INTRODUCTION:

The origins of Madras can be dated back to about 400 years. Prior
to this, small villages existed for well over 1000 years in a cluster of
civilizations. Villages around temples like Parthasarathy in Triplicane
and Kapaleeswarer temple in Mylapore near the southern coast, and
Marudheeswarer temple in Thiruvanmiyur were in existence for several
centuries, long before the Europeans arrived here.
Madras has an ancient history going back to the beginning of the historic
period, that is the Sangam age and the Sangam works refer to Mylapore.
K.V. Raman in his book The Early History of the Madras Region, says
Mylapore was port. Roman geographer Ptolemy mentioned as Mylafa
which served as important commercial centre and attracted foreign
traders. Tamil Sangam literature has mentioned Mylapore as Mylarpil.
Tripilicane came under Mylapore and it was not merely called Triplicane
but Mylapore Triplicane. Mylapore and Triplicane are noted for their
Kapalisvara and Parthasarathy swamy temples.
The region holds great importance when it comes to the amount of
information it provides on the pre historical knowledge of south India. It
has rightly been called as "the classic ground of early Palaeolithic
culture in South India''. The Madras region has a number of pre-historic
sites that were discovered by archaeologists like Robert Bruce Foote,
William King and Rea. The Madras region along with Chengelpet region
had a very rich Palaeolithic culture in South India. The first Palaeolithic
relic was found at pallavam in 1863 by Bruce Foote who is known as the
Father of Indian Pre-historic archaeology. In 1864 more evidences were
found and systematic research led to discovery of other Palaeolithic sites
like Sriperampudur, Poondi etc. Evidences of Neolithic age are not
found in the area. However, there are evidences of the Iron Age found in
Egmore. Some of the relics found include burial urns. Archaeologists
have found a number of graves particularly in Red hills near Madras and
Tirusulam. In Pallavaram terracotta coffins were found, which had
resemblance to the coffins used in Baghdad.
South India had been referred to by several people
including Ptolemy who has made reference to Tondaimandalam. The
Mackenzie manuscripts are of immense values which gives detailed
information about the region. Literary works are an important evidence
to the existence of settlements in Madras region. Several travellers
including Marcopolo has mentioned about the Madras region. The next
traveller in line is John D Emarignolli, who had visited the Madras
region in the middle of 14th century, gives a detailed picture of
Mylapore and St. Thomas. He was followed by Nicolo de Conti who
came in the first half of the 15th century. There are a number of works
written in Tamil mentioning Mylapore, Triplicane, Thiruvanmiyur,
Santhome, Egmore, Pallavaram , Vellachery etc. Some are found in the
inscription in temples. Inscriptions belonging to various dynasties like
Pallavas, Cholas, Rashtrakutas, Pandyas, Vijayanagara, and other small
dynasties have been found in and around Madras. Literary evidences
show that Tondaimandalam existed but after the II century AD the
history of the region is not very clear. The pallavas ruling southern
region. There are evidences in the form of stone inscriptions to prove the
rule of Pallavas under Nandivarman Pallavamala in the region. There are
also amble evidences to show the rule of great Pallavas who ruled
between 575 and 600 AD. Simhaishnu was succeeded by
Mahendravarman I whose monolithic caved inscriptions where found at
Pallavara near Madras. His period witnessed a series of conflicts with
the Chalukyas and the Pandyas.
With the downfall of Pallava dynasty the Cholas had emerged.
They ruled from Tanjore. There is information about Chola influence at
Thitukkalikumdram and Kanchipuram. The Cholas also had a period of
struggle. The inscriptions of the period were found at Guindy and
Velachery. Their power spread as far North as Nellore. Rajaraja's
inscriptions were carved from Thiruvanmiyur, Padi, Vellachery,
Santhome and Pallavaram. The temple in Triplicane bears the name of
the king Rajaraja Deva. His successors inherited a large empire which
included the whole of modern Madras, Andhra, parts of Mysore and
Ceylon. The areas around Madras have about 25 inscriptions belonging
to Rajendra. With the decline of Chola power there was a rise of
feudatories like the Telegu Cholas, Kadavarayas, Yadhavarayas etc.
The Pandyas ruled from Madurai and they had very little control over
regions like South Arcot, North Arcot and Chengalpet. By the middle of
the 14th century Vijayanagara empire was established. The inscriptions
of Harihara II (1377- 1407) were found near Kundrathur, Padi. The
evidences of their power could be found at Mangaad, Padi, Kundrathur,
Kanchipuram and other surrounding areas as far as Trichi. Chennai
along with modern district of Chingelput,South Arcot and North Arcot,
came under two ancient divisions - Aruvanadu and
Aruvavadatatalainadu, Aruva south and Aruva north. Even Ptolemy, has
noted this territorry, roughly extending between South Pennar and North
Pennar and Aruvarnoi or Arvarnoi.These two divisions, Aruvanadu and
Aruvavadatalainadu together came to be called as Tondaimandalam.
The Mackenzie Manuscript point to Madavaram or Pulal near
Madras, as the headquarters of the Kurumbas. The kurumbas are said to
have divided the Tondaimandalam region into 24 districts or kottam in
each of which was built a fort. The antiquity of the Kurumbas is proved
by the reference to them in the sangam work Purananuru.
Chennai is stated to be an important contributor towards
administrative, military and economic centre since the 1st century.
However, it was in the beginning of 16th century that things started to
shape up for the future. Modern Chennai had its origins as a colonial city
and its initial growth was closely tied to its importance as an artificial
harbour and trading centre
 ESTABLISHMENT OF MADRAS
Beginning of modern age was in 1453 when the Constantinople
Empire fell. The Renaissance and Reformation movement were started
as a part of the many European powers started moving to the east in
search of new land for spreading the new protestant faith and, also in
search of new markets.
The Portuguese at San Thome, Mylapore

During the time of Krishnadevaraya certain important events

took place in the vicinity of Madras. In his work Lendas da India,
Gasper Correa, who was in India between A.D. 1512 and 1561, gives an
account of the relation of the Portuguese and San Thome. According to
him, in A.D. 1507 Don Francisco de Almeida, the Portuguese viceroy at
Goa, came to know about the existence of the house or chapel of Apostle
Thomas existed on the Coromandal coast here from the native
Christians. And he sent his men to find it out and make enquiries about
it, then sent the report to the King of Portugal. After 10 years, two
Portuguese named Diogo Fernandes and Bastiao Fernandes, visited San
Thome via Pulicat and saw an ancient church, which was believed by
them to be the sepulchre of the Saint. In A.D. 1521, another party of the
Portuguese arrived in San Thome, and made investigations and also
addition to the chapel. In 1523, the king of Portugual strict enquiry in to
the relics. Money was provided for carrying out repairs and building
new chapels. By A.D. 1524 Padre Penteado came from Portugual, he
became the Vicar and took charge of the relics. Thus from the end of the
first quarter of the 16th century San Thome began to develop into a busy
settlement of the Portuguese.

It was during the time of Sadasiva and Ramaraya that the activity
of the Portueguese began to increase greatly at San Thome. One
perticular incident that took place in San Thome and Mylapore enranged
Ramaraya and brought about the latter's expedition to Mylapore.

Thus according Coto, in A.D.1558 the Portuguese Franciscan friars at

San Thome destroyed some temples belonging to Hindus and there by
roused the indignation of the Hindus generally. 'The poor fathers of the
Order San Francis having seized all the coast from Nagapatanam to San
Thome, they being the first who had begun to preach the light of the
Holy Gospel an having throughout that tract thrown down many
pagodas, a thing which grieved excessively all the Brahmanas these
latter reported the facts to Ramaraya, the king of Bisnaga (Vijayanagara)
whose vassals they were and begged him that he would hasten to their
assistance for the honor of their god. They also inform the Vijayanagar
king about the vast riches of the inhabitants of the San Thome. Rama
raya responded to their call and personally led an expedition with huge
army to San Thome. There he demanded hundred thousand pagodas
from the Christian inhabitants; obtain half of the stipulated some he took
five chief inhabitants of San Thome as hostages. But even there were
sent back as soon as the king reached his capital.

The reign of Venkata II was marked by a revival of strength and

prosperity in the empire. The Portuguese activity grew greatly in the city
of San Thome at this time, especially because of Venkatas friendly
relation with them. For Portuguese the city of San Thome was useful
both as a religious centre and commercial post. San Thome and
Mylapore were immediately under the Nayak of Tanjore who was
subordinate of Venkata. An adigar was appointed by Nayak at Mylapore
as his representative to collect revenue and administor justice. The
Portuguese settlement of San Thome paid a quarter per cent of the
merchandise imported by sea as tribute, to VIjayanagar Empire. From
A.D.1600 it seems to have paid an additional tribute to the Nayak of
Tanjore. But the beginning of the next century the Portuguese settlement
of San Thome was rent with internal quarrels and external aggression.
The accounts of foreign travellers like Father M Roiz (about A.D.1606),
Faria Y Sousa (about A.D.1626-1629) portray internal bickerings that
stalked the Portuguese settlement in the 7th century.

To resolve this strife the Bishopric of San Thome was set up in

A.D. 1606 by the king of Spain through His Holiness Paul V but it was a
failure. In 1606 the Portuguese at San Thome attacked the hindu town
and set fire to the place where the hindu adhikari had taken shelter and
killed many hindus. The Vijayanagar king Venkata II who came to know
about this from the Adhikari, became very angry with the
Portuguese.The later send a special mission under the Rector of the
college at San Thom, obtained permission to remove the existing Hindu
Adhikari and placed another according to the wishes of the portugese.A
fresh war broke out against the portugese at San Thom in 1611.Venkata
sent a large army to besiege the city of San Thom the real cause is
unknown. In Mysore Gazetteer, the author says that Ragunatha, the
Nayak of Tanjore, was evidently conspiring against his sovereign and
possibly tried to get possession of San Thome from which he was
receiving rent for some years. But Fr. Heras suggests that it was
Venkata's greed of money that was the cause. Ragunatha Nayaka was
warmly thanked by the king of Spain and Portugal for his help to the
Portuguese against his suzerain. Peace was proposed eventually and the
Portuguese promised to pay 401 pagodas. Thus Portuguese realized the
neccesity for fortifying San Thome which they did subsequent to the
death of Venkata II.

The other major event during Venkatas reign was the establishent
of the Dutch settlement at Pulicat, about 25 miles north of San Thome.
They obtained permission from Venkata for carry on trade from there.
They also built a fort there in 1610. The establishment of Dutch
settlement so near San Thome brought in a new rival to the Portuguese
in the field of commerce. Thus in about A.D.1612-1613 they captured
Dutch fort and even expelled them from the place. But the Dutch return
soon and Pulicat came back to their hands in 1614. After this the
Portuguese gave up their attempts to recapture the Dutch fort; but keen
rivalry continued.

THE ENGLISH AT PULICAT, ARMAGAON AND

MADRASPATTANAM
After the death of Venkata II in A.D 1614 a civil war was started, in
which his rightful successor, Sriranga, was murdered by the rebel group.
Sriranga's son Ramadeva was crowned by the loyalists under Yachama.
Ramadeva ruled till his death in 1630. During the reign of Ramadeva
English set up their factory at Pulicat in 1621. The English first set up
their trading house or factory at Surat on the west coast in 1612. On the
east coast, their factory was set up at Masulipattanam. Because of the
rivalry they faced from the Dutch and Portuguese as well as the troubles
from the Muslim governors of the locality, Masulipattanam failed to be a
suitable place for English trade. Therefore English were searching for a
new and better place to house their factory. They planned to have a
joined trade with the Dutch at Pulicat. But it was a failure. The difficulty
that the English had to face at Pulicat is evident from the letters written
by the English agents, which was later published by William Foster. The
main reasons for the failure of trade partnership was that, the Dutch
wasn't ready to cooperate and the expenditure on the raw material, that is
cloth was really high. So the English abondoned Pulicat in 1623 and
returned to Masulipattanam. In 1626 the English obtained a grant of a
small piece of ground at Armagon about 35 miles north of Pulicat. They
built their factory and fort at Armagon. But it was also unsuitable for the
trade as the Nayak of Armagon was unfriendly and the place was not
resourceful. The fort also got ruined and the Directors of the English
company ordered in 1638-39 to abandon Armagon. Thoma Ivie, the then
chief at Masulipattanam appointed Francis day, the chief at Armagon to
undertake an exploration of the coast to find out a better station.
A Dutch letter from Pulicat mentions that Francis Day wanted to get
Pondicherry to establish the English settlement. But the plan didnt work
out, as just then offers came to the English from Damarla Venkatappa for
establishing their settlement at Madraspattanam, 3 miles to the north of
San Thome. Damarla Venkatappa was an influencial chiftain under
whom Venkata III (1630-1642), the successor of Ramadeva. Damarla
venkata, Ayyappa and Anka were the three sons of Chenna, the famous
general of Venkata II and they belong to Velugoti family of Kalahasti.
During the reign Vekata III, Vekatappa and Ayyappa were in charge of
wandiwash and of Poonamalle respectively. They had great influence of
the king. These two Damarla brothers offered the small tract on the coast
called Madraspattanam, to English for their settlement. Damarla
Venkatappa Nayak was referred to as the 'Lord General of Carnatic' and
'Grand Wazier'.
Venkatappa Nayaka thought that the English would offer help to him in
times of danger and by encouraging the English to trade, his country
would flourish and grow rich.
 GRANT OF MADRASPATTANAM TO THE ENGLISH

Francis Day got the permission to open negotiations, from the Agent at
Masulipattanam. He reached Madraspattanam on 27 July 1639. He was
well received by the Nayak and the local people. Day got impressed with
goods of excellent quality at prices far cheaper than those at Armagon.
The sea on the east and river Cooum on the south made Madraspattanam
an ideal spot. According to the Dutch Dagh - Register, 1640-41 the little
village of Madraspattanam consisted of some fifteen to twenty
fishermen's huts. On 22nd August 1639 Francis Day received the grant
of Madraspattanam from the Nayak. He got the permission to build a
fort and to form a settlement. The piece of land was a sandy strip of land
between the Cooum River and the sea. On that strip of land are now the
historic buildings of St. George, Madras. This is the very place where
Clive and wellington made history. The very famous Thomas Mount is 8
miles from the fort. It took them 13 years to build the small fort. All
round the fort were low sandy dunes and small collections of fishermen
huts near a few palm trees. By 1710 fort St. George had filled up with
proper houses and a town was being developed on the northern side of
the fort. The narrow space between the northern wall of the fort and the
houses of the town was known as the parade ground. Later the French
attacked the fort and had control over it for about three years and later
Robert Clive the governor of madras was able to get it back from them.
In 1753 Robert and Margaret got married at the fort on 18 th of February.
Years later the fort was subjected to reconstruction. After Robert the fort
was in command of stringer Lawrence he was a fierce soldier and during
his time in office the fort was seized and the fort suffered many
damages. Only the St. Mary’s church remained intact because of the
bomb proof construction. Then later a period of 23 years during which
the fort was being rebuilt. A European named Benfield was the principle
contractor for the building. A statue of Lord Cornwallis was erected on
the eastside of the barrack square. Today most of the outer ravellins have
been removed and the lesser moa extensions filled in, the British
military hospital along with a couple of changes in the quarters and
secretariat. And so we have fort St. George today.
According to the grant English could build a fort and a castle in or about
Madraspattanam, the charges initially being met by Nayak and then
carried by the English on taking possession of it. For the period of two
years the English had given full power and authority to govern the fort
of Madraspattanam. The English had the right to receive the half of the
customs and revenues of the port. The English were to import or export
goods from Madraspattanam for ever customs free. They had to pay
custom duties on goods passing through the Nayak's territories. They
had secured of the right of free coinage. The Nayal also undertook to
guarantee the proper payments of mony by the merchants, painters and
weavers residing in Madraspattanam. If any ship of the English suffer
shipwreck and be driven upon any part of the coast under the dominion
of the Nayak, it would be restored to them.

The advantages, which Madras was said to possess, were

obviously exaggerated because the shallow surf - beaten coast did not
permit ships to lie at anchor close by and the mouth of the Cooum was
not deep enough even for the small ship of those days. Day had
persuaded the Masulipattanam Council into believing the advantages
and the profitability of the concessions given by the Nayak. The Nayak
hope, in return to get good horses from Persia through the English. After
getting this grant from the Nayak, Day went to Masulipattanam. He
secured the sanction of the Council there. A letter was recieved at
Masulipattanam on 6 February 1640, and was interpreted as giving the
neccessary permission to take possession to Madras. After receiving the
letter from Surat Council, Day who had already dismantled the factory at
Armagon, arrived at Madraspattanam on 20 february 1640 along with
Andrew Cogan in the Eagle. The English faced many hardships in the
initial stages of the building the fort. The Nayak who promised to bear
the cost of the building the fort later did not keep his world. The port
was completed by St George's day on 23 April 1640 and so it was called
fort St George. From 24th September 1641 the newly risen town of
Madraspattanam became the seat of Agency in the place of
Masulipattanam. From that time on, Madras became the chief of the
English factories on the east coast.
The name Madrasapattanam appears even in the grant made by
the Nayak to Francis Day in 1639, so the fact that the place existed even
at the time of the founding of the English settlement there, cannot be
denied. There are many suggestions as to how exactly the name came to
be applied. Thus a writer suggests that Madresan , who was the headman
of the village of fisherman on the site persuaded Day to call the
settlement after his own name; another thinks that it was named so after
an old Mohammedan college called Madrasa at the place; another
suggestion is that the church of St. Mary Madre de Deus which was built
there prior to A.D. 1640 by the Potuguese, might have been the source
for the name of Madras; or that it might have been called after Madra a
prominant Portuguese family settled in the old village. According to an
18th century Persian manuscript the name Madras came from
Mahraskuppam, the original name of the site granted to the English. Col.
Love attributes it's derivation from Maddarazu, called after Madda Raju
who might have been some local chief of influence.

It needs to be mentioned that the English setttlement of

Madraspattanam was made possible as much by Beri Thimmappa Chetty
as by Day and Cogan. Thimmappa was Days close friend and was the
chief negotiator with the Nayaks. It was he who in 1640 brought in
settlers from Nellore and other Northern districts to manufacture the
cloth. These settlers put down roots beyond the North walls of the Fort
and along the North river. This settlement they named Chennapattanam,
after the father of the Nayaks of Tondainadu , Chennakesava Nayak , a
kinsman of the Raja of VIjayanagara at Chandragiri. A contemporary
Telengu work , Ushaparinayam, written by Anka , a brother of Damarla
Venkatappa , informs us that his brother Ayyappa built the town , called
after his father , Chennappa. This version of Ushaparinayam is also
supported by the report of the Brahmin Venkatapati, the English
company's Agent at Golconda. In all the available records of the time
1630-1645 a difference was maintained between the original village of
Madraspattanam and the new town that quickly grew up in and around
the Fort. Maraspattanam was regarded as the site of the Fort and
Chennapattanam as the Indian town to the North .But later on as the
town expanded the two villages became virtually one town. The English
preferred to call the two united towns by the name of Madraspattanam
with which they had been familiar from the first, while the Indians chose
to give it the name of chennaipattanam .

THE PERIOD OF AGENCY

After the time of Andrew Cogan and Francis Day who were responsible
for the establishment and consolidation of the English power in South
India, Thomas Ivie was in charge as an agent for four years from 1644
to1648. During his time the British were in constant struggle with the
Dutch at Pulicat and Portuguese in Santhome. The country was affected
by famine and large numbers of people were dead. He requested the
company to strengthen the fort for protection and in 1647 Mir Jumala
had firmly established himself at Golconda. But the British were able to
get a confirmation of their rights and privileges from him. He was
succeeded by Henry Greenhill.
Henry Green Hill: He was the agent twice for the first time from 1648-
1652 and 1655-1659. He negotiated with the Muslims and also got the
support of their rulers. The Sultan of Bijapur was giving trouble in the
Southern region, but Madras was safe. Green Hill became very friendly
with Mir Jumala who gave large loans to the British. During his period
there was a continous problem between the Priest of Santhome and
Madras. He was succeeded in 1652 by Barron Bakes.
Barron Bakes: He was in power for three years from 1652 to 1655.
He did not have a good working relation with the company. During his
time there were problems in the local community based on caste, which
was a regular feature. He tried to settle the disputes, but he was not
successful. He was succeeded by Greenhill.
Greenhill: In 1655 Greenhill became the agent once again. His second
term lasted for four years. His period saw the reduction of the fort as a
subordinate agency. It also witnessed the siege of Madras in 1657 along
with the Dutch at Puicat. This was the first danger that threatened the
settlement. But it led to the strengthening of the fort and also completion
of its construction work. It was a time when Mir Jumla left Golconda
and went to Bengal. Thus the Muslim threat came to an end.
Thomas Chamber: He came after Greenhill. His rule was during 1659-
1662. He was a person who wanted complete power in his hands. He
was able to settle the problems among the Indians and also among the
Europeans competitors. Chamber was involved in private illegal trade
and thus he was dismissed. He was succeeded by Edward Winter.
Edward Winter: He was an agent from 1662-1655. He was also a
corrupt man but was able to make valuable addition to the fort. His
conduct was bad. He spent a lot of the company's finances and therefore
he was suspended. The company brought George Foxfort as the agent in
Madras.
George Foxcroft: The rule of George Foxcroft had a number of
developments within the English settlement and outside as well. He was
not treated badly by the officials even during the times of enquiry.
However Foxcroft later on developed some misunderstanding with
Winter and was imprisoned by Winter. He sent the letters of
communication, but no help was given immediately and from 1665-1667
Foxcroft was in prison and Winter was in power. Winter did not adhere
to the instructions and finally an enquiry was conducted. Even then
Foxcroft was not released. But after negotiations Foxcroft was released.
Winter was allowed to stay in Madras and he left the country in 1672.
Foxcroft stayed in power till 1672 and he was a first agent to be made as
Governor of the fort. He was assisted by five members of a council.
Though his rule was marked by a lot of confusion he brought the
beginning of the firm establishment of British power in the Madras
region.

EARLY COLONIAL GOVERNORS

Elihu Yale (1687-1692)

 Governor Yale was in India before he became the Governor, a
position which he occupied for five years. Even after he retired as
Governor he remained in Madras and was able to collect a large fortune
and he spent very liberally when He returned to England. He had
connections with Boston because he was born there. He gave help to the
collegiate school of Connecticut with a large number of schools.
Because of his help college grew and Yale University came out of it.
Elihu Yale came to India in 1672 and worked under the
British. He got married at St. Mary's church at Fort. After he became the
Governor he was able to administer Madras in very efficient manner.
During his term he brought a lot of changes in Madras. The most
important was the institution of Mayor and the Corporation for the City.
This was the first of its kind in British India. The idea was given by
Josiah Child who wanted to have the corporation to be composed of
Englishmen and Indians with a regular Mayor, a recorder and a town
clerk. They would also have the power to decide the petty cases, to levy
taxes, to build a town hall and a jail. All the specifications of functioning
of the corporation was documented. On 29 September 1688 the
corporation was inaugurated. The first mayor of the corporation was
Higginson.
During the time of Yale there was a settlement of Armenians in
the Madras region. This was also the time when the Armenian merchants
were granted certain privileges for their trading rights in India. During
his time the British were allowed to mint money according to their
standard. The Madras Mint has begun to work as early as 1640. It was
during the time of Governor Yale that the Mughals were advancing in
the Southern region. They had taken over Bijapur and Golconda and
towards the end of 1687 the Mughal authority was firmly established
over the districts of Chengelpet, Poonamalai and Kanchipuram. The
Mughal power was a threat to the British but inspite of this they were
able to get concessions and privileges from the mughals as they got
gunpowder from British. Governor Yale received a cowl confirming the
existing grants for Madras and other English factories and settlements on
the coast which included Masulipatanam, Vishakapatnam and
Kadaloor.This was granted in 1690.
This was a time when there was a threat from the Marathas.
Marathas had a considerable influence at Guindy. In the struggle
between the Mughals and the English in 1687, the English factory at
Kadaloor also involved. But by the end of 1689 Maratha power in the
Deccan ceased to exist. The Portuguese at San Thome were anxious
about their status and wanted to get recognition of thier independent
Government. They competed with the English in trying to get Muslim
influence from Golconda. With the fall of Golconda in 1687 Yale hoped
to have influence at Santhome but this was not possible.
In 1690 Pondicherry under the French was powerful. The English
felt threatened when war broke out in France in 1689 and a powerful
French fleet reached Pondicherry in 1690. The English at Madras was
attacked. They got the help from Dutch at Pulicat and ultimately the
French were sent back. Yale also improved the conduct of the Indian
troops that were employed. There were highly disciplined and all their
duties were clearly spelt out. Governor Yale had ruled over the newly
established factory and settlement at Madras. He initiated and introduced
major changes which had a lasting impact on the settlement of English
in the Madras region. He was succeeded by Higginson who remained as
the Governor from 1692 - 1698.

Governor Pitt (1698 - 1709)

 During the time of Higginson as the Governor of Madras, the
settlement was growing in wealth and prosperity. English influence
increased politically and commercially from Higginson to Governor
Morse (1744-1746). There were about 13 Governors who are classified
as merchant Governors, having two objectives one working for the
averment of company's commercial success and secondly for the
accumulation of a huge private fortune for them which was illegal. The
Board of Directors started being suspicious of the company servants and
were more tolerant towards them.
Thomas Pitt began his career in the East India Company. He had a
considerable influence. He came to Madras in 1688 and was Governor
for 11 years, a period of which was known as golden age of Madras in
respect to the development of trade and increase of wealth. For the
period of nine years of governorship of Pitt there are abundant original
sources of records among which there is a map of the city which was
prepared by the Governor's order and some letters written by Pitt. The
map gives information about the topography of the place in the
beginning of the eighteenth century. The most important event at this
time was the construction of the permanent fortification of Black Town.
The acquisition of additional suburban villages by the English and the
frequent caste disputes were took place in Madras.
In 1699 Daud Khan who was then the deputy of Zulfiqar Khan
visited Madras and spent some time at Santhome. Daud Khan soon
became the Nawab of Carnatic and Gindy in 1700. He wanted to
establish good relations with British. He wanted a regular supply of
liquor by British. In 1702, tension broke out between Santhome and
Madras as British had failed to satisfy Daud Khan. There was a blockade
of Madras, but this tensed situation was solved after the British made an
appeal to the Dutch and for assistance. It was when the English paid
Rs.25000 that the Nawab returned the rendered goods and stopped the
blockade. He was able to get more territory for British settlement and by
1708 there was a major increase in the acquired territory. It was during
his time that the environment of Island Grounds was developed as he
planted a number of trees. In 1680, a garden house that was already there
got erected With the French occupation of Madras in 1746-49, the
garden house was pulled. There was an accurate survey of the city to
allocate definite streets and quarters for the different caste group. The
map and plans are authentic which gave shape to the White Town. The
governorship of Pitt was indeed a golden period when he was able to
bring an end to the caste disputes in Madras.

Thomas Munro (1820-1827)

Thomas Munro was a cadet in the Madras army in 1780.The period
of nearly fifty years which Munro devoted to the service of India was
marked by wars, formation of the Madras Presidency and the settlement
of the new districts that were added. He was outstanding both as a
soldier and as a civil administrator. He was the assistant collector of
Baramaha and collector of South Canara and wherever he went, he
brought that area order and it prospered. He is regarded as the father of
the ryotwari system. He was the President of the Commission of
Reforms. He emerged as one of the great administrators in British India.
During his term as Governor, he concentrated on matters of
internal administration and reforms. His letters and minutes cover a
variety of subjects which are found under a title "Minutes and other
official writings: Selected and edited by A J Arbuthnot 1881". Among
these reforms his concentration was more on employing native agency in
administration. In 1822 he instituted an enquiry into the state of
indigenous education in the Madras Presidency. He felt that it was the
duty of East India Company in providing for the moral and intellectual
advancement of the people. The work of this enquiry was given to the
Board of Revenue which brought into notice the existence of about
12500 schools of indigenous origin. The lower class people were
entirely illiterate and the middle class which included landowners and
trading class received some kind of commercial training. There was a
small group among Brahmins who has opted for liberal education and
mastered in Grammar, Mathematics, logic etc. Though their attainments
in physical and mathematical sciences were inferior with those of the
contemporary world.
Out of 12500 institutions nearly 700 were Vedic Gurukulas and
rest of which are primary schools. The students paid fees from 4 annas
upto 50 paise. Teachers did not earn more than 6-7 rupees a month. The
students were taught elementary maths in Madras Presidency. Munro
made certain suggestions to improve the conditions of education. He
initiated English education. He advocated the establishment of training
schools for teachers at presidency town, two principle schools in each
collect orate - one for Hindus and one for Muslims and inferior schools
in each Tahsildari. The scheme of studies in collect orate school included
English, Grammar, Languages like Tamil, Telugu and Sanskrit,
Mathematics and Science. He appointed a committee of public
discussions which later on became the College Board whose objective
was to instruct and examine junior civil servants in Law and Language.
This body came to be called as Board of Public Instruction. The duty of
this board was to be fully informed itself about the condition of
education and improve public education. He established a school at
Madras for the training of teachers. This institution became the Madras
High school and ultimately develops into the Presidency College. The
English education was confined to central and Colectorate School and
instruction in Tahsildari School was purely in Vernacular language.
Thomas Munro died of cholera at Pattikonda in 1827.

GROWTH OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

IN MADRAS
With the coming of British in 1600 and the establishment of
Madras in 1639, consolidation of the British settlement brought in
certain administrative changes and developmental activity. With their
various policies they were able to annex a large number of districts and
principalities which widened their scope of administration. They also
planned an organized system of general administration. In the early days
of the establishment of Madras little or nothing was done with regard to
the promotion of education. It was left to the private enterprise and to
the philanthropists to work on the system of education in the settlement.
Few schools were started by other Europeans for their
children and missionary societies also were engaged in such activities.
They received no government funding, besides these schools, there were
native schools as well. The East India Company did not have any
interests with the education of the people in the settlement as it had a
commercial concern. They started a few schools for the benefits of their
children, but as their settlement and business grew, they needed
institutions for the benefit of their children, children of mixed parents
and children of Indians employed in the company .In 1673 a Scottish
school master named Pringle came to Madras as chaplain for the
company. He was employed with salary for 50 Euro per annum. He
stayed in the fort for four years. The Portuguese, British and Indian
children attended the school and language used was a kind of Portuguese
called as Feringh. Pringle was succeeded by Ralf Ord (1682) who taught
for four years. Then he was followed by John Baker who was in India
till 1707. In 1687 the court of Directors wanted the formation of a
municipality which led to the Madras Corporation under Governor Yale.
With this there was a proposal to start schools and money was also
collected for the purpose. A free school was started by Chaplein George
Lewis. The Government was criticised because they did not give
importance to the development of education. In 1715 the St Mary's
charity school was started with about 30 protestant children. Lady
Campbell the wife of the Governor started the female orphan asylum in
1784 and soon a male orphan asylum was also started. These asylums
had the children of the men who had lost their life as Military officers or
as soldiers. By 1800 the Company felt that they could allow private
individuals to develop a system of education and the Government was
willing to give financial assistance. These schools were subjected to
inspection. Most of the schools were started by the Missionaries. The
Danish Missionaries were the first to start schools in India. The SPCK
(Society for Promotion of Christian Knowledge), Danish Missionaries
started two charity schools in 1717. The main features of the Missionary
schools were the emphasis on religious instruction based education on
Christian principles, that followed a regular curriculum that included
Grammar, History, Geography. They wrote and printed textbooks.
Regular school hours were introduced and schools were closed on
Sundays. The Company gave them financial assistance. Together with
this native institutions also introduced Elementary schools and High
schools. The medium of instruction was Sanskrit. Teachers and pupils
were Brahmins. In these schools money was paid by parents. They did
not receive any financial assistance from the Government. Some of the
more efficient and children of higher caste received Elementary
education in their homes. Between (1820-27) during the time of Thomas
Munro as a Governor, there was a systematic educational survey. He felt
that it was the duty of the Government to provide basic education, train
Indians for high officers, improve the quality of existing education and
provide employment. The collectors of the districts were directed to give
a list of schools, the number of children enrolled and the caste to which
they belong. Munroe was not satisfied with the native education and said
that this was due to ignorance and incompetence of the teachers. He also
recommended a higher allowance. Munroe proposed to start one Hindu
school in each collectorate and about fifteen schools in the districts. A
training school was to be organised in Madras. It was during this time
that there was a major change in the educational system in Madras.
With the construction of Fort St. George in 1640s, there was
the establishment of a military hospital which later became the Madras
General Hospital. Till 1749, doctors who were employed by the
company also served in the settlement. They employed the natives by
giving them training. In 1740, the Medical Department of the company
was created. It comprised of the British military sergeants and their
assistance. In 1787, they extended the facilities to employ a native
doctor on the pay of a hawildar. Training was given and the patients
were mostly the soldiers who fought in various wars.
The Madras Medical School was started in 1835 with in the
complex of the hospital. The objective for opening a medical school was
to give a systematic training and instructions to make the medical
subordinates and assistants more efficient. The course initially was for
two years. In 1842 the Board of Governors wanted to upgrade the school
as a college. the Madras Presidency was the first to establish a medical
school. At first it was called as the Madras Millito Medical School. The
students were those from the military who were trained for the service in
the army. In 1838, the school was opened to civil students. The first
Brahmin student was Dr Seshiah. In 1850 the institution became the
Madras Medical College. In 1856 the college was recognized by the
Royal College of Surgeons, London and the Royal College of Dublin
and Edinburgh by 1857. Admissions to women students started in 1875.
This was the first college in India to admit women students. In 1882 the
school apartment of the college moved to Royapuram and came to be
called as the Auxillary Medical School and later as Royapuram
Auxillary Medical School. It remained there till 1887 when it shifted
back to the Madras Medical College. In 1903 it moved back to
Royapuram and functioned from an old bullet factory of the East India
Company. It later on became the Stanley Medical College.
The creation of technical education and training
became essential with the expansion of the British Settlement. They
needed trained people for constrution and maintenance of public
buildings, roads, canals and maintenance of equipment in the army and
navy . Initially engineers were recruited from England, those who had
passed out from the Cooper's Hill College. They needed to train lower
level personal particularly in the revenue department and in 1792, the
Government Survey School was established because of the initiative of
Mr. Richard Topping. In 1794 there was a need for an observatory and
this was set up . The Government Survey School developed in to
Madras Engineering College. This was closed down in 1810 due to
financial problems and restarted in 1819. In 1853 the school was
upgraded in to a college after a lot of planning. A principal was
appointed and survey school was called as the Civil Engineering College
and the Madras University was the first in India to institute a degree in
Mechanical Engineering.
Legal Education has already begun in Bengal and in the Madras
University. Law was an important subject. The Presidency College
conducted law classes from 1855. In 1888, Mr. Grigg submitted
proposals to establish a law college and sanction was granted in 1891,
which also started functioning in the same year.
An experimental farm was opened at Saidapet . A
school for agriculture was sanctioned in 1876. This was to be a
comprehensive study that would include subjects like Chemistry,
Geology, Botony, Zoology and Vetenary science. In 1886 it became a
college for technical education and this was the first agricultural college
in India. In 1850 the school of arts was established. In 1892 a Civil
Vetenary Department was inaugrated. In 1903 it became a Vetenary
Institute, TANUVAS.
The Muslim community did not very easily accept the concept of
western education and did not participate in administrative positions in
the government. The Hindus were progressing. In 1860 the Prince of
Arcot established a Madrasa and in 1861 this became a government
school. Attention was given to education of muslim girls and in 1875 a
school was opened in Royapettah for muslim girls and scholarships were
given.

EARLY COLLEGES IN MADRAS

WOMEN'S CHRISTIAN COLLEGE

Women were deprived of their recognition, access to general knowledge

and the fundamental rights. As a result they have remained unaware of
their social, political and legal rights and liberties. They have been
subjected to a patriarchal system that makes them suffer under male
authority and power all their lives. A woman did not have an opportunity
to express her feelings and expose her identity. She was also denied an
opportunity to develop herself. It was against this background that a
college for women was established in Madras in the first quarter of the
20th century as the Women's Christian College.
It was a time when there were lot of changes taking place that
affected the scope and aspect of women's education. Earlier attempts
were made by the government to promote women's education. But it was
the private organizations and the church in India that made a pioneering
effort to introduce a new approach in the male dominated field of
education. The establishment of Women's Christian College took place
at a time during national and international struggles. Nationally it was a
time of the freedom movement and internationally it was the outbreak of
World War I. The college, from the beginning faced a lot of challenges.
The college was started due to the efforts of missionaries.
Two women missionaries, McDougall and Margaret E. Roberts
were given the choice of selecting a place in India. They were sent to
India by the Edinburgh Conference to travel across the country, access
the needs and standards in the education of women and to decide upon a
place to start a college. Margaret Roberts was from Somerville College,
Oxford University and Miss Eleanor McDougall was a professor from
the University of London. They were required to submit a report on their
findings, a copy of which was sent to various officials including
Harcourt Butler and the Government of Madras. They highlighted the
inadequacies in the prevailing system and also gave suggestions. Both of
them were impressed by Madras for its no active role in the freedom
movement and how the community lived in harmony inspite of being
diverse. Eleanor McDougall was requested to initiate the starting of the
college. The representatives of the united mission met in Madras in 1912
and they approved the plan to start a women's college. They got the
support of Bishop Whitehead, the Bishop of Madras and Bishop
Azariah, the Bishop of Donarkal. They were also involved as the
missionaries who belong to the American British Canadian Churches.
The first meeting of College Council was held on 15 April 1915. The
government supported the cause for the enhancement of women's
education. The government had started a women's college in 1914, the
Queen Mary's College. But due to the poor infrastructure they had to go
to the Presidency College for their science classes. At this time college
education was still only for the affluent.
When the college opened on 15 July 1915 there were only 41
students. There were a resident staff and a few nonresident teachers to
teach Indians languages. Margaret Betterton from the YWCA joined the
college to teach English. Heuretta Drury, an American was made the
Vice Principal. In 1918, the college was given the affiliation by the
University of Madras for starting new courses like degree courses in
Botany and Zoology. There were few more lecturers to teach languages.
The college functioned from a house in Poonamalee highroad. In 1916,
they bought Doveton house (dates back to 1798) at a cost of Rs 63,000.
The funds were given from the legacy of Laura Spellman Rockfeller.
The original building was taken on a three year lease and the place was
called Hydepark. This was later on taken over by the Ayurvedic College
and now the Kilpauk Medical College. Most of the subjects were taught
in the intermediate level. They had inter collegiate class system and the
major colleges involved were Women's Christian College, Madras
Christian College, Presidency College and Queen Mary's College.
Residences were introduced for outstation students. The main hostel was
completed in 1920 with government grants. In 1921 work began for the
construction of a chapel which was completed in 1923. In 1923 the
science bloc was constructed. Another residence was the Coon, named
after the death of Miss Edith Coon who was the then superintendent of
Residence. The Riveth house was built in 1942 primarily to provide
classrooms for the study of Indian languages. Facilities for the students
have improved and new courses were started. They have a department of
Indian music which was started, but has to be closed due to lack of
funds. The college gave importance to religious instructions.
Scholarships were provided and financial aid was given to deserving
students. In the earlier references to the college record, the name is given
as Madras Christian College for Women. The college received a number
of grants and gifts. Lord Pentland gave a grant of Rs 1000 to be
instituted as the Lord Pentland prize. A gold medal was instituted in the
name of Alexander Miller. Large number of books were donated to
library. The Mount Holy Yoke College has given money to buy a car for
the use of staff. The Doveton house which was bought as a historical
building used by congress leaders and was used as a hostel by Pachaippa
College. The Clock tower was a gift by Charles McDougall, the brother
of Eleanor McDougall. The college was visited by a number of
dignitaries that includes T.T krishnana, P.Shiva Rao, Rajagopalachari,
Dr. Karve, Mrs. Tara Tilak (a social worker from Bombay), Tagore and
Gandhi. The freedom movement did have participation from the college.
Some students like Rukmani, Lakshmipathey courted arrest and college
responded to the movement in a passive manner. Every year they started
new courses and there was a steady increase in the numbers that
enrolled. In 1917 when the first batch of students graduated they were
five who did History and two Botony. The principle of the college was to
encourage departments that are not common. The two research
departments in College are Home Science and Psychology. Prior to the
starting of Women's Christian College the two colleges for women in
India were Isabella Thoburn College,Lucknow and the SarahTucker
College at Palayamkottai. The Isabella Thoburn College and Women's
Christian College exchanged staff and they are part of the seven
Colleges of the Orient which includes CMC Vellore whose ultimate
objective is to spread Christian education among Indian women. There
was a proposal to start Women's Christian College at Calcutta and
Srilanka,but this not materialize. The Saint Christopher's Training
College for Women was started in the same campus in 1923. In 1933
they moved to Vepery. The college from the begining has been involved
in a number of social welfare programme. The College magazine is
called as the Sunflow with its first publication in 1918. The Motto of the
College is 'Lighter to Lighten'.Distinguished Alumini of the College are
C.B.Muthama, the first woman diplomat and Susan Mathew. The first
Indian principal who graduated in 1923 was Miss Elizebeth George. The
History of College is one of dedication by missionaries with their
enthusiasm and has seen a slow and steady development of College. The
principals of College are Eleanor Mcdougall (1915-1938),Eleanor Rivett
(1938-1947),Dr. Miss Elizebeth George (1947-1948),Dr. Miss Eleanor
Mason (1948-1956) Dr. Miss. Renuka Mukerjee (1956-1965), Dr. Miss
Anna Zachriah (1965-1971), Dr. Mrs Renuka Somasewar(1971-
1981),Dr. Indrani Maichael, Dr. Miss Kanmani Christian ( retired in
1998), Dr. Mrs. Glory Christopher (1998-2003), Dr. Mrs. Reeta Cherian
(2003-2006),Dr. Mrs. Ridling Waller (2006-2017).

QUEEN MARY'S COLLGE

The founder principal of Queen Mary's college was Miss Dela Hey.
Madras College for Women was the Original name of the college. The
college was started on 14 June 1914 and fuctioned from a building
called 'Copper House'. The number of students who enrolled were very
small in number and the Director of Public instructions were in charge of
the admissions. Soon after the college changed it's name to Queen
Mary's College to honour the Queen of England. The founder of the
college putford the motto ' coomonsense and consideration'. The college
was affiliated to the Madras University. . Inter collegiate classes were
held with the Presidency college and the college offered most of the
popular subjects like History, English, Economics etc. In 1923 they
included Geography and Indian Music. In 1929 Physics and Chemistry
was included and in 1942 introduced Home Science in collaboration
with WCC. In course of time the college became a popular residential
college. In 1958 post graduate classes were introduced. Subjects like
Anthropology and Psychology was also included later on. The QMC
evening college was inaugrated in 1955 by the then Chief Minister
C.Bhkatavatchalam. In late 1960s there was great demamd for imparting
higher education in the local language. Tamil medium was introduced at
the pre-university level in 1968 and it was opened for the undergraduate
courses in 1970. The site of the college was rented by the goverment,
new buildings were constructed and additions were made; important
blocks - Pentland block namedd after Pentland, Stone block named after
Mr.Stone and Jaipur block named after the Maharaja of Jaipur who gave
rupees 1 lakh donation for the college. Other added infrastructure
includes playgrounds and dining halls. in 1973 the golden jubilee block
was inaugrated by the Chief Minister Karunanidhi . The college
magazine was started in 1917 and the students union in 1928.Physical
training was compulsory for students and they had student societies and
associations including NSS and NCC. QMC was a residential college
and the first residents were from West Coast. Today the college has
expanded a great deal and most of the the departments are research
oriented. It is an autonomos institution affiliated to Madras University
and the college ha smore than 3000 students. Some of the notable alumni
are Marathagam Chandrashekhar - former deputy minister of health,
Govt. of India, Mrs. Stella Soundaraj - deputy director of collegiate
education, Vani Jayaram and Daisy Royappa the first woman to have a
doctrate in Physical education.

\PRESIDENCY COLLEGE
The Board of Directors were not satisfied with the functioning of
Madras University.The Presidency College at Madras was not working
like the Presidency College at Calcutta. They wanted to have an
institution in which various aspects of education would be combined and
students would be brought to a high level of achievement both in general
and special brances of study. The original plan of the college was to
include four major branches of study - Medicine, Law, Engineering and
General studies. But this scheme was not taken up and they concentrated
only on general departments. Law was taught as a subject. Till 1855 the
college functioned from the Madras University. Only in 1855 it was
changed as Presidency College.
With the formation of Madras University on 5 September
1857, degree were awarded and provision was made for primary,
secondary and collegiate education. All the colleges that started based on
the European model due to the missionary effort that general assembly's
school was started in 1837. The Presidency College came into existence
as a high school in 1841 and a college in 1855. The Government and
Government aided institutions had to follow certain rules and regulations
with regard to structure of fees. Aided institutions were allowed to
collect low fees. The Presidency College was one of the first Goverment
colleges in Madras which has had an outstanding record in the field of
education.

PACHAIPPA'S COLLEGE
Pachaiyappa College was founded as a Preparatory School in 1842. It
was the dream of Pachaiyappa Mudaliyar to start an educational
foundation in English medium that would cater to the needs of the
natives in South India. He is regarded as a pioneer of indegenous effort
for the spread of English education in South India.He is remembered for
his effort in the field of education, though he was a person with
absolutely no exposure to education. He was born in 1754 during a
crucial period, in the middle of the Anglo- French struggle in Southern
India. He was born at Periapalayam close to Madras. His father was
Viswanatha Mudaliyar of Kanchipuram.
His family was not an affluent one. His father died before he
was born, his mother had two daughters and now a son to take care. She
got the help of a brahmin who worked under the Nawab of Carnatic.
They stayed at Periyapalayam till Pachaiyappa was five years old. When
their supporter died the family had to move to Madras. They stayed near
the Black Town. They got in touch with Narayana Pillai who was an
influential man who took pity on the children and made some provisions
to support the family and enabled them to get a small property.
Pachaippa soon learnt to read and write English. He was able to make
clever bargains in the market in purchase of clothes and grains.During
his schooling he was able to make a living as a purchasing and selling
agent for the merchants in the city. He played a role of a Dubash. From a
very young age he was very charitable by giving generous gifts to the
learned and holymen. He gave large contributions to temples and
donations during the time of festivals. Because of his enterprising nature
an English officer in the company recruited him.Though he joined the
military, he was withdrawn as he had to take care of his mother. He
continued to work dubash. He married his knees Ayyalemmal. He
continued his work towards charity. From 1776 onwards he extented his
scope of business with extensive revenue forming transaction in
Chengelpet. He was also becoming very influencial in goverment.
Pachaippa wanted to start a school for the local Indians. When he
died at the age of 42, he didnt have a legal heir to his property. He
entrusted his work to a trust which was formed to take care of execution
of his will. The eight trustees were C.Srinivasa Pillai, L.Venkatapa
Naidu, A.Venkatachala Chettiar, M.Somasundara Mudaliar, C.Arunagiri
Mudaliar, Triplicane Veeraswamy Pillai, Sundara Naidu and Pondicherry
Rajarath Mudaliar.In January 1842 the college began under the name
Pachaippa Mudaliar's Prepatory school. This was functioned from
Broadway. P J Mc Namee was the first Headmaster. The purpose of the
school was to afford good education to the poor class of the native
community in the elementary branches of English literature and Science
with instructions in Tamil and Telungu. There was a great demand for
admissions. This soon collaborated with University of Madras. They
started with E.S.Powell as its Headmaster and he was succeeded by
E.Wing. Later their designation was changed to Principal. There were
two departments English and Vernacular and all subjects were taught by
English tutors. The institution slowly expanded and in course of time it
has to move from Parrys corner to Chetpet.

Cinema in Madras
The role of popular theater in South India arouse out of an interaction
between stage and the society. Though the tradition of drama goes back
to the 3rd and 4th century AD. Modern drama as we know it with its
divisions of acts and scenes, painted seffings, concealed orchestra is a
little more than a 100 years old in South India. Classical drama staged in
dance form in temples during festivals was not commucially organised
therefore never reached a large secion of the community. Modern drama
run on commercial lines was opened to every one without any barrier of
caste or class. When popular commercial drama appeared there was no
radio or cinema to compete with it. It appeared in an age when ideas
and information was crucial to the emergence of nationalism and it came
to be used as an instrument in the nations struggle for liberation.
The literate or the educated where influenced by the press and political
organisations. For the majority of people popular theater served. The
only means of mass communication. During the last quarter of the 19th
century stage dramas became popular. During the 1870's parsi and
marathi drama companies camped and had their dramas staged in
Madras. Other companies soon followed the Mohana Nataka company
founded by T.R. Govinmdaswamy was the popular one. In 1871
Pammal Sambanda Mudaliar founded an ameteur dramaic club called
the suguna vilasa sabha in Madras and soon several ohers appeared.
There were persons who emerged to write plays in Tamil eg.V.K Surya
Narayana Sastri the first play was Rupavahi staged in 1897. Smaller
companies emerged from the larger ones eg. The Boys Company in
which Boys below the age of 12 were recruited and trained in singing. It
was cheap they were not paid but given food and clothing. Shankara
Das Swamigal started the "Samarasa Sanmarga Nataka sabha" in 1910.
They moved from town to town camped for several months and after
they had made some money they moved on. Most of the stories were
popular mythology. By the late 1920s the number of companies
increased and they became popular performances expanded in addition
to temporary sheds. The stage diduot remains recreational for long
Madras war not politically active, there was limied activity that was
confined o the intelligeutia. The various developments like the Home
rule Movement. The Non-coperiation movement did have its impact in
South India. Nationalists saw in drama companies the message
effectively and widely. In Madras the companies operated in the Tamil
speaking regions. S.Sathyamoorthy who was a political leader was also
an ameteur actor interested in drama and music. Subramania Shiva
organised a drama troop called the Bharatha Vilasa sabha and staged
plays like Desingu Raja and Shivaji. There were three distinctive
elemens in the popular theater of this peorid. The use of sound, the
dipiction of social reform and the use of political themes. There were
reputed writers and journalists who dedicated hemselves to the cause of
nationalism. T.P.Krishnaswamy Pavalar ran a daily called Inrya
Samscharam (Todays news). He also stated the Ramanathapuram Bala
Maughora Boys Company and staged plays like "SatiSavithri" and
Harishchandra. The Government did not encourage the growth and
development of political drama. They tried to impose restrictions on
drama companies particularly on their themes. By the late 1930s there
was a development of the Tamil films. Many drama halls were converted
into cinema halls. A popular stage began to decline. When Cinema
appeared in Tamil Nadu at the turn of the century it played a role of an
agent of modernisation. It opened up a new world of experience to large
masses of the people. It also influenced public opinion on matters
relating war, social reform and nationalism. This process that started
from the time of the days of silent cinema continous today as well. No
other entertainment is so popular as the medium of cinema because it is
affordable by the poor providing mass recreation.

Silent Cinema
After the first cinemotograph show in Paris in 1895 the Luminere
brother sent their agents to different parts of Europe and to other
countries with films and equipment to demonstrate and to commercially
exploiit their achievement. One team came to India and their first show
was held at Watson Hall. Regular commercials shows began in Madras
in 1900 when Major Warwick set up the first cinema house the Electric
Theater in the building that later4 became the Mountroad Post Office. In
1907 cohen established another cinema house called "The Lyric" on the
same site as Elphinstone Theater later on it was burnt down by accident.
There were a few Indians who were3 interested in the making of films
like Swamiksnnu Vincent from Trichy and R.Venkiah a still
photographer of Madras. Venkiah built a permanent theater "The Gaiety
theater" in 1913 and later added the "Crown Theater" in 1914 and he
(Roxy) "Globe Theater" in 1915. R.Nataraja Mudaliar saw the
possibility of producing films relating to Indian subjects with the help of
his business associate S.M.Dharmalingam Mudaliar he started a film
producing company and called it India film company. The first studio
was set up on millers road in Kilpauk with Nataraja Mudaliar as the
director and editor. They established a laboratory in Bangalore. Film
rolls were sent and Natraja Mudaliar would visit once a week to
supervise the work. In 1916 the first film of the company and the first to
be made in south India was keechakavatham was produced. It took them
about 35 days. This was followed by other films. 1919-Mahiravana,
Markandeya was produced. Venkiah sent his sons to England to acquire
adequate training in film making. The name of his company was "Star of
the East India Company". Along with the development of feature films
there was a gradual growth of documentary films. In 1907 T.H Huffton
produced and screened some documentation in Madras. There was the
production of review films. Joseph David made short films on Indian
subjects like temple structures and festivals. News reals were made by
the Government. Stunt films were very popular and actors has to be
physically fit. Women did not join the film initially. A European women
was employed in the movies made by Natraja Mudaliar. The first few
women on screen were Anglo Indians eg Marian Hill whose film name
was Vilochana. The artist were not paid well. As there was no sound
system, these artists who could sing well or the professionals who got
involved in cinema could not shine well. American &British films were
very popular. Permanent theater were very few. Most of them were
touring tent. With the touring cinema the rural areas were exposed to
this new entertainment. With the establishment of the industry film
journals appeared like "The Movie Mirror" an English Monthly that was
started in 1928. Hollywood productions had a profound influence over
early south Indian cinema. Raja Sandow was an important film
personality born in pudukottai he went to Bombay started his carrier as
an actor returned to Madras as director and made movies with social
themes. He adverised with the caption "Dont miss to see your own
picture" The first film on a contemporary theme made in south India was
Narayanan's Dharmapathini in 1929 based on Alcoholism social
injustice to women was another important theme a "Rajeshwari" was
made by the 1930's the Talkies had emerged bringing an end to the silent
era. The Elphinstone picture palace was fitted with sound equipment and
became the Elphinesstone Talkies. From 1930's there was a district
patriotic wave in Indian Cinema. The last film of the silent era made in
South India was Bhagyachakra in 1932.

The Talkie Era

By the 1930's Talkies emerged as a development in the Tamil Cinema
industry. The first talkie produced in the Madras War imported from
England in 1931. The first full length feature film was Alam Ara and he
first full length feature film was Kalidas in 1931 made in Bombay. The
Srinivasa cinetone was the first studio equiped with a sound system in
Madras. In 1934 Srinivasa kalyanam was made. In 1935 about 36 talkies
were produced. The other studios that followed were Vale pictures and
Meenakshi Cinetone at Adayar. Most of the themes in the early indusry
were Hindu Mythology with poliical awekening the aim &purpose of
Tamil cinema began to change with the coming of Sound there was
demand for singing actos K.S Sauthana Krishna Naidu was one of the
early song writers of the period. Some of the actors who were involved
in politics were N.G.Natrajapillai & S.B.Subbaiya Bagavathar.
Observing the popularity of the media the British soon introduced
censorship. This media was used for political propoganda. The first alkie
with a contemporary theme was made in 1935, the name of the film
Dumbachari- which is a story of a young man who wastes his life on
wine and women. In 1935 "Meenakshi" was produced on the status of
woman. 1937 "lakshmi" ore Harijan girl based on untouchables.
Balayogini-1936 based on caste system. There were some stunt films
that were made like "Maya Mayavan" in 1938. "Jayakodi" 1939
"Bombay Mail"- 1939. There were movies that were made on the lifes of
saints eg. "Sankarachriya".-1939 "Jothi Ramalinga Swamigal -1938 with
the outbreak of II World War in 1939 production of Tamil films saw a
slow decline. The reasons was many were involved in the war, Petrol&
Diesel became scarce, finances became a problem for the production of
films. There were a few films that were made to bring feelings of
patriotism in the people. Films were made on Tamil heroes so that it
would give the people nationalistic sentiments. Some the political films
were "Valibar Sangam" 1939 "Desabakthi" 1939 Thyaga Boomie 1939.
During this phase of development many carnatic music experts joined
the film industry eg: M.S.Subhalakshmi & K.srinvasam. After
independece there was a district trend in the development of Tamil
cinema. Politicians in Tamilnadu were involved in the film industry as
producers and script writers. M.Karunanidhi & C.N Annadurai were
very much committed and involved in Tamil cinema. They used the
platform for their political propoganda which was a success to a certain
extent with Independence and the changing trend in cinema the
continued to be involved in the industry. There was an emergence of
several women artists who became very prominent. Thwy iclude T.R
Rajkumari, Saroja Devi, Vanmathi, Vaijayanthi mala and the others. The
1950's there was the entry of Gemini Ganesan, Shivaji Ganesan,M.G.
Ramachanfran, K.Balaji, N.T.RamaRao etc. Nageshwara Rao, Naghi
Reddy who made a distinct mark in their ownway. Most of the themes
were family oriented and social. Some of them were with the historical
background with the coming of the talkies there was a change in the
technical aspects of production. There needed to be music and playback
singers. Some of the artists sang their own songs. Most of the films gave
importance to the hero. There was the introduction of a comedy tract
which might be a part of the main story or comedy tract alongside the
main story.
Over the ages there wasb a distinct changes in trend over the quality,
quantiy and the technical details of Tamil Films. In India Madras is the
second largest film producing centre after Bombay. Telugu films and
Malayalam films came after this. Because of migration there was a large
population of Tamils in Malaysia and Singapore. Tamil films were very
popular in these areas. In the 1960's with the coming of producers like
K.Balachandar he shifted focus from a hero centered films to given
emphasis to the condition and status of women. But even today very few
producers give important and significant roles to women artists. The
1960's the films that were produced were also based on social themes
and family entertainers. Importance was given to comedy. Comedians
included Nagesh, Balaiah, N.S Krishnan, Surli Rajan and others. Women
who did comedy roles were very few one among them being Manorama.
Some of the comedy artists did not want to move ahead to the role of a
heroine because the position did not last long towards the end of '60's
there was another element tha became an integeral part of the movies
that is dances by some women eg Johilakshmi, Silksmitha, JayaMalini,
Anuradha, Disco Shanti etc. They were a distinctive character put in
certain roles that were very negative with the technological advancement
films also made a steady progress. From the 70'sonwards there was
improvement in the sound system and special visual and audio effects.
Some movies were remix effects. Some movies were remix of films
produced either in England or America.
Directors
Balachandar- Trend setting director, Most of his movies were social
hemes and gave importance to family centered and also women centered
stories like Mudhal Mariyadhai, kalki
Bharathiraja- Mainly centered on village subjects. Karathamma- a film
about female infanticide. Pudumai pen (modern women), Moondru
modichu, Avargal
Visu- Portray joint family
Balumahendra- Mundram pirai, Marubadium
Bhimsingh, Sridhar, Mahendran, K.Balaji, Manirathanam

Cultural renaissance in madras:

During 16th and 18th century, Madras was ruled by Portuguese and

Frenchmen. The arrival of the railway in India during the 19th century

helped the city to connect with other crucial cities like Mumbai and

Kolkata which encouraged communication and trading in the surround-

ing area.
On 22nd August 1639, a small piece of land was purchased by

the British East India Company which is located on the Coromandel

Coast in Chandragiri from Peda Venkata Raya, king of Vijayanagar. For

trading projects, Damerla Venkatapathy being the ruler of Vandavasi re-

gion permitted the British to build a factory and a warehouse. The next

year British built the Fort St. George which then became a core part of

the growing colonial city. Along with Tamil Nadu, the other northern

modern-day states of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka were conquered by

the British in the late 18th century. This was the period when the Madras

Presidency was established with Madras as the capital. Under British

rule, the city grew into a major urban centre and naval base.

Along with the city’s infrastructural and urban development, there were

changes in important sectors of the societal arenas too which began an

age of renaissance i.e., ‘Rebirth’. Renaissance refers to the literary, cul-

tural, social reform and political movements that took place in Tamil

Nadu. Tamil Nadu history begins in the 3rd century BC. Unlike the

Tamil society back then, the Europeans were experts in literature, sci-

ence, law and art. So, when the British Crown took over the administra-
tion of the country from the British East India Company, there was a

rapid rise in literacy levels in South India. The response of a people to

invasion by aliens from a foreign land is a measure of the depth of their

roots and the strength of their identity. Plenty of examples can be found

in south Indian historian’s writings where they describe the Tamil soci-

ety’s hesitation to accept westernization. But instead of standing united

to drive the colonial evil away from their homelands, the people decided

to work along with it to achieve their own preferred goals and selfish

ambitions. For the Brahmins and the other marginalized sections of the

society, the divisions in caste and religion were too big a barrier that

could not be broken down during the early colonial times. But later on,

we see that Nationalism arose among people and freedom that was once

a dream became a reality. Keeping in mind that it was under British con-

quest that the Tamil renaissance of the second half of the 19th century

gathered momentum, the cultural aspect of the madras society is what

we are going to discuss here. British Literature and education enabled

non-brahmins to rise to a higher social status and be independent of their

achievements without any interference from the Brahmin community.

These openings further lead to the Dravidian movement and other south

Indian committees, that protested against the brahmin dominance in the

government positions. The non-brahmin community did not have instant

success handed over to them as their employment in the administration

and their tireless efforts were stopped by manipulation by the Brahmins

in Tamil society.

Madras renaissance had its cultural beginnings in the discovery and the

subsequent editing and printing of the Tamil classics of the Sangam pe-

riod. These had existed earlier only as palm leaf manuscripts.

The 18th century saw emergence of rule of the East India Company fol-

lowed by setting up of British colonial rule in the 19th century. Such de-

velopments saw decline of various classical dance forms which were

subjected to contemptuous fun and discouragement including

Bharatanatyam that through the 19th century remained exclusive to

Hindu temples. Eventually social and economic conditions associated

with Devadasi culture added with contempt and despicable attitude from

the Christian missionaries and British officials, who held the Devadasis
of South India and nautch girls of North India as harlots, disgraced such

systems. Furthermore, the Christian missionaries launched anti-dance

movement in 1892 to stop such practice. The Madras Presidency under

the British colonial government banned the custom of dancing in Hindu

temples in 1910 and with this the age-old tradition of performing

Bharatanatyam in Hindu temples also came to an end.

The Indian community disapproved such ban. The Tamilians were wor-

ried that such a rich and ancient custom of Hindu temple dancing was

getting persecuted on the pretext of social reform

Many classical art revivalists like Indian lawyer, freedom-fighter, ac-

tivist and classical artist E. Krishna Iyer questioned such discrimination.

Iyer founded the ‘Madras Music Academy’ and along with Indian

theosophist, dancer and Bharatanatyam choreographer Rukmini Devi

Arundale, he strived to save Bharatanatyam from dying out. As the In-

dian freedom movement progressed steadily during the early 20th cen-

tury, an effort to revive Indian culture and tradition seethed with excite-

ment among Indians. Eminent Bharatanatyam dancers like Arundale and

Balasaraswati expanded the dance form out of Hindu temples and estab-

lished it as a mainstream dance form.

Rukmini Devi Arundale:

Rukmini Devi Arundale, is an Indian classical dancer and follower

of theosophy, best known for catalysing the renaissance of

the Bharatanatyam form and founding the Kalakshetra Foundation in

Madras (now Chennai) ("Virginia Gorlinski", 2021). The foundation

aimed to preserve and popularize Bharatanatyam and other Indian tradi-

tions as well as to spread the ideals of theosophy i.e., Theosophy, oc-

cult movement originating in the 19th century with roots that can be

traced to ancient Gnosticism and Neoplatonism. The term theosophy, de-

rived from the Greek Theos (“god”) and Sophia (“wisdom”), is gener-

ally understood to mean “divine wisdom.

She was born on 29th February 1904 in Madurai, Tamil Nadu, into a

Tamil Brahmin family with seven siblings. The father Neelakanta Sastri,

though an engineer by profession, was a Sanskrit scholar and a historian

as well. Since her mother Seshammal was a music enthusiast, Rukmini

Devi was exposed to dance, music, and culture within the precincts of

her home from early childhood. Her father Nilakanta Sastri was very

closely associated with Theosophical Society based in Madras which

quite naturally, she was influenced by liberal, humanistic ideas of the so-

ciety. Besides the influence of her father, another individual who greatly

impacted her ideology and thoughts was none other than Dr. Annie Be-

sant, the British co-founder and president of the Society. Little did Ruk-

mini know that the Theosophical Society would eventually become the

fundamental truth of her life.

The first signs became palpable when in the year 1920, aged barely 16,

she stunned her family and society by tying the knot with 42-year-old Dr

George Arundale, a British Theosophist. Their married life was by and

large peaceful. Arundale eventually became his youthful spouse’s men-

tor, friend philosopher, and guide. Arundale travelled extensively with

her husband and Besant on various theosophical missions, all the while

absorbing the ideology of the society. Also, during her travels, Arundale

became enamoured with classical dance. She met the legendary ballerina

Anna Pavlova on a ship to Australia and was enthralled by her stunning

performances. It was on Pavlova’s request that she began learning ballet.

Pavlova had also advised Rukmini to encourage the dancer within her by

seeking inspiration in classical Indian dance forms.

Taking this advice to heart, Rukmini embarked on a campaign to learn,

practice and promote Bharatanatyam. She didn’t just want to revive a

dying Indian dance form, she wanted to reverse the negative social

stereotypes associated with it. Originally the dance form Bharatnatyam

was known as ‘sadhir’ and was considered vulgar. Rukmini played an

instrumental role in modifying the dance form, giving it a new name,

and popularizing it all over the world as a respectable art form.

After completing her formal training under Bharatnatyam maestro Pan-

danallur Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai, Rukmini gave her first public per-

formance on stage at the Theosophical Society in 1935, setting a prece-

dent for Indian women to practice and perform the dance form that had

been traditionally restricted only to the devadasi community (women rit-

ually “dedicated” to service of a temple for the rest of their lives).

Rukmini Devi resolved to erase the stigma and social stereotypes con-

nected with the dance. She realised that to do so, certain innovations and
renovation would be required. Plunging headlong into action, she in-

fused motley hues and designs into dancers costumes, introduced violin

paying, stage lights , props, customized jewellery and majestic statues of

Nataraja (King of Dance, who is equal to Lord Shiva) which were wor-

shipped by the dancers before their recitals commenced. She collabo-

rated with several contemporary classical musicians, artists, and Gurus

of divergent dance forms, to create some landmark dance dramas based

on mythology, epics and scriptures. These include Sri Rama Vanaga-

manam, Sabari Moksham, Kumara Sambhavam and many more.

Through her hard labour, she succeeded in garnering for Bharatnatyam,

the popularity which it richly deserved. A late bloomer, Rukmini Devi

achieved success at a tremendous pace. By 1960s, she had reached the

pinnacle of fame and glory, emerging as India’s Prima Donna

( Heroine ) and a revivalist of classical dances. In 1956, she won

the Padma Bhushan, India’s second highest civilian award. This was fol-

lowed by the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award in 1967. She served two

stints as a member of the Rajya Sabha during the 1950s. She was the
first Indian woman to be nominated in Rajya Sabha. She had the signal

honour of becoming the first woman member of the Upper House.

Her life was the epitome of Indian cultural traditions and heritage. In-

deed, Rukmini Devi Arundale was one of the leading best exponents of

Indian classical dances. Throughout her long illustrious life, she toiled at

refurbishing the tarnished façades of classical dances (especially

Bharatanatyam), and showcased their renewed splendour before the en-

tire world. After a lifetime spent working for the revival of traditional

Indian art forms, Rukmini Devi Arundale passed away on February 24,

1986, at the ripe old age of 82.

More than three decades after her death she remains immortalised in the

sphere of performing arts. She was an artistic soul passionately devoted

to dance. This coupled with her philosophical bent of mind, propelled

her to live a simple life and maintain a low profile. No wonder, because

when she was offered Presidentship of the Indian Union, Rukmini Devi

gracefully turned down the offer, choosing to only focus on her passion.

The versatile lady may have chosen not to be president of India; how-
ever, she will be remembered for all that she chose to do, and with such

elan.

She was also an animal rights activist who deeply cared for all creatures.

The Animal Welfare Board of India was set up under her chairmanship

in 1962. Being an animal lover, she followed a strict vegetarian diet and

was involved in promoting vegetarianism in the country. She served as

the Vice President of International Vegetarian Union from 1955 to 1986.

The Animal Welfare Board of India presented her with ‘Prani Mitra’

award in 1968 for her work as an animal rights activist.

The Kalakshetra Foundation:

Meanwhile, in 1934, the year after Besant’s death, Arundale established

the Besant Theosophical High School and the Besant Arundale Senior

Secondary School to impart education based on both theosophist and tra-

ditional Hindu values. In January 1936, Rukmini and her husband estab-

lished an academy of dance and music called Kalakshetra at Adyar (near

Chennai). This arts academy that was especially dedicated to the cultiva-

tion of the Bharatanatyam tradition. Together, the high school, the se-
nior secondary school, and the arts academy became the Kalakshetra

Foundation. The name ‘Kalakshetra’ was decided by Pandit S. Subrama-

nia Sastri, a Sanskrit scholar and member of the academy. All the mem-

bers were deeply committed to the Theosophical society and as well as

Kalakshetra. S. Sarada, Radha, Leelavati (Rukmini's niece) were among

the first to join Kalakshetra. Many renowned dancers including

Meenakshisundaram Pillai, Muthukumara Pillai and Karaikkal

Saradambal Ammal joined the Kalakshetra as its teachers

Kalakshetra, as the name suggests, is a centre for artistic endeavour. The

institution stands testimony to her dream of creating a space where the

essence of Indian thought would find expression through artistic educa-

tion, an institution she established with the vision “of imparting to the

young the true spirit of Art, devoid of vulgarity and commercialism.”

The Foundation is spread over almost 100 acres by the seashore in

Chennai. The Kalakshetra Foundation, as it is known today, is a vital

centre for the study and performance of fine arts. There are three li-

braries on the campus:

1. Rukmini Devi Library: The library has a collection of 5219 books

from Smt. Rukmini Devi’s private collection. It is not open to the pub-

lic.

2. Sankara Menon Library: This is the library attached with the Rukmini

College of Fine Arts, the flagship unit of Kalakshetra Foundation.

It was started in March 1958.

At present, there are 10830 books related to dance, music and fine arts.

These books are available in various languages like English, Telugu,

Kannada, Tamil, Sanskrit, Hindi, Malayalam and Grantham.

3. Research Library: It was started in March 2006.

It has a collection of 9380 books for reference. Books on painting, mu-

sic, dance, and religion, as well as manuscripts of Rukmini Devi’s

dance-dramas, are also available. It is open only to staff and students of

Kalakshetra Foundation and to scholars with prior permission.

In January 1994, an Act of the Indian Parliament recognised the Kalak-

shetra Foundation as an ‘Institute of National Importance’. Year-long

celebrations, including lectures, seminars and festivals marked her 100th

birth anniversary, on 29 February, in 2004 at Kalakshetra and elsewhere

in many parts of the world,] At the campus the day was marked by spe-

cial function in which old students gathered from across India and the

world, in a day of songs and recitals. Also on 29 February, a photo exhi-

bition on her life opened at the Lalit Kala Gallery in New Delhi, and on

the same day, then President APJ Abdul Kalam released a photo-biogra-

phy, written and compiled by Dr Sunil Kothari with a foreword by for-

mer president R Venkataraman.

In 2016, Google honoured Rukmini Devi on her 112th birthday with

a doodle, and later in the month marking the 80th year of the Kalak-

shetra Foundation held, 'Remembering Rukmini Devi’ festival of music

and dance. Google also featured her in the 2017 Google Doodle for In-

ternational Women's Day.

Arundale’s enormous contributions to the cultural changes in the Tamil

society still stands strong to this day. Her passion, intense enthusiasm,
strong mindset and unwavering beliefs adds her to the list of indepen-

dent women of the modern historical times.

Development of Press

INTRODUCTION:
The Press is one of the most vital organs of every country which can-
not be undermined. It makes available the details of what is going on in
every system and keeps the general public updated. Press is more than
a media of information. Press not only leaves an impact on political life
but also affects our social and economic life. That is why press plays
an important role in a country. The advent of press into India had dif-
ferent kinds of impact on the people and the government. The introduc-
tion of the press into the Madras Presidency made the Tamil population
beware of what is happening in the country and kept them informed.
The origin and function of the two main newspapers namely The
Hindu and The Swadesamitran that operated from Madras are going to
be briefly discussed.

The first press in India was established by the Portuguese in 1550. The
next was established by the British in 1684. James Augustus Hickey is
considered as the “Father of Indian Press” as he started the first Indian
newspaper from Calcutta, which was known as the Bengal Gazette or
the Calcutta General Advertise in January of 1780. This newspaper
criticized government policies and the Governor-General. Hence the
paper was closed in just two years
in 1782. Newspaper publishing started in Madras with the launch of a
weekly, The Madras Courier, in 1785. It was followed by the weeklies
like The Madras Gazette and the Government Gazette in 1795. The
Spectator, founded in 1836, was the first English newspaper in Madras
to be owned by an Indian. It became the city`s first daily newspaper in
1853.The first Tamil newspaper in Madras was Swadesamitran which
was started to be issued from 1899. Other than English and Tamil, other
Indian language journals were also available at Madras like Satya
Doota which was the first Telugu journal to be printed in Madras in
1935.

Swadesamitran (1881-1985) was the first Tamil Language newspaper

owned and operated by Indians. It was published from Madras. It was
founded by G. Subramania Aiyer who also served as the paper`s first
editor. It was founded as a sister paper of The Hindu, which Aiyer had
already founded two years earlier in 1879. The name Swadesamitran,
when translated from Tamil to English literally means “Friend of Self
Rule”. It was originally started as a weekly and became a daily by
1889. It was one of the earliest and the longest in print.
The Swadesamitran was a chronicle of the Indian National Indepen-
dence movement from its inception. Subramania
Aiyer used Swadesamitran to rouse the nationalistic feelings of
the Tamil people. A host of very eminent men like Subramania Pillai,
Mahakavi Subramania Bharathi (worked as sub-editor from 1904 to
1906), VVS Iyer and others worked as editor or sub-editor of the paper
during the struggle for independence. These men used familiar anecdots
from the great epics of Ramayana and Mahabharatha to rouse public
opinion in the cause of nationalism within the Madras Presidency.
The first 17 years in the life of the Swadesamitran were remarkable for
the richness of incidents both inside India and in the outside world. As
the curiosity of the people was aroused, they desired to know more and
more about the events of the world. The Swadesamitran honestly at-
tempted to satisfy the increasing need. The Lord Ripon’s scheme of lo-
cal self-government created an interest in public affairs. People read
with avidity all news about general political discontent in India in the
closing year of the last century. With the knowledge of world events
and world conditions and increasing realisation of the condition of af-
fairs at home through Swadesamitran provided the people with political
knowledge and awakened the national spirit.
The Swadesamitran was the second vernacular newspaper pub-
lished in India following the publication of Kesari which was pub-
lished in Hindi. The Swadesamitran not only gave news but also
educated the people. It contributed to the development of the Tamil
Language. It was not easy in those days to conduct a daily newspa-
per in the Tamil Language. Subramania Aiyer although more com-
fortable in English, was determined to take the discussion of the fu-
ture of India`s independence to the masses. He experienced much
difficulty in expressing modern world events and ideas in Tamil. He
coined new phrases and liberally used English words like Govern-
ment, police, prosecution, railways and the like in Tamil and they
became quite familiar to the people. Subramania Aiyer was con-
scious that those with the knowledge of English are a small number
and those with knowledge of Indian languages the vast majority.
He felt that unless our people were told about the objectives of the
British rule and its merits and defects in the native Indian lan-
guages, the people would remain ignorant. So he pub-
lished “Swadesamitran” in Tamil at Madras. He wrote in a simple
and clear Tamil style. The Swadesamitran rendered service to the
cause of Tamil also by insisting on leaders speaking in the mother
tongue in public meetings. The people enthusiastically supported
him. He played a main role in spreading the idea of a Tamil
daily .He was supported by Deshbandhu Chittranjan Das (CR Das)
and Motilal Nehru in this approach.
 Subramania Aiyer was also a social reformer and sponsored the
Madras Hindu Social Reform Association. During his tenure as an edi-
tor he was prosecuted and sentenced for sedition in 1908 by the British
due to his writings in the paper.
After his death the paper was run by Rangaswamy Iyengar and there-
after by C.R. Srinivasan. Rangaswamy and Srinivasan were a potent
combination and when Bharathiyar rejoined the newspaper in 1920 the
three of them took the paper to lofty new heights of popularity and
fame. Due to Subramania Bharati`s later contributions it became the
most successful Tamil daily well into independence. Naidu quoted:
“Aiyer`s Swadesamitran not only decorates the drawing-rooms of the
rich and the palaces of the Zamindars, but also is seen in the hands of
women of all shades” something that Subramania Aiyer dreamed of. It
was under Srinivasan`s leadership that it became a Public Limited Com-
pany “The Swadesamitran Limited” which became the publisher of
the newspaper. After Srinivasan`s death his son C.S. Narasimhan sold
the controlling shares held by him to the Silver Jubilee of Indepen-
dence Trust of the Congress party headed by former Tamil Nadu Chief
Minister Shri.M.Bhaktavatsalam. This Trust continued to run the paper
till August of 1977 when due to financial and other reasons the publica-
tion of the paper was stopped and the Company was on the verge of
bankruptcy. It was purchased from the Trust by John Thomas, a distin-
guished lawyer of the Madras High Court and successful local business-
man. The paper was shut down for a period of 30 months but the new
proprietor was determined that such a storied icon of India`s indepen-
dence movement should not go quietly into the night. John Thomas was
able to resurrect the newspaper and it began its publication again in
March 1980 under editor Sundaresan; the newspaper went back to its
origins and its editorial pages were openly supportive of the Congress
Party and the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in particular.
The Swadesamitran was printed at the company`s printing press and of-
fice “Deshbandu Bhavan” on White Road in Royapettah, Madras.
 The progress of Tamil Press made a mark difference by the end of
19th century. The Swadeshimithran started in 1882 made a very mark
era in the development of Tamil press G.Subramani Iyer one of the
founding members of the Hindu and the Indian national congress was
instrumental in starting this publicaion. The Hindu and the
swadeshimithran was conducted by the same person till 1898 when
Subramanian Iyer took over completely management of
swadeshimithran. It was a weekly and converted into a daily in 1899,
with the development of Indian nationalis sentiment there was an
increase in the number of political weekly and monthly in circulation.
Most of them made a significiant contribution to the purpose for which
they were discontinued for various reasons. In mostcases it was because
finiancial problem. V.V.S Iyer, subramani bharathi, T.V Kalyana sundra
Mudaliar, T.S chokalingam, C.Rajagopalachari, P.Varatharaj nasidu were
some of them who associate with revolution of Tamil Journelism.

Until 1917 the swadeshimithran functional as the only Tamil daily and
it enjoyed this momopoly. In December 1917 the Desabakthan was
started the editors were reputed Tamil Scholars who aimed at the pre-
sentation of news in a language that could be read by all and also intro-
duced a refined style of news writings. This paper stopped publication
after a short time but it managed to leave a good impression on journal-
istic practices. Before 1914, people were not intrested in political stories
and they were not very curious about the news. Only some political de-
velopment drew their attention eg. the trial of Tilak, The Russo-Japa-
nese war 1905 and similar incidents with the outbreak of First World
War people are now more conscious of developments around the world.
In 1915 A rangaswamy Iyengar became the editor of Swadeshimithra
he was deeply commited and intrested in working with the management
of the swadeshimithran. He improved the quality & content of the pa-
per, under his leadership the paper improved its news publicaions with a
wider coverage of happenings, improved in circulation and there by in-
creased in fininancial resources. In he left the paper and rejoined "The
Hindu". The paper did develop bringing in several new expression in
politics and other news items, that was published Subramania bharathi
worked for sometimes with Swadeshimithran. After Rangaswani Iyen-
gar left the paper there were several efficient editiors who contributed o
the paper. C.R srinivasan took over as editor and there was a marked
improvement in the publication. During the height of the national
movement it mainained ideas & practices of other serious journals.
There was also a modernisation effort initiated. He was a very promi-
nent leader and devoted to thew upliftment of vernacular newspapers.
He died in 1962 Swadeshimithran though it has emerged as a prominent
paper in TamilNadu soon began to decline. There was a revival attempt
made in the 1960's and 1980's but unfortunately the paper did not get
adequate support and had to be closed down. The Tamil press was for-
tunate in having newspapers with the standard and calibre of
Swadeshimithran at a time whrn there was a need for an outlet to voice
the opinion of the educated people in the Tamil Region Swadeshi
Mithran played a significant role at a right time during the time of crisis
the national movement. It was able to carry to the masses nationalistic
ideas, information about the movement and indstigated in them a spirit
of patriotism. The paper till the end had managed to maintain certain
journalistic standard. The paper was successful quite early in its life
and quickly found readership wherever there was a significant Tamil
population not only in India but also in Countries like Burma, Sri
Lanka and Mauritius.
But alas, the Swadesamitran is no more. It stopped publishing in the
year 1985 due to various reasons. To even this day The Swadesamitran
is a witness to the contributions of G.Subramania Aiyer to the im-
provement of Tamil journalism.

Tamil Press and Nationalism:

Madras Presidency was a compact linguistic region comprisuing of
different areas which experienced significiant political change both of
national & regional importance. In the struggle for freedom leaders in
presidency played a prominent role in different levels. Though the
movement was not active as in northern India, people were aware of the
happenings and the significant political developments carrying
information gives importance to the establishment of a Tamil Newspaper
the visualized a new era in India and wanted to take advantage of the
liberal atmosphere politically. It was the time where a liberal
government was established in England and Lord Ripon was sent as a
viceroy to India. He was a person committed towards working for a
welfare of the people. Subramania Iyer started the Tamil weekly.
Swadeshimithran the first issue was published in 21 November 1881.
The Tamil press of the early 20th century was a week social institution.
It lacked capital journalistic enterprise & a sense of commitment to a
common cause besides popular support. At the begining of the 20th
century there were only very few papers. Swadeshimithran, Lokopakari,
Prapauchamithran, The Hindu Nesau state in 1904 but soon went out of
circulation. The Tamil press in its years of department faced a lot of
problems. The first difficulty was obtaining news, they did not employ
corrospondents. The news was received through public spirit readers
who wrote to the editor. News from the government was very difficult to
obtain and they had to be processed before publicarion. The other
difficulties was translating the procedings of INC and that of British
Government. These news items has to be translated & those on the
editorial board had to have a good knowledge of both English and Tamil.
When the extremists movement began the only potential newspaper in
the vernacular was the Swadeshimithran. 'India' was stared in 1906 by
Thirumalachari and Subramani Bharathi joined as a staff. These two
papers were two different shapes and two district voices of extremist
nationalism. Subramania Iyer was an extremist and used the
swadeshimithran to propogate the principles and ideals of the extremists.
The other paper criticised the moderates in a more harsh terms. The
Tamil press did not receive any patrouage from the English educated
elite. They did not read the paper and also did not contribute news and
article which might be a reason for he undifference of the Tamil people
towards the national movement. However inspite of the coustrains the
Tamil press developed into a very powerful instrument of social &
political change during the period between 1905 and 1939. This
development was seen in the rise of the number of newspapers and their
circulation. The major movements in which the Tamil region was
involved in was the swadeshi Movement, Homerule, Non Cooperation.
& Civil disobedience. The Tamil press though not actively involved in
the national movement helped in some way to further the cause by
instilling in the people a feeling of patrioptism. The swadeshimithran
though it roused to the occassion to spread the ideal and philosophy of
the national movement particularly the swadeshi movement did not
effectively reflect the militant spirit. It was to fill this gap that "India"
was born. Both the paper gave different opinion extremist nationalism in
content style and tone. Extremist nationalism to swadeshimithran was a
political necessity but through the other paper it was more a religious
mission. The Swadeshimithran considered British rule in India as
providential and beneficial but condemned the British exploitaion of the
Indian economy. The paper 'India' was more militant despised the elitist
congress leadership. During the home rule movement there was the
emergence of other newspapers like Desabhakthan, Prapanchamithran,
and Dravidan which was an organ of Justice Party. The Desabhakthan
belonged to the Madras Presidency also a nonbrahmin naionalist also.
The swadeshimithran through its paper propogated the benefits of self
government and played a crucial role in the political development with
announcement of sahyagraha the papers advocated his strategies.
Desabhakthan was soon on a decline due to finiancial reasons. The
swadeshimithran became a channel for the swarajya party of Tamil
Nadu. Tamiljournalism in the 20th century had began to develop. The
publication of news the blonding of literacy and nationalist sentiments
publicaion of comic journal were some of the trends that set in. From its
small beginings in 1880's the Tamil press became a powerful agent for
shaping public opinion for the cause of Indias struggle for freedom.

The Hindu:
The Hindu, an English-language daily newspaper published in Madras is
generally regarded as one of India`s most influential dailies. The Hindu
was founded in Madras in 1878 by law students P.V. Rangachariar, T.T.
Rangachariar, D. Kesava Rao Pantulu and N. Subba Rao Pantulu, a
school teacher G. Subramania Iyer and a College lecturer M. Veer-
araghavachariar. The Hindu was established to support Sir.
Muthuswami Iyer at the Madras High court for a judgeship and to make
amends for the propaganda against the discrimination practiced by the
British in India. Its first issue was published in Georgetown on Septem-
ber 20, 1878. One copy of the paper cost four annas. Subramania Iyer
became the first Managing Director of The Hindu.
Established in 1878 as a weekly, The Hindu became a daily in 1889
and from then on has been steadily growing to the circulation of
15,58,379 copies and a readership of about 22.58 lakhs. When it began,
the newspaper had a liberal outlook and supported the British rule in the
country. But soon it changed. The Hindu started to function as a repre-
sentative of the Indian people by voicing out the conditions and griev-
ances of the people to the government, in order to secure their redress
and to win recognition of the claims of the sons of the soil to a proper
share in the administration. The Hindu made very difficult going in the
early years and G. Subramania Aiyer toured the Presidency educating
the people and enlisting support for the paper. By 3rd December, 1883,
The Hindu had moved to a rented office in Mount Road. It was from
here that the newspaper started its own press called the National Press.
In the following year, the People’s Magazine was published from
the same press, as a medium for detailed and elaborate discussion
of subjects to which a daily paper could not give adequate attention.
In 1892 the building came to be known as “The Hindus”, after the
King of Vijayanagaram gave the press a loan, not only for the building,
but also for any required future expansion.
As days went by it started to write on the Independence of India from
the British rule – but in moderate vein. In October 1898, the partnership
between Subramania Aiyer and Veeraraghavachariar came to an end,
with Subramania Aiyer leaving the paper. Veeraraghavachariar became
the only owner of the company and he hired C. Karunakara Menon as
the editor. But by the 1900`s the popularity and circulation of the news-
paper began to decline. When it was down to selling 800 copies,
Veeraraghavachariar decided to sell the newspaper which was
then purchased by S. Kasturi Ranga Iyengar, The Hindu`s legal ad-
viser from 1895. During the 1890’s, despite the competition of the In-
dian Patriot and the Madras Standard, the Hindu made steady
progress during this period without deviating from its tradition of
sober comment and mature judgement.
By the 1980`s once the ownership of The Hindu had passed down to
the younger members of the family, the newspaper was observed to
have acquired a political inclination. But gradually over time the
younger editors of the newspaper have ensured that the newspaper has
gone back to the success it enjoyed in its early days.
After India attained independence in 1947, The Hindu built a network
of foreign coverage in Islamabad, Colombo, Dhaka, Kathmandu, Bei-
jing, Moscow, Paris, Dubai, Washington D.C, London, and Addis
Ababa while extending its coverage of India.
 The Hindu is a family run newspaper and the current editor of the
newspaper is Siddharth Varadarajan. The Newspaper has been a pioneer
in many things, such as being the first newspaper to introduce colour
print (1940), first newspaper to own airplanes to distribute newspapers
(1963), and in 1995, The Hindu was the first newspaper to go online.
Today The Hindu is distinguished for its comprehensive coverage of
national and international political news and for its emphasis on accu-
racy and balanced coverage.

The Indian press is two centuries old, 234 years old to be exact (if
we take the launce of James Augustus Hickeys Bengal Gazette on
January 29, 1780 as the foundi8ng date within the press there were the
faous divide between Nationalist and loyalists newspapers. The histories
of The Hindu and The Times of India exemplify this divide six angry
young man felt the campaign waged by the Anglo Indian press-
newspapers owned and edited by the Britist-against the appointment of
the first Indian. T. Muthuswami Aiyer to the Bench of the Madras high
court was blatantly unfair and should be forcefully rebutted. So they
borrowed rupee and 12 annas and founded. "The Hindu" printing 80
copies at the Srinidhi press in Mint Street, Black town and promising
every wednesday evening an eight page paper. The first issue was on 20
September 1878. The six men were G. subramania Aiyer of Thiruvaiyyar
and his fellow tutor and frient at Pachaiyappas College M.
Veeraraghavachariar of chingleput and four law students.
T.T.Rangachariar, P.V.Rangachariar, D. Kesava Rao paut and N.Subba
Rao Pauthiulu. All were members of the Triplican literary society which
was formed to educate and enlighen the masses. After a month with the
srinidhi press, the Newspaper had its printing shifted to the Scottish
press also in black town.
In 1881, the paper commented on the Chinglepet Ryots case
charged Grant- Duff (Governor). The Hindui moved to Mylapore and
The Hindu press established by the paper's friend Ragoouada Row,
where it expected greater priority in produciton. Then it moved to the
Empress of India press where from October 1, 1883 it became a
triweekly within 3 months of coming out every monday, wednesday and
friday evening the owners felt that the demand for the paper could only
be met if they had their own press. They therefore reuted new premises
had Rajoo Pathur of Arulanadham and sons equip it to meet their
requirements and movbed to 100, Mount Road on 3 December 1883.
The new place of business was called The National Press. The Hindu
came as a quarto size paper with front page full of advertisements, more
views than news and considerable amount of Indian news from calcutta
and Delhi. It also briefly reported country cricket and local matches. The
paper got a serious blow when Subramania Aiyer and Veeraraghava
chariar developed misunderstandings and Subramania Aiyer took over
full time the editorship of the Swadeshimithran while Veeraraghava
chariar took over the entire business of the Hindu. After Subramania
Aiyerit seemed that the paper might with the 12 pages contained far less
news. But despite a Sundays upplment introduced late in 1898, attempts
to rent out a portion of the building and willingness to undertake
commercial printing such as printing textbooks, the paper barely
managed to survive. The Hindu's advert urousness began to decline and
also its circulation, when the sole proprietor decided to sell out. The
purchages was Hindu's legal adviser from 1898 S.Kasturi Ranga
Iyengar, a politically ambitious lawyer. He treated the Hindu as the
family's sole business, a tradition countinued to this day. He soon
generated good advertising revenue from Indian and English firms. He
subscribed to the Routers telegraphic news service and published court
cases in exteuso. He provided space for weather report, shipping and
commercial information and sporting news. H died in December 1923.
He was succeeded by S. Rangaswami, son of his eldest brother,
K.Srinivasan son of KasturiRanga Iyengar also joined. Together with
Gopalan the broth3er os S. Rangaswami they introudcced numerous
items. In the mid 1920's The Hindu introudced cartoons, a full piecture
page, weekly woman's page, short stories and humorous skits and the
paper included among it exclusive contributors Jawaharlal Nehru, Bose,
Krishna Menon and a galaxy of writers from abroad introudced through
syndicated services. Then Rangaswamy died in 1926 his memory now
commemorats only in the trophy for national supremacy in the game he
loved hockey. A. Rangaswami Iyengar rejoined the paper (son of kasturi
Ranga Iyengars's brother) with him began an era of moderation and
councilation ending the more firebrand eras of Kasturi Ranga Iyengar
and S. Rangaswami with his death kasturi srinivasan became the
managing director with his brother Gopalan till his death in
1959.Srinibasan had replaced the traditional hand composing practice of
typesetting with mechanised monotype, linotype and ludlow typestting
machines. Photography became a regular feature, he even introudced
illustrated jokes. The paper also started publishing cartoons in 1933.
Other features introduced was a weekly' Literature Art- Philosophy' pae.
This became the Hindu's Educational and Literacy suppliment which is
now the Literacy review a montly other features were The Manchester
Guardian of India" where commerce Engineering -Industires-Machinery
was given,"Our Ladies column" by the first woman graduate and
women's journal editor in the south kamala sathiauatham. In the mid
1930's after srinivasan became the first managing editor of a peper in
India. The Hindu introduced a cinema pae and a gardening page. In 1930
he experimented with bringing out The Hindu as a moring paper but
soon dropped the idea but the time zones of world war II demanded a
morning paper and so from 11 November 1940' The Hindu' became as a
morning paper. On 2 June 1941 the hindu started its readers by front
paging the news. On January 14, 1958 this changes was made permanent
instead of only on Monday as assured by Srinvasan. In 1938 The Hindu
became the first newspaper in the country to have a teleprinter
connection from the central Telegraph office to receive the news. The
Trade Union was founded in 1957 launchede the first strike on July 29,
1958 it became the first newspaper in the world operating its own fleet
of aircaraft to reach copies to readers over as extensive region. The 18
months of internal emergencey were not The Hindu's happies hour. The
Hindu was affected by II and III strikes in 1967 & 1968 because of this
the paper had to stop publication of this the paper had to stop publication
for 72 days. (Sportstar-1978),(Frontline 1984), (Outlook, special report
& ofer page-1977), (Business line 1994),(Metroplus- 1999) were
started.
In conclusion the Press played a main role in keeping the people of India
informed about the events of the country occurring under the British
rule. The two main newspapers, The Hindu and the Swadesamitran
started in Madras, in their own ways proved to be trend setting
newspapers in the Madras Presidency. One of the two newspapers is still
in print and is one of the successful newspapers not only in India but in
foreign countries too. The appreciation for being the main man for the
development of press in Madras would go definitely to G. Subramania
Aiyer who was one of the main reasons for the introduction of both of
the above discussed newspapers in Madras. Thus the efforts of him and
of other great editors and writers lead to the development of Press
in Madras.
 CHENNAI’S ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE
‘Old buildings teach us about the history that happened before we were
born and promotes the respect for those who lived in different times and
different societies.’

Chennai city is referred as ‘city of firsts’, a place that played an impor-

tant role in the origin of the British Empire. Like many other Indian
cities, Madras was also a British creation. This includes its architecture
too. The fascinating past of Madras lives in its many buildings, public,
institutional and private. It is a veritable reservoir of historic buildings.
Chennai architecture is a confluence of many architectural styles. From
ancient Tamil temples built by the Pallavas, to the Indo-saracenic style
of the colonial era, to the 20th century steel and chrome of skyscrapers. .
It is a home to many iconic buildings and structures in India.
Both public and residential architecture in Chennai was deeply influ-
enced by colonization. The European architectural styles, such as Neo
classical, Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance were brought to India
by European colonists. Since Chennai was the first major British settle-
ment in the subcontinent, it witnessed several early constructions built in
the above mentioned styles. Earlier structures were utilitarian and forti-
fied towns along the coastline. There were several European colonists,
namely, the Portuguese, Dutch and French but it was the British who left
a long lasting impact on the city’s architecture. They followed various
styles such as the Gothic, Imperial, Christian, English Renaissance and
Victorian being the primary ones.
Several types of buildings such as courts, municipal halls, educational
institutions, factories and dak bungalows were built, most of them were
ordinary or simple structures built by garrison engineers. On the other
hand, churches and other public buildings displayed more nuanced ar-
chitecture. Most of the buildings took references from the buildings de-
signed by leading British architects of that time like Adam, Nash and
others in London and other places. What differentiated these buildings
from the European ones is that these buildings were mostly built using
brick and coated with lime, with facades sometimes incised to resemble
stone works. Later some buildings were built with stones. Churches
were built based on London prototypes, with variations. For example the
St. Mary’s church in Fort St. George.
There are few factors that marked several milestones in the history of
British Colonial Indian Architecture. This includes the transfer of power,
rise of nationalism and the introduction of railways. New materials such
as concrete, wrought, glass and cast iron were being increasingly used in
construction. This led to new architectural styles. Native Indian styles
were infused in the architecture. On the whole, all these factors led to the
development of Indo-saracenic architecture towards the end of the 19th
century.

STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE
The Indo-saracenic style dominated Chennai’s building style, before the
advent of Art Deco style. The Art Deco was the next great design to im-
pact the city’s skyline after the Indo-Saracenic style and it made way for
the international and modern styles. Chennai brought in an intermediate
style combining both Indo-Saracenic and Art Deco. Other styles include
Gothic revival, Romanesque, Neoclassical, Georgian architecture

INDO SARACENIC STYLE

Indo- Saracenic architecture represents a synthesis of Muslim designs
and Indian materials developed by British architects in India during the
late 19th and early 20th centuries. The hybrid combined diverse architec-
tural elements of Hindu and Mughal with Gothic cusped arches, domes,
spires, tracey, minarets and stained glass. Henry Irwin and Robert Fel-
lowes Chisholm were among the leading practitioners of that time. This
architecture found its way into public buildings of all sorts such as rail-
way stations, banks, educational institutions, clubs and museums.
 Characteristics of Indo-Saracenic architecture :-
This architecture is often known as ‘stylistic hybrid’ architecture. It
combines traditional Indian architectural elements, like scalloped
arches and onion domes, with traditional British architecture. Other
major features include Overhanging Eaves, Vaulted Roofs, Many
Miniature Domes, or Domed Chatris, Harem Windows, Towers or
Minarets etc
The mixture of Indian elements with Neo-classical and Gothic
styles typifies an Indo- saracenic building.

(SOUTHERN RAILWAY HEADQUARTERS)

Many of the colonial era buildings are designed in this style. The colo-
nial legacy of Chennai is most apparent in the vicinity of the port. South
of the port is Fort St. George. The stretch between the fort and the port is
mostly occupied by the High Court and several clubs, some of them
have existed since British era. The Chepauk Palace is said to be the first
Indo-Saracenic building in India. Most of the Indo-Saracenic structures
in the city were designed by English architects Robert Fellowes
Chisholm and Henry Irwin and can be seen across the city, especially in
areas such as Esplanade, Chepauk, AnnaSalai, Egmore, Guindy, Amin-
jikarai and Park Town. Prominent structures in the Esplanade region in-
clude the Madras High Court (built in 1892), the General Post Office,
State Bank of India building, Metropolitan Magistrate Courts, YMCA
building, and the Law College. Oriental Research Institute and the Vic-
toria hostel, Southern Railway headquarters, Ripon building, the Victo-
ria public hall are some examples of Indo-Saracenic style structures
found in Park town. Structures such as Bharat Insurance Building,
Agurchand Mansion and the Poombhuhar Showroom are found along
the Anna Salai, and Amir Mahal is in Triplicane. Structures found in
Guindy include College of Engineering and Old Mowbrays Boat Club.
Egmore is dotted with several such structures including the Government
Museum, Metropolitan Magistrate Court, Veterinary College, State Ar-
chives building, National Art Gallery, and College of Arts and Crafts. St.
George's School Chapel and the Southern Railway Offices in Amin-
jikarai are other examples of the Indo-Saracenic structures in the city,

ART DECO
Art Deco, a popular international design movement that flourished be-
tween the 1920s and 1940s.
In the early 20th century, several major modern institutions such as
banking and commerce, railways, press and education were established
in the city, mostly through colonial roles. The architecture for these in-
stitutions followed the earlier directions of the Neo-Classical and the
Indo-Saracenic. The residential architecture was based on the bungalow
or the continuous row house prototypes. From the 1930s onwards, many
buildings in George Town were built in the Art Deco style of architec-
ture. Art Deco, a popular international design movement that flourished
between the 1920s and 1940s, was adapted by cities such as Bombay
and Madras almost immediately. Although Chennai does not have a uni-
form art deco skyline like the way Mumbai does, the city has significant
pockets that are clearly completely art deco. A long stretch along NSC
Bose Road beginning from EID Parry and a similar stretch along the Es-
planade used to have several examples of public buildings in the art deco
style. Yet another instance is along the stretch of Poonamallee High
Road between Chennai Central and Chennai Egmore railway stations.
Some early examples are the United India building (presently housing
LIC) and the Burma Shell building (presently the Chennai House), both
built in the 1930s along Esplanade. The Dare House, the most famous
landmark at the junction of NSC Bose Road and First Line Beach Road,
was built in 1940 as the office of the Parry's company. It is after which
the area is named Parry's Corner.
The buildings were the advanced version of the earlier mod-
els in which they were planned without external verandahs and incorpo-
rated new technology such as lift. Cantilevered porches that showcase
the potential of concrete are also seen in some structures. Externally, the
stylistic devices such as stepped motifs and sweeping curves used in ar-
eas like grilles, parapet walls along with vertically proportioned win-
dows impart a coherent appearance. Attempts were made to Indianise
Art Deco which led to decorative buildings like the Oriental Insurance
building of the 1930s. It was also known as Indo-Deco. Art Deco build-
ings located at road junctions had curvilinear profiles. This approach is
sometimes considered a separate style, the Streamline Moderne, inspired
by the streamlining of aeroplanes, bullets, ships, and the like, due to
principles such as aerodynamics. Other buildings that portray these char-
acteristics are those along the junctions of Mount Road like the Bharath
Insurance building of the 1930s and shops such as the current Bata
showroom. Also along Mount Road and adjoining areas are other types
of Art Deco buildings, The Hindu office with its stepped form and Con-
nemara Hotel built between 1934 and 1937 are city landmarks. Art Deco
served as the base from which modernism took off.
 (CONNEMARA HOTEL)

GOTHIC REVIVAL STYLE

Gothic Revival also known as Victorian Gothic, neo-Gothic or Gothick
is an architectural movement that began in the late 1740s in England. Its
momentum grew in the early 19th century, when increasingly serious
and learned admirers of neo-Gothic styles sought to revive me-
dieval Gothic architecture, in contrast to the neoclassical styles prevalent
at the time. Gothic Revival draws features from the original Gothic style,
including decorative patterns, finials, lancet windows, hood moulds and
label stops. By the mid-19th century, it was established as the preemi-
nent architectural style in the Western world. The most commonly iden-
tifiable feature of the Gothic Revival style is the pointed arch, used for
windows, doors, and decorative elements like porches, dormers, or roof
gables. Other characteristic details include steeply pitched roofs and
front facing gables with delicate wooden trim called verge boards or
bargeboards. Chennai Central is a major example for this type of archi-
tect.
 NEOCLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE
Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by the Neo-
classical movement that began in the mid-18th century
in Italy and France which then became one the most prominent and
iconic architectural styles in the Western World. Neoclassical architec-
ture is characterized by grandeur of scale, simplicity of geometric forms,
Greek—especially Doric (see order)—or Roman detail, dramatic use of
columns, and a preference for blank walls. The new taste for antique
simplicity represented a general reaction to the excesses of the Rococo
style. Ripon Building, St. Andrews church follows this pattern.

GEORGIAN ARCHITECTURE
Georgian architecture is the name given in most English-speaking coun-
tries to the set of architectural styles current between 1714 and
1830. The Georgian style is highly variable, but marked by symmetry
and proportion based on the classical architecture of Greece and Rome,
as revived in Renaissance architecture. Ornament is also normally in the
classical tradition, but typically restrained, and sometimes almost com-
pletely absent on the exterior. Georgian architecture is characterized by
its proportion and balance; simple mathematical ratios were used to de-
termine the height of a window in relation to its width or the shape of a
room as a double cube. St. Andrews Church is one of the best examples.

NOTABLE STRUCTURES:
 CHENNAI CENTRAL
Chennai central is the main railway terminus in the Chennai city. It is
one of the busiest railway stations in South India. It is also one of the
most important hubs in the country.
 HISTORY
The madras central was built in 1873 under the governance of William
Rose Robinson (1873-1878) at Parktown as a second terminus to the
Royapuram harbor station. The expansion of Madurai –Vyasarpadi line
served as a major reason for the establishment of Central. The station
was built on the open grounds that were earlier known as John Pereira’s
gardens belonging to Joao Pereira de Faria, a Portuguese merchant in
Negapatam, who later settled in Madras in 1660. In 1907, Madras cen-
tral was made as the main station of the Madras railway company. Ear-
lier Royapuram was the most important station in Chennai. The expan-
sion of the beach line further south made central as the most prominent
station of Madras. Madras central was part of the South Indian railway
company during the British rule. The Egmore railway station was made
its northern terminus in 1908. It was then shifted to Madurai and was
later shifted to Madras Central.
The railway company was looking for land for the expansion of Central
station. The Moore market was seen as an option for this expansion.
Later this structure was transferred to the company after the fire acci-
dent. The railways built a 13 storied complex for the reservation counter.
The main building was extended in 1998.
 ARCHITECTURE
The central railway station was built as a combination of 2 classical
styles known as the Gothic Revival and the Romanesque style. It was
originally designed by George Harding. This consisted of 4 platforms
and had the capacity to accommodate 12 coach trains. The station was
further modified by Robert Fellowes Chisholm, who added a central
cloak tower. The cloak tower is the tallest of the towers, which reaches
a height of 136 ft. Other major changes include the addition of Travan-
core caps on the main tower.

RIPON BUILDING
The Ripon building is the official seat of the Greater Chennai Corpora-
tion. The building is an all white structure, which served as the Madras
Corporation during the British period.
 HISTORY
The Ripon building was commissioned in 1913 under the governance of
John Sinclair (1912-1919). This was designed by G.T.S Harris and was
built by Loganatha Mudaliar. It took 4 years to build the building. The
building was named after the Governor-General of British India Lord
Ripon. Foundation was laid by then Viceroy and Governor General of
India Earl of Minto on 12 December 1909. The Municipal Corporation
of Madras earlier functioned at several other places which later settled at
Ripon building in 1913. P.L Moore was the President of the Municipal
Corporation during inauguration.

 ARCHITECTURE
Ripon building is a perfect example for neo classical style of architec-
ture which is a smooth blend of Gothic, Corinthian and Ionic architec-
ture. The three storey building has a central cloak tower-Westminister
quarter chiming cloak,which was installed by Oakes and Co. The cloak
is the main attraction of the building, which was installed in 1913. The
flooring was of Cudappah slate which was later replaced by marble. The
walls were constructed with stock bricks, set and plastered with lime
mortar and the roof is supported with teak wood joists.

St ANDREW’S CHURCH

St. Andrew’s Church in Egmore was built in 1821 under the governance
of Sir Thomas Munro (1820-1827) to serve the Scottish community in
Chennai. It is also known as ‘The Kirk’ which means ‘The church’ in
Scottish. This is one of the oldest churches in Chennai.

 HISTORY
The church was built as a dedication for the Scotsmen in the British
army. The foundation was laid by Doctor John Allen in 1818 and the
church was completed and consecrated in 1821.

 ARCHITECTURE
St Andrew’s church displays the features of neo-classical and Georgian
architecture. It is inspired by St Martin in London. This was designed
and executed by Major Thomas de Havilland and Colonel James Cald-
well. The body of the church is a circle, with rectangular compartments
to the east and west. The circular part is crowned by a shallow masonry
dome colored deep blue. This is painted with golden starsand supported
by 16 fluted pillars with Corinthian capitals. The special feature of the
church is domes. They have a framework of brick supported by an annu-
lar arch and is filled in by pottery cones. Its blue interior is formed by
crushed sea shells mixed with lapis lazuli. The stained glass windows
above the main altar, in warm, rich colors, are among the glories of the
church. The dominating altar is the pipe organ in dull green and bur-
nished gold. Built in New Yorkshire, England, this instrument was in-
stalled in 1883. The Plaques on the church wall contains the story of a
Scottish soldier.

CHEPAUK PALACE
The Chepauk Palace was the residence of the Nawab of Arcot from 1786
to 1855. It is situated in the neighbourhood of Chepauk. It was one of
the first buildings in India to be built in the Indo- Saracenic style.
 HISTORY

By the end of the Carnatic wars, the Carnatic kingdom which was
earlier independent, now became a protectorate of the East India
Company. British triumph led to Muhammad Ali Wallajah be-
coming the Nawab of the Carnatic, where he sought a permanent
residence in Madras, preferably in Fort St. George itself. How-
ever due to space constraints, Nawab was forced to abandon his
plans and later constructed a palace at Chepauk. The palace was
built by Pail Benfield, who completed it in 1786. The principality
of Carnatic was abolished in 1855 and the Chepauk Palace was
brought to auction to pay off the Nawab’s debts under the Doc-
trine of Lapse. This was purchased by the Madras Government
and used as the office of the revenue board and the Public Works
Department secretariat.

 ARCHITECTURE

The Chepauk Palace is built over an area of 117 acres and is sur-
rounded by a wall. It is known for its intricate carvings, wide
arches, red bricks and lime mortar. The palace comprised of two
blocks. The southern block is called as Kalas Mahal. The north-
ern block is called as Humayun Mahal. Kalas Mahal was a two
storied structure with two minareted entrances. Humayan Mahal
originally had single floor. Robert Chisholm made alteration to
the building. He added the first floor with Madras terrace and also
a façade that matched the Kalasa Mahal. Later at 1870 CE, he
connected the Humayun Mahal with Kalas Mahal with a 75 feet
tall tower. The addition, with a high arched entrance and tall cor-
ner turrets, is called the Records Office but, when created, it was
a spectacular new entrance – now from the east – to the complex.
 MADRAS HIGH COURT

The Madras High Court is the second oldest high court of India after the
Calcutta High court in Kolkata. The court is one of the three High
Courts in India established in the three Presidency Towns
of Madras, Bombay and Calcutta by letters patent granted by Queen
Victoria, on 26 June 1862. The court complex is one of the largest in the
world after the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, London.

 HISTORY

In the 18th century, the Supreme Court of Judicature was created,

abolishing the Court of Records. The High Court of Judicature at
Madras came into existence on 15th August 1862 with Sir Colley
Harman Scotland as its first Chief Justice. The Building of the
High court was inaugurated on 12th July 1892 by Baron Wenlock,
 the Governor of Madras. This was then handed over to the Chief
Justice, Sir Arthur Collins.

 ARCHITECTURE

The Madras High Court followed the Indo-Saracenic style of Ar-

chitecture. The building had been constructed with a strong foun-
dation with red brick work, granite, embellished with minarets,
mini towers and domes. There are 2 light houses – one on the top
of the High court and the other a standalone tower within the cam-
pus. The Rajamannar hall, located between Court 3 and Court 4, is
the center point of the heritage building. To design the building,
the English architect Henry Irwin was assigned. Other interesting
features include the images on the stained glass such as elephant,
swan and snakes.
 VICTORIA PUBLIC HALL

The Victorian Public Hall or the Town Hall, is a historical building in

Chennai, named after Victoria, Empress of India. This was built to com-
memorate the golden jubilee of Queen Victoria. It served as a theatre
and public assembly room in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

 HISTORY

In the colonial time as there was a need for a public town hall to
conduct public meeting, function etc., a decision had been taken in
March 1882 to build a town hall at Pachaiyappa’s hall in George
Town. This decision led to the formation of a trust with 12 mem-
bers followed by initial mobilizations of funds. About Rs.
16,425.000 from around 30 persons who attended the meeting. Sir
Pusapati Ananda Gajapati Raju, the Maharajah of Vizianagaram
laid the foundation stone for the new building. It was opened by
Lord Connemera in 1887, while other versions suggest that Sir
Mountstart Elphinstone Grant Duff opened the hall. The hall soon
 became a venue of important public and social events. The first
ever cinema show in Madras, 123 years ago, was staged in Victoria
Public Hall

 ARCHITECTUTRE

The building was built in the Indo–Saracenic style chosen by ar-

chitect Robert Fellowes Chisolm and Namperumal Chetty was the
contractor. The ground floor has a built up area of 13,342 sq.ft and
the first floor with 12,541 sq.ft. the seating capacity of the hall in
the ground floor is 600 each. There is another wooden hall in the
eastern end has a capacity to accommodate more than 200 people.
The structure consists of arcaded verandahs along the northern
and southern sides in the hall on the first floor supported on sleek
Corinthian stone columns, a square tower that is three storey high,
and a carved pyramidal roof. There is also an intricately
carved terracotta cornice, which resembles Islamic calligraphy,
atop the tower.
FEW BUILDINGS….

(GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF FINE ARTS)

(ROYAPURAM RAILWAY STATION)

 (FORT ST. GEORGE)

(COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, GUINDY)

The British Colonial era lasted in India for over three centuries starting
from 1615 to 1947. The British not only left an imprint of legacy and
culture but also of their unique architectural styles manifested from the
colossal and magnificent buildings and infrastructures that are palpable
from their erstwhile colonies.

DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
Road Transportation
It was the beginning of the 20th century that the city of Madras had
an organized transport service. At first it was provided private
companies which were profit oriented. The rules and regulations were
laid down by the goverment but same of them were not followed by the
companies. The public were exploited and were put to a lot of hardship
and difficulties. The bus transport system was nationalised by which
people were provided with better and cheap service. The East India
Company was not very popular with the laying of roads for the
development of the area. Lord Bentuick and Lord Elphinstone tried to
improve the condition of the road but they were severly critisized for
wasteful expenditure.
The first notable vehicle in india appeared in 1898. The Motor
Vehicles Act 1907 was to recognize motor vehicles by registration. The
permits are issued by the collectors. In 1914, another motor vehicle Act
was passed which stipulated that drivers should have a licence and motor
vehicles to be registered.There was no difference among different types
of vehicles. After World War I, when there was an increase in the
number of vehicles private and military, a situation arouse where there
needed a closer control of road transport. By the Government of India
Act 1919, laying of roads and control of roads were transfered to
provincial government. The Motor Vehicles Act of 1939 was passed
following the recommendations of the Pope committee 1932, Mitchel
kirkness committee 1932, the Rail road conference 1933, The Wed good
committee 1936 which suggested various measures.The objectives were
to regulate road and rail transport and compulsory insurance for motor
vehicles. These vehicles were classified into stage carriers and contact
carriers in relation to passenger traffic.
In relation to movement of cargo the vehicles were classified into
public carrier and private carrier. Vehicles were regulated by permits
issued by the regional transport authorities who had the power to fix the
number of vehicles on a route ,to regulate timings ,impose speed and
weight limits. The officials were appointed by the Government. During
1890's the tramway line was constructed in Madras. Before 1947, bus
service was privately owned. Number of buses were few, the capacity
was between 12 to 22 passengers and 8 standees. The buses were driven
by petrol, diesel, charcoal. The classics of bus were made from
companies like Ford and Chevrolet. Some of the important bus operaters
were:
1) The City Motor Service Limited.
2) The Public Passenger Service
3) The Sriram Villas Service
4) Presidency Transport Limited
5) South India Bus Tranport Company
Bus services were introduced in towns like Salem, Madura,Trichy,
Kanchipuram, Vellore etc. During the war they faced difficulty because
of the shortage of petrol and diesal. This greatly affected the
transportation system. As Madras had developed as an important seat of
British administration,center of education,center for trading activity. The
general committee of the post war reconstrution committee resolved in
December 1944 to recommend the government that public transport
should be state owned and state managed.In April 1945,a cabinet
committee was formed that gave recommendations to the government to
take a further decision on improvement of the road transport
system.Railways were nationalised and there was a plan for the
nationalisation of road transport as well.The proposal was that the
government takeover by 1st December 1947.Government buses were
slowly introduced along with private operators. The number of buses
were smaller in number. They covered the route's were the private buses
didnot go and they operated under the name Government city bus
service. There were several advantages to this process of nationalisation
first the govermnent could provide cheap service to the public.Second
Motor transportation could be operated on a large scale.Third the
government could be approached by the workers for their
needs,allowances,pay etc;.There would be no competition between
railways and bus services because both belong to government.Finally a
good transport facility can be provided only if there is a single
agency.The disadvantages of the process it was a heavy loss of revenue
in the form of motor tax.The nationalisation process was inagurated by
Daniel Thomas,the transport minister.Bus depots were started or
openend,Express bus were introduced,more buses were on the road on
special occassions like race days,exihibitions,festivals etc;. The
government automobile workshop was opened.The government coach
building factory was opened at Chrompet.There was regular inspections
for tickets.The fare of the bus was 2 anna for a mile and half anna for
additonal mile.Duties schedules were laid down for drivers and
conductors.They published the Madras city bus grand giving details of
the routes. Conductors and drivers were given training and an accident
branch was also started.in the early years of its development the bus
service of poor quality very irregular and faced lot of hardships but
slowly they were able to overcome difficulties and became more
systematic. There were several unions and corporations were formed that
led to strikes and other forms of unrest. The transport developed in
Madras Presidency was regarded as one of the best in the country.Today
the government has expanded the transport system with liberal loans
from World Bank. The quality and quantity of the bus system has
improved considerably. The entire network is planned in search a way
that the city is well connected to suburbun and interior area the state.
The government is also experimenting an efficient system by
introduction of the limited stop service and the express bus sevice within
city limits.Bus transport is a very essential and cheap mode of
concequence,the slow but steady development through the years has
enabled the governent to serve the public in all possible ways.

Koyambedu:
The Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority's (CMDA)
another unique project is Chennai Muffusil Bus Terminus (CMBT), set
up at the periphery of the cityalong Jawaharlal Nehru Salai (Inner Ring
Road) at Koyambedu, Chennai8. It is Asia's Biggest bus terminus
constructed at a cost of Rs. 103 crores functioning since 18-11-2002.
The terminal with aesthetically pleasing and functionallyg good
buildings and spacewas designed by a renowned Architect taking in to
account of the future requiremnts also. The terminus is located in an area
of 36 acres with the total built up area 17840 sq ft which includes main
terminal hass, busfingers, large office space, shops, maintenace shed,
creq rest rooms and other incidental structures.
There are 3 bus fingers to park about 180 numbers of buses at a
time with an idle parking area for parking 60 buses. About 2000
numbers buses operate per day. Besides it has separte large parking area
for parking cars, auto rickshaws, two wheelers etc. The terminal is well
maintained and it has obtained ISO 9001:2000 certification.

Tramways
Transpotation plays a very significant role in the life and economy of the
country. People and commodities are transported every day. With the
occurance of famine in Madras in 1876 and 1878 government authorities
felt the need to have a mmore organised system as improper roads had
affected supply of essential commodities to affected areas. An effective
transportation syste had acted as a unifying force and brought about
unity among districts. Tram is a term used to denote a lite rail and
applied to the vehicle running on it. The earliest passenger tramway
system drawn by horses was introduced inn Newyork in 1832 and later
in Paris in 1853 and in London in 1861. In Madras it was introduced in
1895. Though it was popular initially, because of the number of
accidents and the slow speed it became unpopular. It was introduced at a
time when other forms of transport was much slower and it suited the
needs of the people. In April 1853 the first tram rail in India from
Bombay to Thane. In South India the first train ran from Vyasarpadi to
Wallajah in July 1856. In 1860s the tramway system was popular in
London and Liverpool. When the British wanted to introduce tramways
in India, Madras was chosen as the location due to cheap availability of
land, labour a peaceful atmosphere and later power. There were also well
established business houses in Madras that would by an efficient
transportation system. Tenders were called for and given to Wilson and
King, a construction company to undertake the construction of the
tramway system in Madras. There was a lot of delay and it was given to
Hutchinson and Company who had to give a deposit of Rs.10,000/- they
had to follow certain specification and technical details. They could use
animal power, steam power and electricity .Tramcars weere allowed to
carry passengers,animals,goods. The fare was half anna a mile. The
weight of a passenger could carry on a tramcar was 20 pounds. The
corporation had to collect an annual rent. In 1900 the tramway system
was sold to the Electric Construction Company Ltd., London. It operated
in Madras as the Madras Tramways Trust. This was for a period of 4
years. Namperumal Chetty a buisnessman in Madras wanted to take over
the rights of construction though it was given to him since he did not
begin construction even after a year it became invalid. In 1904 the
Madras Electric Tramway Ltd. was formed and this company carried on
its work till it was closed in 1953. Till the middle of 1920s tramcars
were very popular and buisness flourished .By 1925 there was a slow
decline in passenger traffic because of the growth of the bus
transportation system. In order to maintain the tramcars they needed
revenue and the fares had to be increased, it was more than that of the
bus transport . By 1931 there was yet another competition from the
Southern Railway Company who introduced the electric tram ysystem
from Madras beach to Tambaram. Frequent accidents because of the
open doors on both sides, poor usage and increase of the fares ledd to
frequent clashes between the management and the workers. The union
system had begun, the workers wanted the government takeover. The
government refused to , the Corporation was unwilling and finally it had
to b.e closed down . There were a few attempts to revive the functioning
of the system, but it was failure.The government finally announced the
closure of the compan.y. in 1953 and the Tramcars in Madras were sent
to the Calcutta Tramway Company. This brought an end in the
functionig of tramway system in Madras but it was supplemented by the
growth and development of the Suburban Railway System.

Buckingham Canal
Transportaion plays a very significant role in the progress of man and his
society. It is often taken as the barometer to measure the level of
economic department and social change. Charges began to take place
with regard to developmental activities after the 18th century.

Origin of the Buckingham Canal:

A canal about eight miles in length between university buildings on the
south bank of the cooum river and the village papanchavady was dug
under orders from the duke of the Buckingham and chandos
governor(1875-1880) in 1877_78.The Buckingham Canal connects the
Marakanam back waters in South Arcot district with the canals of the
Krishna and Godavari. It is one of the oldes and longest navigable
canals in the world. It is a coastal canal running for a length of about 258
miles. The construction of the canal took nearly 100 yrs and the cost
was about 90 lakhs. The construction of the canal has placed Madras in
cheap and easy communication with about 5 districts and large important
towns of Kakinada,Bezwada,Masulipatnam, Ongole, Nellore. Its
construction was part of the relief work in connection with a severe
famine that afflicted madras presidency at the time. The entire canal
about 460 miles long between Kakinada and marcanum was made
navigable. At times this canal is known as the Buckingham canal in
honour of the duke, although a canal only 8 miles in lenghth was dug
unfer his order. The history of the canal dates back to 1806. It was
constructed by a private individual called Basil Cochraue. In 1837 it
was taken over by the Government. In 1878 it was named as
Buckingham Canal.b After the Governor of Madras Over North and
South. It became popular as an important Inland waterway and a means
of coastal transportation. The revenue derived from the traffic was not
sufficient especially for maintainence of the boats and keeping the canal
fit for navignation. The canal got severly damaged during times of bad
weather and monsoon and the cost of maintainance was rather high. The
canal was divided into two the north canal which was used by boats the
capacity of 30 tons and the south canal navigable for boats upto 10 tons.
The chief traffic in the north canal was firewood and chinnam. There
were about 19 passenger boats and 41 cargo boats. Paddy, Salt and
grains were also brought to the canal it was used by a large number of
people for commercial purposes and also passenger traffic. It provided a
livelyhood of means of living for a large number of boat men in the
Madras Presidency. In the south it was mostely passenger traffic from
Madras to Thiruporur especially during times of festivals visit to
Mahabalipuram the chruch and mosque at kovalam. The important items
taht were transported were rice, salt, firewood,building material, timber
and provisions. This system suffered much competition with the coming
of railways and the expansion of road ways. It was of great historical
importance and has proved that communication through waterways
played the major role in urban development, transport and commence
from Madras the cochraue canal proceeds northwards. There are a
number of bridges on the canal. Rest houses were built near the canal,
boats were made of teak woods, licences were issued annually. The fare
was 2 paisa per mile for a passenger and there were allowed. One coolie
head load of luggage. Since 1958 the communication through the
Buckingham canal is with drawu. It has become a system of sewage and
storm water drainage. The entire waterway is highly polluted. It has a
historical significance wih better planning it can be ussed as a viable and
effective means of transportation.
Trade Union Movement
Trade unions are voluntary organisaion which comprise of workers
formed to promote and protect them and their interests by collective
action. The origin of the trade union movement in India may be traced
back to the earliest times when every village or hamlet had panchayats
and guilds settle their disputes between the members and their masters.
A trade union has been defined as a continious association of wage
earners for the purpose of improving their working conditions. The first
trade union legislation in the country came about because of the unrest
caused by the Madras labour union. The legislation gave protection for
the workers to the right to join unions at their own choice. The origin of
the government towards the laboures and their problems. Compared to
the presidencies of Bengal and Bombay the Madras presidency was
industrially backward, there was no coal or mining industries were a
large number of workers were employed. The other industries of
significance was the power supply undertaking, printing press, tramways
and other distribution companies. The working condition of the laboures
was bad. They had to work for long hours with short breakes and their
wages was not sufficient. During First World War their working
condition and the living conditions declined because of the steep
increase in the price of essential commodities & no increase in wages
with the close of the war and with the Russian revolution (1917) the
situation was confussive for the germination of a labour movement in
the Madras Presidency particularly in Madras. The Home rule movement
has launched by Mrs Annie Besant in 1916. The two papers were The
Common wheel and "New India". She was involved in the congress
party and was the president of the calcutta session & congress. The
home rule league also sympathised with the labour movement. G
Selvapathi chettie and Ramunja naidu was the two young men who were
interested in the cause of the workers. There was constant problem with
the workers of BAC Mills and they looked to the Home rule league for
guidance and support. The Madras Labour union was the first union to
be founded in India on 27th April 1918. B.P.Wadiar was the president.
The subscription was one anna per month. 500 labour enrolled
themselves. Advocate Guruswamy Chettiar was the vice president
Thiruvika Diwan Bahadur, Kesavau-Vice president, Selvapathi chettiar
& Ramnuja Naidu- General secretary. Most of the members at first were
the workers of the BAC mills and the choolai mills. Trade unions were
started all over India. In Madras there were 20 unions established. The
Railway workers union, The Madras city police union, The printing
workers union, Iron&Steel workers union, Bakery workers union, Bread
distributors union etc. A central board was created to monitor the3
working of the union. In 1918 B.P.Wadiar the president was warned not
to get involved in the trade union movement. World war I and the
Russian revoluation had a great impact not only in Europe but also in
India. B.P.Wadiar placed a charter of the months before the director of
the B.A.C mills which included 20% increase in wages, one hour lunch
break, these demands were not met. There was a lock out but work
resumed with the help of Gandhi. Where there was a shortage of food
the union distributed rice and other commodities through the cooperative
society. They also established the employment bureau along with the
Roypettah bank through withch loans at low rates of interest were
arranged for the workers. B.P Wadiar was allowed to participate in the
international labour organisation at Washington there was a lock out by
the BAC Mills in 19th century. Their demand increase in wages,bonus,
holidays etc were conceeded. On 21 March 1920 the first provicial
labour conference was organised under Divan Bahadur kesavan pillai.
On 4 July 1920 the central labour union was set up all the unions merged
together abd the all India all labour conference took place on 31 october
1920 under the presudebtsguo if Lala Lajpat Rai at Bombay. B.P.Wadiar
was very popular, the trade union acgt was passed in 1926. Between
1922 and 1925. Madras labour union and the other union slowely
progressed. The functioning of the trade union and the other union was
strongly discouraged. Any worker could be dismissed or subject to
drastic penality. The workmen's Compensation Act was passed in 1923
by the trade union act. Unions were registered and legalised. Leaders
were allowed to conduct strikes and give a charter conduct strikes and
give a charter of the months to the mouagement. The paper which gave
support to the Trade union movement was "New India" "The Indian
Payriot" Swadeshimithran, "The Hindhu" & "The Mail". Women
workers were also members. In 1927 the workers nomited G.Sealvapathi
chettiar as their representative in the corporation election, this was the
begining of the workers participation. In 1931 they were able to get a
building for their office at Perumbur. vIn 1934 they started a paper in
Tamil called "Indiya Thozhilali" The communist tried to bring it under
their control but failed. The main achievement of the Madras Labour
Union was the Trade Union act in 1926. The Workermans compansation
act in 1923 and the industrial disputes act in 1929. Working hours were
gradually reduced to 9 hours there was an increase in wages, 15 days
leave with pay in a year, 13 days religious holidays 6 month bonus,
houses for the workers the functioning of a cooperative society, medical
facilities for the workers and the participation of the workers in the
administration were some of the success of the trade union movement.
G.Selvapathi chettiar(1892)
He was born in 1892 at perambur Madras, he was noted for conducting
Bhajans at his house. The workers who attended expressed their
grievences. He took up the matter pseriously and he wrote anonymous
letters, he took an interest in the cause of the workers and was closely
associated with the home rule movement and was also responsbile for
the founding of the Trade Union Movement.
Ramnujulu:
He was a close associate of selvapathi chettiar. There is no
information about him except that he was a ricemerchant and a secretary
of the Madras Labour Uniohn. He died in 1950.
B.P.Wadiar
He was the first president of the Madras Labour union 1918-1921.
With the help of Selvapathi Chettiar and Ramanujulu Naidu he was able
to found the Madras Labour union. In1921 he left to propogate the
Theosophical Movement in Europe.
George Sydney Arundale
Born in 1878 was educated at cambridge came to India in 1903
worked in the Cerital Hindu college Banaras. He went back to England
and retruned in 1916, he is also one of the fouder of Madras labour
union. He was associated with the theosophical society and with the
death of Mrs. Besant became its president till his death in 1945.
Tiru.Vi.Kalyanasundara Mudaliar:
He was a teacher who became a journal a social reformer and a
labour leader. He studied at the Wesley College Royapetteh and joined
the Tamil Daily 'Desabhakthan' as its editor. He worked for the
emanicipation of women. He was very concerned about thye condition
of workers, He was a powerful labour leader. Has translated about 50
works of B.P.Wadiar.
B.Shiva Rao
He came from Mangalore graduated from the presidency college
Madras. He worked as subeditor in New India, Devoted most of his
times building up the Trade Union Movement. He was instrumental in
opening up centers in different industrial areas. He was a member of the
India Workers delegation to the International Labour Orgnisation at
Geneva. He was also the New Delhi correspondent of The Hindu. His
important publications are Industrial workers in India (1938) problem of
India (1926).
These were some of the early trade union leaders who built up the
movement which has become a strong one today while trade unions have
been generating it on a competative basis and making a conscious effort
towards positive reconstruction has been some of the objectives. It has
also played the role of helping a large illiterate and semi literate
workforce to develop a sense of financial management and improve their
standard of living. Trade unions today have become part and parcel of
the modern Industrial system. The best missionaries become useless at
the call of a strike. New leaders have eerged over the years who have
worked constantly to stabilize the functioning of this unit. These leaders
have increased the power & prestige by having close links with political
orgainization both at the national and international levels. A strong union
is essential for safegaurding the rights of labours. As also realising the
targets of produciton specified by the managment with the growth of the
number of trade unions political rivalry lack of resources disunity among
the workers are some of the negatie aspects of this development and
large trade unions have comne to stay working for the betterment of the
working class.

MADRAS PORT TRUST:

The success of Madraspatnam as a trading settlement soon made it thye
chief port of the English in India. On September 24 th 1641, it became the
chief factory of the English on the east coast. Commercial success came
despite the settlement not being a port. The first offices of this harbopur
and its godowns wee I the fort st. George but by the endof the 18 th
century trade had outgrown the fort, the governor, the second lord Clive
in 1798 moved the sea customer out of the fort, first of all two
temporarayhuts on the beach and two paddy godowns on the NE beach
that had been a French prison, the custom house is even today on this
site. Once the free merchants from Britain were allowed to trade in the
orient their numbers began to grow and soon there was felt the need for
a collective body to think act and project their common needs to the
administration.
The idead of a harbor for Madras was suggested by Warren Hastings
export warehouse keeper and second in council in Madras in 1770. In
1771 captain Geoge Baker who had retired as master attendant wrote to
the court of directors suggesting a structure that would deliver water to
the ships in the roads ,next in 1782 Alexander Davidson a civil servant
and a member of the council revived the views of Hastings and Baker
when he wrote to the council the grand object at Madres ought to be a
pier a permanent pier if by encouragement could be effected fort St
George would undoubtedly become the greatest port of delivery in the
East Indies , Captain William Lennon of the madras engineers in 1798
once again revived thinking on the subject. He offered government a
scheme, which he stated he would complete in three years. The harbor
had telegraph communication with every civilized country and is a port
of call for the different steam lines running to Europe, the straits of
malaca,Singapore, the sunds straitsband burmah, besides the weekly
coasting streamers. It also has steam communication with delgoa bay
Bombay and with the Australian colonies New Zealand and china via
Colombo. On December 15th, 1875 a memorial stone marking the
commencing of the work was installed on the east side of beach road,
opposide the old high court by price of wales. By October 1881, both the
north and the southpiers had been completed to their full length with a
550 foot entrance on the east 7836 lineal feet of breakwater had been
constructed 13309 concrete blocks set in position. This completion in
1881 is considered the beginning of the modern harbor of madras that
has grown into the port of Chennai.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF PROTESTANT MISSIONARIES IN MADRAS

Protestant missions emerged after the reformation launched by the

Martin Luther King in 1517. After that protestants began to expand to
different countries. Many organizations were formed for the spreading of
Gospel by the protestants. The colonization of India under the British
rule paved way for the entry of protestant missionaries to India.
Protestant missionaries have a vital role in transforming the India as we
see today. They have been the dynamic factor in modern Indian history
as the significant cause for the social reformation. The protestant
missionaries questioned the socially accepted values and traditions that
are more or less social evils by the means of western education. They
bought religious reforms and revival movements throughout India from
north to south. The goal of all protestant missionary work was to win
people over to, and to instruct them in a Christian faith which was based
on hearing and reading Bible. The general consensus among protestant
missionaries is that Christianity, western scholarship and European
civilization are all intertwined. The missionary involvement is even
larger in the education of women. Female education has always been a
central issue for the protestant churches. Martin Luther himself
advocated the importance of offering educational opportunities not only
to boys but also to girls. 4 In South India, the contribution of protestant
missionaries was super headed by five societies namely, the society for
the propagation of the Gospel, London missionary society, Church
missionary Society, Wesleyan mission and the free Church Mission in
Scotland. By possessing a sound organization and considerable financial
resources, the missionaries established a wide network of stations,
seminars and printing houses.

HISTORY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS

The eighteenth century saw the beginnings of protestant mission work in

India. Ziegenbalg and Plutchav, two Godly general were the first
protestant missionaries. They were sent out by king Frederick Ⅳ of
Denmark to preach the gospel in Danish possession in India and arrived
at Tranquebar on 9th July 1706 AD. Later they were joined by noble
missionaries such as Grundle, Schultze, Keirnader, Gericke, Schwarkz
and others. Grundle and Schultze translated the scripture s into Tamil
and completed the first vernacular Bible in India in the year 1727 AD.
Richard Hall Kerr, a young Irish clergyman arrived in Madras in 1792.
Even though he was constantly suffered from illness, he established a
seminary in the Black Town of Madras and was succeeded beyond
expectations. In 1796, the retirement of Dr. Bell from the Male Orphan
Asylum, the directors of that institution selected Mr Kerr as the fittest
person to succeed him. Mr Kerr felt the necessity of forming some plan
by which the orphans themselves might be able to contribute towards the
support of the institution, and 5 also benefit the public by their labours.
In 1799, they produced one thousand pagodas as the result of their work.
Later the government of Madras entered into a permanent arrangement
to have all printing done at the Asylum press. A number of young men
went forth from the asylum every year, educated in the principles and
duties of the Gospel, and well trained foe the occupations of life. The
London Missionaries Society (L.M.S), the earliest of the new British
Missionaries Society to move into India was founded in 1795 by
evangelical churchmen of many denominations with the sole object of
spreading the knowledge of Christ. Among the first batch of L.M.S
missionaries to India was Williams Loveless who reached Madras in
1805. Through the nineteenth century the society extended its activity to
Vizag, Thiruvancore, Bellary, Banglore, Belgaum, Caddapha, Salem,
Coimbatore, Viziangaram, Ooty and Tirupattur. The next major British
missionary society to send a missionary to Madras was the Wesleyan
Methodist mission. This mission was established in 1814 as a direct
outcome of the Methodist revival which was considered to be the most
vivid and effective manifestation of the Evangelical Revival. The first
missionary work in Madras was commenced in 1817 and the work
included efforts in Tiruvalur, Ikkadu, Arakkonam, Jolarpet, Salem,
Erode, Pothanur, Nagapatnam, Bangalore, Mysore, Nagari,
Secunderabad, Manargudi, Thiruchinapolly and Karur. These were
among the other stations developed by the Wesleyan Methodist mission.
The society was aided and it was women auxiliary which began to work
in the Madras presidency in 1860. In Madras, next was the arrival of the
Scottish missionaries from the Scotland. Its first missionary to India was
Alexander Duf, who 6 arrived in 1829. The Reverent John Anderson, the
first Scottish missionary to the south arrived in Madras in 1837. The
work was also concentrated in the northern part of Tamil Nadu, such as
Chengalpet and Kanchipuram in addition to Madras. Education industry
and medical work were the salient features of the missionary effort to lift
up from the horrible pit those who had never known the wider outlook
and the ampler air of life. The Arcot mission was the First mission to
make medical work as important as evangelistic work. The medical
work and evangelism went in hand. The Christian medical college and
Hospital at Vellore is the fruit of their vision.

CONTRIBUTIONS
Protestant missionaries in Madras have played an important role in
shaping its history. They have contributed for the well being of Madras
in a huge way. Their key contributions are in the field of education,
medical field and social reformation. This was achieved by the
protestant missionaries from Western countries who came to Madras to
spread gospel and to make life better of the native people in both
spiritually and intellectually. They devised many programs and started
many institutions for the betterment of the people of Madras.
Educational institutions and medical colleges in Madras are some of the
contributions of the protestant missionaries. The main activities of
protestant missionaries were to translate the Scriptures, establishing
colleges, printing Christian literature, promoting social reforms and
recruiting missionaries for new areas. Conversion to 7 Christianity was
only secondary but providing the basic social amenities was primary to
these missionaries. In the absence of modern roads and transports, they
used to walk miles together every day and personally attended the needs
of the people and did the service in the real sense. Missionaries took
much care to educating the poor towards their empowerment in social
and political sectors.

EDUCATION

Education is the key for development. There has always been a strong
relationship between Christianity and education. People need to be
literate to read the Bible. Education was seen as a powerful instrument to
expose the fallacy of idolatry. The protestant missionaries occupy the
most important place in spreading education among the public. Before
the involvement of the protestant missionaries to the field of education
in India, native education took place in pathsalas, Indian village schools.
The Scottish Presbyterian Alexander Duff used Christian education
through the medium of English. Madras College’s origin can be traced
back to John Anderson who opened a school in Madras in April 1837.
Anderson had two Scottish colleagues Robert Johnston and John
Braidwood. One of Anderson’s successors was William Miller. Miller
did much to establish the high reputation of Madras College. Without
education, it is not possible for mission churches to be in any proper
sense self-governed; nor, without will they be selfsupported, and much
less self-propagating. For the church-members there must be common
schools. This was the view of the missionary strategist Rufus Anderson.
Education was open to a wider stratum of 8 society. It thus exposed
many Christian ethics and principles. Perhaps one of the greatest
successes was education for females and the corresponding raising of the
status of women. The Madras Christian College in Chennai and Madras
Presidency College in Chennai are the contributions of protestant
missionaries.

MADRAS CHRISTIAN COLLEGE:

Madras Christian College is one of the oldest colleges in Asia. It was
founded in1837. The college is affiliated to the University of Madras but
it functions as an autonomous institution. MCC was established first as a
school for boys and girls by Rev. John Anderson who was a Scottish
missionary sent by the Church of Scotland to India. He set up the
General Assembly’s school in Madras. Later under the leadership of the
educationalist and also the missionary William Miller, it was shaped into
a college. The college offers over a 30 regular courses in undergraduate
and post graduate programmes in Arts, Sciences and Commerce. A
number of departments at the college offers M. Phil and Ph.D.
programmes. The campus is known for its flora and fauna.

PRESIDENCY COLLEGE: The presidency college in Madras is one

of the oldest government arts colleges in India. It was established as the
Madras Preparatory School on 16 October in 1840 and later it was
upgraded to a high school and then to graduate college. 9 Mr. Cooper
and his staff first opened Presidency school which was a preparatory
school in a rented building. Cooper remained in the school for only a
few months and was returned to Kolkata. The school grew into
Presidency College. When the University of Madras was founded in
1857, Presidency College was affiliated to it. The college offers the
courses in Arts, Sciences and Commerce subjects.
SOCIAL REFORMATION
Protestant missionaries played their active role for the development of
Dalits. Most of the Dalits were benefited by the institutions, industrial
training and hospitals. Many protestant missionaries involved for the
upliftment of the Dalits in socially, educationally and financially. Many
protestant missions started primary school, high school and boarding
homes. Majority of Dalit children were admitted in boarding schools and
they established colleges in city and towns. Protestant Missionaries
paved a way for the redemption of Panchami land from zamindars and
these lands were used and benefited by Dalit people. The Rev. William
Goudie, one of the teachers of the movement to improve of pariahs,
declared in 1898 “The love which we preach must take form in loving
service”. What more effective preaching than this to defend the poor and
the fatherless to see that such as are in need and necessary have right to
deliver the out-caste and poor and save them from the hand of the
ungodly saying as we fulfil our humble ministry, this is the love of God.
At the same time Goudie insisted that this type of service must be
completely unconditional, freely available to all and separated as for as
possible from the work of making and enrolling converts. 10 Protestant
Missionaries started primary education in mostly rural villages. Lutheran
mission, Methodist mission, Anglican mission, Church of Scotland,
American Arcot mission, Australian Presbyterian in mission and other
missions worked harder and harder and for the upliftment of Dalits. The
rural Protestant church is entirely Dalit in composition. Most of the
descendants of the Dalit converts of the American Arcot Mission are
now in the Vellore Diocese of the Church of South India (CSI). The
regions evangelized by the other missions are now part of the Madras
Diocese of the CSI. There are more than 600 congregations, 25,500
families and 84,000 Christians in the rural areas of the Madras Diocese
of these Dalit congregations have been in existence for 50-100 years.
This history of local Dalit Christians is inspired by and adds to John
Webster’s pioneering account of Dalits in India who found in
Christianity a new faith, freedom, self-respect, dignity and hope of a
better future.

MEDICAL MISSIONS
The Arcot mission was the First mission to make medical work as
important as evangelistic work. They used their medical skills to
proclaim the love of God in action. Ida scudder came by God’s call to
provide medical care and training for women. The Christian Medical
College and Hospital in Vellore was established by the protestant
missionaries. Methodist Missionaries established hospitals at Ikkadu,
Tirunenravur, Mukarambakam. Rosanagaram the medical work was
started at Ikkadu by the opening of a dispensary in 1889 by Dr. Mics
Palmer an Anglo Indian in Ikkadu. Goudie is considered a pioneer in
medical mission. It was Goudie who presented the plan for the 11
construction of a new hospital. The hospital was opened as medical
mission to cater to the needs of the people. This would further
consolidate the mission work that time of cholera spread. virulently in
villages around Ikkadu. So many people died no one came forward to
help affected people. Goudie took prominent role in saving the lives of
the people. The medical Missionaries worked here in a hostile
atmosphere because the caste Hindus did not allow the doctors into their
house Goudie and other Missionaries had soft hearts for the village Dalit
people. They admitted and treated Dalits in great numbers. But the upper
caste people began to hate this activity, since it had ill-treated the
untouchables. Later on, others began to come to the hospital, Goudie had
to face bitter opposition from higher caste people while engaged in
mission and evangelistic work in the villages in and around Ikkadu. As a
result, he was even turned at Tiruvalur and else. Where after the
initiation of the medical mission the bitter antagonism of the caste
Hindus was changed to friendliness. Kalyani hospital and Rainy hospital
were established by other Missionaries in Madras.

NOTABLE MISSIONARIES

Protestant missionaries who contributed for the betterment of Madras

and India are many. Their contributions are in various areas. These all
together developed Madras into one of the most important cities in India
in all sectors. 12

JOHN ANDERSON (1805-1855) John Anderson was a Scottish

missionary who made a lasting contribution to the Indian society by the
way of offering better education. He was the founder of the Free Church
of Scotland at Madras. He was the son of the farmer and had his higher
education at University of Edinburgh, specializing in Latin and
Theology. His arrival to Madras was in 1836, having been ordained a
minister of the Church of Scotland in the same year. When he arrived in
Madras, he understood that the quality of education was not good
enough for natives and the need of the hour was good schools and
colleges. The kind of missionary work to which Anderson dedicated
himself, was education. He wanted to give the benighted and
unenlightened natives the benefit of sound education backed up by the
blessings of the gospel of Christ. Anderson never 'looked forward to
numerous conversions as the immediate result of mission work,'
however, he did involve in conversion work on a small scale. Rev.
Lawrie and Rev. Bowie started a school in the vicinity of St. Andrew's
Kirk, Egmore in 1835. Rev. John Anderson on their request, moved the
school, the first institution called ''The General Assembly's School,'' and
began conducting classes in a rented house on the east side of Armenian
Street in Georgetown, Madras. Named after the supreme governing body
of the Church of Scotland, the school started functioning with the
headmaster and 59 boys from St. Andrew's School. Later it came to be
called ‘The Madras Christian College Higher Secondary School’ located
in Chetpet, Chennai. This first school established by Anderson in mid-
1830 later became one of the best institutions in 13 India, known for
higher standard of education called the ''Madras Christian College'' in
Tambaram. Rev. John Anderson, with help from his friends later opened
several mission schools in Madras and in the neighbouring districts. For
unknown reasons in 1843, there was disruption in the activities of
Church of Scotland, so he and other Scottish missionaries joined the
Free Church, and continued their work with respect to that church. Rev.
Anderson was one of a few missionaries who turned their attention to
female education, notwithstanding the hurdles prevailing in those olden
days such as prevalence of early marriage, restrictions on the movement
of girls and risking conversion to Christianity. Slowly and surely,
Anderson allayed their fear and the impediments were gradually
overcome in some measure over a period of time. Mrs. Anderson was
instrumental in starting the first girls' boarding home of the mission. In
all his work, his wife Mrs. Locher gave him her full support and was of
great help to him. He died in March, 1855 at Madras at the age of 50.
The Anderson tomb is in the War cemetery on Tana Street, Chennai
(Madras).

WILLIAM MILLAR (1838-1923)

William Miller was a Scottish missionary who came to Madras as part of
Free Church of Scotland. He was an educationalist. He arrived to
Madras in the year 1862. He is mainly credited for his work in the
Madras Christian College. He is one of the pioneers whose hard work
established the Madras Christian College as one of the prestigious
colleges in India. 14 William Miller arrived in Madras at the age of 24 as
a missionary. His main missionary works were outdoor preaching,
congregational work, medical aid, and the education of boys and girls.
Madras Christian College received vitality with the arrival of Miller in
1862, and soon became the greatest architect of the college. In 1863, he
envisioned that only Christian education could train the greatest leaders
of India, he began to specialize on the institution that later renamed the
Central Institution, as the Madras Christian College on 1st January, 1877
which was a Christian school founded on 3 April 1837 by John
Anderson. After he took over the college succeeding Anderson, within
two years of his arrival, he upgraded the school into a college and
reoriented the educational policy of the institution. The first college class
was formed in 1864, studying for the First examination in Arts (FA) of
the university. By 1865, the first class of six students appeared for
matriculation examination. And, by 1867, a new class was opened to
prepare for the BA courses. Miller procured the support of leading
missions, including Anglican, Wesleyan, and Presbyterian bodies that
ultimately turned a small sectarian institution into a mammoth and a
central Christian college for all South India, and soon to be in the front
rank of all institutions in India. Miller transformed the institution into an
ecumenical and co-operative enterprise and named it as Madras
Christian College on 1 January 1877. Miller is credited for opening
hostels, several academic and cultural associations that ultimately
shaped Madras Christian College into a premier educational institution
in South Asia. He later opened up the institution for Hindu students to a
Christ ward direction 15 through education, rather than just conversion
of their faith. Due to this initiative Vengal Chakkarai Chetty, P.
Chenchiah, and many more were in fact attracted to Christianity under
the influence of Miller. He served as the active principal of Madras
Christian College for 45 years, another 16 years as Honorary principal,
and helped the government shape its educational policy as an educator in
all over India. He worked as an educator in India until 1896, and also
served as a leading member of Madras University syndicate.He was
appointed as Vice-chancellor of the University of Madras in 1901. In
1907, due to illhealth, he left India to reside in Edinburgh, Scotland, and
died in 1923 at the age of eighty-five.

WILLIAM CHARLES LOVELESS (1770-1851) Rev. Loveless was

originally appointed by the London Missionary Society to establish a
mission in Surat. He reached Madras in 1805. But an unexpected series
of events had him settling in Madras. At that time, the British East India
Company was still hostile to the evangelization of the natives. Hence,
Loveless was practically compelled to devote himself largely to the
needs of European residents. Though a non-Anglican, Loveless was
chosen by Dr. Richard Kerr, the Anglican Chaplain at Fort St. George, to
assume the overseeing of the Male Orphan Asylum meant for Eurasian
and Anglo-Indian pupils. This institution, along with the Female Orphan
Asylum, the Military Asylums, Waltair Orphan Asylum and the Gordon
Orphan Refuge in later years, came to be amalgamated with the St.
Mary’s Church Charity School in Fort St. George, originally established
in 1715. 16 Rev. Loveless built the Davidson Street Church in Black
Town for the London Missionary Society in 1810 (not in 1806 as stated).
But it was not the first church to be built outside Fort St.George.
St.Mark’s Church, behind the Bharathiar Women’s College, was the first
church outside the Fort St.George. It was completed in 1800 and
consecrated in 1804, however, the Davidson Street (William Charles
Memorial) Church was a notable centre in missionary history. Due to his
failing health, Loveless returned to England in 1824. A significant aspect
of the legacy left behind by Loveless was in the domain of Christian
literature. The Madras Bible and Tract Societies founded by Loveless
came to initiate and promote a huge mission of printing and publishing
activities. In the following half a century, by 1871, as many as 717 Tamil
publications came to see the light of the day. During 1862-71 alone,
more than 2,900,000 copies of tracts containing Protestant and
evangelical teachings and precept were in circulation. The banner of the
Bible rose to new heights among Tamil Christians. CONCLUSION
Protestant missionaries contributed greatly for the development of
Madras into a well-developed city in India. Missionaries established
many schools, colleges and higher education institutions at various
places of Madras. Protestant missionaries uplifted the down trodden,
oppressed and suppressed people. They encouraged Dalit people to
realize the need for education. Protestant Missionaries provided not 17
only education but also freed bonded labours from zamindars. They
worked for the betterment of medical field in Madras.

M.S. SUBBULAKSHMI

KUNJAMMA: (1916-2004)
 ● In Medieval India Devadasi girls were treated as holy girls and had
huge respect in the Tamil society, learned music and arts. Later they
were mishandled and sexually exploited by the royals and higher caste
peoples. Western colonialists saw them as prostitutes, so this community
people were considered lower. To eradicate that evil practice several
movements were gone through during the early 20th century and several
freedom movements and women empowerment movements also
emerged.
● In that period, precisely on 16 September 1916 a female child named
Kunjamma was born in Madurai, devadasi community for the
subramania iyer and shanmukhavadiver ammal couple. That girl later
broke all her community barriers , gender restrictions and flew in the
peak of the carnatic music and the cinema world ,also lived as an
example for other women in the newly constructed India. She is Madurai
Shanmukhavadivu Subbulakshmi, popularly known as
M.S.Subbulakshmi.

MUSICAL FAMILY:
● Music was in her blood,her grandma was a violinist and her mother
Shankughavadiver ammal was a veena player.

TEACHERS AND LEARNINGS:

● MS. Subbulakshmi learned music from her mother in the initial days
and her mother used to took her to the concerts of sembai vaidyanatha
bhagavathar, Karaikudi Sambhav siva and Palakadu T.S.Mani , she
learned through hearing knowledge. She learned carnatic music from
Semmangudi Srinivasan and Hindustani music from Pandit Narayana
Rao vyas and also learned sanskrit texts for a few months. She never
stopped learning, even in her 70s she learnt and recorded new songs.
CHILDHOOD AND TEEN AGE:
● It was one incident that happened when she was
10,Shanmughavadiver ammal suddenly paused her own concert in
Madurai sethupathi higher secondary school and called her daughter,M.S
Subbulakshmi to sing ,that 10 yr old subbulakshmi surprised all the
audience by singing the marati song named 'AANANTHAJA'. In teen
age she did lots of temple concerts and sang in wedding ceremonies
eventually her fame broke her community barriers. RECORDING AND

STAGE PERFORMANCE:
● M.S Subbulakshmi with her mother came to chennai in 1932 where
Columbia Gramophone Company noticed her talent and recorded her
music for the first time it happened in her teen age.moving to chennai
was like a turning point in her life.In those days music and arts were
only controlled by the high community people of chennai. Easwara Ayya
supported her to sing in musical academy.In those days girls were only
welcomed as an audience of stage performances, but M. S.
Subbulakshmi made her official stage performance at the age of 19 in
1935.This performance was happened in the honour ceremony of
miruthanga legend pudukkottai thatchinamoorthy in Mysore
samasthanam.

FAMILY BARRIERS AND STEREOTYPES:

● From childhood itself she noticed the Cruialties happening to the
devadasi girls, usually they were married as a second wife to the rich
men. Consequently her mother also tried to complete her marriage in the
teen age but M.S.Subbulakshmi had other plans, Her dream was to sing
and become a star in the art world.so she had come out of the house .
After leaving the house she went to her media friend house T. Sadasivam
, popularly known as kalki sadasivam,who looked after her promotion
and publication in Anantha vikatan.Her mother took lots of steps to get
her back to Madurai ,even went to police but failed.In 1937 she broke
the stereotype among the society by the photoshoot which portrayed her
and the famous Bharatanatyam dancer T.Balasaraswati in the way
that ,both wore pyjamas and had cigarettes.

MOVIES AND SONGS:

● By the time she got opportunities to act in the movies like
Theivamugam, Surunda mudi. Director K.Sundaram noticed her
expressions while singing and caste her as a herione of his movie in
1936 which was her first movie as heroine.Her songs made that as a
super hit movie.Uma ramanand, Ma ramanan, syama sundara kalyanam
vathana and atharavatravargalukelam were those super hit songs.
●She got an opportunity to play a heroine role in English director
R.Dungans's movie sagunthalai but she refused at first so the movie
team selected a marati actress for that role. Later she wanted to act in the
movie so the Narathar role was given to her ,which was also an
important role with long screen space.She accepted and also sang super
hit songs in that movie. Sagunthalai movie was released in several states
and her name reached the Indian audience.she gave 40,000 rupees salary
of the movie to sadasivam to start kalki press.Later he become one of its
founder. In that period lots of talks relating krishna,hero of sagunthalai
and M.S. Subbulakshmi were gone that was broken in 1940 after her
marriage.

MARRIAGE:
● After leaving her house she lived in T. sadasivam house for 3 years.
T.Sadasivam was a freedom fighter who went to jail many times in the
freedom movements, who was a person belonging from brahmin
background. He was like a stepson to Rajaji. In that time his wife went
to her mother's home for the delivery of their second child.
M.S.subbulakshmi became so close to his childrens.
● In 1940 after the death of sadasivam's 1st wife, he married
M.S.subbulakshmi , main reasons for their marriage was apart from
love, his children attached to her so much , she married him for
protection, she mentioned that in later interview and a interesting reason
also there , Rajaji want them to be get married.After marriage sadasivam
was like a guide and caretaker of M. S. Subbulakshmi.
M.S.Subbulakshmi hardly gave interviews, instead of her sadasivam
only looked after her interviews. After marriage,his guidance played an
immense role in her glorious life.In her concerts he sat in the front row
and cheered her. After the concert,usually M.S.Subbulakshmi asked for
the first comment from T.sadasivam. MEERA"the last film":
● T. Sadasivam produced an iconic film and it was directed by Ellis R.
Dungan.It was named as MEERA which was not only an iconic film but
also the last film of M.S.Subbulakshmi.That movie demanded 100's of
elephants and horses.but the movie team had little hesitation about it's
budget.This news reached the Udaipur king Maharana, who was the
biggest fan of M.S.Subbulakshmi, he gave his elephants and horses for
that film. In that movie M.S.Subbulakshmi lived as Meera, reached as a
divine figure among the audience.It was her iconic role in her lifetime,
So T.Sadasivam advised to stop acting after that movie. She sang
kartinile varum geetham, Brindavanathil kannan valarntha giridhara
gopala, enathu ullame include 12 songs have divinity as heart. That film
made her well popular in India. Following lines will make you realize
the popularity of the film. Sadasivam remade the film in Hindi on the
wish of former Prime Minister President Jawaharlal Nehru and sarojini
naidu. Nehru and the last viceroy of India Mount batten watched the 1st
show of Hindi remade Meera with their families. In that function sarojini
naidu gave her NIGHTINGALE title or tag to M.S.Subbulakshmi.

QUEEN OF CARNATIC MUSIC:

● After Meera she stopped acting but continued concerts.She did 5
concerts to collect funds for Kasturba memorial trust.That brought her
close to Gandhiji and Nehruji. She was studied till 5th only but had
separate fan base in each languages include tamil, telugu, malayalam,
hindi, english and bengali and she did concerts in the counties like
France, America. Without any notes she could memorize 25,000 songs.
These all are made her as a queen of carnatic music.Rajaji wrote lyrics
for the kurai ondrum illai marai moorthy kana song which was sung by
M.S.Subbulakshmi in United Nations.she also sung a "May the lord
forgive our sins" song in 1966 to insist world peace in UN, which was
also written by Rajaji. Venkatesha Subrabatham, Aathisankara
Bajagovithan and Rangapura Vigara were her famous keerthanas.

STATUES: ● In 1975 her venkatesha Subrabatham was telecasted in

tirupati and recognized her as an asthana (Royal position) singer. In her
memory, bronze statue with 16ft height and 4000kg weight was opened
by the former Andhra chief minister Rajasekar Reddy. In Mumbai
mathunga shankughanatha sabha 8ft statue of MS. Subbulakshmi was
opened by west Bengal governor MK.Narayanan.Sabha preserving the
praising letters wrote by Gandhiji, Queen Elizabeth, Indra Gandhi,
Radhakrishnan, Lady Mount paten, Sarojini Naidu on
M.S.Subbulakshmi.

HELPING HEART:
● She was not only a great Artist, also a great kindhearted human. She
had a practice of donating the money in the same stage which collected
from the concerts.Even though she had moved from luxurious kalki
garden to the normal house,she never stopped charity. One of such act
happened during the receiving of Ramon Magsaysay award, consider as
the Nobel Prize of Asia. She donated the praise money 5000USD in the
same stage. AWARDS: She bagged a number of awards some of them
were below.
● 1954-Bhadma bhusan,
● 1974-Mahaseysey for public service
● 1975- Bhadma vibhusan
● 1990- Indira Gandhi award for national integration,
● 1998- Bharat Ratna.
● The United Nations published her stamp in the memory of her concert
that happened in the UN before half century.

The End of carnatic queen:

● She stopped doing concerts after the death of T. Sadasivam in
1997.She remembered him with tears while receiving Bharat Ratna.
After 7 years on 11 December 2004 she passed away. Notable saying of
Nehruji is here "Who am I, a mere Prime Minister before a Queen, a
Queen of Music".

Rukmini Devi Arundale and the Kalakshetra

Foundation
Introduction:

During 16th and 18th century, Madras was ruled by Portuguese and

Frenchmen. The arrival of the railway in India during the 19th century

helped the city to connect with other crucial cities like Mumbai and

Kolkata which encouraged communication and trading in the

surrounding area.

On 22nd August 1639, a small piece of land was purchased by

the British East India Company which is located on the Coromandel

Coast in Chandragiri from Peda Venkata Raya, king of Vijayanagar. For

trading projects, Damerla Venkatapathy being the ruler of Vandavasi

region permitted the British to build a factory and a warehouse. The next

year British built the Fort St. George which then became a core part of

the growing colonial city. Along with Tamil Nadu, the other northern

modern-day states of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka were conquered by

the British in the late 18th century. This was the period when the Madras

Presidency was established with Madras as the capital. Under British

rule, the city grew into a major urban centre and naval base.

Along with the city’s infrastructural and urban development, there were

changes in important sectors of the societal arenas too which began an

age of renaissance i.e., ‘Rebirth’. Renaissance refers to the literary,

cultural, social reform and political movements that took place in Tamil

Nadu. Tamil Nadu history begins in the 3rd century BC. Unlike the

Tamil society back then, the Europeans were experts in literature,

science, law and art. So, when the British Crown took over the

administration of the country from the British East India Company, there

was a rapid rise in literacy levels in South India. The response of a

people to invasion by aliens from a foreign land is a measure of the

depth of their roots and the strength of their identity. Plenty of examples

can be found in south Indian historian’s writings where they describe the

Tamil society’s hesitation to accept westernization. But instead of

standing united to drive the colonial evil away from their homelands, the

people decided to work along with it to achieve their own preferred

goals and selfish ambitions. For the Brahmins and the other

marginalized sections of the society, the divisions in caste and religion

were too big a barrier that could not be broken down during the early

colonial times. But later on, we see that Nationalism arose among

people and freedom that was once a dream became a reality. Keeping in

mind that it was under British conquest that the Tamil renaissance of the

second half of the 19th century gathered momentum, the cultural aspect

of the madras society is what we are going to discuss here. British

Literature and education enabled non-brahmins to rise to a higher social

status and be independent of their achievements without any

interference from the Brahmin community. These openings further lead

to the Dravidian movement and other south Indian committees, that

protested against the brahmin dominance in the government The non-

brahmin community did not have instant success handed over to them as

their employment in the administration and their tireless efforts were

stopped by manipulation by the Brahmins in Tamil society.

Madras renaissance had its cultural beginnings in the discovery and the

subsequent editing and printing of the Tamil classics of the Sangam

period. These had existed earlier only as palm leaf manuscripts.

The 18th century saw emergence of rule of the East India Company

followed by setting up of British colonial rule in the 19th century. Such

developments saw decline of various classical dance forms which were

subjected to contemptuous fun and discouragement including

Bharatanatyam that through the 19th century remained exclusive to

Hindu temples. Eventually social and economic conditions associated

with Devadasi culture added with contempt and despicable attitude from

the Christian missionaries and British officials, who held the Devadasis

of South India and nautch girls of North India as harlots, disgraced such

systems. Furthermore, the Christian missionaries launched anti-dance

movement in 1892 to stop such practice. The Madras Presidency under

the British colonial government banned the custom of dancing in Hindu

temples also came to an end.

The Indian community disapproved such ban. The Tamilians were

worried that such a rich and ancient custom of Hindu temple dancing

was getting persecuted on the pretext of social reform

Many classical art revivalists like Indian lawyer, freedom-fighter,

activist and classical artist E. Krishna Iyer questioned such

discrimination.

Iyer founded the ‘Madras Music Academy’ and along with Indian

theosophist, dancer and Bharatanatyam choreographer Rukmini Devi

Arundale, he strived to save Bharatanatyam from dying out. As the

Indian freedom movement progressed steadily during the early 20th

century, an effort to revive Indian culture and tradition seethed with

excitement among Indians. Eminent Bharatanatyam dancers like

Arundale and Balasaraswati expanded the dance form out of Hindu

temples and established it as a mainstream dance form.

Rukmini Devi Arundale:

Rukmini Devi Arundale, is an Indian classical dancer and follower

of theosophy, best known for catalysing the renaissance of

the Bharatanatyam form and founding the Kalakshetra Foundation in

Madras (now Chennai) ("Virginia Gorlinski", 2021). The foundation

aimed to preserve and popularize Bharatanatyam and other Indian

traditions as well as to spread the ideals of theosophy i.e., Theosophy,

occult movement originating in the 19th century with roots that can be

traced to ancient Gnosticism and Neoplatonism. The term theosophy,

derived from the Greek Theos (“god”) and Sophia (“wisdom”), is

generally understood to mean “divine wisdom.

She was born on 29th February 1904 in Madurai, Tamil Nadu, into a

Tamil Brahmin family with seven siblings. The father Neelakanta Sastri,

though an engineer by profession, was a Sanskrit scholar and a historian

as well. Since her mother Seshammal was a music enthusiast, Rukmini

Devi was exposed to dance, music, and culture within the precincts of

her home from early childhood. Her father Nilakanta Sastri was very

closely associated with Theosophical Society based in Madras which

quite naturally, she was influenced by liberal, humanistic ideas of the so-

ciety. Besides the influence of her father, another individual who greatly

impacted her ideology and thoughts was none other than Dr. Annie Be-

sant, the British co-founder and president of the Society. Little did Ruk-

mini know that the Theosophical Society would eventually become the

fundamental truth of her life.

The first signs became palpable when in the year 1920, aged barely 16,

she stunned her family and society by tying the knot with 42-year-old Dr

George Arundale, a British Theosophist. Their married life was by and

large peaceful. Arundale eventually became his youthful spouse’s men-

tor, friend philosopher, and guide. Arundale travelled extensively with

her husband and Besant on various theosophical missions, all the while

absorbing the ideology of the society. Also, during her travels, Arundale

became enamoured with classical dance. She met the legendary ballerina

Anna Pavlova on a ship to Australia and was enthralled by her stunning

performances. It was on Pavlova’s request that she began learning ballet.

Pavlova had also advised Rukmini to encourage the dancer within her by

seeking inspiration in classical Indian dance forms.

Taking this advice to heart, Rukmini embarked on a campaign to learn,

practice and promote Bharatanatyam. She didn’t just want to revive a

dying Indian dance form, she wanted to reverse the negative social

stereotypes associated with it. Originally the dance form Bharatnatyam

was known as ‘sadhir’ and was considered vulgar. Rukmini played an

instrumental role in modifying the dance form, giving it a new name,

and popularizing it all over the world as a respectable art form.

After completing her formal training under Bharatnatyam maestro

Pandanallur Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai, Rukmini gave her first public

performance on stage at the Theosophical Society in 1935, setting a

precedent for Indian women to practice and perform the dance form that

had been traditionally restricted only to the devadasi community

(women ritually “dedicated” to service of a temple for the rest of their

lives).

Rukmini Devi resolved to erase the stigma and social stereotypes con-

nected with the dance. She realised that to do so, certain innovations and

renovation would be required. Plunging headlong into action, she in-

fused motley hues and designs into dancers costumes, introduced violin

paying, stage lights , props, customized jewellery and majestic statues of

Nataraja (King of Dance, who is equal to Lord Shiva) which were wor-

shipped by the dancers before their recitals commenced. She collabo-

rated with several contemporary classical musicians, artists, and Gurus

of divergent dance forms, to create some landmark dance dramas based

on mythology, epics and scriptures. These include Sri Rama Vanaga-

manam, Sabari Moksham, Kumara Sambhavam and many more.

Through her hard labour, she succeeded in garnering for Bharatnatyam,

the popularity which it richly deserved. A late bloomer, Rukmini Devi

achieved success at a tremendous pace. By 1960s, she had reached the

pinnacle of fame and glory, emerging as India’s Prima Donna

( Heroine ) and a revivalist of classical dances. In 1956, she won

the Padma Bhushan, India’s second highest civilian award. This was fol-

lowed by the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award in 1967. She served two

stints as a member of the Rajya Sabha during the 1950s. She was the

first Indian woman to be nominated in Rajya Sabha. She had the signal

honour of becoming the first woman member of the Upper House.

Her life was the epitome of Indian cultural traditions and heritage. In-

deed, Rukmini Devi Arundale was one of the leading best exponents of

Indian classical dances. Throughout her long illustrious life, she toiled at

refurbishing the tarnished façades of classical dances (especially

Bharatanatyam), and showcased their renewed splendour before the en-

tire world. After a lifetime spent working for the revival of traditional

Indian art forms, Rukmini Devi Arundale passed away on February 24,

1986, at the ripe old age of 82.

More than three decades after her death she remains immortalised in the

sphere of performing arts. She was an artistic soul passionately devoted

to dance. This coupled with her philosophical bent of mind, propelled

her to live a simple life and maintain a low profile. No wonder, because

when she was offered Presidentship of the Indian Union, Rukmini Devi

gracefully turned down the offer, choosing to only focus on her passion.

The versatile lady may have chosen not to be president of India;

however, she will be remembered for all that she chose to do, and with

such elan.

She was also an animal rights activist who deeply cared for all creatures.

The Animal Welfare Board of India was set up under her chairmanship

in 1962. Being an animal lover, she followed a strict vegetarian diet and

was involved in promoting vegetarianism in the country. She served as

the Vice President of International Vegetarian Union from 1955 to 1986.

The Animal Welfare Board of India presented her with ‘Prani Mitra’

award in 1968 for her work as an animal rights activist.

The Kalakshetra Foundation:

Meanwhile, in 1934, the year after Besant’s death, Arundale established

the Besant Theosophical High School and the Besant Arundale Senior

Secondary School to impart education based on both theosophist and tra-

ditional Hindu values. In January 1936, Rukmini and her husband estab-

lished an academy of dance and music called Kalakshetra at Adyar (near

Chennai). This arts academy that was especially dedicated to the cultiva-

tion of the Bharatanatyam tradition. Together, the high school, the se-

nior secondary school, and the arts academy became the Kalakshetra

Foundation. The name ‘Kalakshetra’ was decided by Pandit S. Subrama-

nia Sastri, a Sanskrit scholar and member of the academy. All the mem-

bers were deeply committed to the Theosophical society and as well as

Kalakshetra. S. Sarada, Radha, Leelavati (Rukmini's niece) were among

the first to join Kalakshetra. Many renowned dancers including

Meenakshisundaram Pillai, Muthukumara Pillai and Karaikkal

Saradambal Ammal joined the Kalakshetra as its teachers

Kalakshetra, as the name suggests, is a centre for artistic endeavour. The

institution stands testimony to her dream of creating a space where the

essence of Indian thought would find expression through artistic

education, an institution she established with the vision “of imparting to

the young the true spirit of Art, devoid of vulgarity and commercialism.”

The Foundation is spread over almost 100 acres by the seashore in

Chennai. The Kalakshetra Foundation, as it is known today, is a vital

centre for the study and performance of fine arts. There are three

libraries on the campus:

1. Rukmini Devi Library: The library has a collection of 5219 books

from Smt. Rukmini Devi’s private collection. It is not open to the public.

2. Sankara Menon Library: This is the library attached with the Rukmini

College of Fine Arts, the flagship unit of Kalakshetra Foundation.

It was started in March 1958.

At present, there are 10830 books related to dance, music and fine arts.

These books are available in various languages like English, Telugu,

Kannada, Tamil, Sanskrit, Hindi, Malayalam and Grantham.

3. Research Library: It was started in March 2006.

It has a collection of 9380 books for reference. Books on painting,

music, dance, and religion, as well as manuscripts of Rukmini Devi’s

dance-dramas, are also available. It is open only to staff and students of

Kalakshetra Foundation and to scholars with prior permission.

In January 1994, an Act of the Indian Parliament recognised the Kalak-

shetra Foundation as an ‘Institute of National Importance’. Year-long

celebrations, including lectures, seminars and festivals marked her 100th

birth anniversary, on 29 February, in 2004 at Kalakshetra and elsewhere

in many parts of the world,] At the campus the day was marked by spe-

cial function in which old students gathered from across India and the

world, in a day of songs and recitals. Also on 29 February, a photo exhi-

bition on her life opened at the Lalit Kala Gallery in New Delhi, and on

the same day, then President APJ Abdul Kalam released a photo-biogra-
phy, written and compiled by Dr Sunil Kothari with a foreword by for-

mer president R Venkataraman.

In 2016, Google honoured Rukmini Devi on her 112th birthday with

a doodle, and later in the month marking the 80th year of the Kalak-

shetra Foundation held, 'Remembering Rukmini Devi’ festival of music

and dance. Google also featured her in the 2017 Google Doodle for In-

ternational Women's Day.

Arundale’s enormous contributions to the cultural changes in the Tamil

society still stands strong to this day. Her passion, intense enthusiasm,

strong mindset and unwavering beliefs adds her to the list of

independent women of the modern historical times.

Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA)

WHAT IS YMCA?

YMCA (Young Men Christian Association) was founded on the basis of

protestant evangelical (divine) values, its main mission is to put

Christian principles into practice. YMCA operates globally on a

federation model. YMCA is voluntarily affiliated to their national

organizations, YMCA has alliance with Europe, Asia, Middle east,

Africa, Latin America & Caribbean, United States and Canada

HISTORY OF YMCA

During the industrial revolution, the working conditions were terrible

due to the building of industries and there was a need of workers and

there was a line of workers ready to work, they worked for fifteen to

sixteen hours. The employers didn’t provide proper wages so, in June 6,

1844 twelve young men led by George William founded the first YMCA

in London and England. Their main objective was “Improvement of the

spiritual condition of the young men by the formation of biblical classes,

family and social prayer meetings. George Williams George Williams is

the first founder of the YMCA and it is the first and largest youth

charity, after the establishment of YMCA in London, he started

developing other branches in England, Scotland, and Ireland. Over the

next ten years, YMCA movements also began to develop across Western

Europe, USA, Australia, New Zealand and India. His main motive was

to compound Christian principles and shape young minds, body and

spirit. Henry Dunant The idea of creating a truly global movement with

International headquarters and was pioneered by Henry Dunant,

Secretary of YMCA Geneva, who later found the International

Committee of the Red Cross (symbol of protection and a helping hand)

and he won the Nobel Peace Prize. Henry Dunant successfully

convinced YMCA Paris to organise the first YMCA World Conference.

The Conference took place in August 1855, bringing together 99 young

delegates from 9 countries. After the conference in Paris permanent

headquarters and formal structure for the committee was created in

Geneva, Switzerland. This was a turning point for the central

international committee known as the World Alliance of YMCAs.

HOW DID YMCA DEVELOP IN INDIA?

William Carey went to Calcutta in 1793 but he was forced to leave the
British Indian territory as he was a baptised Christian, later he joined the

Baptist missionaries in the Danish colony of Frederiksnagar in

Serampore. He started improvising the schools by teaching the kids

reading, writing and accounting Christianity he opened the first

theological university in Serampore. Later in 1822 he and John Lawson

who were a part of Baptist missionary society began the very first

YMCA in today’s Kolkata in Asia which followed by one in Colombo,

Trivandrum, Bombay, Madras and several others. HOW DID YMCA

DEVELOP IN MADRAS? By the 1880s there were several YMCA’s in

South India. In 1890, David mcconaughy, a young American from the

international committee of the American YMCAs arrived in Madras and

founded the very first YMCA there. He was later keen about forming the

Indian national council of YMCAs, the forerunner of the national

council of YMCAs of India, after a conference in 1891. The national

council of YMCAs of India is the apex body of the Indian YMCAs

entrusted with guiding and overseeing in general activities of its

affiliated associations and providing a direction to the Indian YMCA

movement as a whole. The headquarters for the national committee was

in Madras. He convened an all-India convention of the 35 local

associations along with a few smaller associations set up in the London

mission of Travancore by lay missionaries, in the Madras association of

YMCA. The first Indian National Committee comprised 17 persons. The

headquarters for the national committee was in Madras for one year and

the convention unanimously elected Mr. Satthinadhan as Chairman, W.R

Arbuthnot as a Treasurer and David Mcconaughy as the first secretary.

YMCA COLLEGE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION (CHENNAI)

Harry Crowe Buck founded the YMCA College of physical education

in Chennai back in the year 1920. Mr. Buck was a pioneer in physical

education training in India. The college stands as a hallmark for training

physical education teachers.

OBJECTIVES OF THE COLLEGE

●To prepare teaching personnel who can serve the community in the

areas of health, physical education and sports.

●To provide specific training in the area of sports and physical

education with a strong scientific training base.

●To provide opportunities for the formal and non-formal being with

practical experience in high level performance. To prepare young men

and women as healthy citizens imbibed with the zeal and spirit of

Christian love.

●To help promote, advancement and sharing of scientific knowledge in

field of physical education.

●To prepare students for the challenges of the 21st century of providing

opportunity to attain the skills and knowledge to have a healthy lifestyle.

HISTORY OF MUSIC IN MADRAS

*Madras Music Academy is one of the earliest established music

academies in South India. Before the concept of infrastructure was
introduced to India in the early 1920s, it was a gathering for elite
musicians simply called Music Academy It plays an important role in
encouraging and promoting primarily the Carnatic Music Indian art
form. It played a vital role in the revival of the Indian classical dance
form of Bharatnatyam in the 1930s when it faced near extinction due to
a negative connotation caused by conservative societal standards.
Madras Music Academy Formation - 18 August 1928 Founder - E.
Krishna Iyer, U. Rama Rao, Basheer Ahmed Sayeed Purpose - Music,
dance and arts education Headquarters - Alwarpet, Chennai 600 018,
India *They also run a music school called the Teachers college of
Carnatic Music which has many eminent musicians on its faculty.
Musicians such as Tiger Varadachariar, Appa Iyer, Valadi Krishnaiyer
and Mudicondan Venkatarama Iyer adorned the chair of Principal of the
prestigious Teacher's College.

● HISTORY; In 1927, the Indian National Congress held the All India
Music Conference in Madras. At the end of the conference it was
decided that an organisation be formed that helped the cause of music.
The prime reason for this conference was E. Krishna Iyer who had
played a vital role in reviving the south Indian dance art form—
Bharatanatyam. The Academy was formally inaugurated on 18 August
1928 by C. P. Ramaswami Iyer, in the Y.M.I.A. Auditorium before a
large and distinguished gathering. Annual music conferences are held
every December to collect all information regarding music, maintain the
library and publish a journal. They also help to bring to public notice
aspiring musicians and scholars by conducting competitions and other
presentations. For a decade, E. Krishna Iyer worked as the Secretary of
the Madras Music Academy. The first Music Festival was held in
December 1927 which is before the inauguration of the Music Academy.
* Since then, it had become a part of the Madras Music Academy's
Activities to conduct several expositions and concerts on Carnatic Music
every December. This later came to be popularly known as the Margazhi
Season or is even referred to as the Music Season amongst Carnatic
enthusiasts.
● MUSIC BUILDING'S IN MADRAS;
*During the first few years, the Academy conducted its activities
provisionally in George Town and later moved to Mylapore. In 1955,
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru laid the foundation stone for the music
academy building that exists today on TTK Road in Mylapore. On 20
December 1962, Maharaja Jayachamaraja Wodeyar Bahadur, the then
Governor of Madras. There are two buildings for the Music Academy:
*The T.T. Krishnamachari Hall *The Kasturi Srinivasan Hall *The T.T.
Krishnamachari Hall is the first building that was built in 1955. It has a
seating capacity of 1600. *The Kasturi Srinivasan Hall was built in
1982. It houses a small auditorium for conferences and concerts, a
library, a committee room and a recording and demonstration room. It
was here that T. N. Rajarathnam Pillai's tapes and audio CDs were
produced. Kasturi Srinivasan's nephew's son, N. Murali, the Joint
Managing Director of The Hindu, is the current President of the
Academy.

● AWARD'S AND RECOGNITION S; *Sangeetha Kalanidhi: The

Music Academy, since 1929 has been recognising and rewarding people
who contributed to the field of Carnatic music by honouring them with
the title Sangeetha Kalanidhi. In 1968, M.S. Subbulakshmi was the first
woman to receive the Sangeetha Kalanidhi award from Madras Music
Academy. This year the award has been announced to S. Sowmya. Natya
Kala Acharya Since 2012, the academy has been recognising dancers
with the Natya Kala Acharya title. A separate Dance conference is held
in the first week of January. This award is now renamed as Nrithya
Kalanidhi
● Vaggeyyakkara Award
● Musicologist Award
● Spirit of Youth-festival of Dance and *Music: During the October of
every year nearly 40 young artists are projected by the academy for their
Classical Music and Dance talent. Special TTK Award Special Life Time
Achievement award: This award has been conferred on only 3 people:
● Kamala Lakshminarayan ● Lalgudi Jayaraman ● TH Vinayakram
*Best Artiste Award *Music Welfare R.R.Talent Promotion Scheme:
Two talented artists are selected by the Academy and are sponsored for
coaching under an eminent musician chosen by the academy. At the end
of the training period the artists get to perform in the Academy.

● MEMORIES; Music Academy received a donation of Rs. 1, 00,000

from late Sri. S. Visvanathan in memory of Sri. K. R. Sundaram Iyer for
the improvement of library activities. *The library is now named as Sri
K. R. Sundaram Iyer Memorial Library. It has rare books, manuscripts
and tape recordings of the proceedings of the Expert Committee
sessions. *The students of the Teacher's College of Music, members,
music students and research scholars. Books on both music and other
general subjects donated by the families of late Prof. P. Sambamoorthy,
Sangita Vidvan K. C. Thyagarajan, Dr. V. Raghavan, Mr.
Venkatakrishnan, Dr. S. R. Janakiraman and other individuals.
ANCIENT MUSIC; The tradition of Tamil music goes back to the
earliest period of Tamil history. Many poems of the Sangam literature,
the classical Tamil literature of the early Common Era, were set to
music. * There are various references to this ancient musical tradition
found in the ancient Sangam books such as Ettuthokai and Pathupattu. *
The early narrative poem Cilappatikaram, belonging to the post-Sangam
period also mentions various forms of music practiced by the Tamil
people. *ACADEMY; The premier institution devoted to Carnatic Music
in Madras. Housed in its own premises at the corner of Avvai
Shanmugam Road and Cathedral Road, the Academy has the TT
Krishnamachari Hall, which has a seating capacity of 1600. *The
Complex also has a library and will normally host a photography
exhibition during the season in the Vinyasa Art Gallery within the
compound.