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PALGRAVE STUDIES IN
PRISONS AND PENOLOGY
Series Editors
Ben Crewe
Institute of Criminology
University of Cambridge
Cambridge, UK
Yvonne Jewkes
Social & Policy Sciences
University of Bath
Bath, UK
Thomas Ugelvik
Faculty of Law
University of Oslo
Oslo, Norway
This is a unique and innovative series, the first of its kind dedicated
entirely to prison scholarship. At a historical point in which the prison
population has reached an all-time high, the series seeks to analyse
the form, nature and consequences of incarceration and related
forms of punishment. Palgrave Studies in Prisons and Penology provides
an important forum for burgeoning prison research across the world.
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and trans-
mission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
For Hilde and Romain†
Who gave me life and moral compass
Foreword
This book reports the results of a PhD research project that commenced
in 2013 and became the point of departure to pursue my own line of
research, which is situated at the crossroads of criminology, penology, and
gerontology.
This fundamental scientific research project would not have been car-
ried out without the financial support of the Research Foundation
Flanders (FWO). I am therefore grateful to this external financial con-
tributor and thankful for their support.
Furthermore, I felt very fortunate to work at the Vrije Universiteit
Brussel in Belgium, a university that is renowned for its strong humanistic
roots and DNA. The University and the research Group Crime & Society
allowed and encouraged me to conduct my research in a critical, indepen-
dent, and free-inquiring way yet with respect for humanistic values.
I would also like to express my gratitude to the Belgian Prison Service as
well as the local prisons, for enabling me to conduct empirical research
within the penal realm. It is commendable that this prison system has gone
through great lengths to make its walls permeable to the research commu-
nity. Against this background, I consider myself as a privileged witness.
The book gives voice to all those who shall remain anonymous for the
reader. A special word of thanks goes out to all the prisoners, all the
prison staff members, and all other actors who I have encountered in the
ix
x Acknowledgements
1 Introduction 1
7 Conclusion267
Index283
xi
1
Introduction
Introduction
Why should anyone be interested in the experiences of those who are
spending the latter, or last stages of their lives in prison? As a prison
scholar with a long-standing scientific interest in the older prisoner, I
have found myself pondering that same question. Even after many years
studying imprisonment in later life, I still find myself accounting for the
study of the processes and problems of ageing in conjunction with the
study of punishment of crime and prison management. This, in itself,
says a great deal about our ideas and understanding of imprisonment as
well as later life. The first section of this introduction attempts to formu-
late an answer to this question through analyses of the factors that may
have affected our thinking in terms of older adults’ involvement in crimi-
nal behaviour and the way this is managed. The second section of this
introduction is concerned with the scientific research project that forms
the basis of this book and concludes with an overview of the research
questions that are answered in the following chapters.
In the words of Otto Pollak, even “old criminals offer an ugly picture
and it seems as if even scientists do not like to look at it for any
prisoners in very apt terms: Ham (1976) dubbed them ‘the forgotten
minority’, whereas Krajick (1979) made reference to ‘forgotten people’.
Goetting (1984) pointed out their low-priority status in society as a
whole, as well as within the prison structure. She attributes this to the fact
that in combination with their double minority status as being ‘older’
and ‘criminal’, older adults constitute a relatively small proportion of the
prisoner population.
Over time, greater attention has been paid to changes within the
prison(er) population(s), to some extent prompted by prison overcrowd-
ing, and in particular to the evolution in the numbers of ‘older prisoners’
and their pressing health needs. This is paralleled by societal and scientific
evolutions that have come to recognise prisoners and older adults as more
vulnerable groups of persons within society (Cuéllar et al. 2015; Martin
et al. 2015). More recently, ‘older prisoners’ have been denoted as a ‘dou-
bly disadvantaged’ group (Tarbuck 2001: 369) in terms of their greater
morbidity and more complex health needs in comparison to younger
prisoners and the general population of a similar age (Fazel et al. 2001).
Over the last decade, the impact of the prison environment on older
prisoners has received closer scrutiny in penological research, with
Crawley and Sparks (2005) coining the term ‘institutional thoughtless-
ness’ to describe how older prisoners are disadvantaged by prison infra-
structure, prison regime, and the prison staff culture (Crawley 2005).
Accordingly, as a result of poor treatment and conditions, ‘older prison-
ers’ have been recognised as a group for whom imprisonment amounts to
a ‘double punishment’ (PRT 2008). This has prompted, inter alia, a dia-
logue about establishing a ‘geronto-penitentiary policy’, including a dis-
cussion on whether older prisoners should be integrated or segregated
from the general prison population in specialised units. As we will see
later in this book, this discussion is hardly resolved in the existing body
of literature. Rather, there appears to be an absence of well-grounded
empirical and theoretical research scrutinising and comparing existing
initiatives, which is addressed by this book.
Despite a growing attention for an older segment of the prisoner pop-
ulation, a full-fledged joint scientific interest in later life and imprison-
ment still seems far from established. To date, existing penological studies
focussing on older prisoners tend to view ageing mostly through a
4 D. Humblet
250
200
150
Elderly Prisoners
100 (index)
Total Prison
Population (index)
50
0
2007* 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Fig. 1.1 Evolution of the Belgian prison population (60+) between 2007 and 2013
6 D. Humblet
The Fieldwork
The study that forms the basis for this book focussed on the meaning of
imprisonment for the older prisoner.3 The starting point of this book was
the acceptance that there are multiple social realities; hence, multiple
meanings are ascribed to the older prisoner’s experience. Their search,
which is underpinned by social constructivism, allows consideration of
multiple realities. It thus attempts to document the meanings, experi-
ences, and perceptions of the participants, considering that ‘reality’ can-
not be merely constructed by the inquirer. Bearing this in mind, it seems
more appropriate to consider this research as an exchange of dialogue
between the researcher and the participants. The study of meaning for the
older prisoner, considered through one’s lived experiences, could only be
captured by embedding oneself in the own environment of the older
prisoner. This was accomplished by undertaking an ethnographic study,
which has been adopted in the social sciences as:
Gerald [one of the older prisoners] proudly tells everyone about me that I
am ‘his shadow’. (Field notes P1, April 2014)