SCIENCE HAZEL The Verfect Answer Cevision 6uide “Vo... Biology ANA EAA CYORa rea V\riple iron 1st Edition Hazel LindseyScience “HAZEL 1. The nature and variety of living organisms. ‘a. Characteristics of living organisms. b. Variety of living organisms. 2. Structure and functions in living organisms. ‘a, Level of organisation b. Cell structure ©. Biological molecules. : 4d, Movernent of substances into and out of cells . Nutrition Plants Humans 1. Respiration 9. Gas exchange Plants Humans h. Transport Plants .. Humans i. Excretion Plants Humans. j. Co-ordination and response Plants as Humans 3. Reproduction and Inheritance. ‘a, Reproduction comonnnvod Plants Humans b. Inheritance 4, Ecology and the environment. a. The organism in the environment... a - 29 b. Feeding relationships 30 c. Cycles within ecosystems 30 d, Human influences on the environment. ie : 31 5. Use of biological resources. ‘a. Food production. b. Selective breeding . Genetic modification (genetic engineering) 34 4. Cloning : : a o5 Copyright© Hazel Lindsey 2018. Al ght reserve, "No pat ofthis punicatlon may be reproduced or ransmie nary frm or by ary aan whut per permission tm Seience wth Hazel Li CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey : For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.SciENeE “HAZEL 1. The nature and variety of living organisms a. Characteristics of living organisms The following characteristics all living organisms share: - Movement = Respiration = Sensitivity = Nutrition - Excretion - Reproduce - Grow b. Variety of living organisms What does eukaryotic mean? ~ Has membrane bound organelles e.g. Animal cell has mitochondria, ribosomes and a nucleus What does prokaryotic mean? - No membrane bound organelles - Eg. bacteria and viruses Both animal and plant cells contain: = Nucleus - controls the activities of the cell = Cell membrane - controls entry and exit of substances into the cell = Cytoplasm - where chemical reactions take place - Mitochondria - where aerobic respiration takes place - release energy = Ribosomes - protein synthesis Plant cell only: - Vacuole - filled with cell sap contains dissolved sugars, and mineral ions = Chloroplasts - carry out photosynthesis - Cell wall - protects and supports the cell, made out of cellulose CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey 3 For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.SciENeE “HAZEL Virus Bacteria Protoctist Fungi ‘Structure = Proteincoat — - Cell wall ~ Variable ~ Cell wall made of surrounds DNA = No distinct = Can be similar to chitin or RNA nucleus - instead animal cells Contain usual = Non-living have acitcular —_(protazoa) or organelles - chromosomes _piant cells (algae) cytoplasm, cel (nucleoid) and membrane etc. often plasmid ~ Hyphae form a network called mycelium Unicellular or | -Unicellular - Unicellular - Can beeither Can be either multicellular (most are unicellular) Pathogenic? = Always - Sometimes - Sometimes - Sometimes Examples = HIV (causes - Preumococcus - Chorella (have - Mushrooms AIDS) (causes chloroplasts, - Mucor = Influenza pneumonia) Paant-ike), = Cold virus - Lactobaccilus —- Plasmodium = Measles, mumps, bulgaricus (used (causes malaria) rubella in yoghurt ~ algae = Tobacco mosaic making) = amoeba (more Virus (prevents, animal-like) chloroplast production - discolours leaves) Extra notes - Can only - Uses reproduce inside saprotrophic another living cell nutrition = Non-living - don’t excrete, respire, move, grow etc What are the 5 kingdoms? - Plants Animals Fungi Protoctists Bacteria What does multicellular mean? = Contains many cells How is carbohydrate stored in a) animals and b) plants c) fungi? a) As glycogen b) As starch ¢) As glycogen Define saprotrophic nutrition - The use of digestive enzymes to extracellularly break down dead matter - Fungi (e.g mucor) have hyphae which form a network called mycelium Define pathogen = a micro-organism which causes disease CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey 4 For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Science “HAZEL 2. Structure and functions in living organisms a. Level of organisation What is a cell? = Group of organelles working together to perform the same function What is a tissue? = Group of cells working together to perform the same function What is an organ? ~ Group of tissues working together to perform the same function What is an organ system? = Group of organs working together to perform the same function What are the main organs in plants? - Leaves - Roots = Stems - Flowers What are the 7 main organ systems found in humans? - Reproductive system = Circulatory system ~ Digestive system = Gas exchange system - Nervous system = Excretory system - Endocrine system List some organs found in the digestive system = Oesophagus = Stomach - Small intestine = Large intestine b. Cell structure What is a zygote? = Single cell formed atter fertilisation occurs How is a 16 cell embryo formed? - By mitosis (cell division) = 2cells —> 4 cells —> 8 cells —> 16 cells What is differentiation? - Process whereby cells become specialised e.g. nerve cells What is a stem cell? ~ Acell which has the potential to (unspecialised) ide many times whilst remai Comyn © 2016 Harel Lindsey 4 For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.SciENeE “HAZEL What are the 2 types of stem cell? = Embryonic = Adult What are embryonic stem cells? Found in early stage development of embryos = Can differentiate into ANY type of cell What are adult stem cells? ~ Found in particular tissues ~ E.g. bone marrow, lining of small intestine, skin - Unable to differentiate into any type of cell What is stem cell therapy? = Use of stem cells to treat disease = Eg. bone marrow transplants Desoribe the use of stem cell therapy in the treatment of leukaemia ~ Leukaemia - type of blood cancer = Chemotherapy destroys both healthy AND cancerous cells - Stem cell therapy supplies stem cells that can divide and differentiate and therefore replace cells lost in chemotherapy ‘Advantages and disadvantages of embryonic stem cell therapy Ability to differentiate into ANY type of cell Could be used to treat Parkinson's disease, diabetes etc BUT ethical issues with their use as they come from unborn foetuses c. iological molecules What elements are found in carbohydrates? = Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen What elements are found in proteins? - Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen (and sometimes sulfur) What elements are found in = Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen fs (fats)? What is the structure of a lipid? = 3 fatty acids = 1 glycerol molecule = Liquids at room temperature What are proteins made up of? ~ Long chains of amino acids = There are 20 different amino acids What are starch and glycogen made up of? - Simple sugars joined together CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey 6 For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Give some examples of proteins found in the human body = Collagen and keratin found in skin and nails - Allenzymes = Haemoglobin What is the food test for starch? = Add iodine = Positive result: tums blue/black What is the test for glucose? - Heat with water and Benedict's solution - Blue solution turns brick red in the presence of glucose What is the test for protein? - Add Biuret reagent = Positive result: purple What is the test for fat? - Add ethanol - Add water - Positive result: milky white emulsion What is the role of genes? = Control the activities of the cell = Determine which proteins are made Define enzyme = Biological catalyst - Speeds up a reaction = Without being used up Define metabolism = Rate at which chemical reactions take place in the body Key enzyme terms: = Substrate - molecule an enzyme acts upon ~ Active site - area on an enzyme where substrate attaches Describe and explain the effect of too high temperature on enzyme activity - Decreases activity - Enzyme denatures and substrate can no longer fit the active site Why does decreasing the temperature decrease enzyme activity? ~ Lower kinetic energy - Fewer collisions between enzymes and substrates Why is it important that we control our internal temperature? = Too high - enzymes denature SciENeE “HAZEL - Too low- enzymes work too slowly (little kinetic energy) and can't catalyse chemical reactions fast enough Desoribe and explain the effect of too high or too low pH on enzyme activity - decreases activity = enzyme denatures and substrate can no longer fit the active site CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Science “HAZEL d. Movement of substances into and out of cells Define diffusion = Net movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration ~ Down a concentration gradient What factors affect the rate of diffusion? = Concentration gradient = Surface area to volume ratio = Diffusion distance ~ Temperature What factors increase the rate of diffusion? = Steep concentration gradient = High surface area to volume ratio = Shorter diffusion distance - Higher temperature due to increased kinetic energy of particles Define active transport ~ Net movement of particles from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration ~ Requires energy from ATP. Give examples of active transport = Root hair cells absorbing mineral ions = Movement of glucose through the lining of the small intestine Define osmosis = Net movement of water - From an area of high water potential to low water potential = Through partially permeable membrane What happens to a plant cell placed in salty solution and why? = Shrinks (flaccid) = Cell membrane pulls away from cell wall (plasmolysis) - Because higher water potential in cell compared with surrounding solution so water leaves the cell by osmosis What happens to a plant cell placed in pure water and why? = Swells (turgid) - Because higher water potential in surrounding solution compared with inside the cell so water enters the cell by osmosis = Cell wall prevents bursting What happens to an animal cell placed in pure water and why? - Bursts ~ Because higher water potenti enters the cell by osmosis = No cell wall so bursts ‘surrounding solution compared with inside the cell so water Examples of large surface area to volume ratios for movement of substances = Alveoll in lungs for absorption of oxygen = Villiin small intestine for absorption of soluble products of digestion = Root hair cells for absorption of mineral ions CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey a For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Science “HAZEL e. Nutrition Plants What is the word equation for photosynthesis? ~ Water + carbon dioxide (+ light energy) —> glucose + oxygen What is the balanced symbol equation for photosynthesis? = 6COe + 6H2O —> 602 + CeHi205 What is a limiting factor? - Factor in a reaction which is in shortest supply = Lack of this factor is the reason why the rate of reaction no longer increases What are the limiting factors of photosynthesis? = Carbon dioxide = Light intensity ~ Temperature = Increasing any of the above will increase the rate of photosynthesis until another factor becomes limiting Why is the rate of photosynthesis low in the morning? = Temperature is the limiting factor - Low temperatures inhibit enzyme activity = Carbon dioxide levels are high Why is the rate of photosynthesis high at midday? - High temperature maximises enzyme activity = Carbon dioxide is the limiting factor as it's in the shortest supply How is the leaf adapted for its role? = Waxy cuticle - prevents evaporation of water and stops pathogen entry - Upper epidermis - transparent to allow light to enter the leat = Palisade mesophyll - contains lots of chloroplasts for photosynthesis = Air spaces in spongy mesophyll - allow gases to diffuse = Xylem - allows entry of water and mineral ions by transpiration stream ~ Guard cells - control opening and closure of stomata = Stomata - allow carbon dioxide to enter, oxygen and water to leave = Thin and broad (large surface area) ‘What does the plant use glucose for? = Making cellulose cell walls = Making proteins and DNA = Making starch for storage = Making sucrose for transport Mineral ion Use Deficiency symptom Nitrate |Making amino ees and potas "Stunted grown Magnesium |Mating crop Yellow leaves Conyrint © 2018 Hazel Lineny ° For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.SciENeE “HAZEL Humans Nutrient Role Food rich in nutrient Deficiency disease Protein = Growth and repair of - Meat, fish, eggs, = Kwashiorkor muscles cheese Carbohydrates - Energy store ~ Glucose - fruits and vegetables = Lactose - milk ~ Sucrose - table sugar ~ Starch (insoluble) - potato, rice, wheat ~ Glycogen - meat = Cellulose - plant cell walls Lipids ~ Insulation and jong- - Butter, cheese term energy store Water - Supports chemical reactions inside cells Fibre [> Prevents constipation - Vegetables Calcium = Strongteethand Milk, cheese bones Iron = Healthy blood - Red meat = Anaemia Vitamin A Good vision = Fish liver oils, butter, = Night blindness. carrots Vitamin - Sticks together celis = Lemons, oranges - Scurvy - bleeding lining the mouth gums| Vitamin D - Strong bones ~ Fish liver oils, made by - Rickets skin in sunlight How do energy requirements vary with activity levels? = Age - older people need less food than young people as activity levels are lower - Pregnant women need more food, iron, and calcium to support growing baby Why is food needed? = For growth and repair of tissues ~ Fight disease ~ Supply fuel needed to release energy What is digestion? ~ The break down of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble ones - For absorption through the wall of the small intestine What is mechanical digestion? = Physical breakdown of food = E.g. Teeth chew food, muscles in stomach churn food What is chemical digestion? - Enzymes act as biological catalysts and break down large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble ones CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey 10 For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.SciENeE “HAZEL Where is bile made, stored, and released into? = Liver, gall bladder, small intestine What is the role of bile? - Emulsifies - breaks down large lipid droplets into small ones to increase the surface area - Neutralises hydrochloric acid What is the role of hydrochloric acid (HC1)? = Kills pathogens What is the role of the stomach? - Secretes HCI to kill pathogens ~ Muscular walls churn food (mechanical digestion) How does digestion start in the mouth? - Mechanical breakdown of food by teeth - Amylase released - digests starch into glucose What is peristalsis? = Contraction and relaxation of circular and longitudinal muscles which push food along the gut What is the role of mattase? = To digest maltose into glucose What is role of amylase? = To digest starch into mattose What is the role of lipase? = To digest lipids into fatty acids and glycerol What is the role of protease? = To digest proteins into amino acids Where is amylase made? - Salivary glands, small intestine, pancreas Where is lipase made? - Pancreas, small intestine Where is protease made? = Pancreas, small intestine, stomach How is the small intestine adapted for its function? Large surface area provided by villi and microvilli Lots of capillaries = Thin wall - short diffusion distance Lacteals - absorption of fats What is ingestion? = When food enters the mouth What is excretion? ~The removal of waste products of metabolism CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey " For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.What is absorption? = The movement of soluble food through the wall of the small intestine into the blood stream. What is egestion? ~The removal of faeces from the anus What is assimilation? - When small food molecules are used to build large ones f. Respiration What is respiration? ~ Makes ATP (energy store) - Releases energy What is the energy in ATP used for? = Contraction of muscles Cell division = Building large molecules from small ones = Active transport What is the equation for respiration? = Oxygen + glucose —> carbon dioxide + water + (energy) What is the symbol equation for respiration? = CaHte0s + 602 —> 6HzO + 6CO2 What is aerobic respiration? ~ Release of energy using oxygen What is anaerobic respiration? = Respiration without the use of oxygen = Glucose incompletely broken down Give 2 examples of anaerobic respiration - Yeast = Muscles cells during strenuous exercise ‘Summary of anaerobic respiration in yeast: = Glucose —> ethanol + carbon dioxide (+ little energy) = Ethanol - beer-making = Carbon dioxide - helps bread dough rise Summary of anaerobic respiration in muscle cells: = Due to insufficient oxygen delivery to muscles e.g. when sprinting = Glucose —> lactate (+ little energy) ~ Oxygen debt builds up What is an oxygen debt? = Volume of oxygen needed to completely breakdown the lactate What substance can be used to remove carbon dioxide? - Soda lime CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution. SciENeE “HAZELScience “HAZEL Hydrogen carbonate indicator colours: = Atmospheric carbon dioxide (0.04%) = red/orange - High levels of carbon dioxide = yellow = Low levels of carbon dioxide = purple g. Gas exchange Plants What is the role of the stomata? ~ Allows carbon dioxide into the leaf and oxygen out What is the role of diffusion in gas exchange in plants? = Plants need oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, = These gases diffuse into the leaf through the stomata = Respiration produces carbon dioxide, which can be used by the leat for photosynthesis - During the day, photosynthesis occurs much faster than respiration, so excess oxygen diffuses out of leaves into atmosphere How is the leaf adapted for gas exchange? = large surface area to absorb light and carbon dioxide = Thin and flat so short diffusion distance for carbon dioxide and oxygen = Lots of chloroplasts containing chlorophyll for photosynthesis How is the internal structure of the leaf adapted for gas exchange? - waxy cuticle reduces evaporation of water = Stomata can open to allow more carbon dioxide to diffuse in, and oxygen to diffuse out = Spongy mesophyll layer contains air spaces to allow gas exchange in and out of the mesophyll ‘When does respiration occur in plants? = both in the day and at night Humans How are the airways kept clean? = Goblet cells secrete mucus ~ Mucus traps the dirthbacteria ~ Cilia (cells with hairlike structures) watt the ladened mucus up to the mouth where it is. swallowed and destroyed by HCl in the stomach What is ventilation? = Movement of air into and out of the lungs Describe the process of breathing in (inhalation) - External intercostal muscles contract = Ribs move up and out - Diaphragm contracts and flattens = Volume inside thorax increases - Pressure decreases = Airis sucked into the lungs Comyn © 2016 Harel Lindsey 7 For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Science “HAZEL Describe the process of breathing out - Internal intercostal muscles contract - Ribs move down and in = Diaphragm relaxes and become dome shaped - Volume inside thorax decreases = Pressure increases = Airis forced out of the lungs Compare inhaled and exhaled air = Inhaled air contains more oxygen and less carbon dioxide than exhaled air How are the alveoli adapted for gas exchange? = Large surtace area = Good blood supply = Thin walls - short diffusion pathway - Moist - dissolve gases Describe the effects of smoking on the body - Cilia are paralysed - build up of mucus - smoker's cough - infection - bronchitis - Smoke damages alveolar walls - walls break down - decreased surface area for gas exchange - emphysema = Carcinogens - tumour growth - lung cancer = Carbon monoxide combines irreversibly with haemoglobin in red blood cells - Carboxyhaemoglobin - less oxygen transported h. Transport Why can amoeba rely on diffusion for movement of substances into and out of the cell? - Large surtace area to volume ratio = Short diffusion distance Why do animals need circulatory systems? - Surface area to volume ratio is too small = Diffusion is too slow - Circulatory system needed to transport oxygen Plants What is the role of the xylem? = Transports mineral ions and water from roots to flowers i.e. Up the shoot only Describe the structure of xylem = Hollow forming a continuous column - no cytoplasm = Lignin What is the role of the phloem? - Transports sugars from leaves to growing regions/roots for storage i.e. Both up and down the shoot Describe the structure of phloem - Sieve plates = Sieve tubes - Companion cells contains lots of mitochondria for release of energy CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey 4 For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.SciENeE “HAZEL How do mineral salts enter the plant? = Active transport From an area of low concentration (soil) to an area of high concentration (in the root hair) = Requires energy How is water absorbed by root hair cells? - Osmosis - From an area of high water potential (the soil) = To an area of low water potential (root hair cell) Describe the transport of water in a plant = Enters root hair cell by osmosis - Water molecules are attracted to each other ~ Transpiration stream in xylem = Transpiration out of the stomata What is transpiration stream? = The continuous column of water moving up the xylem from the roots to the leaves, What is the role of the transpiration stream? = Transports mineral ions = Keeps plant cells turgid = Cools the plant = Supplies water for the leaves for photosynthesis Define transpiration = The loss of water vapour from the surface of the leaf (stoma) Describe and explain how rates of transpiration may be increased - Hot - water evaporates faster - Dry- increases the concentration gradient between the leaf and the surrounding air = Windy - water is blown off the leaf increasing concentration gradient Describe and explain how rates of transpiration may be decreased - Cold - water evaporates slower - Humid - small concentration gradient between the leaf and the surrounding air - Still air - water is not removed from the surface of the leat Humans List the components of the blood = Plasma = White blood cells (phagocytes and lymphocytes) - Red blood cells - Platelets What does the blood transport? = Oxygen from the lungs to other parts of the body = Carbon dioxide from other parts of the body to the lungs = Nutrients from the gut to all parts of the body - Urea from liver to kidneys CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey 15 For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Science “HAZEL List substances transported in the plasma - Carbon dioxide - Urea = Glucose - Amino acids = Hormones How are red blood cells adapted for their function? ~ Biconcave disc shape - large surface area for transport of oxygen = Haemoglobin binds to oxygen forming oxyhemoglobin - No nucleus - more space for haemoglobin How does the body prevent pathogen entry? = Skin acts as a barrier - HCl in stomach destroys pathogens - Hairs prevent entry - Platelets clot the blood at the site of a wound How do white blood cells attack invading pathogens? - Phagocytes engulf pathogens - Lymphooytes recognise antigens and produce antibodies which destroy pathogens - Antitoxins made How do lymphocytes destroy pathogens? = Recognise antigens = Make antibodies which destroy pathogens by: = Causing bacteria to stick together - Label pathogen so it's easily recognisable by phagocytes - Produce antitoxins = Cause bacteria to burst How does a vaccine work? = Dead or weakened pathogen injected = Lymphocytes recognise antigens and produce antibodies = Memory cells made - Produce antibodies much faster next time Provide some examples of vaccines and their mode of action - Dead pathogens e.g. whooping cough - Weakened pathogens e.g. TB, measles = Antigens e.g. influenza What is the role of platelets? - Platelets clot the blood at the site of a wound = Soluble fibrinogen is connected to insoluble fit Describe the movement of the blood around the body starting at the right atrium - Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium via the vena cava - Right atrium contracts forcing blood through tricuspid valve into right ventricle - Blood enters the right ventricle and leaves via the pulmonary artery ~ Blood flows to the lungs and becomes oxygenated - Blood returns to the heart and enters the left atrium via the pulmonary vein - Left atrium contracts forcing blood through bicuspid valve into the left ventricle - Left ventricles contracts forcing blood into the aorta, - Oxygenated flows around the body and is used in respiration CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey 16 For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Science “HAZEL How is our heart rate increased? - Adrenaline increases heart rate - When we exercise, muscles produce carbon dioxide = Receptors in aorta and carotid artery detect this increase in carbon dioxide = Electrical impulses sent to medulla = Accelerator nerve raises heart rate What does single circulation mean? = Blood is pumped from the heart to the lungs and then to rest of the body What does double circulation mean? = Blood flows twice into the heart for every once around the body What does the circulatory system consist of? - Heart ~ Arteries, veins and capillaries = Blood Why is the wall of the ventricles thicker than that of the atria? ~The ventricles have to pump the blood further Why are the artery walls so thick? = To withstand the high pressure of the blood flowing inside Why is the wall of the left ventricle thicker than that of the right ventricle? - Blood from the right ventricle is only pumped to the lungs = Blood from the left ventricle is pumped much further - around the whole body What is the coronary artery? = Blood vessel that supplies the heart with oxygen Describe the structure of arteries = Thick muscle and elastic fibre walls = Narrow lumen - High blood pressure Describe the structure of the veins - Thin muscle and elastic fibre walls = Large lumen - Lower blood pressure = Semi-lunar valves prevent the back flow of blood Describe the structure of the capillaries - Thin walls - one cell thick Short diffusion distance = Narrow lumen What factors contribute to coronary heart disease? - Heredity = High blood pressure = Diet - high levels of saturated fat and cholesterol, = Smoking - Stress = Lack of exercise CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey 7 For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Science “HAZEL Explain why reducing the blood supply to the heart muscles cells can cause a heart attack = Less oxygen - Less aerobic respiration = Anaerobic respiration - Lactic acid - LowpH i. Excretion Plants Define excretion = Removal of waste products of metabolism What are the waste gas products from respiration and photosynthesis? = Respiration: Carbon Dioxide = Photosynthesis: Oxygen How are waste gas products exported from the leat? - The stomata allow diffusion of gases out of the leaf from a high concentration gradient to a low concentration gradient Humans What substances are excreted from the body? - Urea from kidneys = Carbon dioxide from lungs - Sweat from skin - Note: faeces is NOT excreted, it is egested Define osmoregulation = Control of water levels in the body Explain how the structure of the blood vessels entering and leaving the glomerulus help to move glucose into the Bowman's capsule. = Vessel entering is wider - Increased pressure - Ultrafiltration What is ultrafiltration? = The filtering of small molecules from the glomerulus into the Bowman's capsule = Glucose, ions, and urea (the glomerular fitrate) enter, protein stays behind as it's too large to pass through the basement membrane What is selective reabsorption? = Proximal convoluted tubule reabsorbs small molecules back into the blood - Allof the glucose (by active transport) = Some ions - Some water - Nourea What is the composition of urine? = ons - Water - Urea CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey 18 For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Science “HAZEL Describe how glucose is reabsorbed back into the blood = Active transport (requires energy) From low concentration in the nephron to a high concentration in the blood Explain the effect of ADH on blood water levels = Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus detect water content of blood - ADH released from pituitary gland - ADH makes walls of collecting duct more permeable - More water is reabsorbed = Urine is concentrated and yellow in colour j. Co-ordination and response What is homeostasis? = Maintenance of a constant internal environment e.g. Water content, temperature What is a stimulus? = Change in the environment Plants What are auxins? = Plant hormones What is a tropism? = The response of a plant to a directional stimulus List different types of tropism = Phototropism - plant's response to light = Geotropism - plant’s response to gravity Desoribe the roots and shoots response to light = Roots - negative phototropism = Shoots - positive phototropism Describe the roots and shoots response to gravity ~ Roots - positive geotropism - Shoots - negative geotropism What is a coleoptile? = Simple plants used to investigate tropism - Cereal seeding What is a clinostat? = Apparatus used to remove the effect gravityilight/water Describe how a stem may bend towards the light = Auxins concentrate on the side furthest from the light - Causes cell elongation = Stem bends towards light CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey 19 For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Science “HAZEL Humans What are the sense organs in a human? ~ Eye - receives light energy - Ear- receives sound and kinetic energy ~ Muscle - receives kinetic energy = Tongue - receives chemical energy = Nose - receives chemical energy ~ Skin - receives kinetic and heat energy What is the difference between hormonal and nervous responses? - Nervous involves electrical impulses, hormonal involves chemicals carried in the blood = Nervous response faster, hormonal slower = Nervous response short-lived, hormonal long-lived = Nervous response very localised, hormonal wide-spread What is the CNS? ~ Brain and spinal cord What is the list of responses in a nervous response? = Stimulus - receptor - sensory neurone - CNS - motor neurone - effector - response - Involves electrical impulses and synapses What is the list of responses in a reflex action? = Stimulus - receptor - sensory neurone - relay neurone - motor neurone - effector - response - Involves electrical impulses and synapses = E.g. Withdrawal of finger from hot object. What is a synapse? = Gap between two neurones - Neurotransmitter diffuses and binds to post-synaptic membrane How is a reflex action different to a regular response? = Reflex action is faster, involuntary, and involves relay neurone What is an effector? ~ Muscle (contracts) or a gland (secretes a hormone) What is accommodation? ~ Changes that take place within the eye = Enable us to focus on objects at different distances How does the eye focus on a nearby object? - Ciliary muscle contracts Suspensory ligaments slacken - Lens fat Light retracted strongly How does the eye focus on a faraway object? = Ciliary muscle relax - Suspensory ligaments taut = Lens thin - Light retracted less strongly CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey 2 For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Science “HAZEL How does the pupil constrict in bright light and why is this necessary? = Circular muscles contract - Radial muscles relax = Pupil constricts = Protects the retina from the bright light How does the pupil dilate in dim light and why is this necessary? - Circular muscles relax = Radial muscles contract = Pupil dilate = Allows more light to enter the eye What is refraction? = When light changes direction when it enters a new medium What is the role of: = Choroid - stops light bing reflected inside the eye = Cornea - refracts light = Lens - refracts light = Conjunctiva - protects eye = Solera - tough outer casing - protects eye - Retina - contains photoreceptors (rods (dim light) and cones (detect colour)) which are sensitive to light = Iris - contains radial and circular muscles which control the size of the pupil = Pupil allows light to enter the eye - Suspensory ligament and ciliary muscles - control the shape of the lens = Optic nerve - takes electrical impulses from the eye to the brain = Blind spot - where the the optic nerve enters the eye ‘What is the role of the skin? = Sense organ for pain, touch and pressure = Tough outer layer = Controls heat loss Barrier - prevents entry of pathogens Prevents water loss Explain what happens when your body temperature is too high - Hairs lay flat - less insulating air trapped close to the body = Vasodilation (arterioles dilate) - more heat radiated - Sweat evaporates and cools the body Explain what happens when your body temperature is too low = Hairs stand up - more insulating air trapped close to the body - Vasoconstriction (arterioles constrict) - less heat radiated = Shiver - contraction of muscle releases heat What is the effect of adrenaline on the body? = Prepares the body for ‘fight or fight’ = Pupils dilate - allows more light to enter the eye = Hairs stand up on end - to appear more intimidating Breathing rate increases - to allow more oxygen into the body - Heart rate increases - to deliver more oxygen around the body - Blood diverted from gut to muscles CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey a For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Science “HAZEL How is blood sugar level decreased? ~ Pancreas secretes insulin - Insulin converts soluble glucose into insoluble glycogen Where is testosterone made and what is its function? - Testes = Stimulate secondary sexual characteristics e.g. voice deepening, sperm production, pubic hair Where is oestrogen made and what is its function? = Ovaries = Stimulates secondary sexual characteristics e.g. hips widening, breast growth, pubic hair = Repairs uterus lining = Inhibits FSH production, stimulates LH production Where is progesterone made and what is its function? = Initially corpus luteum, later in pregnancy the placenta - Maintains uterus lining Where is FSH made and what is its function? = Pituitary gland = Matures eggs in ovaries = Stimulates egg and sperm production Where is LH made and what is its function? = Pituitary gland ~ Causes ovulation (egg release from ovary) - Stimulates sperm production 3. Reproduction and Inheritance a. Reproduction ‘Summary of sexual reproduction: - 2 parents needed to make gametes (sex cells - sperm and eggs) = Sperm and egg fuse at fertilisation = Zygote formed - Divides by mitosis to form embryo. Summary of asexual reproduction: = 1 parent only - No gametes = No fertilisation ~ Cells from parent divide by mitosis and then breakaway to form new organism which is identical to parent (clone) Sexual Reproduction Asexual Reproduction sex cells produced yes no fertilisation takes place yes no variation in offspring yes no. helps survival it changing environment stable environment Conyign © 2018 Haze! Uncsey 2 For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Science “HAZEL What is fertilisation? - Fusion of male (sperm) and female (egg) gamete = Zygote formed = Undergoes mitosis = Embryo formed Plants Give examples of asexual reproduction in plants = Strawberry runners = Tubers Describe the process of taking a cu = Apiece of a plant's stem is cut off = Dipped in rooting powder = Transferred to soil What is pollination? - When pollen from the anther lands on the stigma What is self pollination? = When pollen from the anther lands on the stigma in the same flower What is fertilisation? = When pollen fuses with the egg in the ovary Desoribe the features of an insect pollinated flower that help it attract insects - Large petals = Coloured petals = Scent = Nectar Describe the features of a wind pollinated flower - Exposed stamens - Feathery stigma = Small petals ~ Small pollen grains - easily carried by the wind Desoribe the events that lead to seed formation = Pollen lands on stigma = Pollen tube grows down style into ovary - Male gamete (pollen) fuses with female gamete (egg) = Ovule becomes seed - Ovule wall becomes seed coat = Ovary becomes fruit What conditions are needed for germination? = Water = Oxygen = Warm temperatures What is germination? - Food store is used up = Radicle grows down - Plumule grows up towards light and starts photosynthesis CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey 2 For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Humans Describe the structure and functior SciENeE “HAZEL n of the male reproductive system [Structure Function Penis - Passes urine out of the body from the bladder Allows semen to enter into the vagina of a woman during sexual intercourse Testis = Contained in the scrotum - Produces sperm and testosterone [Sperm Duct - Sperm Passes through the sperm duct where it mixes with Huids produced by the sex gland [Sex Gland | Produces semen (provides sperm cells with nutrients) Urethra = Exports urine or semen from the body Ring of muscle in the urethra prevents mixing of urine and. semen Describe the structure and functior of the female reproductive system Structure Function lOviduet = Connects the ovary to the uterus - Lined with ciliated cells to push the ovum towarduterus for fertilisation Ovary | Contains female gametes (ova) which mature and develop when FSH is released Uterus Muscular structure with a soft ining - Fertilised egg cell implanted there to develop into a foetus Cervix Ring of muscle at lower end of uterus ~ Keeps foetus in place during pregnancy Urethra - Tube that passes urine out of the body Vagina | Muscular tube that the male's penis enters during sexual intercourse Describe the passage of sperm in the female human - Semen (contains sperm and fluid from seminal vesicles) is ejaculated into the vagina = Sperm swim through uterus to oviduct Where does fertilisation take place? = Oviduct Explain how an 8 cell embryo is formed = Sperm and egg made by meiosis Fertilisation in oviduct Zygote implants in uterus wall Divides by mitosis CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.SciENeE “HAZEL Define gamete = Asex cell e.g. sperm or egg What is the role of the placenta? - Provides embryo with oxygen and nutrients from the mother's blood - Releases progesterone in late pregnancy What is the role of the amnion/amniotic fluid? = Protects foetus from physical impact b. Inheritance What is a genome? = The entire DNA of an organism What is a gene? = Section of DNA which codes for a protein Where are genes found? = In chromosomes within the nucleus What is a nucleotide? - Sugar, phosphate, base (G, C, Aor T) Describe base pairing = Adenine (A) - Thymine (T) - Cytosine (C) - Guanine (G) Describe the structure of DNA = 2strands = Coiled to form double helix = Strands linked by paired bases - Adenine to thymine, guanine to cytosine Describe the structure of RNA = Single stranded ~ Contains uracil base instead of thymine What is a codon? = 3 bases of MRNA which correspond to a specific amino acid or stop codon What is an anticodon? = 3 bases on a tRNA molecule which corresponding to the codon of an mRNA molecule What are the 2 main stages of protein synthesis? - Transcription - Translation What happens during transcription? = Occurs in nucleus = DNA unwinds in nucleus - Base pairs exposed on template strand ~ RNA nucleotides pair up with template bases = mRNAis formed and leaves nucleus - mRNA enters cytoplasm CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey 2s For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Science “HAZEL What happens during translation? - mRNA attaches to ribosome = mRNA codon pairs with complementary tRNA anticodon = Each tRNAis bound a specific amino acid = Amino acids join to form a protein = tRNAis recycled ~ Atthe end of the chain a stop codon terminates translation What is a mutation? = Arandom change in the DNA of an organism How may gene mutations occur? - Duplication = Deletion = Substitution = Inversion What is a mutation? = Arandom change in DNA = Can be a good or bad thing What is an allele? - Different form of the same gene which gives rise to different characteristics - Eg. B=brown eyes, b = blue eyes Define homozygous ~ Having two copies of the same allele Define heterozygous = Having two different copies of the same allele Describe genotype = The alleles an organism has Define phenotype ~ The physical appearance of an individual Define recessive = Allele only expressed if the dominant allele is not present Define dominant - Allele expressed even if only one is present Define codominance - Iftwo alleles are expressed in the same phenotype CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey 2s For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Genetic Crosses - Punnet Squares (ALWAYS SET OUT YOUR ANSWER LIKE THIS) E.g. a mother is recessive and has blond hair, and a father is heterozygous, and brown haired. Calculate the probability of their children having blond hair. Mother Father Phenotype Blond Brown Genotype bb 8b Gametes borb Bor Punnett Square: Father B b Mother F Bb bb P Bb bb 50% blond 50% brown E.g. Draw a punnet square to show how sex is inherited in humans Mother Father Phenotype Female Male Genotype Xx xy Gametes XorX XorY Punnett Square: Father x Y Mother » XX xy x Xx xy 50% male 50% female Comyn © 2016 Harel Lindsey For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Science “HAZEL What is a pedigree diagram? = Shows how a genetic condition is passed from generation to generation = Possible to work out which is the dominant allele = Can then work out genotype of each person/animal in the pedigree What is a carrier? = Someone who has a gene for a disease but does not suffer from any symptoms Define haploid - Contains 1 set of chromosomes e.g. 23 in humans Define diploid - Contains 2 sets of chromosomes e.g. 46 in humans Define clone - Genetically identical cel/organism Give examples of when mitosis occurs = Growth, repair = Cloning = Asexual reproduction Main steps of mitosis: = Prophase - Metaphase - Anaphase = Telophase Feature Mitosis Meiosis number of cell divisions 1 2 number of daughter cells 2 4 formed number of chromosomes in diploid haploid cells formed type of cells formed | body cells sex cells genetic variation in cells formed none variation How is variation within a species brought about? - Genetics = Environmental conditions What is a mutation? = Arare, random change in the genetic material that can be inherited Comyn © 2016 Harel Lindsey . For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Science “HAZEL What effect can mutation have? = Amutation may lead to a change in DNA = Different DNA code may lead to different amino acids forming different proteins = Therefore altering the phenotype of an individual - BUT some mutations have no effect on phenotype if the amino acid sequence is unaltered How is the chance of mutation increased? = lonising radiation (gamma, x-rays, UV) - Mutagens e.g. Chemicals in tobacco Define evolution = Allorganisms alive today, and many more which are now extinct, evolved from simple life forms Which first developed more than 3.2 billion years ago Desoribe the mechanism of Natural Selection = Variation within a species due to mutation - Individuals better adapted more likely to survive and reproduce = Alleles passed onto offspring - Repeats over many generations How may bacteria become resistant to antibiotics? - Some bacteria have mutations which make them more likely to survive ~The bacteria reproduce and pass on these favourable alleles to future bacteria = Soon the whole population of bacteria is resistant to the antibiotic 4, Ecology and the environment a. The organism in the environment Define ‘environment’ = The total non-biological components of the ecosystem e.g. water, soil, air Define ‘habitat’ = The place where a specific organism lives Define ‘population’ = Alll the organisms of a particular species found in an ecosystem Define ‘community’ = The population of all species found in a particular ecosystem Describe how a quadrat can be used to sample an ecosystem = Place quadrat randomly using a random number generator - Count how many of each species are present - Repeat Define biodiversity = The variety of plant and animal species in an ecosystem What is are biotic factors? = Biological (living) factors e.g, Predation, parasitism, food availability, nesting sites, disease What are abiotic factors? = Non-biological (non-living) factors e.g. Temperature, pH of soil, light intensity, number of daylight hours ‘Comyn © 2016 Harel Lindsey ve For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Science “HAZEL b. Feeding relationships Define ‘producer’ = Plants which photosynthesise to produce food Define ‘consumer’ = Animals which eat plants or other animals What is a decomposer? = Organisms which decay dead material and help to recycle nutrients Define parasite = An animal which lives inside another animal gaining food and causing harm to host animal Define predator = Ananimal which eats another animal What is a trophic level? ~The different stages of a food chain What is a pyramid of numbers? - They represent the number of organisms at each trophic level, irrespective of their biomass What is a pyramid of biomass? = They represent the total mass of organisms in each trophic level, irrespective of their number What is biomass? = The total amount of living material in an organism What is a sample? - When you take a smaller representative part of a population Explain why only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next = Not all of the plant is eaten (in the case of producer ~> primary consumer) - Some parts are indigestible (in the case of producer --> primary consumer) = Some form excretory products e.g. Sweat, urine ~ Respiration leads to loss of carbon dioxide and water - Maintenance of steady body temperature (e.g. In cows) c. Cycles within ecosystems Carbon cycle = Carbon dioxide is absorbed by green plants in photosynthesis - Carbon used to make glucose and proteins = Plants respire releasing carbon dioxide - Plants eaten by animals and carbon becomes part of their bodies ~ Animals respire releasing carbon dioxide = Plants and animals die and are decomposed by microorganisms = Microorganisms respire = Combustion of fuels releases carbon dioxide Comyn © 2016 Harel Lindsey ss For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.SciENeE “HAZEL Nitrogen cycle ~ Nitrates in the soil are absorbed by root hairs cells by active transport - Nitrates used to build plant proteins = Plants die, decompose, and are converted to nitrates by nitrifying bacteria = Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates to nitrogen = Nitrogen fixing bacteria are present on root nodules of beans and peas and convert nitrogen gas into nitrates which are added to the soil - Lightning and the Haber Process are other sources of nitrogen d. Human influences on the environment Describe the effects of leached sewage and excess fertilisers on the environment - Eutrophication - Fertilisers and sewage are washed (leached) into rivers = Water plants grow quickly - algal bloom = Competition for sunlight - Plants die - Bacteria feed on the dead plants ~ Bacteria use up all the oxygen in respiration - Fish die as not enough oxygen What effect does the enhanced greenhouse effect have? = Global warming - Ice caps melt = Sea levels rise = Low lying land floods = Loss of biodiversity - Extreme weather = Change in bird migration patterns Give examples of greenhouse gases Methane (cows, rice paddy fields) Water vapour Carbon dioxide (burning fossil fuels) Nitrous oxide What effect do CFCs have on the environment? = Damage ozone layer Where do CFCs come from? = Aerosols, fridges What effect does acid rain have? - Destroys limestone buildings, kills trees, and makes ponds too acidic leading death of fish How is acid rain made? = Acidic impurities in crude oil —> sulphur oxide —> sulphuric acid = Nitrogen and oxygen react in car engines —> nitrogen oxides —> nitric acid What effect does carbon monoxide have on the body? - Combines irreversibly with haemoglobin so less oxygen is transported CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey 3” For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.SciENeE “HAZEL What effect does deforestation have on the environment? - Habitats are destroyed Soil erosion —> leaching of minerals Soil erosion ~> flooding —> land slides Disturbance of evapotranspiration 5. Use of biological resources a. Food production Burning of trees/cutting down trees —> releases carbon dioxide —> global warming How do glasshouses and polythene tunnels increase crop yield? = Allow natural light in during summer, and can provide artificial ight in winter ~ Provide warmer environment than outside due to trapping heat energy (infrared radiation) and reducing convection = Can be heated electronically if i's too cold outside = Provide humid atmosphere to reduce water loss by transpiration What effect does increasing carbon dioxide and temperature have on crop yield in glasshouses? = Increasing carbon dioxide --> increases rate of photosynthesis --> increases yield - Increasing temperature ~> increased growth and photosynthesi How do fertilisers increase crop yield? - Replaces lost nitrates and minerals in the soil increases yield - Nitrates required for protein synthesis in plants Why do farmers use pesticides? -_ Kill specific pests that would otherwise damage crop = Improve yield What are the advantages and disadvantages of u: ising pesticides? ‘Advantages Disadvantages Effective at controlling pests Expensive Readily available Persistent - may decompose slowly Easy to use [stored in the tissues of living organisms (Bioaccumulation) and becomes more [concentrated along a food chain (Biomagnification) Toxic and not specific - kill other insects What are the advantages and disadvantages of u: ising biological control? ‘Advantages Disadvantages Non-toxic Never fully removes pest Targets specific pest only Introducing alien species into an environment can have undesired results Selt-sustaining ‘slow Comyn © 2016 Harel Lindsey For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.SciENeE “HAZEL What is the role of yeast in the production of bread? - Yeast respire using sugars - Yeast respires (aerobically at first, then anaerobically) producing carbon dioxide = Carbon dioxide makes bread rise - When baked, gas bubbles expand to give bread its texture How is yoghurt made? - Heat milk to 80-90 C to pasteurise it, then cool back down to approx 35 C ~ Bacteria added (lactobacillus) = Leave for 6 hours at the optimum temperature for the bacteria - Anaerobic respiration converts lactose —> lactic acid What is a fermenter = Avessel containing microorganisms used for fermentation What are the suitable conditions within a fermenter? - Nutrients - a controlled supply to feed microorganisms - pH kept constant at optimum level by adding acid or alkali as necessary - Air supply - provides oxygen necessary for aerobic respiration = Temperature - controlled to increase rate but prevent overheating and denaturing = Agitation - microorganisms constantly stirred to give more exposure to nutrients and reduce temperature What is fish farming? - Lots of fish kept together in tanks/enclosures - Water quality constantly monitored to provide optimum conditions = Waste products constantly removed = Diet carefully controlled - Fish isolated from predators to protect them = Sorted by size to prevent bigger fish eating smaller fish of the same species - Fish with desirable characteristics selectively bred Describe the advantages and disadvantages of fish farming = Farm commetcialised species e.g. cod, salmon, tuna, - Advantages - can control temperature, oxygen levels, diet, kill pests, selective breeding Programmes can improve the quality of the fish ~ Disadvantages - higher risk of disease as the fish are so close together, antibiotics are used to treat disease as may enter the food chain, pollution due to faeces, pesticides highly toxic to. other species b. Selective breeding Desoribe selective breeding in plants - Humans choose plants with desirable characteristics (e.g high yield, disease/pest resistance) = Cross pollinate select plants - Plants with desirable characteristics are bred - Process repeats over many generations Describe selective breeding in animals = Humans choose individual animals with desirable characteristics (e.g more milk production, better quality fur) Make them breed (or use atificial insemination) = Offspring with desirable characteristics are bred = Process repeats over many generations Comyn © 2016 Harel Lindsey . For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Science “HAZEL c. Genetic modification (genetic engineering) What are the advantages of using embryo cloning rather than selective breeding? = Cloning is faster and produces genetically identical offspring - More offspring are produced with cloning = No need for two parents in cloning What is genetic engineering? = When genes are altered in microorganisms to code for the desired products What enzymes are used in genetic engineering? = Restriction enzymes - cuts DNA at a specific point ~ Ligase - join the cut ends of DNA back together What is a vector? = Avector is anything used to transfer biological material e.g. A plasmid is used to transfer genes in genetic engineering or a mosquito that transfers plasmodium to humans when it bites them Explain how plasmids and viruses can be used as vectors in genetic modification Plasmid: - Small circular pieces of DNA ~ Isolated from bacteria = Desired gene inserted into plasmid to create recombinant plasmids = Recombinant plasmids inserted back into bacteria Virus: - Bagteriophage are a type of virus = Desired gene inserted into bacteriophage = Bacteriophage attaches to cell wall of bacteria = Injects its genetic material (DNA) = Desired gene taken up by bacterial DNA Describe how large amounts of insulin can be genetically engineered = Cut out insulin gene using restriction enzyme = Cut open plasmid in bacteria using same restriction enzyme = Stick insulin gene into plasmid using DNA ligase (recombinant plasmid) = Plasmid is the vector ~ Place in fermenter Give specific uses of genetically modified plants Extend shelf life Frost resistant ‘Golden rice’ rice containing beta carotene that prevents night-blindness Resistant to herbicides (weedkillers) Modified tobacco plants produce hepatitis B antigens - potential use in manufacturing vaccines Modified tobacco plants and soybeans produce antibodies to fight disease What are the benefits of genetically modified plants? = Increased salt tolerance - More complete nutrition e.g. Contains a good balance of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins and minerals - Increased resistance to pathogens = Increased tolerance to heat and drought Define transgenic organism = Genes are transplanted from one species to another Comyn © 2016 Harel Lindsey se For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.Science “HAZEL d. Cloning Describe the process of micropropagation = Use small parts of plants (explants) - Place on sterile agar = Add nutrients, minerals and hormones = Control humidity and light levels What are the advantages of micropropagation? - Large numbers of genetically identical plants are produced quickly ~ Atany time of the year Define clone = Genetically identical individuals Describe the process of adult cell cloning (e.g in Dolly the Sheep) = Take mature body cell of animal being cloned and remove diploid nucleus = Get egg cell and remove nucleus (enucleation) - Insert adult cell nucleus into empty egg cells - Fuse with an electric shock - Place inside uterus of surrogate of same species = Mitosis occurs How can cloned transgenic animals be used to produce human proteins? = This would make it possible to produce large numbers of genetically identical animals = These animals could then make human proteins Provide an example of using transgenic animals to make human proteins ~ Trypsin damages liver and lungs = AAT is a human protein which stops trypsin attacking the liver and lungs = Some people don't make enough AAT = Transgenic sheep are genetically engineered to produce AAT in their milk CConyrgnt © 2018 Hazel Lindsey 5 For use by abdul nasar Hassim sifnanasar@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.