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Unit-ii26 4 - By Civildatas.blogspot.in
Unit-ii26 4 - By Civildatas.blogspot.in
Unit-ii26 4 - By Civildatas.blogspot.in
in
MAHALAKSMI
ENGINEERINGCOLLEGE
TIRUCHIRAPALLI - 621213.
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SUB.CODE/ NAME: CE 2033 / Ground Improvement Techniques
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Part – A
1. Define dewatering?
Dewatering or construction dewatering are terms used to describe the action of removing
groundwater or surface water from a construction site. Normally dewatering process is done
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by pumping or evaporation and is usually done before excavation for footings or to
lower water table that might be causing problems during excavations. Dewatering can also be
known as the process of removing water from soil by wet classification.
2. What is the need for drainage and dewatering?
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To provide suitable working surface of the bottom of the excavation.
To stabilize the banks of the excavation thus avoiding the hazards of slides
and sloughing.
To prevent disturbance of the soil at the bottom of excavation caused by boils
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or piping. Such disturbances may reduce the bearing power of the soil.
Lowering the water table can also be utilized to increase the effective weight of the
soil and consolidate the soil layers. Reducing lateral loads on sheeting and bracing
is another way of use.
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offs, landslides etc. Large quantities of water can be drained into gallery (small
diameter tunnel) and disposed of by conventional large – scale pumps.
9. Electro-osmosis. Used in low permeability soils (silts, silty clays, some peats)
when no other method is suitable. Direct current electricity is applied from anodes
(steel rods) to cathodes (well-points, i.e. small diameter filter wells)
of removing water from the adjoining area .They are used with ditches leading to them in
large excavations. Up to maximum of 8m below pump installation level; for greater depths
a submersible pump is required.
5. What are the advantages of sumps and ditches in dewatering?
It is the most widely used and economical of all methods of ground water lowering.
This method is also more appropriate in situations where boulders or other massive
obstructions are met in the ground.
6. What is a well point system?
This type of dewatering system is effective in soils constituted primarily of sand fraction or
other soil containing seams of such materials. In gravels spacing required may be too close
and impracticable. In clays it is also not used because it is too slow.
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7. What are the different types of well point systems?
single stage well point
multistage well point
well points in braced excavations
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deep well drainage
8. When are deep wells used for dewatering? (AUC NOV /DEC 2012)
Deep well systems are of use in gravels to silty fine sands and in water bearing rocks. They
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are priority or use with deep excavations and where artesian water is present below an
impermeable stratum. If this type of installation is to be designed economically the ground
permeability must be assessed from full scale pumping tests.
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9. What is the principle behind vacuum dewatering?
Gravity methods, such as well points and deep wells are not much effective in the fine-
grained soils with permeability in the range of 0.1 –10 x 10 -3 mm/s.
Such soils can be dewatered satisfactorily by applying a vacuum to the piping system
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ions in solution are attracted towards the soil particles and concentrate near the surfaces
horizontal drains
foundation drains
blanket drains
interceptor drains
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13. What are the requirements of drains should be satisfy. (AUC NOV /DEC 2010)
Sand drains consist of a column of pervious sand placed in a cased hole, either driven or
drilled through the soil, with the casing subsequently removed. The ca-pacity of sand drains can be
significantly increased by installation of a slotted 1% or 2-inch pipe inside the sand drain to
conduct the water down to the more per-vious stratum.
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Monitoring systems
On-site operation and maintenance
16. What are the problems occurred to seepage of water (AUC MAY/JUNE 2012)
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Common causes of water seepage :
1. Leakage in the drainage pipes of the upper, adjacent or your own flat.
2. Leakage in the water supply pipes of the upper, adjacent or your own flat.
3. Deteriorated waterproofing of floor slabs or bath-tub seals.
4. Seepage of waste water or rain water through roof / external wall
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17. State the advantages and disadvantages of dewatering. (AUC NOV /DEC 2012)
ADVANTAGES
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Reduces the amount of sediment leaving the site
Allows for a more in-depth site assessment – additional necessary erosion control
measures may be identified
DISADVANTAGES
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o Must abide by multiple government laws and standards and obtain appropriate
permits
o Requires frequent maintenance
o May be costly
18. Define Cutoffs.
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Cutoff curtains can be used to stop or minimize seepage into an excavation where the cutoff
can be installed down to an impervious formation. Such cutoffs can be constructed by driving
steel sheet piling, grouting existing soil with cement or chemical grout, excavating by means
of a slurry trench and backfilling with a plastic mix of betonies and ‘soil, in-stalling a concrete
wall, possibly consisting of overlap-ping shafts, or freezing.
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Engineering work
ii) Field Drainage
This is the drainage that concerns us in agriculture. It is the
removal of excess water fromthe root zone of crops.
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electrodes
2H2O -> O2 (g) + 4H+ +4e- oxidation (anode)
4H2O + 4e- -> 2H2 (g) + 4OH- reduction (cathode)
The clay particles have a “ve charge. These “ve charge produce an
electro static surface property known as the double layer which creates a
net abundance of cations
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Part –B
1. Explain in detail with a neat sketch the method of dewatering using sumps
and ditches stating its advantages and disadvantages. (Or)
How the dewatering is carried out during the construction in detail
(AUC NOV /DEC 2010)(AUC MAY/JUNE 2012) (AUC MAY/JUNE 2013)
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in large excavations. Up to maximum of 8m below pump installation level; for greater depths
a submersible pump is required. Shallow slopes may be required for unsupported
excavations in silts and fine sands. Gravels and coarse sands are more suitable. Fines
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may be easily removed from ground and soils containing large percent of fines are not
suitable. If there are existing foundations in the vicinity pumping may cause settlement
of these foundations. Subsidence of adjacent ground and sloughing of the lower part of a
slope (sloped pits) may occur.
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The sump should be preferably lined with a filter
material which has grain size gradations in compatible with the filter rules.
prolonged pumping the sump should be prepared by first driving sheeting around the
For
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sump area for the full depth of the sump and installing a cage inside the sump made of
wire mesh with internal strutting or a perforating pipe filling the filter material in the space
outside the cage and at the bottom of the cage and withdrawing the sheeting. Two simple
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The essential feature of this method is a sump below the ground level of the excavation at one or
more corners or sides.. a small ditch is cut around the bottom of the excavation , falling towards
the sump. It is the most widely used and economical of all methods of ground water lowering. This
method is also more appropriate in situations where boulders or other massive obstructions are
met with the ground. There is also a disadvantage that the groundwater flows towards the
excavation with a high head or a steep slope and hence there is a risk of collapse of the sides.
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2. Explain in detail the well point system of dewatering. (AUC MAY/JUNE 2013)
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.WellPoint systems
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pipes known as riser pipes and are inserted into the ground by driving or jetting. The upper
ends of the riser pipes lead to a header pipe which, in turn, connected to a pump. The
ground water is drawn by the pump into the wellpoints through the header pipe and
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discharged (Fig 9.5). The wellpoints are usually installed with 0.75m – 3m spacing (See
Table 1). This type of dewatering system is effective in soils
constituted primarily of sand fraction or other soil containing seams of such materials.
In gravels spacing required may be too close
and impracticable. In clays it is also not used because it is too slow. In silts and silt –
clay mixtures the use of well points are aided by upper (0.60m – 0.90m long) compacted clay
seals and sand-filtered boreholes (20cm – 60cm diameter). Upper clay seals help to
maintain higher suction (vacuum) pressures and sand filters increase the amount of
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discharge. Filtered boreholes are also functional in layered soil profiles (Figures
9.6.a,b,c,d,e)
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9-5
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Table 9.1 Typical spacings for some common soil types and the
approximate time required for effective drawdown
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and sandy gravel
Fine to coarse gravel 0.5-1.0 1-2
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The header pipe (15-30 cm diameter, connecting all wellpoints) is connected to a vacuum
(Suction assisted self – priming centrifugal or piston) pump. The wellpoints can lower a water
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level to a maximum of 5.5 m below the centerline of the header pipe. In silty fine sands this
limit is 3-4 m. Multiple stage system of wellpoints are used for lowering water level to a
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greater depth. Two or more tiers (stages) are used. (Fig 9.7). More pumps are needed and
due
to the berms required the excavation width becomes wider. A single wellpoint
handles between 4 and 0.6 m3/hr depending on soil type. For a 120 m length (40 at 3 m
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Nomograms for selecting preliminary wellpoint spacing in clean uniform sand and gravel, and
stratified clean sand and gravel are shown in Figures 9.8 and 9.9.
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9-7
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Horizontal wellpoints are used mainly for pipeline water. They consist of perforated pipes
laid horizontally in a trench and connected to a suitable pump.
Shallow Wells
Shallow wells comprise surface pumps which draw water through suction pipes installed in
bored wells drilled by the most appropriate well drilling and or bored piling equipment. The
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limiting depth to which this method is employed is about 8 m. Because wells are
prebored, this method is used when hard or variable soil conditions preclude the use of
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a wellpoint system. These wells are used in very permeable soils when wellpointing would
be expensive and often at inconveniently close centers. The shallow well can be used
to extract large quantities of water from a single hole. On congested sites use of smaller
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number dewatering points is preferred (no hiderance to construction operations) hence
shallow wells may be preferred to wellpoints. Since the initial cost of installation is more
compared to wellpoints it is preferred in cases where dewatering lasts several months
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or more. Another field of
application is the silty soils where correct filtering is important.
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3. What is a deep well? When is it adopted? What are its merits and demerits?
(AUC NOV /DEC 2010) (AUC MAY/JUNE 2013)
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Deep Wells
When water has to be extracted from depths greater than 8 m and it is not feasible to lower
the type of pump and suction piping used in shallow wells to gain a few extra meters of depth
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the deep wells are such and submersible pumps installed within them. A cased borehole
can be sunk using well drilling or bored piling rigs to a depth lower than the required
dewatered level. The diameter will be 150 – 200 mm larger then the well inner casing,
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which in turn is sized to accept the submersible pump. The inner well casing has a
perforated screen over the depth requiring dewatering and terminates below in 1 m of
unperforated pipe which may serve as a sump for any material which passes the filter.
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After the slotted PVC or metal well screen (casing) has been installed it is surrounded by
backfill over the unperforated pipe length and with graded filter material over the
perforated length as the outer casing progressively withdrawn (Fig 9.10). As with the
shallow wells the initial pumping may involve twice the volumes when equilibrium is
achieved.
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Deep well systems are of use in gravels to silty fine sands and in water bearing rocks. They
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are priority or use with deep excavations and where artesian water is present below an impermeable
stratum. If this type of installation is to be designed economically the ground permeability must be
assessed from full scale pumping tests. Because of their depth and the usually longer pumping period
these installations are more likely to cause settlement of nearby structures, and the use of recharge
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4. Explain in brief the principle, equipment used, installation and operation and
precaution adopted in electro-osmotic dewatering. (AUC NOV /DEC 2012)
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When an external electro motive force is applied across a soild liquid interface the movable diffuse double
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layer is displaced tangentially with respect to the fixed layer . this is electro osmosis. As the surface of fine
grained soil particles causes negative charge, the positive ions in solution are attracted towards the soil
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particles and concentrate near the surfaces. Upon application of the electro motive force between two
electrodes in a soil medium the positive ions adjacent to the soil particles and the water molecules
attached to the ions are attracted to the cathode and are repelled by the anode. The free water in the
interior of the void spaces is carried along to the cathode by viscous flow. By making the cathode a well,
water can be collected in the well and then pumped out.
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EFFECT OF ELECTRO OSMOTIC TECHINQUE IN CONSOLIDATION OF SOIL full report
EFFECT OF ELECTRO OSMOTIC TECHINQUE IN CONSOLIDATION OF SOIL
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INTRODUCTION
Electro osmotic consolidation means the consolidation of soft clays by the
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application of electric current.
It was studied and applied for the first time by Casagrande.
It is inherent that fine grained clay particles with large interfacial surface will
and pumped
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out of soil
Electro osmotic flow depends on soil nature, water content, pH and on ionic type
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Due to the applied electric potential the electrolysis of water occurs at the
electrodes
2H2O -> O2 (g) + 4H+ +4e- oxidation (anode)
4H2O + 4e- -> 2H2 (g) + 4OH- reduction (cathode)
The clay particles have a “ve charge. These “ve charge produce an electro static
surface property known as the double layer which creates a net abundance of cations
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in pore space.
Electro osmotic transfer of water through a clay is a result of diffuse double layer
cathode.
When electrodes are placed across a saturated clay mass and direct current is applied
,water in the clay pore space is transported towards cathode by electro osmosis.
In addition frictional drag is created by the motion of ions as they move through the
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clay pores helping to transport additional water.
The flow generated by the electric gradient is called electro osmotic flow.
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EVALUATION OF ELECTRO OSMOTIC CONSOLIDATION
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Determination of parameters
Electrical operation systems for field application
Materials
Spacing between electrodes
Cost of electrodes and installation cost
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CASE STUDY 1 ELECTRO OSMOTIC DEWATERING OF DREDGED
The Indiana Harbour has not been dredged for over 20 years due to lack of an
The main problem with the disposal of sediment to the CDP was slow consolidation of
sediments were tested for water content, optimum moisture content and pH
CASE STUDY 2
EFFECT OF USING ELECTRO CONDUCTIVE PVD IN THE CONSOLIDATION OF
RECONSTITUTED ARIAKE CLAY
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The deposits of Ariake clay consolidate generate significant settlement when loaded
consolidation.
To shorten the consolidation time vertical drains are installed to shorten the
drainage path.
The induced consolidation of reconstituted Ariake clay was conducted using electro
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conductive PVD as electrodes and the results were compared with an ordinary PVD
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The soil sample used was leached marine Ariake clay collected at Saga
Plain in Saga Japan. The sample excavated at about 2m depth was generally a very soft
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gray silty clay (about 66% clay, 26% silt, 8% fine sand) with natural water content
permeability.
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This method is suitable for local application on small volumes or for impermeable
barrier construction.
After treatment water content decreases and shear strength increases and it was more
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DISADVANTAGES
The pH of soil will increase to as high as 11 or 12 at the cathode and decrease to
CONCLUSION
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consequence of decrease in water content formation of menisci in the soil voids and
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complex chemical reactions generated and ion re-exchange which altered the plasticity
of clay.
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Application of electric potential will result in energy consumption.
5. What are the various components, stages and methods of drainage? Explain in
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detail.
Drainage means the removal of excess water from a given place.
Two types of drainage can be identified:
i) Land Drainage: This is large scale drainage where the objective is to drain surplus water from
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a large area by such means as excavating large open drains, erecting dykes and levees and
pumping. Such schemes are necessary in low lying areas and are mainly Civil Engineering work
ii) Field Drainage
This is the drainage that concerns us in agriculture. It is the removal of excess water fromthe root
zone of crops.
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Water in Soil After Heavy Rain
The main aims of Field drainage include:
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To bring soil moisture down from saturation to field capacity. At field capacity, air is
available to the soil and most soils are mesophites ie. like to grow at moisture less than
saturation.
ii) Drainage helps improve hydraulic conductivity: Soil structure can collapse under very
wet conditions and so also engineering structures.
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iii) In some areas with salt disposition, especially in arid regions, drainage is used to leach
excess salt. iv) In irrigated areas, drainage is needed due to poor application efficiency
which means that a lot of water is applied.
v) Drainage can shorten the number of occasions when cultivation is held up waiting for
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Surface drainage involves the removal of excess water from the surface of the soil.
This is done by removing low spots where water accumulates by land forming or by excavating
ditches or a combination of the two. Surface Drainage
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Land forming is mechanically changing the land surface to drain surface water.
This is done by smoothing, grading, bedding or leveling.
Land smoothing is the shaping of the land to a smooth surface in order to eliminate
minor differences in elevation and this is accomplished by filling shallow
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depressions.
There is no change in land contour. Smoothing is done using land levelers or
planes
Land grading is shaping the land for drainage done by cutting, filling and
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smoothening to planned continuous surface grade e.g. using bulldozers or
scrapers.
Design of Drainage Channels or Ditches
Estimation of Peak Flows: This can be done using the Rational formula, Cook's method,
Curve Number method, Soil Conservation Service method etc.
Drainage coefficients (to be treated later) are at times used in the tropics used in the
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tropics especially in flat areas and where peak storm runoff would require excessively large
channels and culverts.
This may not apply locally because of high slopes.
states that:
qp = (CIA)/360
where qp is the peak flow (m3 /s);
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years within which a given rainfall event will be expected to occur at least once.
A is the area of catchment (ha).
ii) Estimate intensity using the curve in Hudson's Field Engineering, page 42.
iii) The runoff coefficient C is a measure of the rain which becomes runoff. On a
corrugated iron roof, almost all the rain would runoff so C = 1, while in a well drained soil,
nine-tenths of the rain may soak in and so C = 0.10. The table (see handout) from
Hudson's Field Engineering can be used to obtain C value. Where the catchment has
several different kinds of characteristics, the different values should be combined in
proportion to the area of each.
b) Cook's Method
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The area of the catchment is then measured, and using the Area, A and the CC, the
maximum runoff can be read from Table 3.5 (Field Engineering, pp. 45).
Surface Drainage Channels
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The drainage channels are normally designed using the Manning formula (see Chapter
6). The required capacity of a drainage channel is calculated from the summation of the
inflowing streams (See Note)
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The bed level of an open drain collecting flow from field pipe drains should be such as
to allow free fall from the pipe drain outlets under maximum flow conditions, with an
allowance for siltation and weed growth. 300 mm is a reasonable general figure
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Surface Ditch Arrangements
The ditch arrangement can be random, parallel or cross- slope.
Random ditch system: Used where only scattered wet lands require drainage.
Parallel ditch system: Used in flat topography. Ditches are parallel and perpendicular
to the slope. Laterals, which run in the direction of the flow, collect water from ditches.
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Sub-Surface Drainage Using Ditches
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Sub-Surface Drainage Using Ditches
Ditches have lower initial cost than buried drains;
There is ease of inspection and ditches are applicable in some organic soils where drains
are unsuitable.
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Ditches, however, reduce the land available for cropping and require more maintenance
that drains due to weed growth and erosion.
Sub-Surface Drains Using Buried
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DrainsSub-Surface Drainage Using Buried DrainsBuried drains refer to any type of buried
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conduits having open joints or perforations, which collect and convey drainage water.
They can be fabricated from clay, concrete, corrugated plastic tubes or any other suitable
material.
The drains can be arranged in a parallel, herringbone, double main or random fashion.
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Drainage Coefficient;
Drain Depth and Spacing;
Drain Diameters and Gradient;
Drainage Filters.
Drainage Coefficient
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This is the rate of water removal used in drainage design to obtain the desired protection of
crops from excess surface or sub-surface water and can be expressed in mm/day , m/day
etc.
Drainage is different in Rain-Fed Areas and Irrigated Areas
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6. Compare the various dewatering systems suitability, uses, merits and demerits.
Objectives
In this section you will learn the following
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Subsoil investigation
Source And Water Table Details
Distance of well points from the source of seepage
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Effective Wall Radius r u
Discharge computations
Design steps for dewatering systems
Design of a dewatering system requires the determination of the number, size, spacing, and penetration of
wells or well points and the rate at which water must be removed from the pervious strata to achieve the
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required groundwater lowering or pressure relief. The size and capacity of pumps and collectors also depend
on the required discharge and drawdown.
The essential steps involved in the designing of the dewatering system are given below:
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Subsoil investigation
The characteristics of the soils adjacent and beneath the excavation should be investigated well. Grain size
distribution and permeability are the two parameters to be determined. Indian Standard recommends a field
pumping test for this case.
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Discharge computation
The discharge Q of the well is then calculated using the formula given below:
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where Q is the discharge, k is the permeability, H is the depth of strata, h is the height of water in the well, r is
the radius of well, R is the radius of influence.
8. Explain the vacuum dewatering systems in neat sketch. (AUC NOV /DEC 2010)
Gravity methods, such as well points and deep wells are not much effective in the fine-grained soils
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with permeability in the range of 0.1 –10 x 10 -3 mm/s.
Such soils can be dewatered satisfactorily by applying a vacuum to the piping system.
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A vacuum dewatering system requires that the well-point screens, and rise a pipe be surrounded
with filter sand extending to within a few metres of the ground surface
This method is most suitable in layered or stratified soils with coefficient of permeability of the
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range 0.11 - 0 x 10 -4 cm/s.
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9. Explain the properties and application of flow net in detai. (AUC MAY/JUNE 2013)\
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An Energy Equation from Fluid Mechanics
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The velocities of water flowing through the voids in a soil are very small, and the
velocity head in the previous equation may be neglected.
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hw = u
w or
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hw = P
w
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h = hz + hw
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Darcy's law
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• The rate of flow of water q (volume/time) through cross‐sectional area A is found to
be proportional to hydraulic gradient i according to Darcy's law:
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Darcy's law
v = q = k.ii = Dh
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q=vA
• The value of the coefficient of permeability k depends on the average size of the
pores and is related to the distribution of particle sizes, particle shape and soil
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structure.
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sometimes called hydraulic conductivity.
Typical Values
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10. Define filter and discuss filter requirements in detail. (AUC NOV /DEC 2012)
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