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Edited by
Kakali Mukhopadhyay

Economy-Wide
Assessment of Regional
Policies in India
Applications of E3-India
Model
Economy-Wide Assessment of Regional Policies
in India
 Kakali Mukhopadhyay
Editor

Economy-Wide
Assessment
of Regional Policies
in India
Applications of E3-India Model
Editor
Kakali Mukhopadhyay
Department of Agricultural Economics
McGill University
Montréal, QC, Canada
Gokhale Institute of Politics
and Economics
Pune, India

ISBN 978-3-030-75667-3 ISBN 978-3-030-75668-0 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75668-0

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.
in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for
general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and informa-
tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither
the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
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and institutional affiliations.

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
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The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Foreword

In 2020 the world was struck by the COVID-19 pandemic. Economies

around the world were forced to partially shut down, with major impacts
on human welfare in both developed and developing countries. The
pandemic showed the world that we cannot take business as usual for
granted.
As severe as the effects of the pandemic were, the impacts of climate
change could be far worse. Even while the world focused on COVID-
19, new records were being broken around the world on both global
temperatures and the impacts of climate change, including wildfires and
tropical storms.
We may never find out if human behaviour was the root cause of
the COVID-19 pandemic, but the fact that humans are responsible for
climate change is beyond scientific doubt. Moreover, there is still time to
stop the worst effects of climate change, although time is rapidly running
out.
What happens in India will be critical to the world’s efforts to limit the
effects of climate change. However, India’s role in the global economy
will also grow in the coming decades. India will soon become the largest
country in the world by population and its population could exceed 1.5
billion people by 2030. The Indian economy needs to grow to support
employment for these people, while simultaneously increasing incomes
and reducing poverty.

v
vi FOREWORD

The direction of this economic growth will be important. A larger

economy will need more energy. As long as this energy demand is met
by fossil fuels, and especially coal, India’s environmental footprint will
continue to grow. But it does not have to be this way. Falling costs for
renewable and electricity-based technologies mean that the transition to
a low-carbon energy system may not be as expensive as initially feared.
Indeed, electricity from some renewables has become cheaper than that
from coal. Furthermore, investment in new equipment will create jobs
in India; as this book shows, establishing a domestic sector to produce
capital goods is a strategic goal for India. There will likely be a strong
role for digital industries in this process.
It must be stressed, however, that many of these desirable changes will
not happen without policy intervention. In India much of the power to
create these policies lies at state level, but so far the necessary interven-
tion has not been forthcoming. There are many reasons for the lack of
policy, but one that stands out is that policymakers have not had access to
estimates of social and economic impacts of potential policies within their
states. If all you can see is unquantified risk, the safest option may be to
do nothing.
This is where the E3-India model comes in. E3-India is an ambitious
new tool that provides estimates of policy benefits and costs, at state
level in India. It is based on a long tradition of modelling tools that
can be traced back to the work of the Cambridge Growth Project at the
University of Cambridge in the 1960s. The book explains how the state
economies interact with their energy demands and supplies at a detailed
sectoral level. It includes an account of how the data sources have been
used to estimate industrial and consumer behaviour.
This book presents some of the early findings from the model. It
includes a range of sectoral analyses covering agriculture & food, the
digital economy, automobiles, other capital goods, and energy. These
sectoral analyses are complemented by further results that show how the
states of India can make their contribution to economic development, in
a post-COVID-19 world, for example by maintaining high employment
levels, increasing incomes and continuing to reduce poverty. The book
also shows how this growth can be achieved while limiting impacts on the
climate and local air quality.
 FOREWORD vii

The results in this book are of interest to researchers and policy makers
alike. Interested researchers may use the model to carry out their own
analyses, building on the examples in this book. The combination of this
book and the E3-India model provide a solid platform for developing a
low-carbon, sustainable pathway to future prosperity in India.

Terry Barker
Honorary Professor of Environmental
Science, University of East Anglia
Norwich, UK
Senior Departmental Fellow, Department
of Land Economy, University of Cambridge
Cambridge, UK
 Preface

In 2015, the NITI Aayog released India’s first-ever roadmap for renew-
able electricity for India that comprehensively described the barriers faced
by renewables and presented policy ideas to address them. During the
roadmap development process, amongst many, a couple of profound
issues were raised by policymakers and stakeholders:

• One of the key benefits of a significantly higher share of renew-

ables in the Indian electricity portfolio was the potential elimina-
tion of coal imports that were valued, on average, at $15–20 Billion
annually. In addition, a shift away from oil—mostly, imported—to
electricity-based transportation would also lead to a similar massive
reduction in India’s import bill. It was unclear—though—who in
India would be the direct and indirect beneficiaries and what their
share of the benefit would be.
• As is the case with the uneven distribution of coal in India—mined,
primarily, in just five central/eastern states—renewable electricity
potential is also unevenly distributed, primarily, in the western and
southern states. The coal-producing states are relatively small and
poor while the renewable-rich states are relatively large and wealthy.
A shift from coal to renewable—consequently—could potentially
further widen the gap between the poor coal-producing states and
the wealthy renewable-rich states. It was unclear what the size and
nature of the impacts on individual states would be.

ix
x PREFACE

Obviously, there are several Indian and foreign experts who conduct
this kind of analysis. Policymaking, however, yields the best outcomes
when it enables meaningful participation from policymakers and stake-
holders in addition to reviewing high-quality academic research. In 2015,
though, there were no tools available in the public domain—anywhere
in the world—that would allow Indian policymakers and stakeholders
to quantify the direct and indirect benefits and their distribution across
various politically relevant categories such as states, economic sectors,
income groups and others. In order to address this fundamental gap in
evidence-based decision-making, in 2016, as the Director of the Regula-
tory Assistance Project’s India programme, I launched the effort that has
led to the creation of E3-India.
E3-India, the primary component of the analysis presented in this
volume, provides a sophisticated yet transparent platform over which poli-
cymakers and stakeholders can test a wide range of policies in terms
of key metrics such as economic growth, employment, consumption,
income, environmental impacts and others. Not only does E3-India
support energy and environmental policy analysis—for example, the two
issues mentioned above—it also supports similar in-depth analysis of all
key sectors of the Indian economy such as agriculture, industry, socio-
economic development and others. In fact, in the middle of a global
pandemic that has set back the Indian economy significantly, E3-India
is a crucial tool for systematically evaluating policies that would not only
revive growth at the aggregate level but also across regions equitably.
Today, it is with great pleasure, I present to you this volume that
describes E3-India in detail and a diverse set of policy analyses that
were developed using E3-India model. I congratulate Professor Kakali
Mukhopadhyay for guiding the distinguished group of contributing
authors in putting together this comprehensive assessment of major poli-
cies. Each paper is a major step forward in helping Indian policymakers’
and stakeholders’ ability to better understand the trade-offs resulting from
policies impacting major sectors such as agriculture, industry, electricity,
transportation and others. I hope the readers not only find the state-of-
the-art research presented here valuable immediately in the context of the
pandemic-induced economic slowdown but also serve as a starting point
for refining these analyses and taking on new ones.

Berkeley, CA, USA Ranjit Bharvirkar

Ex-Principal
Regulatory Assistance Project
 Acknowledgments

This book is an extended synthesis from the Regulatory Assistance

Project’s (RAP), E3-India initiative for supporting evidence-based poli-
cymaking in India. However, the entire responsibility of the content and
analysis presented in the book is solely of the authors and does not
necessarily represent the official view of RAP. RAP is not responsible
for any liability in association with this content. The authors gratefully
acknowledge RAP for partly funding the edited volume.
I am extremely grateful to the Cambridge Econometrics team for their
relentless academic support. I remain indebted to Ranjit Bharvirkar (Ex-
Principal, Regulatory Assistance Project, USA) who played an instru-
mental role in introducing me to the E3-India model and inviting me
to work on the same. I would also like to thank Surabhi Joshi, Advisor
and Consultant, Project Coordinator E3-India, who has helped me greatly
during the E3 India model development.
My special gratitude goes to Dr. Shailja Sharma, Director General
(Statistics), MOSPI, GOI and the SUT unit of National Accounts Divi-
sion (NAD) for their support while preparing the E3-India model and
insights while preparing the manuscript. I also extend my earnest acknowl-
edgement to P. Bhanumati, Deputy Director General (Statistics), MOSPI,
GOI and for her support while preparing the E3-India model.
The findings of the earlier version of few studies have been presented
in various international conferences (53rd Annual Conference of the
Canadian Economic Association (2019), Alberta, 27th International

xi
xii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Input-Output Conference (2019), Glasgow and the 2019 MIT

(Massachusetts Institute of Technology) Applied Energy “A+B” Sympo-
sium, Cambridge). The authors are thankful to the participants of these
conferences for their comments and suggestions which have contributed
to the improvement of the respective chapters.
I am extremely grateful for the review and valuable insights provided
by Dr. Praveen Arora, Scientific Advisor, Department of Science &
Technology, GOI.
I extend my heartfelt gratitude to Prof. Pierre Mohnen, United
Nations University—Maastricht Economic and Social Research Insti-
tute on Innovation and Technology (UNU-MERIT), Netherlands for
constructive suggestions and insights while refining the text.
I deeply appreciate my research scholars Vishnu Prabhu, Shraddha Shri-
vastava, Kriti Jain and Priyam Sengupta for their immense cooperation and
research assistance.
I extend my sincere thanks to Prof. Paul Thomassin, Department
of Agricultural Economics, McGill University, Montreal, Canada for his
continuous support and encouragement throughout the process.
I express my special gratitude to Prof. Rajas Parchure, officiating
director of GIPE, for his constant support and acknowledgements.
This book would not have appeared without the support and facilities
provided by the Department of Agricultural Economics, McGill Univer-
sity, Montreal, Canada and Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics,
Pune, India.
Last but not the least, I would like to record my appreciation for the
constant support extended by Elizabeth Graber, Senior Editor, Palgrave
Macmillan, Meera Seth, Editor, Economics, Palgrave Macmillan and
Springer Nature Team.

Kakali Mukhopadhyay
Professor
Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics
Pune, India
Adjunct Professor/Senior Associate Fellow
Department of Agricultural Economics
McGill University
Montreal, Canada
 Contents

1 Introduction 1
Kakali Mukhopadhyay
2 Introduction to the E3-India Model 11
Hector Pollitt
3 Data Construction and Sources: E3-India Model 33
Kakali Mukhopadhyay and Unnada Chewpreecha
4 Application of E3-India Model in Agriculture
and Food Processing Sector 49
Paul J. Thomassin and Kakali Mukhopadhyay
5 Importance of Capital Goods Sector: An Application
of E3-INDIA Model 103
Priyam Sengupta, Shraddha Shrivastava,
and Kakali Mukhopadhyay
6 Impact of Electronics System and Design
Manufacturing and IT Policy in Selected Regions 155
Unnada Chewpreecha, Vishnu S. Prabhu,
and Kakali Mukhopadhyay
7 Regional Impact of Automobile Policy in India 193
Unnada Chewpreecha, Vishnu S. Prabhu,
and Kakali Mukhopadhyay

xiii
xiv CONTENTS

8 Regional Impacts of National Energy Policies in India:

An E3-India Application 235
Surabhi Joshi and Kakali Mukhopadhyay
9 Managing Delhi’s Air Quality: Exploring Economic
Implications of Airshed Management Approach 281
Ranjit Bharvirkar, Hector Pollitt, and Surabhi Joshi
10 Liquidity Infusion: An Assessment of Atmanirbhar
Package Using E3-India Model 323
Kakali Mukhopadhyay, Kriti Jain,
and Partha Pratim Ghosh
11 Sub-National Policy Impact in India: An Integrated
Assessment 379
Kakali Mukhopadhyay

Index 401
 Editor and Contributors

About the Editor

Kakali Mukhopadhyay is a Professor of Economics at Gokhale Institute

of Politics and Economics (Pune, India) and an Adjunct Professor/Senior
Academic Research Fellow for the Agricultural Economics Program
(Department of Natural Resource Sciences at McGill University,
Montreal, Canada). She earned a M.Phil. and Ph.D. in economics
with specialization in energy and environment from Jadavpur Univer-
sity, Calcutta, India. She has been a Senior Advisor of E3-India Model, a
collaborative initiative of Regulatory Assistance Project, Vermont, USA
and Cambridge Econometrics, UK, providing high level inputs for its
development and validation.
Prior to joining McGill in 2007, she was a Postdoctoral Research
Fellow and subsequently a Faculty at the Center for Development and
Environmental Policy, Indian Institute of Management Calcutta and
Madras School of Economics, Chennai, India. She was also a Postdoc-
toral/Visiting Fellow/Visiting Research Scholar of the Faculty of Business
Management, Oulu University (Finland 2001,2007); Stockholm Environ-
ment Institute (Sweden 2001); the SOM Research School, Groningen
University (the Netherlands 2003); UNU MERIT, Maastricht Univer-
sity (the Netherlands 2003;2010;2019); OECD (2017) and the School
of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Tech-
nology (Thailand 2005). Additionally, she has served as a Distinguished

xv
xvi EDITOR AND CONTRIBUTORS

Visiting Professor at the De La Salle University, Manila, the Philippines

(2014,2016), and as a Visiting Professor at the Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing (2017).
Her research focuses on energy and environment, trade and environ-
ment, air pollution and health, regional economic integration, R&D,
Global Value Chain, economics of health and Nutrition and food safety.
She has received a number of international fellowships and awards by the
World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, the Indo-Dutch Program, the
Ford Foundation and the Presidential Award from the Chinese Govern-
ment. She has also received the Best Professor Award in Energy and
Environmental Economics in 2017 and 2018, under the National Educa-
tion Award in India. She holds a key expert position at the United
Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and similar posi-
tions in ASEAN Vision 2025, Asian Development Bank and Shastri
Indo-Canadian Program.
She has numerous publications in peer-reviewed journals of interna-
tional repute. She has authored six books in various fields of energy, envi-
ronmental pollution, trade and I-O modelling. She has completed several
studies on behalf of the United Nations Environment Programme, UN-
ESCAP, UNCTAD, Asian Development Bank, ERIA-Indonesia, Shastri
Indo-Canadian Institute, Public Health Agency of Canada, Genome
Canada and Genome Quebec, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, BioFu-
elNet Canada, West Bengal Renewable Energy Development Agency,
Indian Council of Social Science Research and South Asian Network for
Development and Environmental Economics—SANDEE.

Contributors

Ranjit Bharvirkar is an ex-Principal at the Regulatory Assistance Project

(RAP), Vermont, USA where he directed RAP’s India programme. He
has more than 18 years of experience in electricity policy analysis and has
provided technical advice and assistance to state- and national-level poli-
cymakers in the USA and India. He has been regularly conducting and
convening workshops for staff from various Indian regulatory commis-
sions and utilities on power sector reforms and has recently contributed
to India’s Renewable Electricity Roadmap Initiative undertaken by the
Government of India.
 EDITOR AND CONTRIBUTORS xvii

Unnada Chewpreecha is a Principal Economic Modeller at Cambridge

Econometrics, Cambridge UK. She has nearly 15 years of experience in
the development and application of CE’s E3ME model as well as custom
made country-specific E3 models for Thailand, India, Brazil, Kosovo and
the USA. Her expertise is in the application and development of E3ME
and other E3 models to provide macroeconomic analysis of the climate,
energy and resource efficiency policies. Her involvements as modelling
expert include contribution to impact assessments of revisions to the EU’s
EPBD and Energy Services Directive and Energy Taxation Directive (DG
Energy) and the EU’s 2030 Climate targets (DG Climate Action).
Partha Pratim Ghosh is Associate Professor (Economics) and Coor-
dinator, Internal Quality Assurance Cell at St. Xavier’s College
(Autonomous) Kolkata. He did his B.Sc. and M.Sc. in Economics
from University of Calcutta, then went on to do his M.B.A. in
Marketing, M.Phil. and Ph.D. in Economics from Jadavpur University.
His area of expertise includes Macroeconomics, Econometrics, Input-
Output Economics, International Economics and Managerial Economics.
He was also associated with E3-India model project which is a joint
initiative between Regulatory Assistance Project (RAP) and Cambridge
Econometrics.
Kriti Jain is a Research Scholar at Gokhale Institute of Politics and
Economics, Pune, Maharashtra, India.
Surabhi Joshi is an Associate at Regulatory Assistance Project, Vermont,
USA. As a coordinator of E3-India initiative she plays a key role in devel-
opment, planning and execution of E3-India model. Dr. Joshi has more
than ten years of experience in research, consultancy and academics. She
has served as a lecturer of biotechnology at the K. J. Somaiya College
of Science and Technology, Mumbai, India and research fellow at SIES,
Indian Institute of Environment Management, Nerul, Navi Mumbai. Her
research work spans use of quantitative frameworks for sustainability anal-
yses, climate change impact assessments, the socioeconomics of energy
transitions, public procurement assessments and free trade agreements.
Hector Pollitt is the Head of modelling at Cambridge Econometrics,
Cambridge, UK. He leads the E3ME project which is a global, econo-
metric model that is designed to address major economic, social and envi-
ronmental challenges that the world is facing. He has worked with the
model for more than 15 years. He has contributed to several high-profile
xviii EDITOR AND CONTRIBUTORS

EU-Impact Assessments such as the recent long-term climate strategy,

the Clean Energy Package and the Work-Life Balance Directive. He also
provided inputs to the 2018 New Climate Economy report and IRENA’s
recent macroeconomic analysis.
Vishnu S. Prabhu is a Ph.D. Scholar at Gokhale Institute of Politics and
Economics, Pune, Maharashtra, India.
Priyam Sengupta is a Ph.D. Scholar at Gokhale Institute of Politics and
Economics, Pune, Maharashtra, India. As an independent Researcher he
has long experience in doing economic research and analysis using Input-
Output framework. His areas of interest include: Energy, Key Resources
Sector, Non-fuel Minerals, Tourism and Environment.
Shraddha Shrivastava is a Research Scholar at Gokhale Institute of
Politics and Economics, Pune, Maharashtra, India.
Paul J. Thomassin is a Professor and Program Director of Agricultural
Economics at McGill University. He received his Ph.D. and M.S. from the
University of Hawaii at Manoa and his B.Sc. (Agr.) from McGill Univer-
sity. He is a Research Fellow at the Center for Interuniversity Research
and Analysis of Organizations (CIRANO). His research areas include:
agricultural and environmental economics, macroeconomic analysis of
food and agriculture policies, food safety and the economics of climate
change. From 2003 to 2007, he was the scientific director of Green-
house Gas Management Canada, a SSHRC-BIOCAP national research
network that investigated the social science dimensions of greenhouse gas
management. He is currently involved in Quebec Centre for Biodiver-
sity Science (QCBS) working group on ecosystem accounting and McGill
Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Center.
 Abbreviations

ACMA Automotive Component Manufacturing Association

AEP Agriculture Export Policy
AMP Automotive Mission Plan
AMRUT Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation
APEDA Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Develop-
ment Authority
APMC Agricultural Produce Market Committee
APPC Average Power Purchase Cost
ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations
ASI Annual Survey of Industries
BAU Business as Usual
BCS Baseline Capacity Scenario
BEE Bureau of Energy Efficiency
BS VI Bharat stage VI
C&I Commercial and Industrial
CAGR Compound Annual Growth Rate
CAPEX Capital Expenditure
CAQM Commission for Air Quality Management
CCS Carbon Capture and Storage
CEA Central Electricity Authority
CG Capital Goods
CGE Computable General Equilibrium
CII Confederation of Indian Industry
CMA Cement Manufacturers Association
CNG Compressed Natural Gas
CO2 Carbon Dioxide

xix
xx ABBREVIATIONS

COP Conference of the Parties

COVID Corona Virus Disease
COVID-19 Corona Virus Disease 2019
CPCB Central Pollution Control Board
CSO Central Statistics Office
DBT Direct Benefit Transfer
DGCIS Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics
DISCOM Distribution and Transmission Companies
EEPC Engineering Export Promotion Council of India
EPCG Export Promotion Capital Goods
EPF Employee Provident Fund
EPFO Employee Provident Fund Organisation
EPWRF Economic and Political Weekly Research Foundation
ETC Energy Transition Commission
EU European Union
EV Electric Vehicle
EY Ernst & Young
FAME Faster Adoption of Manufacturing of (Hybrid) Electric Vehi-
cles
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
FE Financial Express
FGD Fuel Gas Desulphurization
FICCI Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry
FOB Free on Board
FPI Food Processing Industry
FSI Forest Survey of India
FTT Future Technology Transformation
GDI Gross Disposable Income
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GFCF Gross Fixed Capital Formation
GOI Government of India
GRAP Graded Response Action Plan
GVA Gross Value Added
GVCs Global Value Chains
GVO Gross Value of Output
GW Gigawatts
HRES High Renewable Energy Scenario
IBEF India Brand Equity Foundation
ICE Internal Combustion Engines
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IDA International Development Association
IEA International Energy Agency
 ABBREVIATIONS xxi

IFC International Finance Corporation

IHDS Indian Human Development Survey
IIP Index of Industrial Production
IMF International Monetary Fund
INR Indian Rupee
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPP Independent Power Producers
IRDA International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
IT-ITeS Information Technology-Information Technology Enable
Services
IV Instrumental Variables
KUSUM Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthan Mahabhiyan
LCOE Levelized Cost of Electricity
MECON Metallurgical & Engineering Consultants (India) Limited
Mn Million
MNCs Multinational Corporations
MNREGA Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
MOFPI Ministry of Food Processing Industries
MOSPI Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation
MPCE Monthly Per Capita Expenditure
MSME Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises
MSPs Minimum Support Prices
MT Million Tonnes
NABARD National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
NATRIP National Automotive Testing and R&D Infrastructure Project
NBFC Non-Banking Financial Institutions
NCO National Classification of Occupation
NCR National Capital Region
NCT National Capital Territory
NDC Nationally Determined Commitments
NEMMP National Electric Mobility Mission Plan
NIC National Industrial Classification
NITI National Institution for Transforming India
NMFI National Mission for Financial Inclusion
NOx Nitrogen Oxides
NPA Non-Performing Assets
NRAI National Restaurants Association of India
NSDC National Skill Development Corporation
NSP National Steel Policy
NSSO National Sample Survey Office
NSTMIS National Science and Technology Management information
System
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturers
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
wherever you may be camping out on the mountains, you will always
be on the banks of a stream, or have one near you.
Incredible quantities of small edible fruit are to be found
everywhere. They consist of gooseberries, currants, raspberries,
blueberries, and some other kinds, all of them being called
collectively, in the language of the mountains, berries. I mention
them here, because, when people are camping out, they supply
materials for tarts and puddings, and, if it be required, for dessert.
The next question to that of game is the climate. It is just the most
perfect in the world. In the months of July, August, and September,
the three best for sporting in the Rocky Mountains, it is never known
to rain. This is the experience of the people of Denver, of the mining
districts in the mountains, and of many generations of trappers. And
up on this high ground it is, at this season of the year, neither too hot
nor too cold, but just what one would desire. It is indeed so pleasant,
that it is the common practice of the people in the mountains and
contiguous plains to camp out, as it is called, in the dry months; and
the weather is so certain, that in these camping-out excursions the
ladies accompany the gentlemen. The guns and fishing-rods of the
latter supply the larder, while the former preside over the cuisine.
But how are people to get from the other side of
the Atlantic to this sporting-ground, so grand in A Memorable
scenery, so rich in game, and so delightful in Fortnight.
climate? Nothing can be easier. On the fifteenth
day after leaving Liverpool you may dine in the Rocky Mountains on
trout you have yourself caught, venison you have yourself stalked,
and fruit you have yourself gathered. And could a fortnight be spent
more delightfully? It would be a memorable fortnight in any man’s
life. It would include a voyage across the great ocean; a sight of New
York and Chicago; a view of the lakes Erie and Michigan; the
passage of the Mississippi and Missouri; five hundred miles of
prairie, and as many more of the plains up the valley of the Platte;
and the Rocky Mountains, a worthy finale of the whole. Instead,
then, of the getting to the mountains being a difficulty, or any kind of
obstacle to carrying out the plan, it is, if rightly considered, one of the
greatest possible inducements for going. I suppose no other part of
the world could in the same space and time present so many grand
and moving sights; indeed, what greater sights are there in the
world, except that there are some loftier mountain ranges?
The voyage across the Atlantic may be set down at that time of the
year at eleven days. The trains take two days in going from New
York to Chicago, and as many more in going from Chicago to the
mountains.
As to the cost, the fare by the Cunard boats is about 25l.: it may
be reduced to 20l. by the Inman line. From New York to Chicago
there are two lines of railway; the ticket of one line costs twenty-two,
and of the other twenty-five dollars; each charges eight dollars for a
berth in a sleeping-car for the two nights, which gives one also a
sofa to one’s self in the day time. From Chicago to the mountains I
cannot say what is precisely the fare, for I took a through ticket to
Denver, which included one hundred and ten miles of coaching; I
believe, however, that it is about forty dollars, which is a high fare for
America. The fare by the steamer includes one’s board. The cost,
therefore, of actually reaching the mountains from Liverpool would
be 31l., plus your keep during the four days you are passing from
New York to Shyenne, which would not amount to more than four
dollars a day, or sixteen in all, that is, about 2l. 10s. The whole cost,
therefore, of getting to the mountains would not be more than 35l.
We may compare this with the alternative of taking a moor in
Scotland. Out and home would cost 70l. If one did the thing well, and
went to the best ground, it would be necessary to get, at Denver or
Leavenworth, a span of good mules, with harness, and a double
tilted waggon, fitted up with boxes that just pack close together, each
in its own place. This, complete in everything, would cost about 600
dollars, or rather less than 100l. After three months’ use it would sell
for 80l.; because then the freighting season would be drawing to a
close, and mules and waggon would not be much in request. The
mules and waggon would thus cost 20l. Add to this the cost of a man
to do the cooking and look after the mules. I suppose his services
might be had for his board and a dollar a day. This, for ten weeks,
would be seventy dollars for wages—say 100 dollars in all, or 16l.
This gives, with the loss on the waggon and mules, 36l., which,
divided among three persons, the number the party would probably
consist of, would add, in the case of each, 12l. more to the 70l.,
bringing it up to 82l. For getting from Shyenne to Denver by coach,
and by waggon from Denver to the camping-ground, for flour, whisky,
sugar, and other sundries, reckon 18l. per head. The whole will thus
be just 100l. But take 50l. more in your pocket for contingencies, and
to enable you to see a little of the country on your way out, or on
your return, and you will have had a season in the Rocky Mountains
which will not have cost you so much as it would have done to have
hired a moor and forest in Scotland, and paid a parcel of gillies, and
kept house besides for two or three months; and you will have killed
twenty times as much game, and had much more varied and
interesting sport, and have had the choice of a district larger than the
whole of Scotland, and seen some of the greatest sights the world
has to show.
The best camping and sporting ground is a main
point in the question. The South Park combines What it Costs.
every advantage. The weather is sure to be good.
There is plenty of grass, of water, and of game; and there are no
Indians or mosquitoes: for though the latter are found on the ridges
round the park, they are not found in the park itself. It is somewhere
about twenty miles square. It contains also two small settlements,
called Colorado City and Canon (pronounced Canyon) City. The
topography is not given accurately in Appleton’s maps; for instance,
Pike’s Peak, at the foot of which it lies, is represented as standing
out on the plain quite detached, whereas it is only the highest peak
in that part of the range. It is so much higher that from the
neighbourhood of Denver it is the only point visible in that direction,
and so becomes the steering mark for parties bound for the South
Park. Colorado City is also put to the north of the peak, whereas it
lies to the west of it.
There are two routes to the South Park, one by way of New York,
south shore of lake Erie, Chicago, Omaha and Shyenne by railway:
this is about 2200 miles; then to Denver by coach, which is 110 miles
more; concluding with a waggon journey to the park, of about 75
miles. This is the route I would recommend for several reasons.
There is far more to see upon it, and it can be done in less time.
Instead of merely coming down to the mountains on a line at right
angles to them, you would coast along them for nearly two hundred
miles. Yon would pass close under Long’s Peak, and through a very
interesting part of the plain, in the neighbourhood of St. Vrain and
Burlington. You might stop, if you pleased, for a day or two’s fishing
at La Porte and Big Thomson. You would see Denver, which is a
place of much interest, and a good place for getting your waggon,
mules, and stores, and the man to act as cook and waggoner, and
where you would find everyone ready to be helpful in giving
information and advice.
Or you might reach it in another way, by New
York, Harrisburg, Pittsburg, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Routes and
and the south branch of the Pacific Railway, which Sporting-
is now opened from St. Louis, by Kansas City, grounds.
Leavenworth, and Lecompton, to a point called
Pond Creek. By this route you would have to get your waggon and
span of mules at Leavenworth, and would reach Pike’s Peak and the
South Park by the Smoky Hill track. In this way you would have to
travel a great deal further by waggon; and though you would pass
through a very interesting country, and see many stirring and busy
places, yet in these respects it cannot compete with the more
northerly route. Why, to have seen Chicago is in itself an education.
Whether you go by the Denver or the Leavenworth route, the best
way of getting into the South Park is to strike the Arkansas River,
and follow it up till you enter the park, in which you will find the head
waters both of this river and of the Platte, separated by a divide of
only five miles.
Or if you wish for something easier than the South Park, and
which would enable you to dispense with waggon, mules, and a man
of your own, you might take the North Park at the foot of Long’s
Peak. There is a good path to it from St. Vrain and Burlington, of
forty-five miles; and I have no doubt but that, at the right season, you
might find some gentleman, or some party, going up into the
mountains for some little camping out, and who would be glad of
your company. There is good shooting and fishing about Long’s
Peak, and you can see from the plains the grassy park at its south
side.
Or if you are more adventurously disposed, you may still be suited.
The Pacific Railway is at present opened for traffic as far as
Shyenne. It is, however, completed for thirty miles further, to Forts
Sanders and Halleck. This takes you into the very heart of the
mountains. I had the offer of being carried on to this point, if I wished
it, on a construction train, and I have no doubt but that the engineer
or contractor would grant the same favour to any traveller who
requested it. This would bring you almost upon one of the most
celebrated sporting-grounds of the mountains, the Laramie Plains; or
if you could not manage it in this way, or if you take waggon and
mules, it would be better to leave the rail at Shyenne. You would
then start at once from the present terminus of the railway, and after
having kept a course of north by west for thirty or forty miles, you
would find yourself on the Laramie Plains. This is not a park among
the mountains, but a vast expanse of open table-land. One
advantage you would have on this ground is, that a detachment of
the United States army is quartered up here, and the officers are
always ready to give any assistance in their power to gentlemen who
are out on the plain for sporting. What calls for more enterprise in
those who camp out on the Laramie Plains is that they are still open
to Indian raids, and that they are exposed, as might be expected, to
very violent wind-storms.
This year of 1868 the Rocky Mountains offer a
greater combination of advantages than they have Sporting in the
done hitherto, or ever, probably, will again. Till the Rocky
opening of the Pacific Railway last year they were Mountains.
not to be got at; but their having now been
rendered so easily accessible will lead to a great deal of the game
being rapidly cleared off, both by shoals of vacation-ramblers from
the old States, who will flock to them with tents and guns, for their
yearly excursion, and by the immediate establishment of a trade in
game between the mountains and the great cities of the north and
east. I suppose that never again, after this year, will a haunch of
antelope venison be retailed in Denver for seventy-five cents.
 CHAPTER XIX.
HOTEL CARS, REAL FIRST-CLASS CARRIAGES—AN EDITOR ON
HIS COUNTRYMEN’S KNOWLEDGE—AMERICAN
GRANDILOQUENCE—OF WHOM THIS IS SAID—NECESSARY TO
REPEAT SOME OF WHAT ONE HEARS—‘HAVE YOU SEEN OUR
FOREST?’—‘THE PACIFIC RAILS WILL CARRY THE COMMERCE
OF THE WORLD’—LARGE ACQUAINTANCE AMERICANS HAVE—
AN AMERICAN ON LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION—NIAGARA—
THE AMERICAN AND CANADIAN FALLS—WHAT IS IN THE MIND
MAGNIFIES WHAT ONE SEES—THE STONE THOUGH IT HAS
CHIPPED OUT—ICE-BRIDGE—HOW NIAGARA IS PRONOUNCED
—A WEEK OF CANADIAN WEATHER—A SNOW-BOUND PARTY
AT NIAGARA.
On returning from the mountains, I left Chicago for the east in an
hotel car. This kind of carriage combines a sleeping-berth with a
travelling kitchen, and supplies you by day, just as the sleeping-cars
do, with a comfortable sofa to yourself. In front of this a table may be
placed when needed, on which you can have served in a few
minutes whatever you please. In this way you may without leaving
the carriage have all your meals for a journey of a thousand miles.
No objection can be made either to the materials or to the cooking of
what is supplied. These sleeping, hotel, and English cars are not
merely devices for diminishing the inconvenience of a long journey,
and enabling one to economise time, but they also act completely as
first-class carriages. After you have paid for your ticket at one
uniform price with all the rest of the passengers, you find in the train
the steward of the sleeping-car (sometimes there is an office in the
town), and pay him so many dollars more, and secure in this way a
place to yourself, for night and day, in the special kind of car. It would
give offence to call them first-class carriages; but from what has
been said it will be understood that they do at all events incidentally
supply this advantage. And as there is also a ladies’ carriage, into
which well-dressed gentlemen are admitted, and furthermore a
caboose for negroes, emigrants, and very dirty people, in which the
wound that is inflicted on their dignity is compensated for by a
reduction of the fare, American railway trains, although they profess
to put all their passengers on a footing of democratic equality, do in
fact allow them to classify themselves.
Strange as it may sound, the traveller
sometimes finds it difficult to carry on an argument Tall Phrases
with an American, on account of his complete Discounted.
ignorance of the subject upon which he will go on
arguing; or, worse still, from his wonderful misconceptions, for some
of which he may possibly be indebted to rural orators and rural
newspapers. I was in this way myself often reminded of what a well-
known American editor said to me—of course very much
exaggerating the fact; still, however, his remark may have some
grains of truth in it, ‘that his countrymen were, and must long
continue to be, in matters out of their own business, and beyond
their own country, the most ignorant people in the civilised world.’
Another difficulty one occasionally meets with is that you do not
know how much you are to discount from the speaker’s grand
phrases, in order to arrive at his own meaning; for it sometimes
happens that the ideas that are in his own mind are very inadequate
to the language he uses to express them. I was, for instance, for
several days thrown into close contact with a very gentlemanly, well-
spoken, well-mannered merchant, who had seen something of the
world, for his business had frequently taken him to South America
and to Europe. On one occasion he astonished me by affirming ‘that
the farmers, of all classes in the United States, possessed the finest
intellects.’ Anybody else would have meant by these words, that
among them were to be found the most powerful and most cultivated
intellects—minds great in imaginative power, or in the power of
apprehending political, or speculative, or scientific truth. But of these
uses of the intellect my companion had not so much as the germ of a
conception. To nothing of this kind had his sight ever reached. What
he meant by the finest intellect was just this: a mind capable of
giving a pretty correct practical judgment on the ordinary
occurrences of daily business. At another time the same gentleman
startled me by the announcement ‘that many of the blacks were very
fine scholars.’ After a time it became evident that he had no
conception of scholarship beyond the elements of reading and
writing, and the power of keeping accounts accurately. If a man had
attained to the point of doing these things with ease, he had
achieved everything; for my companion had caught no glimpse of
anything beyond.
No one, I suppose, will so mistake my meaning
as to imagine that I mention anecdotes of this kind What one may
with any wish to raise a laugh at the expense of Repeat.
the people I travelled among. It seems almost
impertinent to remark that there are plenty of people in America who
are very well informed, and plenty of people who express their ideas
with perfect correctness. Their system, however, of equal education,
and of equal chances to all, brings a great many to the front (and
small blame to them for such a result), who—this I suppose to have
been the history of the casual fellow-traveller whose expressions I
have just repeated—never had any education but that of the
common primary schools, and never afterwards had time for reading
anything but newspapers, and never attempted to master anything
except the details of their own business. This must be the case with
many. Many others, however, there are, as is very well known, who
have used what was acquired at the common primary school as a
foundation for a solid and extensive structure of after acquisitions.
My object is to give a correct idea of America, and of the different
kinds of Americans the traveller in the United States meets with, as
they were seen by myself. If omissions are made, this object cannot
be answered, and so what I might say would convey only erroneous
conceptions. One is generally precluded from making any reference
to what he saw or heard in private houses; but there are no reasons
for silence as to what took place at tables-d’hôte, and in railway cars,
on board steam-boats, and in coaches: all this was said and done in
public. And besides, most of the people who in America make
laughable observations would, considering the point from which they
started, have had no observations at all to make, had their lot been
cast on this side the water, or anywhere else excepting in the United
States.
 ‘Sir,’ said a gentleman to me one morning at breakfast (we were
seated together at a small table in one of the large hotels of a great
city in the Valley of the Mississippi),—‘Sir, have you seen our
Forest?’ ‘Sir,’ I replied, ‘for the last thousand miles and more, since I
left Richmond, I have scarcely seen anything else.’
‘Sir,’ my interrogator responded with an indignant tone, ‘I am not
speaking of the material, but of the intellectual Forest—of our Forest
—the great Forest—the grandest delineator of the sublime and of the
ridiculous in the united world.’ I afterwards found that this grand
delineator of the ridiculous was the actor Forest, who is not unknown
professionally in this country, and who was playing in the town I was
then staying at. I also found that his admirer was a dealer in ready-
made clothes, who took his meals at the hotel.
‘Sir,’ observed to me a gentleman who was sitting next to me in a
car of the Pacific Railway, ‘these rails will carry the commerce of the
world.’ I requested him to repeat his remark. I then began to reply by
saying, that I thought it not improbable that as much of what was
used for tea in the United States as was grown in China would pass
over them, when he cut me short with, ‘Sir, it is not to be expected
that strangers should understand the grandeur of our country, but
these rails will carry the commerce of the world.’ This dealer in
prophecy was also a dealer in whisky.
Wherever you may be in the United States, you
will not find it difficult to obtain letters of Letters of
introduction to any town in the Union. If an Introduction.
American traveller were to ask an English friend at
Ipswich for introductions to Exeter, Galway, Dundee, Carlisle, and
Dover, his friend would not find it easy to comply with the request.
But if the position of the two were reversed, and the Englishman
were travelling in America, and were to ask his American friend for
introductions to half-a-dozen places in the States, far more distant
from each other than the places I have mentioned in the United
Kingdom, the American would either be able to give them himself, or
would easily find friends who could. This implies a vast difference in
our social system. Ours is a system which isolates, theirs is a system
which brings everybody in contact with everybody. One is astonished
at the number of acquaintances an American has. For one
acquaintance an English gentleman has, an American gentleman will
probably have fifty or a hundred.
I will repeat here what an American gentleman at Washington said
to me on the subject of letters of introduction. ‘We Americans,’ he
remarked, ‘are a busy people. We have not time to attend to general
introductions. We gladly do what we can, but we cannot do what
costs time. Still, however, if the letter is brought to us by one who
has ideas, and who has the power of making us feel the magnetism
of his ideas, we will give to him our time, and everything we have to
give.’
Niagara is seen to advantage in a severe winter. It is impossible
for ice to accumulate in front of the Canadian fall; but as vast
masses are formed all about the American, the contrast between the
two becomes far greater and more striking than in summer.
According to the figures usually given, the American is only one third
the width of the Canadian; but this measurement gives no idea of the
difference between the two, which lies chiefly in the fact that the
sheet of water which comes over the former is so thin that it is
everywhere broken, and white with foam; while in the Canadian fall it
comes over in so deep and solid a mass, that it is green throughout
the whole Horse-shoe. It is perfectly smooth, and there is not a
bubble visible upon it. Every piece of wood that comes over seems
to glide down its surface; the water itself being so unbroken as to
appear almost as if it were stationary and had no movement in it.
I do not know any other grand object of nature where the interest
felt at the moment in what is seen is so much heightened by what is
not seen, as in these great falls. They are grand in themselves to the
eye; but how much grander does the sight become, when it is
accompanied by the thought that what you see is the collected
outflow of all those vast lakes it has been taking you so many days
to steam over and along, lakes on all of which you lost sight of the
land, just as if you had been on the ocean itself, lakes larger than
European kingdoms. Here you have before you, gliding over that
precipice, all the water these great seas, fed by a thousand streams,
are unable to retain in their own basins.
 And behind you, in the seven miles from
Queenston, you have in the deep perpendicular- Niagara.
sided trough, cut in the solid limestone rock, a
measure of the excavating power of this descending flood, which has
been for so many ages, just like a chisel in a carpenter’s hand (the
Horse-shoe fall is now a gouge), chipping out this deep and wide
channel. When one reflects on the enormous weight of the falling
water, surprise is felt at its not working at a greater rate than, as is
supposed, that of twelve inches in twelve months.
When I was at Niagara there was what is called an ‘ice bridge’ a
few yards below the falls, and which, as it requires a continuance of
severe weather for its completion, does not occur, I was told, more
frequently than once in every nine or ten years.
I stayed at an hotel on the American side of the Suspension
Bridge, which is about a mile and a half from the falls. I was there
three days, and during that time I met two Canadians who had all
their lives been in the neighbourhood of the falls, and an American in
business at the place where I was staying, who had not yet seen the
great sight, and who felt no desire to see it.
I may here mention, that if we ought to pronounce Indian names in
the Indian fashion, we shall cease to talk about the falls of Niāgăra. It
was their practice to accent not the ante-penultimate, but the
penultimate syllable. For instance, they talked of Niăgāra, and
Ontărīo. In Ohīo, and Potōmac, if they are real Indian words, the true
Indian pronunciation has been retained.
I have already mentioned that during the time I was in the United
States I never found it uncomfortably cold. Nothing, however, of this
kind could be said of my experience of the climate of Canada. The
only ferry of those I had to cross, which had become impassable on
account of the accumulations of ice, was that into Canada at Detroit.
This was a bad beginning, and by it I lost a place I had paid for in an
hotel car. We had not gone far on Canadian soil before some of the
iron-work of the engine broke, in consequence of the intense cold of
the morning. At Niagara I was detained a day by a snow-storm. It
was so violent a storm that it put an end to all traffic for twenty-four
hours. The train I had intended using was to have left at 6.30 a.m. I
struggled to the station, through the snow, that had drifted during the
night to the depth of three feet, only to find that I had come to no
purpose. During the whole of the day you could not see ten yards
before you, the snow was driving and drifting so thickly. The next
morning when I left for Toronto, the thermometer was standing at
twelve degrees below zero; on the following morning, at Toronto it
was nineteen degrees below zero. I left Toronto for the east by the
first train that had been over the rails in that direction for some days.
While I was at Kingston there came on a second gale of wind, but
this time accompanied by blinding rain, every drop of which as it fell
froze on the zero-cold ground and snow. I was staying with the
Bishop of Ontario, and was to have been taken over the schools of
the place, but the day was such that the scholars were not able to
leave their homes. This rain continued all the next day, and, being a
warm rain, it at last turned the snow, which was unusually deep, into
such an amount of slush as one must see to believe. At last, after
daily delays of many hours each, and several mishaps on the road,
to be attributed to the mismanagement of the authorities of the
bankrupt Canadian railway companies, I reached Montreal at the
end of the week, when the weather suddenly, as in its other changes
during the previous part of the week, became calm, bright, and
warm. But when I mention the changes I experienced at the close of
the winter in a single week, I must not omit an instance of
unchanging persistence the weather had exhibited during the earlier
part of the same winter. There had been forty-five days at Montreal
(but I was told that there was no record of any other equal spell of
cold), during which the markings of the thermometer had been
continuously below zero. This winter, however, of 1867-68 will be
memorable for its severity. In Minnesota thirty-six degrees, and in
Wisconsin thirty-one degrees below zero had been reached.
During the day that I was detained at the
Niagara Suspension Bridge Hotel, I had the A Snow-bound
company of about a dozen other travellers, snow- Party.
bound like myself. The storm was too violent to
admit of anyone going outside; there was, therefore, nothing for us to
do, except to sit round the stove in front of the bar and talk away the
time. Everybody contributed what he could to the general stock of
amusement, by making or repeating jokes, or telling stories and
adventures, the latter, probably, sometimes participating in the
nature of the former. I was called upon to give a detailed account of
my run to the Plains and Rocky Mountains. When every other
subject was exhausted, politics of course came up. This, as is usual,
led to loud denunciations of what is called ‘the corruption’ of all the
departments of the Government. ‘But, Sir,’ said one of the party to
me, in a determined and fierce voice, ‘the darndest corruption on this
side creation is that of the British Government. You give your Cabinet
ministers very little, but they all get rich. There are plenty of people
who want their help. It was this that enabled Lord Palmerston, during
his long official life, to become so enormously wealthy. We
Americans keep ourselves well posted in these matters. We have to
transact too much business with your public men not to know what
we have to do.’ This was from the politician of the party.
‘Sir,’ said another to me, ‘no man can be blamed for travelling in
this weather, because no one would stir in it unless he had a big
occasion.’ The theory was plausible, but no one present
acknowledged that he had himself been drawn away from home by
‘a big occasion.’
In the evening I went into the ladies’ drawing-room. I here found
one English and two American ladies. They were all young, and all
appeared to be on their wedding tour. One of the American ladies
cried herself to sleep because her husband had left her that he might
play at cards in the gentlemen’s drawing-room. The other took her
husband’s absence for the same purpose very philosophically,
consoling herself with a kind of dominoes she called ‘muggins.’
 CHAPTER XX.
EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT AT TORONTO—CANADIAN
ARGUMENTS AGAINST COMMON SCHOOLS—A CANADIAN’S
OPINION ON SECULAR SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND—HOW THE
CANADIAN’S OBJECTIONS ARE MET IN THE UNITED STATES—
UPPER CANADIANS NOT YET A PEOPLE—ADVANTAGES
POSSESSED BY UPPER CANADA—SERVICE AT THE ROMANIST
AND ANGLICAN CATHEDRALS—UNMANNERLY BEHAVIOUR
PERMITTED ON CANADIAN RAILWAYS—BADNESS OF THEIR
CARRIAGES—WHY CANADA IS NOT ‘THE LAND OF FREEDOM’—
YANKEE SMARTNESS IN TRAIN-DRIVING—PICTURESQUENESS
OF VERMONT—TRAVELLING ON AMERICAN RAILWAYS NOT
FATIGUING.
At Toronto I was taken over the educational
department for Upper Canada. It is very Educational
ambitiously housed, and combines so many Department at
objects, namely a general library, a collection and Toronto.
depôt of school-books and of school apparatus,
galleries of art, chiefly for copies of celebrated pictures and pieces of
sculpture, and normal schools, that I spent two hours in going
through it. On my making some observation on the cost of the
building, and of its contents, I was told that it might appear that too
much had been spent on the department, but that it had designedly
been carried out on this scale, and the building made imposing, and
the galleries added, in order to give dignity and elevation to the idea
of education in the minds of the people. A hope had been
entertained that if the normal schools were brought under the same
roof, a better class of young persons would offer themselves for the
position of teachers: this hope had not been disappointed.
The arguments and facts which are in favour of the Canadian
Common School system are to be heard at the department, the
officers of which appeared to be able and zealous men. The system,
however, has been very far from securing that unanimity which to the
south of the great lakes exists on the subject of common schools. I
will state this difference of opinion, and some of its causes, in the
words of one of the leading men in the province, used in
conversation with me on the subject. He said, ‘that throughout Upper
Canada their common schools had quite failed in winning anything at
all like general approval. The Grand Jury of Toronto have for several
years past made a presentment against the system, hanging the
expression of their dissatisfaction on the peg of their visitation and
inspection of the jail. Their dissatisfaction is shared very largely by
the upper class, who pay a heavy tax for the schools, and yet find
that those for whose benefit and elevation they were willing to be
taxed do not send their children to the schools; but that, instead of
this, the well-to-do tradesmen who could very well afford to pay for
their children’s education are now provided with it, almost
gratuitously, at the expense of the community.
‘Some towns in Upper Canada, as for instance Hamilton, have all
along refused to establish common schools.
‘Another difficulty about the system, besides its
injustice, and its failure in its true object, is that it A Canadian on
extinguishes private schools. When all the schools Common
become of one kind, competition in excellence Schools.
ceases, and everyone is content with a low
standard of mediocrity. Every master knows that, so long as he is not
more inefficient than his neighbours, his position is safe; and that his
salary, which is all that he at last cares about, will be paid him.
‘The local superintendents, who are almost universally clergymen,
have other things to attend to, and carry out their inspection in the
most perfunctory manner.
‘A cause that is doing much harm to the schools is, that everything
connected with them is rapidly falling into the hands of the
politicians. No party can now afford to forego an opportunity for
strengthening itself by electing, or procuring the election, of party
men as managers; and these again, for the same reasons, are
guided in the selection of teachers by party considerations. It is
coming to this, that no one who has to do with the management,
supervision, or teaching of schools, will be the fittest person for what
he has to do, except by accident.’
This gentleman had studied the subject of education, as well in
England as in his own country, and he gave me some of the opinions
he had formed on the religious part of the question, or rather as to
how he conceived the proposal for secular schools would affect the
Established Church, in the following words. ‘I think,’ he said, ‘the
Church will lose nothing by the absence of a Church character in the
schools. I never met with a clergyman in the old country, whether it
was an archbishop or the incumbent of a small rural parish, to whom
I put the question, who felt sure that the Church gained by the
schools being in the hands of the clergy. No one will say that this
attaches the children, when they are grown up, to the Church. For
my own part, I feel sure that a system which would rigidly exclude
both all Church and all denominational teaching would be a gain to
the Church. This is necessarily true, if under the present system
Church schools do less to indoctrinate those brought up in them with
Churchism, than the denominational schools do to indoctrinate those
brought up in them with dissent. My conclusion is, that if I were an
English Churchman, I should not vote against the plan which would
supplement your existing system with secular schools. It would do
you no harm, and would give you many intelligent members.’
The way in which my Canadian friend’s opinions
about common schools differed from those held Canadians not
everywhere in the United States, supplies a means yet a People.
for measuring the social and moral differences of
the two peoples. Not one of the above objections, whatever weight it
may have in Canada, has any weight at all in the United States.
There the first thing thought about is making the schools as suitable
as possible for all classes, and this object is very largely attained, so
that the upper class need not, and do not, hold themselves aloof
from them. There, too, instead of noting with feelings and
expressions of discontent that a great number of the lower class in
the towns do not resort to the schools, great efforts are made to
bring them in, by varying, and adapting to their wants and habits, the
character of the schools, as is done at Boston and New York, and by
getting as many people as possible to become volunteer workers in
the effort to persuade such parents to send their children. I was,
while at Washington, very much struck and interested by the account
Mr. Barnard, the Commissioner of Education, gave me of the way in
which this had been effected. And then, as to the deadness and
inefficiency which show themselves in the public schools in Canada,
as soon as competition with private schools ceases, an American
public and American parents would not tolerate anything of the kind.
And the American teachers themselves are so energetic and
ambitious, that they would be the last in the community to succumb
to such influences. The inefficient inspection the Canadian objectors
complain of is a great evil, but is very far from being an irremediable
one.
The fact is, that the inhabitants of Upper Canada are not yet a
people. They are Englishmen, Scotchmen, or Irishmen, just as if they
were still in the old country; and what would not have suited them
there, they think will not suit them where they are. Unlike their
neighbours, they are not possessed with the idea, that if they will
only give themselves the trouble to attempt it, they can make
anything bear its proper fruit. The American is the hardest worker in
the world, never sparing himself, but always toiling on, in the faith
that he will soon be able to bring all things right; and he generally
succeeds in doing so. These are not yet the characteristics of the
inhabitants of Upper Canada.
In Canada there is the stage, and there are the materials for a
great nation. Its towns are more solidly built than those of the same
size in the States, possibly on account of the greater severity of the
climate. The country is generally fertile. It is also very varied, full of
lakes, and streams, and forests. It abounds in mineral wealth and in
agricultural produce. Notwithstanding its seven months’ winter, it is
capable of ripening maize and maturing tobacco; and even, to speak
of small things, through the medium of its peas, a crop which can
rarely be grown profitably to the south of the lakes, it supplies no
inconsiderable part of what is used for coffee among its neighbours.
That product, however, of Canada, which most attracts the attention
of the traveller, and is likely to make the strongest impression upon
him, is the complexion of the Canadian ladies. It gives you more of
the idea of transparency, otherwise you might have thought that it
was of pearl.
On a Sunday, while at Montreal, in my way to the Episcopal
cathedral of Christ’s Church, I allowed time for witnessing the
celebration of High Mass at the church or cathedral annexed to the
Jesuits’ College. As I left the building the thought in my mind was, ‘I
should like to ask the priests who have just been officiating, if they
have, or can imagine, any reasons for believing that this service is
either acceptable to God or edifying to man?’ In the English
cathedral the service was very well and impressively read by an
elderly clergyman; but the young clergyman who afterwards
occupied the pulpit was far too minutely acquainted with all that
passes in the mind of the Almighty. No man could be so fully
acquainted with what passes in the mind of his most familiar friend—
hardly with what passes in his own mind.
One who has just come from the States may
compare the manners and customs of the Canadian
American travelling public with those of the Railways.
Canadian. The former are very much in advance of
the latter. The Canadian conductor, unlike his brother officer to the
south, appears to make no attempt to keep things and persons in
order for the general advantage. Anybody, however rough (and
many Canadian travellers are in winter very rough indeed, perhaps
because they are lumberers out for a holiday), is allowed to take his
seat in the ladies’ carriage. The shaggiest and most unmannerly
fellows, sometimes with short pipes in their mouths, and in their shirt
sleeves, are permitted to perambulate the train, staring everybody in
the face; I suppose merely to show that they are lords of the
situation. But what I found the most annoying of all was, that I hardly
ever left my seat for a few moments without finding on my return that
some one had pushed my luggage and rug on one side, and taken
possession of my place. This I believe to be a practice quite unheard
of in the United States; at all events, I never noticed an instance of it.
The only case of drunkenness I ever saw in any railway car was on
the Grand Trunk line of Canada: it was that of a dirty, uncombed
rough, who was uproariously tipsy; but neither conductor nor anyone
else took any notice of him.
Again; the worst carriages in the States are better than those on
the great Canadian lines. All the former have good springs; but the
Canadians are too strongly protectionist to tolerate American cars on
their lines, and their own native cars have, as far as my experience
goes, no springs at all. A Canadian assured me that there had once
been a time when they had had springs, but that they had now
stiffened or worn out, or in some way or other gone to the bad. The
effect is that there is an incessant short, sharp, rattling jar, which
becomes very distressing. Their home-made carriages must also be
very deficient in strength, or else their rails must be most alarmingly
out of order; for in one day I counted about a dozen wrecks of trains
lying by the side of the road. This is not encouraging as one goes
along and sees (the ground being everywhere covered with snow)
nothing else but overturned and smashed-up cars.
Still, we must remember that in the great bridge over the St.
Lawrence, at Montreal, they have one of the grandest railway works
in the world. It seems to be about a mile and a half long, and carries
the train over the rapids of the St. Lawrence through a series of
tubes supported by massive stone piers.
On crossing this bridge, on my return to the States, I left behind
me on the west bank more than two feet of snow. In some places the
fences were entirely buried. On the eastern side, however, of the
river the snow was much thinner, and in less than two hours we were
passing over a country from which it had almost disappeared. This
was not lost on a voluble little Irishwoman, the chief talker in a party
of Irish whom she had been endeavouring to persuade to leave
Canada and settle in the States. ‘You see for yourselves,’ she said,
pointing out to them how much less snow there was than what they
had left two hours ago in Canada, ‘you see for yourselves that this is
the land of freedom; for here, if a body has no shoes, she can go
without them: but in Canada it is entirely too cold: faith, then, this is
the land of freedom.’
 For the first sixty miles of this journey we
remained in the execrable carriages of the Grand American
Trunk of Canada Company, and in the hands of Railway
their officials, whose way of doing things leaves on Travelling.
the mind the feeling that their object is to show
how what ought to be done may be neglected. The instant the
Yankees took charge of the train everything changed, as if by magic.
You could feel at any moment that the train was being driven against
time, and not allowed to go anyhow. The smartness with which the
driver brought it into the stations, and took it out, never waiting one
instant longer than was necessary for giving up the mail-bags, or
whatever it might be the conductor had to do, showed the value he
attached to the passengers’ time, and to his own reputation for
punctuality. I believe there were times when we were not stopped for
more than thirty seconds. In a long day’s journey, to feel that the
train is handled in this way has quite an exhilirating effect.
All day long we were winding our way among the hills of Vermont,
which rose above the valleys to a height of six or seven hundred
feet. Every valley had its stream. The land appeared generally to be
poor; but, as is usual in such cases, it was very picturesque.
I tried sometimes to make out why it is that five hundred miles by
railway in America do not fatigue one so much as fifty in this country.
More than once in America I travelled upwards of a thousand miles
at a single stretch, but never on any occasion, in a tour of eight
thousand miles by railway, did I feel, either during a journey or after
it, anything like fatigue or discomfort, or have any sensation to
remind me that I had travelled a single mile. The only explanation I
could hit upon was that on English and European railways you are
shut up in a little box, in which you cannot move about, and in which
there are incessant draughts from a door and window on each side
of you. The result is, that your feet instantly get cold, and cold feet
affect the whole system disagreeably. In American cars, however,
from the way in which the floors are fastened, and from there being
no side doors at all, one’s feet, with rare exceptions, even when the
thermometer outside is below zero, are as far from being chilled as