Chapter 1: Introduction to computing Concepts

1.1 Introduction

This chapter introduces students to the basics of computer systems. Our focus will be much
on the hardware components and we will also do some bit of elaboration on the varieties of
software. Different types of computer system will be discussed. We will also discuss the
computer storage devices and the different parts of the computer systems.

1.2 What is a computer

A computer is an electronic device capable of interpreting and executing programmed

commands. Many definitions though, exist. (Students are advised to find more from the
library/internet).

A computer however, has four main functions:

 Input – Accepts data
 Processing – Process data
 Output – Produces output
 Storage – Stores data

1.3 Computer concepts

1.3.1 Hardware

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Hardware refers to the physical parts of the computer system. Computer hardware is flexible
and versatile. It includes the following –input and output, processing and storage devices. The
hardware devices include the following: central processing unit (CPU). Microchips, keyboards,
monitors etc.

1.3.1.1 Computer peripherals

Peripheral devices are used to get data into and out of the computer. The peripheral devices
are attached to and controlled by the CPU. They can be classified into input units and output
units.

 Input units
Input units perform a translation function. They translate data from the symbols of our
language (numbers, letters, etc.) to the symbols (electronic impulses) used inside the
machines. Here are some of the common input devices.

 Keyboard – is the primary input and control device, used to enter data and issue
commands. There are two basic types of keyboards – alphanumeric keyboard and
special function (designed for specific applications)
 Point and draw devices – some applications rely exclusively on graphic user interface
(GUI) or require the user to point and draw. Hence the use of a keyboard on such
application becomes cumbersome. Examples of point and draw devices:

 Mouse – a must to have item on any PC and workstation, when the mouse is moved
across a desktop, the mouse cursor on the display moves accordingly.
 Trackball – a ball inset in a small external box or adjacent to and in the same unit as
the keyboard
 Trackpad – it has no moving parts, one simply moves his finger about a small touch-
sensitive pad to move the mouse cursor

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  Joystick – used mostly in computer games. Is a vertical stick that moves the cursor in
the direction the stick is pushed
 (find more point and draw devices)

 Scanner – an electronic device that converts data on a document into electronic

signals and send them to the processor. In other words scanners allow you to transfer
pictures and photo graphs to your computer. It scans the image from the top to the
bottom, one line at a time and transfers it to the computer as a series of bits or a
bitmap.

Types of scanners:

 OCR (optical character recognition) and Bar code

The OCR and Bar code scanner can read text information into a computer system as
well as the bar codes. They include contact and laser scanners, which read information
on labels and various types of documents. Contact scanners makes contact as they
brushed over the printed matter to be read while laser scanners are more versatile
and read data passed near the scanning area. The OCR and bar code scanners are
classified into three categories

 Handheld label scanner (also called wand scanner) – uses either

contact or laser technology

 Stationary label scanner – which rely exclusively on laser technology

 Document scanner – which is capable of scanning documents of

various sizes.

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  Image scanners and processing
An image scanner uses laser technology to scan and digitize an image, once an image
has been digitized, it can be retrieved, displayed, modified etc. there are two types of
image scanners.
 Page image scanner, which works like a desktop duplicating machines
i.e. the image to be scanned is placed face down on the scanning
surface, covered, then scanned. It gives high resolution digitized
image.
 Handheld image scanner, which is rolled manually over the image to
be scanned, and it is appropriate for capturing small images or
portions of large images.
(Some input devices are been left out for students to find them out)
 Output units

Output devices perform the translation process which is the reverse process of the input
functions. They translate bits and bytes into a form we can understand.

Examples of output devices:

 Monitor – the most familiar output device is the monitor, which displays information
on the screen as you type. Monitors come in all shapes and sizes to meet a variety of
application needs. The monitors are described by their capabilities: viz.

- Graphic adapter, which is the device controller for the monitor, it basically provides
electronic link between the processor and the monitor. They can be inserted into an
expansion slot on the motherboard. Most recent graphic adapters have their own
RAM called Video RAM (VRAM). The size of VRAM is important in that it determines
the number of possible colours and resolution of the display, as well as the speed at

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 which signals can be sent to the monitor. A minimum of VRAM of 8Mb is
recommended.

- Monitor size – screen sizes vary, normally from 5 to 30 inches.

- Monitor resolution – this refers to the quality of output. Resolution depends on the
number of pixels that can be displayed, the number of bits used to represent each
pixel, and the dot pitch of the monitor. A pixel is an addressable point of the screen,
a point to which light can be directed under program control.
- Display quality/ refresh rate – monitors with faster refresh rate have fewer flickers
and are easier on the eyes. The monitor’s refresh rate also affects the quality of
display. The phosphor coating on a monitor’s CRT (cathode-ray-tube) must be
repainted or refreshed 50 to 100 times each second (Hz) to maintain the clarity of the
image.

 Printers
Printers produce hardcopy output. That is, it takes the information on your computer
and transfers it to paper or hard copy.
Examples of printers:
- Page printers, uses laser, LED (light-emitting-diode) LCS (liquid crystal shutter) and
other laser like technologies to reach high-speed hardcopy output by printing a page
at a time. They are also referred to as laser printers.

- Inkjet-jet printers, like laser printers they are non-impact printers, capable of
producing graphic output. Although the output quality of inkjet printers is more in line
with page printers, their mechanical operation is similar to that of the dot matrix
printers, because they have a print head that moves back and forth across the paper
to write text and create the image.

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 - Dot-matrix printer, this printer forms images one character at a time as the print head
moves across the paper. It is an impact printer, that is, it uses tiny pins (from 9 to 24)
to hit an ink ribbon and the paper. The dot matrix arranges printed dots to form
characters and all kinds of images

(Find out more information also on these output devices)

 Multimedia projectors
 Sound systems (speakers)
 Voice-response system

1.3.2 Software

Software is defined as set of instructions (called programs) that are used to direct the
functions of a computer system. It is also referred to as any program that tells the computer
system what to do. Software is divided into two categories:

 System software, which takes control of the PC on start-up and then play a central role in
everything that, happens within a computer system by managing, and controlling
computer resources. Here are some of the examples of system software.

 Operating system (OS)

It is software that controls the execution of all applications and system software
programs. All hardware and software are under the control of the operating system.
Among other things, the operating system
 Determines how valuable RAM is allotted to programs
 Perform tasks related to file management
 Set priorities for handling tasks
 Manages the flow of instructions, data, and information to and from the
processor.

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  Graphic user Interface (GUI)
Like OS, GUI is also at the heart of the software action. It provides a user-friendly
interface to the operating system, which enables users to interact with windows
environment using point and draw devices.

 Application software
Application software is designed and created to perform specific personal, business, or
scientific processing task.

Examples include:

Word processor – creates documents and letters, e.g. Ms Word

Spreadsheet – Uses tables of numbers and text, e.g. Ms Excel
Presentation software – Used to do presentation, e.g. Powerpoint
Communication software – Used to communicate with friends, e.g Ms Outlook.
Databases – Used to store and organize information, e.g. Ms Access
Graphics – used to draw pictures, e.g Computer aided design (CAD)

(And many others)

1.4 Different kinds of computers

Computer systems are divided into four major categories

 Super computers – they are mainly used for jobs that require or take massive amounts of
calculations e.g., weather forecast, engineering design, testing etc. They are measured in
Flops. They primarily address processor-bound applications, which require little in the way
of input and output. In processor bound applications, the amount of work that can be
done by the computer system is limited primarily by the speed of the computer. They are
known as much for their applications as they are for speed or computing capacity, which
may be 100 times than that of a typical corporate server computer.

 Mainframe computers – these are computers that are capable of processing an enormous
amount of data at a very high speed. Large mainframe computers can process more than
100millions instructions per second (MIPS) and have a memory capacity of milliards of
characters (gigabytes). Mainframes are normally centralized and offer service to all other
computers on the network (client computers). They are measured in MIPS.

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 Workstations – the workstation looks like a PC, but they are distinguished by speed.
Workstation has a high speed and is faster than PC. They are measured in Hz

 PC – it is a small computer designed for use by an individual. It is measured in Hz. The PC,
like other computers is very versatile and can be used for everything from communication
to controlling households’ appliances. Some PCs are small and portable (find more about
these PCs)

Server computer – the server computer serves other computers. It runs a network of
computers; it also handles the sharing of resources, like printers and the communication
between computers on the network. A server computer can be any computer which has:

 More computer power

 Larger memory
 Larger storage capabilities
 High speed communication

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1.5 The PC system unit

The processor, RAM, and a variety of other electronic components are housed in the system
unit. The motherboard is a single circuit board that provides the path through which the
processor communicates with memory components and peripheral devices. The processor is
normally referred to as the PC’s brain and the motherboard as the Pc’s central nervous system.

The following are attached to the motherboard figure1.1 in a PC:

 Processor
 Electronic circuitry
 Memory chips e.g., RAM and other types of memory
 Expansion boards

 Processor
The processor runs the show and is the nucleus of any computer system. It is also called CPU
and it has two fundamental sections:

The control unit and the arithmetic logic unit, these units work together with RAM and other
internal memories.
 The control unit
The control unit is the command centre of the processor. It has three primary
functions:
- to read and interpret program instructions
- to direct the operation of internal processor components
- to control the flow of programs and data, in and out of the RAM

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The processor contains high-speed working storage areas, called registers that handle
instructions and data at a very high speed and are used for a variety of processing functions.
Examples of registers include the following:
 Instruction register, which contains the instructions being executed.
 Program register, which contains the location in RAM for the next instruction to
be executed.
 Accumulator, which contains the results of computations.
(Other registers exist, find them)

 The Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)

The ALU performs all computation and all logic operations. The intermediate
results are stored in the accumulator.

 RAM
It is the memory that the computer uses to temporarily store the information as is
being processed. RAM enables data to be both read and written to solid-state
memory. In other words it provides the processor with temporary storage. And it is
also a high speed holding area for data and programs. Every time a program or a file
loaded or opened, it is placed in the RAM.

The CPU request the data it needs from RAM, processes it and writes new data back
to RAM in a continuous cycle. It is a volatile memory, i.e., when the electrical current
is switched off or interrupted, the data are lost.
(Other high speed memories/ memory elements do exist, like cache memory, find
them.)

 Buses
The motherboard includes several empty expansion slots figure 1.2 that provides
direct connection to the common electrical bus. A bus consists of channels or paths
for transferring data within the processor in the form of electronic signals (0s and1s).

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 The following are the types of buses, find more description about them:
- ISA bus – industry standard architecture
- PCI bus – Peripheral component interchange
- SCSI bus – small computer system interface
- USB – universal serial bus
- Etc.
 Ports
In a PC, external peripheral devices usually come with a cable and a multi-pin
connector, to link a device to a PC; you plug its connector into a port. Ports serve as
an interface between the CPU and its peripheral devices. It can be considered as
locations through which data can enter or leave the machine. External peripheral
devices and other computers can be linked to the processor via cables or a wireless
connector. In short a port enables the connection of external devices to the PC.

The motherboard has several port options including:

- Serial port – allows the serial transmission of data, one bit at a time
- Parallel port – which allows the parallel transmission of data, i.e. several bits are
transmitted simultaneously
- SCSI port – provides interface to the SCSI bus that enables faster data transmission
than serial and parallel ports. Up to 15 peripherals can be daisy-chained to a single
SCSI port
- USB port – is a relatively recent innovation in a high speed device interfaces.

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 - IrDA port – which transmit data via infrared light waves
- Etc.

 Expansion boards
The examples of expansion boards include the following:
- Graphic adapter – permits interfacing with video monitor
- Sound cards – enables sound to be captured and stored on a disk, also music and
spoken words, to be played through speakers.
- Data/voice/fax modem – performs the same functions as regular modem, plus
added capabilities. A modem basically permits communication with remote
computers via telephone-line link.

1.6 Main Memory Cells

 Memory organization
The storage circuits in a machine’s main memory are arranged in manageable units called
cells (words), with a typical cell size being 8-bits. In fact 8-bits make 1-byte. A byte is the
amount of memory used to store a character.

Bit = a digit (either 0 or 1)

Byte = 8-bits / character
Kilobyte = 1000bytes
Megabytes = 1million bytes
Gigabytes = 1billion bytes
Terabytes = 1trillion bytes

Cell: A unit of main memory (typically 8 bits which is one byte)

Most significant bit: the bit at the left (high-order) end of the conceptual row of bits
in a memory cell
Least significant bit: the bit at the right (low-order) end of the conceptual row of bits
in a memory cell

1.6.1 Measuring Memory Capacity

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Kilobyte: 2 bytes = 1024 bytes

Example: 3 KB = 3 × 1024 bytes

Sometimes it is called “kibi” rather than “kilo”

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 20
Megabyte: 2 bytes = 1,048,576 bytes

Example: 3 MB = 3 × 1,048,576 bytes

Sometimes it is called “megi” rather than “mega”
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Gigabyte: 2 bytes = 1,073,741,824 bytes

Example: 3 GB = 3 × 1,073,741,824 bytes

Sometimes it is called “gigi” rather than “giga”

1.6.2 Memory cells arranged by address

Address: A “name” that uniquely identifies one cell in the computer’s main memory
The names are actually numbers, assigned consecutively starting at zero.

Figure 1.8 Memory cells arranged by address

1.7 Factors that make the computer to be powerful

 Speed – a computer can do billions of actions per second by executing instructions

 Reliability – computer are the most reliable worker in any company. All failures are
usually due to human error
 Storage – A computer system can keep a large amount of data. It also has a total and
instant recall of data.
 Accuracy – computers are amazingly accurate.
 Consistency – Computers always do what they are programmed to do – nothing less
– nothing more.

1.8 Mass storages

They are larger than the main memory
They are less volatile than the main memory and they are slower compared to the
main memory (disadvantage)

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The mass storages include:
 Magnetic disk Systems
 Optical disc Systems
 Flash Drives

1.8.1 Magnetic disks

 They have direct or random access capabilities as well sequential access

 They have thin spinning disk with magnetic coating, used to hold data.
 Read/write heads are placed above or below the disk so that as the disk spins, each
head traverses a circle, called a track, around the disk’s upper or lower surface.
 Data is stored by magnetizing the surface to represent bit configuration.

Bits are recorded using several representations, that is, they are aligned in a row in the track
figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4, Magnetic disk organization

 Data are stored in concentric tracks, since a track can contain more information that
we would normally want to manipulate at any time, each track is divided into arcs
called sectors on which information is recorded as continuous string of bits figure 1.5.
The number of tracks and sectors depends on the capacity of the disk.
 The storage capacity of each sector is 512bytes
 A group sectors are combined to form a cluster. The cluster is the smallest unit of disk
space that can be allocated to a file, so every file saved to a disk, takes up one or more
cluster. Each disk cluster is numbered and the number of the first cluster in a file
comprises the disk address on particular file. So the capacity of a cluster depends on
the number of sectors.
 A cylinder is a set of new tracks that are ready to be accessed by the read/write head.

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 Figure1.5. A disk storage system

Each track within a disk system contains the same number of sectors and each sector contains
the same number of bits. The number of sectors depends on the density of the disk. A hard
disk may have hundreds of sectors.

Disk speed

Several measurements are used to evaluate a disk system’s performance. Normally data
access from RAM is performed at electronic speed.
- Seek time – the time required to move the read/write heads from one track to
the other
- Rotating delay or latency time – half the time required for the disk to make a
complete rotation, which is the average amount of time required for the desired
data to rotate around the read/write head once the head has been positioned
over the desired track.
- Access time – is the interval between the instant a computer makes a request for
the transfer of data from a disk storage device to RAM and the instant this
operation is completed.
- Transfer Rate – the rate at which data can be transferred to RAM from disk
storage or from RAM to disk storage.
- Disk caching – is the technique that improves system speed by taking advantage
of the greater transfer rate of data within RAM
With disk caching, programs and data that are likely to be called into use are moved from disk
into a separate disk caching area of RAM. When an application program calls for the data or
programs in the disk cache area, the data area transferred directly from RAM rather than from
the slower magnetic disks.

 The file allocation table

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Each disk used in the windows environment has a Virtual file allocation table (VFAT) in
which information about the clusters is stored. The table includes an entry for each cluster
that describes where on the disk it can be found and how it is used.
Let’s look at what happen when you make a request for a particular file.

- The operating system searches the VFAT to find the physical address of the first
cluster of the file.
- The read/write heads are moved over the track/cylinder containing the file.
- The rapidly rotating disk passes the cluster under/over the read/write head, and
the information in the first cluster is read and transmitted to RAM.
- The operating system checks an entry within the first cluster that indicates
whether the file consists of further clusters, and if so, where on the disk are they
located.
- The operating system directs that clusters continue to be read and their
information transmitted to RAM until the last cluster in the chain is read

 Defragmentation

Defragmentation is the process of periodically reorganizing the disk such that files are
stored in contiguous clusters. It is the easiest and least expensive way to get performance
boost out of your PC.
How often do you run “defrag” program, normally, depends on how much do you use your
PC

 Disk formatting

When formatting the disk, we normally prepare it for use. The formatting procedure
causes the disk to be initialized with a recording format for the operating system. Basically,

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 - It creates sectors and tracks into which data are stored.
- Sets up an area for the virtual file allocation table.

1.8.2 Compact disks

Another popular data storage technology is the compact disk (CD). Information is recorded on
them by creating variation in their reflective surface. This information can then be retrieved
by means of a laser beam that monitors irregularities on the reflective surface of the CD as it
spins.

Spiraling Track

Detector

Pit

Land

Sector

Figure 1.6

They are divided into CDs , DVDs, and Blu-ray disc

CDs
They stores data in a single track that spirals from the centre outwards. figure 1.6.
The capacity of a sector in a compact disc is 2KB
Data is recorded in the form of Pits and Lands- which represent 1 and 0)

1.8.3 Magnetic tape

 Information is recorded on the magnetic coating of a thing plastic tape

 The tape is mounted on a tape drive that can read, write and rewind
 Disadvantage – longer data access – data is accessed sequentially.

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1.9 Flash drives

In common mass storages like Compact discs and floppy diskettes data storage and retrieval
is potentially slow. This is normally caused by physicals motion required to read and write
data, e.g., spinning disks, moving read/write heads, and aiming the laser beams.
Flash memory technology alleviates this drawback. In a flash memory system, bits are stored
by sending electronic signals directly to the storage medium where they cause electrons to be
trapped in tiny chambers of silicon dioxide. Flash drives are potentially fast when storing and
retrieving data
 It is a new driverless storage device
 It is ideal for transferring data between computers and for backups

1.10 File storage and retrieval

Information is stored on mass storage systems in large units called files. A typical file may
consist of a complete text document, an image, a program, music etc.
A storage area used to hold data temporarily is called buffer, usually during the process of
being transferred from one device to another.

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