admit, and classical science take up an
attitude, on the contrary, which Newton himself well described when
he wrote: “I am but a child playing on the shore, rejoicing that I find
at times a well-polished pebble or an unusually fine shell, while the
great ocean of truth lies unexplored before me.” Newton says that
the ocean is unexplored, but he says that it exists; and from the
features of the shells he found he deduced certain qualities of the
ocean, especially those properties which he calls absolute time and
space.
Einsteinians and Newtonians are agreed in thinking that the
external world is not in our time entirely amenable to scientific
research. But their agnosticism differs in its limits. The Newtonians
believe that, however external to us the world may be, it is not to
such an extent as to make “real time and space inaccessible to us.”
The Einsteinians hold a different opinion. What separates them is
only a question of degree of scepticism. The whole controversy is
reduced to a frontier quarrel between two agnosticisms.
 CHAPTER IX
EINSTEIN OR NEWTON?
Recent discussion of Relativism at the Academy of Sciences
—Traces of the privileged space of Newton—The principle
of causality the basis of science—Examination of M.
Painlevé’s objections—Newtonian arguments and
Relativist replies—M. Painlevé’s formulæ of gravitation—
Fecundity of Einstein’s theory—Two conceptions of the
world—Conclusion.

What are these “special signs” by which the Newtonian

conception of nature recognises that we are in touch with the
privileged space which Newton called absolute space, and which
seemed to him the real, intrinsic, exclusive frame of phenomena?
These signs or criteria are implicitly at the root of the
development of classic science, but they for a time remained in the
shades of the discussions provoked by Einstein’s theory. Leaving
aside for a moment other, and perhaps less noble, cares, M. Paul
Painlevé, addressing the Academy of Sciences at Paris, has with
brilliant success drawn attention to the arguments, ancient yet ever
robust, which constitute the strength of the Newtonian conception of
the world.
Let us from this point speak of the absolute time and space of
Newton and of Galileo as privileged space and privileged time, in
order not to expose our flanks further to the metaphysical objections
—not without justification—which the qualification “absolute”
provokes.
Why is classical science, the mechanics of Galileo and Newton,
founded upon privileged space and privileged time? Why do they
refer all phenomena to these unique standards, and consider them
adequate to reality? It is on account of the principle of causality.
The principle may be formulated thus: Identical causes produce
identical effects. That means that the initial conditions of a
phenomenon determine its ulterior modalities. It is briefly a statement
of the determinism of phenomena, and without that science is
impossible.
It is, of course, possible to be captious on the point. Conditions
entirely identical with given initial conditions can never be
reproduced or discovered at a different time or in a different place.
There is always some circumstance that will be different; for
instance, the fact that in the interval between the two experiments
the Nebula in Andromeda will have come several thousand miles
nearer to us. And we have no influence on the Nebula in
Andromeda.
Happily—this saves the situation—distant bodies have, it seems,
only a negligible influence on our experiments. That is why we can
repeat them. For instance, if we to-day put a gramme of sulphuric
acid in ten grammes of soda-solution (one-tenth), they will in the
same period of time produce the same quantity of sulphate of
sodium that they would have done a year previously in the same
conditions of temperature and pressure; in spite of the fact that
meantime Marshal Foch sailed for the United States.
Thus the principle of causality (like causes, like effects) is always
verified, and never found at fault. It is therefore an empirical truth,
but in addition to this it imposes itself on our mind with irresistible
force. It even imposes itself upon animals. “The scalded cat avoids
hot water,” is proof enough. In any case, not science only but the
whole life of man and animals is based upon it.
It is a consequence of the principle that if the initial conditions of
a movement present a symmetry, this will appear again in the
movement. M. Paul Painlevé insisted strongly on this in the course of
the recent discussion of Relativism at the Academy of Sciences. The
principle of inertia in particular follows from this statement: a body
left to itself far from any material mass will, by reason of symmetry,
remain at rest or travel in a straight line.
It will certainly follow a straight line for a given observer (or for
observers moving with uniform velocities relatively to the first). The
Newtonians say that the space of these observers is privileged.
On the other hand, for another observer who is, relatively to
them, moving at an accelerated velocity, the path of the moving body
will be a parabola, and will no longer be symmetrical. Therefore the
space of this new observer is not privileged space.
It seems to me that the Relativists might reply to this as follows.
You have no right to define the initial conditions for a given observer,
then the subsequent movement for another observer who is moving
with accelerated velocity. If you thus define your initial conditions
relatively to the latter, the moving body at the moment when it is
released is not free for this observer, but falls in a gravitational field.
It is therefore not surprising that the motion produced seems to him
accelerated and dissymmetrical. The principle of causality is not
wrong for either observer.
One might also give a different definition of the privileged system,
saying: it is that relatively to which light travels in a straight line in an
isotropic medium. But in that case the rays from the stars travel in a
spiral for an observer fixed on a turning earth, and the Newtonians
would infer from this that the earth turns relatively to their privileged
space. Einsteinians will reply that the space in which the rays travel
is not isotropic, and that they are diverted from the straight line in it
by the turning gravitational field which causes the centrifugal force of
the earth’s rotation. They will always find an escape which will leave
the principle of causality intact.
It seems difficult, therefore, to give unanswerable proof of the
existence of the privileged system when we start from the principle of
causality. Each party retains its position.

On the other hand, there is evidential value, a keen and

convincing penetration, in the second part of the criticism which M.
Painlevé directs against the principles of Einstein’s theory.
Let us sum up the argument of the distinguished geometrician.
You, he says to the Einsteinians, deny all privilege to any system of
reference whatever. But when you want to deduce, by calculation,
the law of gravity from your general equations, you cannot do it, and
you really do not do it, except by introducing scarcely disguised
Newtonian hypotheses and privileged axes of reference. You only
reach the result of your calculation by sharply separating time and
space as Newton does, and by referring your gravitating moving
objects to purely Newtonian privileged axes, in the case of which
certain conditions of symmetry are realised.
To this fine and profound criticism which M. Painlevé raises may
be added that of Wiechert, who has pointed out various other
hypotheses introduced by Einstein in the course of his calculations.
In a word, Einstein seems not to have kept entirely clear of the
Newtonian premises which he repudiates. He has not the disdain for
them that one would suppose, and he does not hesitate to have
recourse to them occasionally for the purpose of helping out his
calculations. That is rather to pay a little reverence to the idols you
have burned.
In reply the Einsteinians will doubtless say that, if they introduce
Newtonian axes in the course of their arguments, it is to make the
results of calculation comparable to the result of experimental
measurements. The axes introduced into their equations have for the
Relativists the sole privilege of being those to which experimenters
refer their measurements. But we must admit that that is no small
privilege.

That is not all. The principle of General Relativity amounts to this:

All systems of reference are equivalent for expressing natural laws,
and these laws are invariant to any system of reference to which
they are related. That means in effect: There are relations between
objects of the material world which are independent of the one who
observes them, and particularly of his velocity. Thus, when a triangle
is drawn on paper, there is something in the triangle which
characterises it and which is identical, whether the observer passes
very quickly or very slowly, or at any speed and in any direction
whatever, beside the paper.
M. Painlevé observes, with some reason, that in this form the
principle is a sort of truism. It is a severe verdict, yet it expresses a
certain fact. The real relations of external objects cannot be altered
by the standpoint of the observer.
Einstein replies that it is at all events something to have provided
a sieve by which we may sift the laws and formulæ which serve to
represent the phenomena that have been empirically observed: a
criterion which they must pass before they are recognised as correct.
This is true. Newton’s law, in its classic form, did not meet this
criterion. This proves that it was not quite so obvious. A truth that
was unknown yesterday has become to-day a truism. So much the
better.
In expressing one of the conditions which must be satisfied by
natural laws the theory of Relativity at least has what is called in
philosophical jargon a “heuristic” value. But it is none the less true,
as M. Painlevé points out with great force and clearness, that the
principle of General Relativity, considered in this light, would be
unable to provide precise laws. It would be quite consistent with a
law of gravity in which the attraction would be in inverse proportion,
not to the square, but to the seventeenth or hundredth power, or any
power whatever, of the distance.
In order to extract the correct law of gravitation from the principle
of General Relativity we have to add to it the Einsteinian
interpretation of the result of the Michelson experiment—to wit, that
relatively to any observer whatsoever light travels locally with the
same velocity in every direction. We have also to add various
hypotheses which M. Painlevé regards as Newtonian.
To the critical discussion of Relativity which he so brilliantly
presented at the Academy of Sciences M. Paul Painlevé added a
valuable mathematical contribution of which the chief result is the
following: It is possible to excogitate other laws of gravitation than
that offered by Einstein, and all of them will fulfil the Einsteinian
conditions.
The learned French geometrician indicated several of these,
especially one of which the formula differs considerably from that of
Einstein, yet equally and precisely explains the motions of the
planets, the displacement of the perihelion of Mercury, and the
deviation of rays of light near the sun.
This new formula corresponds to a space that is independent of
time, and it does not involve the consequence that Einstein’s formula
does in regard to the shifting toward the red of all the lines in the
solar spectrum. The verification or non-verification of this
consequence of Einstein’s equation, of which we pointed out the
difficulties (perhaps insurmountable) in a previous chapter, thus
acquires a new importance.
It is a remarkable thing that many of the formulæ of gravitation
given by M. Painlevé lead to the conclusion, differently from that of
Einstein, that space remains Euclidean even near the sun, in the
sense that measures are not necessarily contracted.
All this light on the astronomical horizon seems like the dawn of a
new era in which observations of unprecedented delicacy will
provide tests that are calculated to give a more precise and less
ambiguous form to the law of gravitation. There are great days—or,
rather, great nights—in store for the astronomer.

As far as the principles are concerned, the controversy will go on.

It must end in something like the following dialogue:
The Newtonian: Do you admit that at a point in the universe that
is far away from all material masses a moving object left to itself
must follow a straight line? If so, you recognise the existence of
privileged observers—those for whom the line is straight. For
another observer the line is a parabola. Therefore his point of view is
wrong.
 The Relativist: Yes, I grant it; but in point of fact there is no point
in the universe where there is no influence of distant material
masses. Therefore your moving object left to itself is a mere fiction,
and I am not going to base science upon an unverifiable piece of
imagination. The whole aim of the Relativist is to rid science of
everything that has no experimental significance. As to the observer
who sees the moving object in question describe a parabola, he will
interpret his observation to mean that the object is in a gravitational
field.
The Newtonian: You are therefore compelled to admit that far
away from all matter, far from all heavenly bodies, there can be what
you call a gravitational field, that it varies according to the velocity of
the observer, and that it can be very intense in spite of the distance
of the heavenly bodies, and even, at times, increase with that
distance. These are strange and absurd hypotheses.
The Relativist: They are strange, but I defy you to prove that they
are absurd. They are less absurd than to localise and set in motion a
point that is isolated and independent of any material mass.
The Newtonian: For my part, I can easily imagine a single
material point in the universe having a certain position and a certain
velocity in it.
The Relativist: For my part, on the contrary, if such a material
point existed, it would be absurd and impossible to speak of its
position and its motion. It would have neither position nor motion nor
rest. Such things can exist only with reference to other material
points.
The Newtonian: That is not my opinion.
The Impartial Spectator: In order to know which of you is right we
should need to try an experiment on a material point that is
withdrawn from the influence of the rest of the universe. Can you try
this experiment?
The Newtonian and the Relativist (together): No, unhappily.
The Metaphysician (coming up like the third thief in the fable):
Then, gentlemen, I advise you to return to your telescopes, your
laboratories, and your tables of logarithms. The rest is my affair.
The Newtonian and the Relativist (together): In that case we are
quite sure we shall never learn anything further about it than we
know or believe now.

Meantime, it is impossible to exaggerate the importance of the

new light thrown on the question of Relativity by the intervention of
M. Paul Painlevé at the Academy of Sciences. It will have a lasting
and prodigious echo.
Will Einstein’s fine synthesis be defeated? Shall we see it sink in
the controversies, doubts, and obscurities of which we have given a
short account? I think not.
When Christopher Columbus discovered America, it was all very
well to tell him that his premises were wrong, and that if he had not
believed that he was sailing for the Indies he would never have
reached a new continent. He might have replied, after the style of
Galileo: “I discovered it, for all that.” The method that gives good
results is always a good method.
When we have to plunge into the depths of the unknown to
discover something new, when we have to learn more and better, the
end justifies the means. When he reminds us of optics, mechanics,
and gravitation, now bound up together in a new sheaf, of the
deviation of light by gravity which he foretold against all expectation,
of the anomalies of Mercury which he was the first to explain, and of
his improvement of the Newtonian law, Einstein has the right to say,
with some pride: “There is what I have done.”
It is said that the paths by which he attained all these fine results
are not devoid of unpleasant false turns and quagmires. Well, there
are many ways to Rome and to truth, and some of them are not
perfect. The main thing is to get there. And in this case the truth
means ancient facts brought into a new harmony, and new facts set
forth in prophetic equations and verified in the most surprising
manner.
 If discussion of principles—if theory, which is only the servant of
knowledge—shrugs its servile and disloyal shoulders a little over
Einstein’s work, at all events experience, the sole source of truth,
has justified him. Brilliant formulæ that Einstein had not foreseen are
now discovered to explain the anomaly of Mercury and the deviation
of light. It is good: but we must not forget that the first of these
correct formulæ, that of Einstein, went boldly in advance of the
verification.
New trenches have been won in the war against the eternal
enemy, the unknown. Certainly we have now to organise them and
create more direct roads to them. But to-morrow we shall have to
advance again, to gain more ground. We shall have, by any
theoretical device that we can, to state other new facts, unknown but
verifiable facts. That is what Einstein did.
If it is a weakness of Einstein’s teaching to deny all objectivity, all
privilege, to any system of reference whatever, while utilising such a
system for the necessities of calculation, it was at all events a
weakness shared by the great Poincaré. To the day of his death he
rebelled energetically against the Newtonian conception. The
support of such a genius, whom one finds involved in all our modern
discoveries, is enough to secure some respect for the Relativist
theory.
If we have on the one side Newton and his ardent and persuasive
apologist, equipped with a fine mathematical genius, Paul Painlevé,
we have on the other side Einstein and Henri Poincaré. Even in
earlier history we have Aristotle against Epicurus, Copernicus
against the Scholastics, at the same barricade. It is an eternal war of
ideas, and it may be endless if, as Poincaré believed, the Principle of
Relativity is at the bottom only a convention with which experience
cannot quarrel because, when we apply it to the entire universe, it is
incapable of verification.
It is the fertility of the Einsteinian system which proves that it is
strong and sound. Are the new beings with which it has peopled
science—the discoveries predicted by it—legitimate children? The
Newtonians say that they are not. But in properly ordered science,
as in an ideal State, it is the children that matter, not their legitimacy.
At all events the vigorous counter-offensive of M. Painlevé has
driven back to their lines the over-zealous apostles of the new
gospel, who thought that they had pulverised classic science beyond
hope of recovery. Each side now remains in its positions. There is no
longer any question of regarding the Newtonian conception of the
world as a piece of childlike barbarism. A different conception is now
opposed to it—that is all. The war between them is as yet undecided,
and may remain for ever undecided, as the weapons with which it
might be possible to bring it to an issue are sealed up for ever in the
arsenal of metaphysics.

Whatever may happen, Einstein’s teaching has a power of

synthesis and prediction which will inevitably incorporate its majestic
system of equations in the science of the future.
M. Émile Picard, perpetual secretary of the Academy of
Sciences, and one of the luminous and profound thinkers of our time,
has asked if it is an advance “to try, as Einstein has done, to reduce
physics to geometry.” Without lingering over this question, which
may be insoluble, like all speculative questions, we will conclude with
the distinguished mathematician that the only things which matter
are the agreement of the final formulæ with the facts and the analytic
mould in which the theory casts the phenomena.
Considered from this angle, Einstein’s theory has the solidity of
bronze. Its correctness consists in its explanatory force and in the
experimental discoveries predicted by it and at once verified.
What changes in theories are the pictures we form of the objects
between which science discovers and establishes relations.
Sometimes we alter these pictures, but the relations remain true, if
they are based upon observed facts. Thanks to this common fund of
truth, even the most ephemeral theories do not wholly die. They
pass on to each other, like the ancient runners with their torch, the
one accessible reality: the laws that express the relations of things.
 To-day it happens that two theories together clasp the sacred
torch. The Einsteinian and the Newtonian vision of the world are two
faithful reflections of it: just as the two images, polarised in opposite
directions, which Iceland spar shows us in its strange crystal both
share the light of the same object.
Tragically isolated, imprisoned in his own “self,” man has made a
desperate effort to “leap beyond his shadow,” to embrace the
external world. From this effort was born science, and its marvellous
antennæ subtly prolong our sensations. Thus we have in places
approached the brilliant raiment of reality. But in comparison with the
mystery that remains the things we know are as small as are the
stars of heaven compared with the abyss in which they float.
Einstein has discovered new light for us in the depths of the
unknown. He is, and will remain, one of the light-houses of human
thought.
Printed in Great Britain by
Hazell, Watson & Viney, Ld.,
London and Aylesbury.

Footnotes:
[1] Albert Einstein, born in 1879, is a German Jew of Würtemberg.
He studied in Switzerland, and was an engineer there until 1909,
when he became professor at Zurich University. In 1911 he
passed to Prague University, in 1912 to the Zurich Polytechnic,
and in 1914 to the Prussian Academy of Science. He refused to
give his name to the manifesto in which ninety-three professors of
Germany and Austria defended Germany’s war-action.—Trans.
[2] Physics, bk. iv, ch. xiv.
[3] De Natura Rerum, bk. i, vv. 460 ff.
[4] It is assumed that the ship is not rolling or pitching, and that
there is no vibration in the train.
[5] The best definition of the second that can be given is the
following: it is the time which light takes to cover 186,000 miles in
empty space and far from any strong gravitational field. This
definition, the only strict definition, is further justified by the fact
that there is no better means of regulating clocks than luminous
or Hertzian (which have the same speed) signals.
[6] In the geometrical calculus or representation that may be
substituted for this the hypotenuse of the triangle is the distance
in time, each second being represented by 300,000 kilometres.
[7] As an example of an identical force acting during periods of
time successively equal to 1, 2, or 3, we may take three guns of
the same calibre, but of lengths equal to 1, 2, and 3, and of which
the charges, or rather, their propulsive forces, are identical and
constant. It is found that the initial velocities of the shells are, in
relation to each other, 1, 2, and 3.
[8] De Natura Rerum, bk. ii, vv. 235-40.
[9] It is obvious that we assume the projectile to be without
rotation: that is to say, the Columbia cannon must not, in our
hypotheses, be rifled. This is indispensable, for if the projectile
turned, there would be centrifugal effects which would greatly
complicate both the phenomena and our argument.
[10] It goes without saying that in all this we assume that the
luminous ray travels in a homogeneous medium.
[11] We are, of course, imagining the earth as perfectly circular,
without irregularities.
[12] It goes without saying that we assume the observer to have a
retina with instantaneous impressions.
 Transcriber’s Notes:

The cover image was created by the transcriber, and is in the public domain.
Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.
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