MODULE 4

STREAM FLOW MEASUREMENT

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 STREAM

 A stream can be defined as a flow channel into which the surface runoff from a
specified basin drains.
 Generally, there is considerable exchange of water between a stream and the
underground water.

STREAM FLOW

 Streamflow is measured in units of discharge (m3/s) occurring at specified time.

 Stream measurement techniques can be broadly classified into two categories as
 Direct Determination Method
 Indirect Determination Method

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 Direct determination of stream discharge:
 Area- Velocity methods
 Dilution techniques
 Electromagnetic methods
 Ultrasonic method
 Indirect determination of stream flow
 Slope Area method
 Hydraulic structure

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 DIRECT MEASUREMENT METHOD

 Direct method is time consuming and costly procedure. Hence a two step procedure is
followed.
 Step 1: Discharge of given stream is related to elevation of the water (stage) through a
series of careful measurements
 Step II: Stage of the stream is observed routinely in an inexpensive manner and discharge
is estimated using previously determined stage-discharge relationship.

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 AREA – VELOCIRTY METHOD

 Measuring the area of cross-section of the river at a selection section called

gauging site.
 Measuring the velocity of flow through cross section area
 The entire stream is divided into a number of parts
 The area of each part is multiplies with the velocity

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 DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY
 Methods used for measuring the velocity are
 Current meter method
 Surface float method
 Subsurface float method
 Velocity rod or rod float
 Pressure instruments
 The velocity distribution of open channels are given below and from the diagram , it
is clear that the distribution is not uniform
 So mean velocity has to be evaluated

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 CURRENT METER METHOD
 It is a device which measures the velocity in the channel directly.
 The instrument consist of a wheel which will revolve by the force of current when immersed in water and is
provided with a gear to record the number of revolutions of the wheel.
 According to the direction of axis of rotation , the current meter may be classified into :
 Horizontal axis type current meter
 Vertical axis type current meter
 In channels of small depth, the instrument is mounted on a rod on which , it can be fixed in any position. The
rod is made to rest on the bed of the channel, where the velocity is to be measured.
 On large channels , the current meter is suspended from a boat by a cable and is weighed down by a heavy
anchor.
 Current meter can be used in 3 ways as
 Single point method – The current meter is immersed to 0.6 of the depth of stream and velocity recorded is taken as
mean velocity
 Double point method – The current meter is introduced at 0.2 and 0.6 of the stream depth. Average of the two
velocities taken as mean velocity
 Integration method – The current meter is introduced in the channel at various depths such as 0.1 d , 0.3 d , 0.4 d and
so on. Average of the velocities at these points is taken as mean velocity

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 CURRENT METER

VERTICAL AXIS CURRENT METER

HORIZONTAL AXIS CURRENT

METER

Equation for velocity

Where, N= revolutions per second

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 SURFACE FLOAT METHOD
 Surface floats are made of light materials such as cork or hollow wooden blocks so that they may
float on the surface
 They may painted on top or may be attached with a flag to easily distinguish it from any other
floating object.
 Two wire ropes are stretched across the channel section one at the beginning and the other at the
end of selected reach for conducting the test. This distance is called test reach
 A third rope is stretched upstream of the test reach by 15 to 20 m. All the three ropes are marked
at various points so as to divide the channel width in various compartments. Centre line of these
compartments defines the path for floats
 Floats are dropped in water along various paths near the third rope. They acquire uniform
velocity by the time they enter the test reach. Time of travel is recorded only for the floats which
follow the correct path
 Velocity of float = Distance travelled by float / Time taken
 For large channels , the length of test reach should be 50 m to 75 m. For lined and small
channels, this length should be 15 to 20 m
 Observation should not be taken if there is strong breeze since it affects the velocity of float

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SURFACE FLOAT

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 SUB-SURFACE FLOATS
 Surface floats will give surface velocity . Hence sub-surface floats are used to find
the mean velocity across the vertical section of the channel
 It consists of hollow metal sphere or cylinder attached to the surface float by means
of a chord.
 The length of chord is adjustable so as to reduce or increase the depth of sub-
surface float
 Mean velocity is obtained by adjusting the length of the chord such that the centre
of sphere is about 0.2 d above the bed level.

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 VELOCITY ROD or ROD FLOAT

 They are made up of hollow tube or wooden rod

 They are usually made telescopic with one tube sliding into the other.
 They are weighted with lead shots in such a way that when the rods are left afloat, they
stand vertical.
 Their length is adjusted in such a way that the bottom of float may be clear off the
bottom by few centimetres.
 The mean velocity is calculated by the formula

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 PITOT TUBE
 It is a tube suspended in the stream with its nozzle pointing upstream.
 Due to the dynamic pressure exerted on the mouth of the tube by flowing water, the
level of water in the vertical limb of the tube rises above the water surface of the
channel by an amount of “ h “
 Velocity of the channel is equal to

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 MEASUREMENT OF AREA OF FLOW
 The cross sectional area is generally divided into a number of small vertical strips
 For measuring the width of strip, a steel cable is suspended from two towers erected on
either side of the bank
 From the cable, ropes or chains are hung to touch the surface of water at regular intervals
and divide the surface of water into suitable strips of known width.
 Depth of water at each point is measured by sounding rod.
 Using the width and depth of each strip , cross sectional area of each strip can be
calculated as A1, A2, A3 etc.
 Channel discharge can be calculated as

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 MEASUREMENT OF DEPTH OF FLOW
 There are 3 different methods used to measure the depth of flow
 Sounding rod method
 Sounding cable method
 Echo sounder method
 Sounding rod method - It is a wooden pole with a thin disc at the bottom. The rod is
slowly immersed vertically in water from a boat at the required place so that the disc
just touched the stream bed. Then the depth is measured from the graduations
 Sounding cable method – This method is used when the depth of flow is more than 2 m
and velocity of flow is high. A cable with weight on its end is slowly released into water
from a boat by means of a pulley and a movable red mark is fixed on the cable exactly
at water level when the weight just touches the stream bed. Then the cable is taken out
without disturbing the red mark and the depth is measured.
 Echo sounder method – This method is used when the depth of river is larger. In this
method an echo sounder instrument is used and it will send sound impulse towards the
river bottom. Time taken for sound impulse to reach back the water surface after
reflection from the river bottom is taken. Then depth of river can be calculated using
speed of sound and time taken for travelling.

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 FACTORS AFFECTING SITE SELECTION FOR
GAUGING OF STREAM

1. Stream should be straight at gauging site

2. At all stages , total flow should be confined to a single channel
3. Stream bed in the vicinity should not scour or fill and it should be free from aquati
plants
4. Banks of stream must be permanant
5. Banks should be high enough to carry the flood
6. Site should be accessible for installation , operation and maintanance of gauging
site
7. A length of stream for measurement of discharge at all stages should be should be
available within proximity of site

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 STAGE DISCHARGE CURVE
 Continuous measurement of the flow of the river section is impractical and expensive.
 Stage can be observed continuously or at regular short interval of time.
 Relation exist between stage and discharge at a section
 This relation is termed as stage-section relationship or stage discharge rating curve.
 Rating curve is established by making a number of concurrent observations of stage
discharge over a period of time.
 Water level as ordinate and discharge as abscissa at any river section
 If Q is taken as discharge and h as water level, then the relationship can be analytically
expressed as: Q=f(h)

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AREA - VELOCITY METHOD - NUMERICAL
QUESTION

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 0.3
2 2

0.3 0.02145

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 0.9905

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 MEANDERING OF RIVERS
 A stream consisting of successive Meanders.
 A meandering river on alluvial plane flows in consecutive curves of reverse order.
 It is typically developed in coastal plain areas, lower gradient.
 A meander in general is a bend in a sinuous watercourse.
 It consist of two consecutive loops one flowing clock wise and the other anticlockwise.
 Curvature of flow established in a river due to its own characteristics and external forces
propagates downstream building up shoals on the convex side by means of secondary
currents.
 Ideal conditions required for meandering are alluvial plains, gentle slope, sufficient
amount of precipitation and absence of vegetation

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 CAUSES OF MEANDERING

 Excessive energy of the streams

 Excessive bank erosion
 Transverse oscillation
 Local disturbance such as variable bank material and obstruction
 Excess of total charge associated with excessive turbulence during floods

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 FORMATION OF MEANDER
 A meander is formed when the moving water in a river erodes the outer banks and widens
its valley.
 A stream of any volume may assume a meandering course, alternatively eroding
sediments from the outside of a bend and depositing them on the inside.
 The result is a snaking pattern as the stream meanders back and forth across its down
valley axis.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF MEANDERING RIVERS
COMPARED WITH OTHERS
 Low gradient
 Greater sinuosity
 Greater % suspended load (less bed load)
 Finer-grained sediments
 More constant discharge

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 PARAMETERS OF MEANDERS
 Meander - Consist of two consecutive loops one flowing clockwise, the other anticlockwise.
 Meander Length (ML) - Distance along a meandering type river measured from the tangent point of
one curve to the tangent point of the next curve of same order.
 Meander Width (MB) - Distance between the outer edges of clockwise and anticlockwise loops of the
meander.
 Meander Ratio (MB / ML) -It is the ratio of meander width to meander length.
 Crossings - The short straight reach of the river, connecting two consecutive clockwise and
anticlockwise loops.
 Degree of sinuosity - It is the ratio between curved length and the straight distance.

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 FACTORS CONTROLLING PROCESS OF
MEANDERING
 Valley slope -A change in the valley slope always produces change in the meander
pattern.
 Stream load - Composition of stream load as well as its rate of movement materially
affects the meander pattern.
 Discharge - There is a close relationship between the rate of discharge and the rate of
bed load movement and, therefore, it affects meander
 Bed and side resistance – The resistance offered by materials in the bed and side of
river affects the meandering process. In gravel bed, no definite meander pattern is
observed.

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 GENERAL FEATURES OF MEANDERING

 A fully developed meander of homogeneous material with a constant discharge has a

definite pattern of curvature, length and width.
 The width and length of meander vary roughly with square root of discharge.
 The pattern of meander is altered by variation in discharge , slope or bank and bed
forming material
 Increase in discharge or slope increases the meandering feature such as size of
bends, length, width and degree of sinuosity.
 Increase of sediment charge increases the slope as well as width of the river, while
the depth of the river is reduced.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF MEANDERS
 Regular Meanders - A train of bends of the same curvature and frequency.
 Irregular Meanders - Deformed in shape and may vary in amplitude and frequency. They may
occur because of variation in discharge along the channel.
 Compound Meander - Bends of different amplitude and frequency.
 Simple meander - Bends of one dominant amplitude and frequency.
 a) Wavy meanders - very simple in plan. Meander necks are wide apart
 b) Horse shoe type meanders - Beds are highly curved. Arms are brought closer to each
other with the result the meander neck become very narrow.
 c) Ox-bow type meander - almost circular bends with high curvature. They are created
when growing meanders intersect each other and cut off a meander loop, leaving it
without an active cutting stream. Over a period of time, these oxbow lakes tend to dry out
or fill in with Sediments.

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 Point Bar - The sediments accumulation on the convex side of the meandering loop
results in the formation of characteristic point bar. Most of the sedimentation occurs
in the form of point bar.
 Cut-off - When meandering type rivers develops to the extreme conditions in the
shape of horse shoe bends, the land between them gradually reduces to a narrow
neck which may be cut- off by natural flow during floods. Cut off is defined as the
process by which an alluvial River flowing along curves or bends abandons particular
bend and establishing its main flow along a comparatively straight and shorter
channel.

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 RIVER TRAINING WORKS

 River training implies various measures adopted on a river

 to direct and guide the river flow ,
 to train and regulate the riverbed or
 to increase the low water depth.
 This is required since rivers in alluvial plains frequently alter their courses and cause damage
to land and property adjacent to their banks.

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 OBJECTIVES OF RIVER TRAINING

 To guide the flow at ordinary and low stages and fix direction of flow though
certain defined reach.
 Safe passage of floods without overtopping the banks.
 To make the river course stable and reduce bank erosion to minimum.
 To transport efficiently bed load and suspended sediment load.
 To provide sufficient depth of flow for safe navigation.
 To correct disorderly banks or flow conditions.
 To protect river banks by deflecting the river away from the attacked banks.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF RIVER TRAINING WORKS
 Based on the purpose of training works , they are classified as ,
1. High water training
 Training for discharge.
 River is trained to sufficient c/s area for safe passage of maximum flood.
2. Low water training
 Training for depth.
 River is trained to adequate water depths for navigation during low water periods.
 Achieved by contracting the width of the channel.
3. Mean water training
 Training for sediment.
 River is trained to correct the configuration of river bed for the efficient transport of sediment load.
 For maintaining the channel in good shape.
 Mean water training is the most important training.
 It forms the basis on which other two are planned

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 TYPES OF RIVER TRAINING

 Groynes or Spurs
 Artificial Cutoffs
 Guide Banks
 Levees or embankments
 Bank protection and Pitched banks
 Pitched Islands
 Miscellaneous Methods
a) River training without embankments
b) Bandalling

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 GROYNES OR SPURS
 Rigid embankment type hydraulic structures constructed transverse to the flow
or at an angle pointing d/s or u/s, extending from the bank into the river upto a
limit.
 Begins at the riverbank with a root and ends at the regulation line with a head.
 The head and the sloping faces must be protected against wave action by hand
placed rubble facing.
 Stone apron is provided to prevent failure, due to excessive scour at nose and
the sides.
 Most widely used.
 They are made of stone, gravel, rock , earth, or piles etc.

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 FUNCTIONS OF GROYNES

 Training the river along a desired course by attracting , repelling or deflecting the flow in
a channel.
 Protecting the river bank by keeping the flow away from it.
 Contracting a wide river channel for the improvement of depth for navigation.
 Promoting scour and sediment deposition were required.
 Trapping bed load to build up new river banks.

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 ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF GROYNES
 Stable and strong to withstand river erosion.
 Proper alignment and angle to meet the objectives.
 Top level sufficiently above HFL.
 Strong enough to resist scour.
 Essentially tied to ground.

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 LIMITATIONS OF GROYNES

 Groynes upsets the equilibrium of the river.

 They requires heavy repairs after every flood.
 They can protect a reach of river bank only to the extent of 2 to 2.5 times
their length. They can’t protect long reaches of the river economically.
 River starts attacking other points on the opposite bank.

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 TYPES OF GROYNES
 BASED ON MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Permeable groyne
 It allows water to flow through at reduced velocities.
 Slow down the velocity of flow and promotes sediment deposition.
 Heavy silt laden river water when retarded, drops much of its suspended and bed load to come
to rest, thus build up new bank lines.
 This helps for increasing the discharge in the main channel, thus increasing its water and
sediment transport.
 Fabricated from piles, bamboo or timbers, steel or wire etc.
 Suited to deep and narrow river transporting heavy sediment loads.
 Not suitable for small rivers flowing on steep gradients and deep rivers carrying light sediment
loads
 Common types - tree groynes and pile groynes

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 TYPES OF GROYNES
 BASED ON MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION
2. Solid impermeable groyne
 They are solid obstructions and do not permit passage of flow through them.
 Suitable for confining river into well-defined channel during high and low water flows and also
where stones are available in plenty.
 Constructed of a core of sand or sand and gravel or soil as available in the river bed and
protected on the sides and top by a strong stone pitching or concrete blocks.
 An apron may be provided at the bottom of slope to prevent slipping of stones.
 They are not suitable for rivers with slow silt deposition rate and flashy rivers which rise and
fall quickly and silting doesn’t occur.
 They are less effective in regulation of river course or in protection of banks.

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 TYPES OF GROYNES
 BASED ON HEIGHT BELOW HIGH WATER
(a). Submerged groyne
 For submerged conditions, permeable groynes may be designed because they disturb the flow
much less than solid groynes.
 Submerged permeable groynes do not create turbulent and eddy conditions.
 Preferred in situations where lower portion of bank is erodible.
 It inhibits undercutting of banks and improve stability against undermining.
 Height of submerged groyne:- (1) at full discharge - one third the depth of flow, (2) at lower
discharge - act as groyne of full height.
 A series of groynes with a spacing of 5 times its length are found to be effective in bank
protection in straight reaches.
 (b) Non- submerged groyne
 It require heavy nose protection to prevent scour when the groynes are raised above the high
water level and hence costly.
 It creates undesirable flow conditions.
 Usually impermeable groynes are designed to be non-submerged since flow over the top of solid
groynes may cause severe erosion along the shanks.

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 TYPES OF GROYNES
 BASED ON FUNCTION
(a) Attracting groyne
 They are groynes pointing downstream, serving to attract the stream flow toward themselves.
 It causes scour holes to form closer to the banks.
 They tend to maintain deep current close to the bank.
 Main attack of river flow is on the u/s side and hence need more protection than on d/s side.
 It is constructed at the bank opposite to the area where protection is required.

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 TYPES OF GROYNES
 BASED ON FUNCTION
(b) Repelling groyne
 Groynes pointing upstream at an angle 10 to 30 degree to the line normal to the bank and forces
the flow away from themselves.
 A still water pocket is formed u/s and suspended load get deposited here.
 Current coming in contact with this area causes vertical eddies and deep scour.
 Head should be strong to resist the swirling action of the current. It is more effective than
attracting spur.
 It is located at the bank which is to be protected.

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 TYPES OF GROYNES
 BASED ON FUNCTION
(c) Deflecting groyne
 They are u/s pointing groynes of short length.
 It only changes the direction of flow without repelling it.
 It is used for limited, local protection.
 It holds the river channel at the point the scouring action of the u/s side and
silting along the bank on its d/s side.
 Hence called holding spur.
 It is generally taken in a river, perpendicular to the bank.

(d) Straight groyne

 Groyne aligned perpendicular to the bank or direction of flow.
 It is mildly repelling. After kick at nose, current tends to return to the bank.

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 TYPES OF GROYNES
SPECIAL TYPES OF GROYNES
(a). Denehy’s T-headed groyne
 Groyne with a cross groyne at head giving a T- shape.
 Longer portion of the head is placed u/s so that it looks more like a reversed L.
Flow
 Front perpendicular arm about 100 m is parallel to the current.
 It protects the main groyne in the same way the main one protects the bank.
 Head has a slope on both sides, with a flatter slope at the ends

(b) Hockey type groyne Flow

 Groyne shaped at its lower end like a hockey stick (curved head).
 It has attracting effect on the flow.
 It is not useful for bank protection by repelling the flow away from it.
 Scour is nearly equal along the u/s and d/s faces.
 Groyne reverse in orientation to this is called as inverted hockey spur.

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 ARTIFICIAL CUTOFFS
 When the meandering of rivers developed to the extreme conditions in shape of horse shoe
bends, the land between them reduces to narrow neck and a straighter and a shorter
channel is developed.
 This chord channel is known as cut off. When loop length exceeds 1.5 to 2.5 times the
chord length of meandering channel artificial cut off may be made along the chord lines.
 The alignment of cutoff is such that the cut at both ends is tangential to the main direction
of river flow approaching and leaving the cut.
 A pilot channel is excavated in rivers having easily erodible beds.
 The flood water will gradually enlarge the pilot cut to the required c/s and will abandon
the old curved channel.
 Pilot cut should be made as deep as possible because deeper cut helps in rapid
development.
 Alignment of the cut should be tangential to the main direction of flow approaching and
leaving the cut.

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OBJECTS OF ARTIFICIAL CUTOFF
 Improve flood carrying capacity of river.
 Reduction of flood heights and periods.
 Shortening of navigation course.
 Correction of instability and inefficiency at sharp bends and loops where excessive head is
lost by longer river length.
ADVANTAGES
 No interruption to navigation.
 Valley storage during flood stages remains in good condition.
 Eventual restoration of the normal hydraulic slope of the river.

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 GUIDE BANKS
 For guiding the stream near a structure so as to confine it in a reasonable width of the
river, guide banks are used.
 Guide banks are artificial embankments meant for guiding the flow past a bridge or weir
without causing damages to the hydraulic structure and its approaches.
 It consist of a heavily built embankment on both sides of constricted channel.
 Generally provided in pairs, symmetrical in plan. Usually only one embankment is required
if the other side is a stable and high embankment.
 It is built along the flow direction.
 Restrict the water way at the structure site and prevent the overflow by changing the
course of the river.
 In case of bridges, the river bed at the proposed site should consist of deep strata of
erodible land so that after constriction, the river may be able to deepen the bed to gain an
adequate waterway.
 Bridges should preferably be built in transition reaches as they are narrower and uniform in
depth

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 MARGINAL EMBANKMENT OR LEVEES
 It is constructed at places where river is passing through towns or cities or any other places
of importance. Mainly used for flood protection.
 These embankment walls retain the flood water and thus preventing it from spreading into
the nearby lands and towns.
 The alignment of levee should follow the normal meandering pattern of the river.
 It is constructed on one side of the river or on both sides for a suitable length. The alignment
of levees is governed by the location of important cities, industries and other places along
the river which need to be protected against floods.

 Effect of levees on channel cross section - Due to levee construction the river width is
reduced and hence velocity of flow increases. So the sediments which would have deposited
in the flood plain in the absence of levees is now carried downstream and deposited either in
an unleveed portion or in the sea

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EFFECTS OF LEVEES ON FLOOD PLAINS
 Levees Increases
 Intensity of flood water travel downstream
 Water surface elevation of river at flood
 Maximum discharge at all points downstream
 Flood peak
 Levees Decreases
 Surface slope of the stream above the leveed portion
 Valley storage

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 BANK PROTECTION AND PITCHED
BANKS
 Any protection works that aims at maintaining the stability of land against the action of
water.
 It is important to prevent bank failures. It provide a shield against erosion of bank material
and maintain the alignment of banks
BANK PROTECTION METHODS
 It includes protection of bank by vegetal cover as turfing
 Pavement of bank slope by such material which can resist quick erosion.
 When current is strong, protection is provided by stone revetments or various types of
mattresses such as asphalt or articulated concrete, sack, concrete blocks, soil cement
blocks.
 Providing bank protection by means of flexible brick pitching.

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FLEXIBLE BRICK PITCHING
 Brick has two holes across the full width of a brick at one quarter length from either end.
 It is laid on bank slope and for some distance on river bed at the toe of the bank to serve
as falling apron.
 A GI wire passes through the brick holes and knotted together at their ends and anchored
in concrete block at their upper ends.
 It holds the bricks in place and permit small movements.

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 PITCHED ISLANDS
 It is an artificially created island in the river bed protected by stone pitching on all
sides.
 It is constructed with sand core and boulder lining along its sides and slopes and a
launching apron is provided to protect from scouring.
 The location ,size and shape of pitched islands are usually decided by model studies.
 General shape adopted are triangular, elliptical or egg shaped.
 Pitched islands causes redistribution of velocity and tractive force.
 The tractive force near the island begins to increase rapidly after the construction of
island because of the turbulence generated by the island in its vicinity.
 Functions are
 Improving channel for navigation
 Rectifying adverse curvature for effective sediment exclusion
 Correcting an oblique approach upstream of weirs, barrages and bridges by training the river
to be axial

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 MISCELLANEOUS METHODS
RIVER TRAINING WITHOUT EMBANKMENT
 It is Building up river bank by driving stake fences.
 During floods ,the fences reduces velocity of flow and induces heavy silting on falling floods,
banks form over these fences.
 Over the new banks, a second system of fences is selected and the process is repeated until a
deep river channel is formed with natural high banks on both sides.
 It is used in hill streams carrying heavy sediments. It is not designed for facilitating flood
flow, nor to improve navigation.
 The systematic reclamation of low lands by guiding the spill of flood flow with stakes and
fences to induce uniform silt deposition.

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BANDALLING
 River training work designed to confine the low water flow in a single channel for
maintaining required navigational depths.
 It consist of a frame work of bamboos driven into the rivers.
 It is set 0.6 m apart by means of horizontal ties supported by struts 1.25 m apart.
 Bamboo matting is tied to this bamboo framework by means of coir ropes at water levels.
3 to 4m long Bamboo and 1 m wide matting is used. It is placed at an angle 30 to 40
degree inclined horizontal.
 It cause sand to be deposited parallel to and behind bandals.
 River channel confined between bandals is formed with sand banks on either side in the
direction of river discharge.
 After 2 to 3 weeks deepening of river channel is achieved.
 Work begins after the flood season.
 The deepening in depth subsists until the next flood period without requiring any
attention during the same dry season.

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RESERVOIR

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 85

80

75

70

65
Accumulated inflow (1010 m3)

60

55

50

45

40

35

30

25
Demand curve
20
Mass inflow curve
15

10
6.3

5 1 year
1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

Time ( Years)

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 85

80

75

70

65
9.36
Accumulated inflow (1010 m3)

60

55

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5
1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

Time ( Years)
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