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Unit 1 Notes

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Databases and Database Users ~ + View of Data ata and a set of programs that errelated or jor purpose of a database sw of the data. That is, the system d maintained. ‘A database system is a collection of inte = allow users to access and modify these is es system is to provide users with an abstract a hides certain details of how the data are stored @ 1.3.1, Data Abstraction i For the system to be usable, it must retrieve data efficiently. oe as “ i ee i to represent data 1n ‘a 5 has led designers to use complex data structures " dat Since many database-system users are not computer trained, developers hide the complexity from users through several levels of abstraction, to simplify users’ interactions with the system: © Physical level. The lowest level of abstraction describes how the data are ac- tually stored. The physical level describes complex low-level data structures in detail. Logical level. The next-higher level of abstraction describes what data are stored in the database, and what relationships exist among those data. The logical level thus describes the entire database in terms of a small number of relatively simple structures. Although implementation of the simple structures at the logical level may involve complex physical-level structures, the user of the logical level does not need to be aware of this complexity. This is referred to as physical data independence. Database administrators, who must decide what information to keep i i anus decide eep in the database, use the logical level ° View level. The highest level of abstraction describes only part of the entire ‘ough the logical level uses simpler structures, complexity @ scanned with OKEN Scanner1.3 View of Data 7 view level view 1 | view 2 wee view n logical level physical level Figure 1.1 The three levels of data abstraction. languages support the notion of a structured type. For example, we may describe a record as follows:! type instructor = record ID: char (5); name : char (20); dept_name : char (20); salary : numeric (8,2); end; This code defines a new record type called instructor with four fields. Each fiel has a name and a type associated with it. A university organization may hav several such record types, including © department, with fields dept.name, building, and budget e course, with fields course.id, title, deptname, and credits e student, with fields ID, name, dept.name, and tot.cred At the physical level, an instructor, department, or student record can be d scribed as a block of consecutive storage locations. The compiler hides this les of detail from programmers. Similarly, the database system hides many of t lowest-level storage details from database programmers. Database administ tors, on the other hand, may be aware of certain details of the physical organi: tion of the data. @ scanned with OKEN Scanner: Fina ily, at the view. Jevel, COME level res —_— iat hide details of the data types: At the a eral E views: ule re defined, and a database se : 2 *jatabase, the views 2! prow! ‘ : idi etail ical leve!} . «4 parts of the ad: ding on prevent users from access certain Poly that part of the by “ej s oreity registrar 0 7 ‘ : cor example, clerks it the univ er gents they cannot access information abo' 7 MED jatabase that has information sboutt salaries of instructors. 4.3.2 Instances and Schemas . jon isi The collec! Databases change over time as information is inserted and deleted es aren of information stored in the database at @ particular moment is fA a hia FF the database. The overall design of the Hatabase is called the datal ‘ : a all. Schemas are change eu ances canbe understood by analogy The concept 0! toa program ‘written in a programming languase- ‘A database schema corresponds to the variable declarations (along with associated type definitions) ina program. Each variable has a particular value at a given instant. The values of the variables ina program ata point in time correspond to an instance of a database schema. Database systems have several schemas, partitioned according to the levels of abstraction. The physical schema describes the database design at the physical level, while the logical schema describes the database design at the logical level. ‘A database may also have several schemas at the view level, sometimes called subschemas, that describe different views of the database. of em tS ty ig logical schema. The physical schema is hidden beneath ta Ppical ochenna, pel ms usually be changed easily without affecting application programs. A) i aon programs are said to exhibit physical data Cdr endeios if they de ey on the physical schema, and thus need not be rewri ie they-do not depend changes. written if the physical schema We study languages for describi ‘ data modelein the next section. ing schemas after introducing the notion of 1.33 Data Models tools for describin, ig, data, data ‘i a" constraints.(A data data relationships, data semanti the physical, Seca and hpwowides away to describe t the Fae and consistency ec lesign of a database @! SB ‘a model: a collection of conce Underlying the structure ofa database is ie dat the f a datab: the dat del: lection of ptua! @ scanned with OKEN Scanner» T 14 Database Languages 9 There are a numb iffere i ‘ er of differ mi he data models cm i of different data models that we shall cover in the text lassified into four different categories: © Relational Model.(The rel; R ational model uses a collection of s la : a e ‘ i: ae el ee a the relationships among those dat Each ‘able hes eal Ss, and each column has a unique name. Tables are also known oe Felations. The relational model is_an example of a record-based_model. ner - aoe ate so named because the database is structured in eae eo S Of sevefal types. Each table contains records of a par- ie es A - record type defines a fixed number of fields, or attributes. Seen 4 table correspond to the attributes of the record type. The : : ata model is the most widely used data model, and a vast major- ity of current database systems are based on the relational model. Chapters 2 «through 8 cover the relational model in detail. Sei . Se Entity-Relationship Model. The entity-relationship (ER) data model uses a vy collection of basic objects, called entities, and relationships among these objects. 4 An entity is a “thing” or “object” in the real world that is distinguishable from other objects. The entity-relationship model is widely used in database design, and Chapter 7 explores it in detail. Object-Based Data Model. Object-oriented programming (especially in Java, C++, or C#) has become the dominant software-development methodology. This led to the development of an object-oriented data model that can be seen as extending the E-R model with notions of encapsulation, methods (functions), and object identity. bject-relational data model combines * features of the object-oriented data model and relational data model. Chap- ter 22 examines the object-relational data model. Semistructured Data Model,(The semistructured data model permits the specification of data where individual data items of the same type may have different sets of attributes. This is in contrast to the data models mentioned earlier, where every data item of a particular type must have the same set of attributes. The Extensible Markup Language (XML) is widely used to represent semistructured data. Chapter 23 covers it. Historically, the network data model and the hierarchical data model pre- i i derlyin; ded the relational data model. These models were tied closely to the underlying tmplementation, and complicated the task of modeling data. As a result they are used little now, except in old database code that is still in service in some places. They are outlined online in Appendices D and E for interested readers. Database Languages @ scanned with OKEN Scanner-DDE-DATA DEFINITION LANGUAG e Adatabase ‘system provides Data Definition Languages CHEV ERSRa Er, : € ; Q and ACUI ove Le badcbasr ob ck @ scanned with OKEN Scanner@ scanned with OKEN Scanner“data about data”. Sq DDL — Data Definition Language The DDL provides a set of definitions to specify the storage structure 12.3. DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE A database scheme is specified by a set of definitions which are Data Dictionary A Data Dictionary is expressed by a special language called a data definition language a file that contains “metadata” (DDL). The result of compilation of DDL statements is a set of tables which are stored in a special file called data dictionary (or directory). Whenever data is read or modified in the database system, the data directory is consulted. The DDL (Data Definition Language) provides a set of and access methods used by the definitions to specify the storage structure and access methods database system. used by the database system. An ideal DDL should perform the following functions : 1 2. La It should identify the types of data division such as data item, segment, record, and data-base file. It should give a unique name to each data-item-type, record-type, file-type, database, and other data subdivision. It should specify the proper data types. It should specify how the record types are related to make structures. It may define the type of encoding the program uses in the data items (binary, character, bit, string. etc.). This shonld nat he canfuced urith tha ancadina @ scanned with OKEN Scanner@ scanned with OKEN Scanner@ scanned with OKEN ScannerRULES FOR NAMING A TABLE g2 Table tables and columns (atts wt must not be an SQL keyword. must begin with alphabets A-Z ora-z y contain letters, digits, and underscores (_) me should noi duplicate the name of another table. js the same whether uppercase of lower case is used. * wifes) certain points are 10 bere @ scanned with OKEN ScannerNaine chan 2, @ scanned with OKEN Scannertara ei seeorernedan ee aattas lahalabe ede aheay hee @ scanned with OKEN Scannerri iss TABLE. rm cee Cort Bhs Te ce TaGie The alter table eae) : TAUTER TABLE with ADD: @ scanned with OKEN Scanner@ scanned with OKEN Scanner@ scanned with OKEN Scanner& fe @ scanned with OKEN Scanner@ scanned with OKEN Scannereee Nias. @ scanned with OKEN Scanner@ scanned with OKEN Scanner@ scanned with OKEN Scanner@ scanned with OKEN Scanner@ scanned with OKEN Scanner@ scanned with OKEN Scanner-| Hus Creep OF Nor pra chinall DMA» _ fereribau es eveebelictanalinte eile etsts : ase, DML statemen @ scanned with OKEN ScannerASSL, Spee ih and ref{neve or yeeoeds wy & re aw Cathe © Li of Lis pew 60) which clale te gefneve gadhes Mesefore gcieh apes aut al $0 al] @ scanned with OKEN Scanner@ scanned with OKEN Scanner@ scanned with OKEN ScannerDML(continues..) 12.4 DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE After the database scheme has been specified and the database has been created, the data can be manipulated using a set of procedures which are expressed by @ special KK y Data “Manipulati on Language language called a data manipulation language (DML). By data manipulation, panes we mean : A Data Manipulation . Language (DML) is a language © the retrieval of information stored in the database. that enables users to access or © the insertion of new information into the database. manipulate data d _ pea by © the deletion of information from the database. h ropriate data model. ; ; Se © the modification of data stored in the database. The DMLs are basically of tvo types = (i) Procedural DMLs require a user to specify what data is needed and how to get it. (ii) Non-procedural DMLs require a user to specify what data is needed without Scanned with CamScanrspecifying how to get it. @ scanned with OKEN Scanner@ scanned with OKEN ScannerA data model—a collection of concepts that can be used to describe the structure of a database—provides the necessary means to achieve this abstraction. By structure of a database we mean the data constraints that apply to the data. Most data models also include a set of basic operations for specifying retrievals and updates on the database es, relationships, and @ scanned with OKEN Scanner‘e Many data models he | propose ich we can “categorize accord to the types of concepts they use to describe the database structure. e 1.High-level or conceptual data models ° 1.2 Entity-Relationship model e 2.low-level or physical data models e 3.represeniational (or implemeniation) data models, ° 3.1 relational data model, ° 3.2 network ° 3.3 hierarchical model e 4. object data model @ scanned with OKEN Scannerway many users perceive data. Conceptual data models use concepts such as entities, attributes, and relationships. An entity represents a real-world object or concept, such as an employee or a project from the miniworld that is described in the database. An attribute represents some property of interest that further describes an entity, such as the employee's name or salary. (ie,characteristics of an entity is called attribute) A relationship among two or more entities represents an association among the entities, for example, a works-on relationship between an employee and a project. @ scanned with OKEN Scannere Entity Relationship Model _ is a popular high-level conceptual data model. Entity Relationship Model is a data model for describing a database in an abstract way at a conceptual level. epson: NG @ scanned with OKEN Scanner_Low-level or physical data models provide concepts that describe the details of how data is stored on the computer storage media, typically magnetic disks. Concepts provided by low-level data models are generally meant for computer specialists, not for end users. Physical data models describe how data is stored as files in the computer by representing information such as record formats, record orderings, and access paths. An access path is a structure that makes the search for particular database records efficient. An index is an example of an access path that allows direct access to data using an index term or a keyword. @ scanned with OKEN Scannere Representational or Implementation Data Model provides concepts that may be understood by end user but that are not too far removed from the way data is organized in computer storage. e Representational data models hide many details of data storage on disk but can be implemented on a computer system directly. @ scanned with OKEN Scannere Representational or implementation data models are the models used most frequently in traditional commercial DBMSs. e These include the widely used relational data model, as well as the so-called legacy data models—the network and hierarchical models—that have been widely used in the past. e Representational data models represent data by using record structures and hence are sometimes called record-based data models. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerRepresentational or Implementation Model includes: 3.1 Relational DatalModel 3.2 Network Data Model 3.3 Hierarchical Data Model Note:- Network Data Model and Hierarchical Data Model are used in the past. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerWe can regard the object data model as an example of a new family of e higher-level implementation data models that are closer to conceptual data models. e Astandard for object databases called the ODMG object model has been proposed by the Object Data Management Group (ODMG). e Object data models are also frequently utilized as high-level conceptual models, particularly in the software engineering domain. @ scanned with OKEN Scanner3.1 Relational Model ‘0 tables(ie rows and Relational data Model, the data is organised int columns,). These tables are called relations. e Rows are also called as tuples e Columns are also called as field attribute. A row ina table represents a relationship amonqa set of values. © Since a table is a collection of such relationship.it is generally referred to using the mathematical term relation, from which the relational model derives its name. @ scanned with OKEN Scannerhow mea @ sample database can t database being shown here has three tables (relations) Suppliers upp?, Supp-Name, Status, City) Items (ems. Ttem-Name, Price) Shipments Gupp#, tems, Qty-supplicay ve presente Lin relational form. Th: ippliers, Hems, Shipments. ; 2 [coloured fields represent primary keys J ample Suppliers Suppe Supp-Name ‘Status city. ‘ st Britannia 10 Delhi i s2 New Bakers 30 Mumbai { s3 Mother Dairy 10, Delhi i S4 ‘Cookz 50 Bangalore i Ss Hialdiram 40. Jaipur Items Shipments Ieeme iterm-Name_ Price ‘Supp# item? Qty-supplied | m1 Milk 15.00 ‘SI 12. 10 12 Cake 5.00 _ si 13 20 i 13 Bread 9.00 si 16 20 t 14 Milk Bread 14.00 s2 13 20 1 15 Plain Biscuit 6.00 s2 1s 10 13 16 Cream Biscuit 10.00 s3 n 10 { 7 Ice Cream 16.00 s3 7 20 tee 1s Cold Drink 8.00 sa 1s 30 \ Joand id with hwamiseen., 15.00 S58 19 30 ‘ @ scanned with OKEN Scannere The sample database being shown above(Figure3.1A)shown here as 3 tables(relations): Suppliers,ltems,Shipments. Here each supplier has a unique supplier number,exactly one name,status value,and location Likewise, each Item has a unique item number,name price:and also that, at any given time ,no more than one shipment exist for a given supplier/item combination @ scanned with OKEN Scannere e Each of the above 3 table closely resmbles a conventional sequential file with rows of the table corresponding to records and columns corresponding to fields of the records. Rows of table generally refered to as tuples. Columns of table refered to as attribute. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerThe Relational Data Model is based on a collection of tables(relations). The user of the (relational )database system may query these tables, insert new tuples,delete tuples,and modify tuples. There are several lanquage for expressing these operations. . One such language is relational query language. The relational algebra is a procedural language that defines the basic operations used within relational query lanquage. The Relational Model deals with Relational database Management system(RDBMS). @ scanned with OKEN Scannerin the relational data model, the relationships among data are represented by a collection of tables. in Network model, data is represented by collection of records. And relationship among data are represented b’ links. @ scanned with OKEN Scannere Byalink we mean that it is an association between precisely two records. @ scanned with OKEN Scannere Now lets us see how the same sample database figure 3.1A), shown earlier in relational form,can be defined in network model(figure 3.2 A e The structure shown in (figure 3.2A) is known as arbitrary graph @ scanned with OKEN Scanner{us sce Supp! Items (1 see how a sample dotabe se being shown here has three (Supps, Supp-Name, Status, City) me Item-Name, Price) represented in relational form. The sample clalions) 1 Suppliers, Items, Shipments. Shipments (Supp#, Hem#, Qty-supplicd) [coloured fields represent primary keys? } Suppliers Suppe _{___Supp-Name ‘Status City s1 Britannia 10 Delhi s2 New Bakers 30 Mumbai s3 Mother Dairy 10 Delhi sa Cookz 50 Bangalore ss. Haldiram 40 Jaipur Items Shipments leeme Item-Name Price ‘Suppe item? Qty-supplied | "a Milk 15.00 St 2 10 12 Cake 5.00 si 13 20 13 Bread 9.00 st 16 20 14 Milk Bread 14.00 s2 q4 20 15 Plain Biscuit 6.00 ‘s2 15 10 16 Cream Biscuit 10.00 s3 el 10 17 Ice Cream 16.00 SS 17 10 18 Cold Drink 8.00 st Is 30 sH2o wir bamkeen. 15.00 ss. 9 30 @ scanned with OKEN Scanner@ scanned with OKEN ScannerThe operations on a network database are performed through a data manipulation language for network model. The operations that can be performed on a network database,include find, insert,delete,modify etc. fo)’ Thelinserting’or removing record involve connect disconnect and reconnect operations, @ scanned with OKEN Scanner© The network data model is similar to the hierarchical model, it is more complex, but, also more flexible in accessing the data items. Similar to the hierarchical structure, each parent can have more than one felniiemeltiainga network database model et in) fetenrd This structure permits the connection of the nodes in a multidirectional manner. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerThe network data box structure is a more versatile and flexible data a structure than the hierarchical type, because the root of data is not necessarily downward, it can be from any direction. Figure 13.3 shows Another Example for Network model. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerAnother example figure 113.3 network Model ee 'CS\gcanned with CamScanner Fig. 13.3 Network madoel @ scanned with OKEN Scanner@ scanned with OKEN Scanner Advantages e Easier to access e Many to many relationship can be imported Disadvantages e The number of links is very high e The pointer is required for this model e New queries cannot be implementedIn network model,the data is represented by collections of records and relationships among data and are represented by links This is true of hierarchical model as well. @ scanned with OKEN Scannere The hierarchical model represents relationship among its records through parent child relationships that can be represented through tree like structure. e Therefore , a hierarchical database is also a collection of records connected to one another through links. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerSera : : | ) i j gid The figure 3.3A ehoweta possible ‘hierarchical view for the suppliers-and-items database. In this view the data is re resented by a simple tree structure,with suppliers superior to items. The record type at the top of the tree - the supplier record type in our example -is usually known as root. In general,the root may have any number of dependents, each of these dependents may have any number of lower level dependenis,and so on.to anv number of levels. @ scanned with OKEN Scanner61 sxwen | oO @ @ scanned with OKEN ScannerAdvantages e Easyiouse e |t provides a hierarchical relationship Disadvantage e Deletion of parent deletes the child. e Itrequires extra storage e Non hierarchical relations are difficult to map out this model @ scanned with OKEN Scanneragran 5 Sample ER diagra @ scanned with OKEN Scanner& Scanned with OKEN Scanner It is a high-level data model that defines data elements and their relationship for a An ER model is used to represent real-world objects.Emenee leScicketeec THT ‘of E-R model are: enti @ scanned with OKEN ScannerCOMPONENTS OF ER MODEL (ER DIAGRAM) ER MODEL RELATIONSHIP ATTRIBUTE One to One Key Attribute Entity One to Many BINARY i—— Simple Attribute Composite Attribute Many to One TERNARY Weak Entity Single Attribute Many to Many N-ARY Multivalue Attribute RESPECT TO NO.OF RELATIONSHIP Noo Derived Attribute WITH RESPECT TO ENITYPARTICIPATED IN IT.( OR DEGREE OF Stored Attribute eee RELATIONSHIP) @ scanned with OKEN ScannerWhatis an Entity Relationship Dia ec gram (ER Diagram)? ‘ ' , UG MOIEC LET shows the relationship among entity @ scanned with OKEN Scanner@ scanned with OKEN Scannerigurel- A simple ER diagram Sample E-R Diagram @ scanned with OKEN Scannerarmowrnt @ scanned with OKEN Scannerhe main advantage of the ER model is its simplicity, @ scanned with OKEN ScannerRepresents Entity Represents Attribute Represents Relationship {s) to entity set(s) or Links Attribute Relationship set(s) Entity set(s) to Represents Multivalued Attributes s Derived Attributes Represent @ scanned with OKEN ScannerTotal Participation of E in R Cardinality Ratio 1; N for E,:E, in R Structural Constraint (min, max) on Participation of E in R @ scanned with OKEN ScannerCOMPO! NENTS OF ER MODEL (ER DIAGRAM) ER MODEL RELATIONSHIP ATTRIBUTE One to One Key Attribute Entity One to Many BINARY I—— simple Attribute Attribute Many to One TERNARY Composite Weak N-ARY Single Attribute Many to Many Entity Multivalue il vette ggznonsue Saint i ‘0 Derived Attribute WITH RESPECT T' INIT.(OR DEGREE OF TI CARDINATITY RATIO RELATIONSHIP) Stored Attribute @ scanned with OKEN Scanner~Tn Sprctinetion, ar sobly is divided tot Sb ei buted on thers Charactrsistig ~ oF is a tep-dewn appooas whee highalevel enhly- /s Specialized inte, feo o> more lower leve) entlies - “DJ: Employee erbig [pan Employer rronagy maf Systm an is Speurhijed mts DEVELOPER, TesteR ete 8 S8houm he $90. Th fois wwe Common attnhue dike € NAME, E-SAL ete. become peat Z higher <0trly Cem ployes) merroemenltrcel (SpeeiaLizeof atinbules Like Te5—Typs become peak. g Speecatijed erty (Tester) Develo PER Gesayre> SperioLjya tion @ scanned with OKEN ScannerSx Genernerznsioyy 4 Genernerenrioy o Geresaliatn 1B the frecat g _tatoacting Grim, Paprtian gom a Set g_molitia and Cregsa Grraled erbly - pen tl - VF Dhycis a bother - 4p approaeh th which f° me = 2 mere enka ote grein 0 9 tevel cobhy if thay have Qme ctbatbuler rm Gomes Met coh ne ttbule i toms el STeneHT ang Thevity 0 be grerilnd @ 2 7 higher Loel ently coed PERSE 03 Shawn 1 F9)- Tn this ate Comme attorbyig Lea Enoroe, Peano brome poll 3 haha tiresod endl Speviatizd alfolue Bike SFEE brome pag feubyd one Groves) as Person ame Tacutty |S7unent \ tig Goruratignhion F PO generalization, av. _erttily oy 3 legles Geel coon alse Combine with jhe enter J to ever Ine! Ty zor Ta tether Tagher level entity a Ne @ scanned with OKEN Scanner

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