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Globalization: A Very Short Introduction
 VERY SHORT INTRODUCTIONS are for anyone wanting a stimulating
and accessible way into a new subject. They are written by experts, and
have been translated into more than 45 different languages.
The series began in 1995, and now covers a wide variety of topics in
every d
­ iscipline. The VSI library currently contains over 700 volumes—a
Very Short Introduction to everything from Psychology and Philosophy of
Science to American History and Relativity—and continues to grow in
every subject area.

Very Short Introductions available now:

ABOLITIONISM Richard S. Newman AMERICAN IMMIGRATION

THE ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS
Charles L. Cohen
ACCOUNTING Christopher Nobes
ADDICTION Keith Humphreys
ADOLESCENCE Peter K. Smith
THEODOR W. ADORNO
Andrew Bowie
ADVERTISING Winston Fletcher
AERIAL WARFARE Frank Ledwidge
AESTHETICS Bence Nanay
AFRICAN AMERICAN HISTORY
Jonathan Scott Holloway
AFRICAN AMERICAN RELIGION
Eddie S. Glaude Jr
AFRICAN HISTORY John Parker and
Richard Rathbone
AFRICAN POLITICS Ian Taylor
AFRICAN RELIGIONS
Jacob K. Olupona
AGEING Nancy A. Pachana
AGNOSTICISM Robin Le Poidevin
AGRICULTURE Paul Brassley and
Richard Soffe
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
Hugh Bowden
ALGEBRA Peter M. Higgins
AMERICAN BUSINESS HISTORY
Walter A. Friedman
AMERICAN CULTURAL HISTORY
Eric Avila
AMERICAN FOREIGN RELATIONS
Andrew Preston
AMERICAN HISTORY Paul S. Boyer
David A. Gerber
AMERICAN INTELLECTUAL
HISTORY
Jennifer Ratner-­Rosenhagen
THE AMERICAN JUDICIAL SYSTEM
Charles L. Zelden
AMERICAN LEGAL HISTORY
G. Edward White
AMERICAN MILITARY HISTORY
Joseph T. Glatthaar
AMERICAN NAVAL HISTORY
Craig L. Symonds
AMERICAN POETRY David Caplan
AMERICAN POLITICAL HISTORY
Donald Critchlow
AMERICAN POLITICAL PARTIES
AND ELECTIONS L. Sandy Maisel
AMERICAN POLITICS
Richard M. Valelly
THE AMERICAN PRESIDENCY
Charles O. Jones
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
Robert J. Allison
AMERICAN SLAVERY
Heather Andrea Williams
THE AMERICAN SOUTH
Charles Reagan Wilson
THE AMERICAN WEST
Stephen Aron
AMERICAN WOMEN’S HISTORY
Susan Ware
AMPHIBIANS T. S. Kemp
ANAESTHESIA Aidan O’Donnell
ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY
Michael Beaney
ANARCHISM Alex Prichard
ANCIENT ASSYRIA Karen Radner
ANCIENT EGYPT Ian Shaw
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART AND
ARCHITECTURE Christina Riggs
ANCIENT GREECE Paul Cartledge
ANCIENT GREEK AND ROMAN
SCIENCE Liba Taub
THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
Amanda H. Podany
ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY Julia Annas
ANCIENT WARFARE
Harry Sidebottom
ANGELS David Albert Jones
ANGLICANISM Mark Chapman
THE ANGLO-­SAXON AGE John Blair
ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR
Tristram D. Wyatt
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM
Peter Holland
ANIMAL RIGHTS David DeGrazia
ANSELM Thomas Williams
THE ANTARCTIC Klaus Dodds
ANTHROPOCENE Erle C. Ellis
ANTISEMITISM Steven Beller
ANXIETY Daniel Freeman and
Jason Freeman
THE APOCRYPHAL GOSPELS
Paul Foster
APPLIED MATHEMATICS
Alain Goriely
THOMAS AQUINAS Fergus Kerr
ARBITRATION Thomas Schultz and
Thomas Grant
ARCHAEOLOGY Paul Bahn
ARCHITECTURE Andrew Ballantyne
THE ARCTIC Klaus Dodds and
Jamie Woodward
HANNAH ARENDT Dana Villa
ARISTOCRACY William Doyle
ARISTOTLE Jonathan Barnes
ART HISTORY Dana Arnold
ART THEORY Cynthia Freeland
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Margaret A. Boden
ASIAN AMERICAN HISTORY
Madeline Y. Hsu
ASTROBIOLOGY David C. Catling
ASTROPHYSICS James Binney
ATHEISM Julian Baggini
THE ATMOSPHERE Paul I. Palmer
AUGUSTINE Henry Chadwick
JANE AUSTEN Tom Keymer
AUSTRALIA Kenneth Morgan
AUTISM Uta Frith
AUTOBIOGRAPHY Laura Marcus
THE AVANT GARDE David Cottington
THE AZTECS Davíd Carrasco
BABYLONIA Trevor Bryce
BACTERIA Sebastian G. B. Amyes
BANKING John Goddard and
John O. S. Wilson
BARTHES Jonathan Culler
THE BEATS David Sterritt
BEAUTY Roger Scruton
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN
Mark Evan Bonds
BEHAVIOURAL ECONOMICS
Michelle Baddeley
BESTSELLERS John Sutherland
THE BIBLE John Riches
BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY
Eric H. Cline
BIG DATA Dawn E. Holmes
BIOCHEMISTRY Mark Lorch
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
David Macdonald
BIOGEOGRAPHY Mark V. Lomolino
BIOGRAPHY Hermione Lee
BIOMETRICS Michael Fairhurst
ELIZABETH BISHOP
Jonathan F. S. Post
BLACK HOLES Katherine Blundell
BLASPHEMY Yvonne Sherwood
BLOOD Chris Cooper
THE BLUES Elijah Wald
THE BODY Chris Shilling
THE BOHEMIANS David Weir
NIELS BOHR J. L. Heilbron
THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
Brian Cummings
THE BOOK OF MORMON
Terryl Givens
BORDERS Alexander C. Diener and
Joshua Hagen
THE BRAIN Michael O’Shea
BRANDING Robert Jones
THE BRICS Andrew F. Cooper
BRITISH CINEMA Charles Barr
THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION
Martin Loughlin
THE BRITISH EMPIRE Ashley Jackson
BRITISH POLITICS Tony Wright
BUDDHA Michael Carrithers
BUDDHISM Damien Keown
BUDDHIST ETHICS Damien Keown
BYZANTIUM Peter Sarris
CALVINISM Jon Balserak
ALBERT CAMUS Oliver Gloag
CANADA Donald Wright
CANCER Nicholas James
CAPITALISM James Fulcher
CATHOLICISM Gerald O’Collins
CAUSATION Stephen Mumford and
Rani Lill Anjum
THE CELL Terence Allen and
Graham Cowling
THE CELTS Barry Cunliffe
CHAOS Leonard Smith
GEOFFREY CHAUCER David Wallace
CHEMISTRY Peter Atkins
CHILD PSYCHOLOGY Usha Goswami
CHILDREN’S LITERATURE
Kimberley Reynolds
CHINESE LITERATURE Sabina Knight
CHOICE THEORY Michael Allingham
CHRISTIAN ART Beth Williamson
CHRISTIAN ETHICS D. Stephen Long
CHRISTIANITY Linda Woodhead
CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
Russell Foster and Leon Kreitzman
CITIZENSHIP Richard Bellamy
CITY PLANNING Carl Abbott
CIVIL ENGINEERING
David Muir Wood
THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT
Thomas C. Holt
CLASSICAL LITERATURE William Allan
CLASSICAL MYTHOLOGY
Helen Morales
CLASSICS Mary Beard and
John Henderson
CLAUSEWITZ Michael Howard
CLIMATE Mark Maslin
CLIMATE CHANGE Mark Maslin
CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Susan Llewelyn and
Katie Aafjes-­van Doorn
COGNITIVE BEHAVIOURAL
THERAPY Freda McManus
COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
Richard Passingham
THE COLD WAR Robert J. McMahon
COLONIAL AMERICA Alan Taylor
COLONIAL LATIN AMERICAN
LITERATURE Rolena Adorno
COMBINATORICS Robin Wilson
COMEDY Matthew Bevis
COMMUNISM Leslie Holmes
COMPARATIVE LITERATURE
Ben Hutchinson
COMPETITION AND ANTITRUST
LAW Ariel Ezrachi
COMPLEXITY John H. Holland
THE COMPUTER Darrel Ince
COMPUTER SCIENCE
Subrata Dasgupta
CONCENTRATION CAMPS
Dan Stone
CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS
Ross H. McKenzie
CONFUCIANISM Daniel K. Gardner
THE CONQUISTADORS
Matthew Restall and
Felipe Fernández-­Armesto
CONSCIENCE Paul Strohm
CONSCIOUSNESS Susan Blackmore
CONTEMPORARY ART
Julian Stallabrass
CONTEMPORARY FICTION
Robert Eaglestone
CONTINENTAL PHILOSOPHY
Simon Critchley
COPERNICUS Owen Gingerich
CORAL REEFS Charles Sheppard
CORPORATE SOCIAL
RESPONSIBILITY Jeremy Moon
CORRUPTION Leslie Holmes
COSMOLOGY Peter Coles
COUNTRY MUSIC Richard Carlin
CREATIVITY Vlad Glăveanu
CRIME FICTION Richard Bradford
CRIMINAL JUSTICE Julian V. Roberts
CRIMINOLOGY Tim Newburn
CRITICAL THEORY
Stephen Eric Bronner
THE CRUSADES
Christopher Tyerman
CRYPTOGRAPHY Fred Piper and
Sean Murphy
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY A. M. Glazer
THE CULTURAL REVOLUTION
Richard Curt Kraus
DADA AND SURREALISM
David Hopkins
DANTE Peter Hainsworth and
David Robey
DARWIN Jonathan Howard
THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS
Timothy H. Lim
DECADENCE David Weir
DECOLONIZATION Dane Kennedy
DEMENTIA Kathleen Taylor
DEMOCRACY Naomi Zack
DEMOGRAPHY Sarah Harper
DEPRESSION Jan Scott and
Mary Jane Tacchi
DERRIDA Simon Glendinning
DESCARTES Tom Sorell
DESERTS Nick Middleton
DESIGN John Heskett
DEVELOPMENT Ian Goldin
DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY
Lewis Wolpert
THE DEVIL Darren Oldridge
DIASPORA Kevin Kenny
CHARLES DICKENS Jenny Hartley
DICTIONARIES Lynda Mugglestone
DINOSAURS David Norman
DIPLOMATIC HISTORY
Joseph M. Siracusa
DOCUMENTARY FILM
Patricia Aufderheide
DREAMING J. Allan Hobson
DRUGS Les Iversen
DRUIDS Barry Cunliffe
DYNASTY Jeroen Duindam
DYSLEXIA Margaret J. Snowling
EARLY MUSIC Thomas Forrest Kelly
THE EARTH Martin Redfern
EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE Tim Lenton
ECOLOGY Jaboury Ghazoul
ECONOMICS Partha Dasgupta
EDUCATION Gary Thomas
EGYPTIAN MYTH Geraldine Pinch
EIGHTEENTH‑CENTURY BRITAIN
Paul Langford
THE ELEMENTS Philip Ball
EMOTION Dylan Evans
EMPIRE Stephen Howe
EMPLOYMENT LAW David Cabrelli
ENERGY SYSTEMS Nick Jenkins
ENGELS Terrell Carver
ENGINEERING David Blockley
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Simon Horobin
ENGLISH LITERATURE Jonathan Bate
THE ENLIGHTENMENT
John Robertson
ENTREPRENEURSHIP Paul Westhead
and Mike Wright
ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS
Stephen Smith
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
Robin Attfield
ENVIRONMENTAL LAW
Elizabeth Fisher
ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS
Andrew Dobson
ENZYMES Paul Engel
EPICUREANISM Catherine Wilson
EPIDEMIOLOGY Rodolfo Saracci
ETHICS Simon Blackburn
ETHNOMUSICOLOGY Timothy Rice
THE ETRUSCANS Christopher Smith
EUGENICS Philippa Levine
THE EUROPEAN UNION
Simon Usherwood and John Pinder
EUROPEAN UNION LAW
Anthony Arnull
EVANGELICALISM
John G. Stackhouse Jr.
EVIL Luke Russell
EVOLUTION Brian and
Deborah Charlesworth
EXISTENTIALISM Thomas Flynn
EXPLORATION Stewart A. Weaver
EXTINCTION Paul B. Wignall
THE EYE Michael Land
FAIRY TALE Marina Warner
FAMILY LAW Jonathan Herring
MICHAEL FARADAY
Frank A. J. L. James
FASCISM Kevin Passmore
FASHION Rebecca Arnold
FEDERALISM Mark J. Rozell and
Clyde Wilcox
FEMINISM Margaret Walters
FILM Michael Wood
FILM MUSIC Kathryn Kalinak
FILM NOIR James Naremore
FIRE Andrew C. Scott
THE FIRST WORLD WAR
Michael Howard
FLUID MECHANICS Eric Lauga
FOLK MUSIC Mark Slobin
FOOD John Krebs
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY
David Canter
FORENSIC SCIENCE Jim Fraser
FORESTS Jaboury Ghazoul
FOSSILS Keith Thomson
FOUCAULT Gary Gutting
THE FOUNDING FATHERS
R. B. Bernstein
FRACTALS Kenneth Falconer
FREE SPEECH Nigel Warburton
FREE WILL Thomas Pink
FREEMASONRY Andreas Önnerfors
FRENCH LITERATURE John D. Lyons
FRENCH PHILOSOPHY
Stephen Gaukroger and Knox Peden
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
William Doyle
FREUD Anthony Storr
FUNDAMENTALISM Malise Ruthven
FUNGI Nicholas P. Money
THE FUTURE Jennifer M. Gidley
GALAXIES John Gribbin
GALILEO Stillman Drake
GAME THEORY Ken Binmore
GANDHI Bhikhu Parekh
GARDEN HISTORY Gordon Campbell
GENES Jonathan Slack
GENIUS Andrew Robinson
GENOMICS John Archibald
GEOGRAPHY John Matthews and
David Herbert
GEOLOGY Jan Zalasiewicz
GEOMETRY Maciej Dunajski
GEOPHYSICS William Lowrie
GEOPOLITICS Klaus Dodds
GERMAN LITERATURE Nicholas Boyle
GERMAN PHILOSOPHY
Andrew Bowie
THE GHETTO Bryan Cheyette
GLACIATION David J. A. Evans
GLOBAL CATASTROPHES Bill McGuire
GLOBAL ECONOMIC HISTORY
Robert C. Allen
GLOBAL ISLAM Nile Green
GLOBALIZATION Manfred B. Steger
GOD John Bowker
GÖDEL’S THEOREM A. W. Moore
GOETHE Ritchie Robertson
THE GOTHIC Nick Groom
GOVERNANCE Mark Bevir
GRAVITY Timothy Clifton
THE GREAT DEPRESSION AND
THE NEW DEAL Eric Rauchway
HABEAS CORPUS
Amanda L. Tyler
HABERMAS James Gordon Finlayson
THE HABSBURG EMPIRE
Martyn Rady
HAPPINESS Daniel M. Haybron
THE HARLEM RENAISSANCE
Cheryl A. Wall
THE HEBREW BIBLE AS
LITERATURE Tod Linafelt
HEGEL Peter Singer
HEIDEGGER Michael Inwood
THE HELLENISTIC AGE
Peter Thonemann
HEREDITY John Waller
HERMENEUTICS Jens Zimmermann
HERODOTUS Jennifer T. Roberts
HIEROGLYPHS Penelope Wilson
HINDUISM Kim Knott
HISTORY John H. Arnold
THE HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY
Michael Hoskin
THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY
William H. Brock
THE HISTORY OF CHILDHOOD
James Marten
THE HISTORY OF CINEMA
Geoffrey Nowell-­Smith
THE HISTORY OF COMPUTING
Doron Swade
THE HISTORY OF EMOTIONS
Thomas Dixon
THE HISTORY OF LIFE
Michael Benton
THE HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS
Jacqueline Stedall
THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE
William Bynum
THE HISTORY OF PHYSICS
J. L. Heilbron
THE HISTORY OF POLITICAL
THOUGHT Richard Whatmore
THE HISTORY OF TIME
Leofranc Holford‑Strevens
HIV AND AIDS Alan Whiteside
HOBBES Richard Tuck
HOLLYWOOD Peter Decherney
THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
Joachim Whaley
HOME Michael Allen Fox
HOMER Barbara Graziosi
HORMONES Martin Luck
HORROR Darryl Jones
HUMAN ANATOMY
Leslie Klenerman
HUMAN EVOLUTION Bernard Wood
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
Jamie A. Davies
HUMAN RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT Adrian Wilkinson
HUMAN RIGHTS Andrew Clapham
HUMANISM Stephen Law
HUME James A. Harris
HUMOUR Noël Carroll
IBN SĪNĀ (AVICENNA) Peter Adamson
THE ICE AGE Jamie Woodward
IDENTITY Florian Coulmas
IDEOLOGY Michael Freeden
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Paul Klenerman
INDIAN CINEMA
Ashish Rajadhyaksha
INDIAN PHILOSOPHY Sue Hamilton
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Robert C. Allen
INFECTIOUS DISEASE Marta L. Wayne
and Benjamin M. Bolker
INFINITY Ian Stewart
INFORMATION Luciano Floridi
INNOVATION Mark Dodgson and
David Gann
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
Siva Vaidhyanathan
INTELLIGENCE Ian J. Deary
INTERNATIONAL LAW
Vaughan Lowe
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
Khalid Koser
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Christian Reus-­Smit
INTERNATIONAL SECURITY
Christopher S. Browning
INSECTS Simon Leather
IRAN Ali M. Ansari
ISLAM Malise Ruthven
ISLAMIC HISTORY Adam Silverstein
ISLAMIC LAW Mashood A. Baderin
ISOTOPES Rob Ellam
ITALIAN LITERATURE
Peter Hainsworth and David Robey
HENRY JAMES Susan L. Mizruchi
JAPANESE LITERATURE Alan Tansman
JESUS Richard Bauckham
JEWISH HISTORY David N. Myers
JEWISH LITERATURE Ilan Stavans
JOURNALISM Ian Hargreaves
JAMES JOYCE Colin MacCabe
JUDAISM Norman Solomon
JUNG Anthony Stevens
THE JURY Renée Lettow Lerner
KABBALAH Joseph Dan
KAFKA Ritchie Robertson
KANT Roger Scruton
KEYNES Robert Skidelsky
KIERKEGAARD Patrick Gardiner
KNOWLEDGE Jennifer Nagel
THE KORAN Michael Cook
KOREA Michael J. Seth
LAKES Warwick F. Vincent
LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Ian H. Thompson
LANDSCAPES AND
GEOMORPHOLOGY
Andrew Goudie and Heather Viles
LANGUAGES Stephen R. Anderson
LATE ANTIQUITY Gillian Clark
LAW Raymond Wacks
THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Peter Atkins
LEADERSHIP Keith Grint
LEARNING Mark Haselgrove
LEIBNIZ Maria Rosa Antognazza
C. S. LEWIS James Como
LIBERALISM Michael Freeden
LIGHT Ian Walmsley
LINCOLN Allen C. Guelzo
LINGUISTICS Peter Matthews
LITERARY THEORY Jonathan Culler
LOCKE John Dunn
LOGIC Graham Priest
LOVE Ronald de Sousa
MARTIN LUTHER Scott H. Hendrix
MACHIAVELLI Quentin Skinner
MADNESS Andrew Scull
MAGIC Owen Davies
MAGNA CARTA Nicholas Vincent
MAGNETISM Stephen Blundell
MALTHUS Donald Winch
MAMMALS T. S. Kemp
MANAGEMENT John Hendry
NELSON MANDELA Elleke Boehmer
MAO Delia Davin
MARINE BIOLOGY Philip V. Mladenov
MARKETING
Kenneth Le Meunier-­FitzHugh
THE MARQUIS DE SADE John Phillips
MARTYRDOM Jolyon Mitchell
MARX Peter Singer
MATERIALS Christopher Hall
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS
Richard Earl
MATHEMATICAL FINANCE
Mark H. A. Davis
MATHEMATICS Timothy Gowers
MATTER Geoff Cottrell
THE MAYA Matthew Restall and
Amara Solari
THE MEANING OF LIFE
Terry Eagleton
MEASUREMENT David Hand
MEDICAL ETHICS Michael Dunn and
Tony Hope
MEDICAL LAW Charles Foster
MEDIEVAL BRITAIN John Gillingham
and Ralph A. Griffiths
MEDIEVAL LITERATURE
Elaine Treharne
MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY
John Marenbon
MEMORY Jonathan K. Foster
METAPHYSICS Stephen Mumford
METHODISM William J. Abraham
THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION
Alan Knight
MICROBIOLOGY Nicholas P. Money
MICROBIOMES Angela E. Douglas
MICROECONOMICS Avinash Dixit
MICROSCOPY Terence Allen
THE MIDDLE AGES Miri Rubin
MILITARY JUSTICE Eugene R. Fidell
MILITARY STRATEGY
Antulio J. Echevarria II
JOHN STUART MILL Gregory Claeys
MINERALS David Vaughan
MIRACLES Yujin Nagasawa
MODERN ARCHITECTURE
Adam Sharr
MODERN ART David Cottington
MODERN BRAZIL Anthony W. Pereira
MODERN CHINA Rana Mitter
MODERN DRAMA
Kirsten E. Shepherd-­Barr
MODERN FRANCE
Vanessa R. Schwartz
MODERN INDIA Craig Jeffrey
MODERN IRELAND Senia Pašeta
MODERN ITALY Anna Cento Bull
MODERN JAPAN
Christopher Goto-­Jones
MODERN LATIN AMERICAN
LITERATURE
Roberto González Echevarría
MODERN WAR Richard English
MODERNISM Christopher Butler
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY Aysha Divan
and Janice A. Royds
MOLECULES Philip Ball
MONASTICISM Stephen J. Davis
THE MONGOLS Morris Rossabi
MONTAIGNE William M. Hamlin
MOONS David A. Rothery
MORMONISM
Richard Lyman Bushman
MOUNTAINS Martin F. Price
MUHAMMAD Jonathan A. C. Brown
MULTICULTURALISM Ali Rattansi
MULTILINGUALISM John C. Maher
MUSIC Nicholas Cook
MUSIC AND TECHNOLOGY
Mark Katz
MYTH Robert A. Segal
NANOTECHNOLOGY Philip Moriarty
NAPOLEON David A. Bell
THE NAPOLEONIC WARS
Mike Rapport
NATIONALISM Steven Grosby
NATIVE AMERICAN LITERATURE
Sean Teuton
NAVIGATION Jim Bennett
NAZI GERMANY Jane Caplan
NEGOTIATION Carrie Menkel-­Meadow
NEOLIBERALISM Manfred B. Steger
and Ravi K. Roy
NETWORKS Guido Caldarelli and
Michele Catanzaro
THE NEW TESTAMENT
Luke Timothy Johnson
THE NEW TESTAMENT AS
LITERATURE Kyle Keefer
NEWTON Robert Iliffe
NIETZSCHE Michael Tanner
NINETEENTH‑CENTURY BRITAIN
Christopher Harvie and
H. C. G. Matthew
THE NORMAN CONQUEST
George Garnett
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
Theda Perdue and Michael D. Green
NORTHERN IRELAND
Marc Mulholland
NOTHING Frank Close
NUCLEAR PHYSICS Frank Close
NUCLEAR POWER Maxwell Irvine
NUCLEAR WEAPONS
Joseph M. Siracusa
NUMBER THEORY Robin Wilson
NUMBERS Peter M. Higgins
NUTRITION David A. Bender
OBJECTIVITY Stephen Gaukroger
OBSERVATIONAL ASTRONOMY
Geoff Cottrell
OCEANS Dorrik Stow
THE OLD TESTAMENT
Michael D. Coogan
THE ORCHESTRA D. Kern Holoman
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Graham Patrick
ORGANIZATIONS Mary Jo Hatch
ORGANIZED CRIME
Georgios A. Antonopoulos and
Georgios Papanicolaou
ORTHODOX CHRISTIANITY
A. Edward Siecienski
OVID Llewelyn Morgan
PAGANISM Owen Davies
PAKISTAN Pippa Virdee
THE PALESTINIAN-­ISRAELI
CONFLICT Martin Bunton
PANDEMICS Christian W. McMillen
PARTICLE PHYSICS Frank Close
PAUL E. P. Sanders
IVAN PAVLOV Daniel P. Todes
PEACE Oliver P. Richmond
PENTECOSTALISM William K. Kay
PERCEPTION Brian Rogers
THE PERIODIC TABLE Eric R. Scerri
PHILOSOPHICAL METHOD
Timothy Williamson
PHILOSOPHY Edward Craig
PHILOSOPHY IN THE ISLAMIC
WORLD Peter Adamson
PHILOSOPHY OF BIOLOGY
Samir Okasha
PHILOSOPHY OF LAW
Raymond Wacks
PHILOSOPHY OF MIND
Barbara Gail Montero
PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICS
David Wallace
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
Samir Okasha
PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION
Tim Bayne
PHOTOGRAPHY Steve Edwards
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY Peter Atkins
PHYSICS Sidney Perkowitz
PILGRIMAGE Ian Reader
PLAGUE Paul Slack
PLANETARY SYSTEMS
Raymond T. Pierrehumbert
PLANETS David A. Rothery
PLANTS Timothy Walker
PLATE TECTONICS Peter Molnar
PLATO Julia Annas
POETRY Bernard O’Donoghue
POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY David Miller
POLITICS Kenneth Minogue
POLYGAMY Sarah M. S. Pearsall
POPULISM Cas Mudde and
Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser
POSTCOLONIALISM
Robert J. C. Young
POSTMODERNISM
Christopher Butler
POSTSTRUCTURALISM
Catherine Belsey
POVERTY Philip N. Jefferson
PREHISTORY Chris Gosden
PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
Catherine Osborne
PRIVACY Raymond Wacks
PROBABILITY John Haigh
PROGRESSIVISM Walter Nugent
PROHIBITION W. J. Rorabaugh
PROJECTS Andrew Davies
PROTESTANTISM Mark A. Noll
PSEUDOSCIENCE Michael D. Gordin
PSYCHIATRY Tom Burns
PSYCHOANALYSIS Daniel Pick
PSYCHOLOGY Gillian Butler and
Freda McManus
PSYCHOLOGY OF MUSIC
Elizabeth Hellmuth Margulis
PSYCHOPATHY Essi Viding
PSYCHOTHERAPY Tom Burns and
Eva Burns-­Lundgren
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Stella Z. Theodoulou and Ravi K. Roy
PUBLIC HEALTH Virginia Berridge
PURITANISM Francis J. Bremer
THE QUAKERS Pink Dandelion
QUANTUM THEORY
John Polkinghorne
RACISM Ali Rattansi
RADIOACTIVITY Claudio Tuniz
RASTAFARI Ennis B. Edmonds
READING Belinda Jack
THE REAGAN REVOLUTION Gil Troy
REALITY Jan Westerhoff
RECONSTRUCTION Allen C. Guelzo
THE REFORMATION Peter Marshall
REFUGEES Gil Loescher
RELATIVITY Russell Stannard
RELIGION Thomas A. Tweed
RELIGION IN AMERICA Timothy Beal
THE RENAISSANCE Jerry Brotton
RENAISSANCE ART
Geraldine A. Johnson
RENEWABLE ENERGY Nick Jelley
REPTILES T. S. Kemp
REVOLUTIONS Jack A. Goldstone
RHETORIC Richard Toye
RISK Baruch Fischhoff and John Kadvany
RITUAL Barry Stephenson
RIVERS Nick Middleton
ROBOTICS Alan Winfield
ROCKS Jan Zalasiewicz
ROMAN BRITAIN Peter Salway
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
Christopher Kelly
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
David M. Gwynn
ROMANTICISM Michael Ferber
ROUSSEAU Robert Wokler
RUSSELL A. C. Grayling
THE RUSSIAN ECONOMY
Richard Connolly
RUSSIAN HISTORY Geoffrey Hosking
RUSSIAN LITERATURE Catriona Kelly
THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
S. A. Smith
SAINTS Simon Yarrow
SAMURAI Michael Wert
SAVANNAS Peter A. Furley
SCEPTICISM Duncan Pritchard
SCHIZOPHRENIA Chris Frith and
Eve Johnstone
SCHOPENHAUER
Christopher Janaway
SCIENCE AND RELIGION
Thomas Dixon and Adam R. Shapiro
SCIENCE FICTION David Seed
THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
Lawrence M. Principe
SCOTLAND Rab Houston
SECULARISM Andrew Copson
SEXUAL SELECTION Marlene Zuk and
Leigh W. Simmons
SEXUALITY Véronique Mottier
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
Stanley Wells
SHAKESPEARE’S COMEDIES
Bart van Es
SHAKESPEARE’S SONNETS AND
POEMS Jonathan F. S. Post
SHAKESPEARE’S TRAGEDIES
Stanley Wells
GEORGE BERNARD SHAW
Christopher Wixson
MARY SHELLEY Charlotte Gordon
THE SHORT STORY Andrew Kahn
SIKHISM Eleanor Nesbitt
SILENT FILM Donna Kornhaber
THE SILK ROAD James A. Millward
SLANG Jonathon Green
SLEEP Steven W. Lockley and
Russell G. Foster
SMELL Matthew Cobb
ADAM SMITH Christopher J. Berry
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
ANTHROPOLOGY
John Monaghan and Peter Just
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Richard J. Crisp
SOCIAL WORK Sally Holland and
Jonathan Scourfield
SOCIALISM Michael Newman
SOCIOLINGUISTICS John Edwards
SOCIOLOGY Steve Bruce
SOCRATES C. C. W. Taylor
SOFT MATTER Tom McLeish
SOUND Mike Goldsmith
SOUTHEAST ASIA James R. Rush
THE SOVIET UNION Stephen Lovell
THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR
Helen Graham
SPANISH LITERATURE Jo Labanyi
THE SPARTANS Andrew J. Bayliss
SPINOZA Roger Scruton
SPIRITUALITY Philip Sheldrake
SPORT Mike Cronin
STARS Andrew King
STATISTICS David J. Hand
STEM CELLS Jonathan Slack
STOICISM Brad Inwood
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
David Blockley
STUART BRITAIN John Morrill
SUBURBS Carl Abbott
THE SUN Philip Judge
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Stephen Blundell
SUPERSTITION Stuart Vyse
SYMMETRY Ian Stewart
SYNAESTHESIA Julia Simner
SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY Jamie A. Davies
SYSTEMS BIOLOGY Eberhard O. Voit
TAXATION Stephen Smith
TEETH Peter S. Ungar
TERRORISM Charles Townshend
THEATRE Marvin Carlson
THEOLOGY David F. Ford
THINKING AND REASONING
Jonathan St B. T. Evans
THOUGHT Tim Bayne
TIBETAN BUDDHISM
Matthew T. Kapstein
TIDES David George Bowers and
Emyr Martyn Roberts
TIME Jenann Ismael
TOCQUEVILLE Harvey C. Mansfield
LEO TOLSTOY Liza Knapp
TOPOLOGY Richard Earl
TRAGEDY Adrian Poole
TRANSLATION Matthew Reynolds
THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES
Michael S. Neiberg
TRIGONOMETRY Glen Van Brummelen
THE TROJAN WAR Eric H. Cline
TRUST Katherine Hawley
THE TUDORS John Guy
TWENTIETH‑CENTURY BRITAIN
Kenneth O. Morgan
TYPOGRAPHY Paul Luna
THE UNITED NATIONS
Jussi M. Hanhimäki
UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
David Palfreyman and Paul Temple
THE U.S. CIVIL WAR Louis P. Masur
THE U.S. CONGRESS Donald A. Ritchie
THE U.S. CONSTITUTION
David J. Bodenhamer
THE U.S. SUPREME COURT
Linda Greenhouse
UTILITARIANISM
Katarzyna de Lazari-­Radek and
Peter Singer
UTOPIANISM Lyman Tower Sargent
VATICAN II Shaun Blanchard and
Stephen Bullivant
VETERINARY SCIENCE James Yeates
THE VIKINGS Julian D. Richards
VIOLENCE Philip Dwyer
THE VIRGIN MARY
Mary Joan Winn Leith
THE VIRTUES Craig A. Boyd and
Kevin Timpe
VIRUSES Dorothy H. Crawford
VOLCANOES Michael J. Branney and
Jan Zalasiewicz
VOLTAIRE Nicholas Cronk
WAR AND RELIGION Jolyon Mitchell
and Joshua Rey
WAR AND TECHNOLOGY Alex Roland
WATER John Finney
WAVES Mike Goldsmith
WEATHER Storm Dunlop
THE WELFARE STATE David Garland
WITCHCRAFT Malcolm Gaskill
WITTGENSTEIN A. C. Grayling WORLD WAR II
WORK Stephen Fineman Gerhard L. Weinberg
WORLD MUSIC Philip Bohlman WRITING AND SCRIPT
WORLD MYTHOLOGY David Leeming Andrew Robinson
THE WORLD TRADE ZIONISM Michael Stanislawski
ORGANIZATION Amrita Narlikar ÉMILE ZOLA Brian Nelson

Available soon:
IMAGINATION THE VICTORIANS
Jennifer Gosetti-­Ferencei Martin Hewitt

For more information visit our website

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 Manfred B. Steger

GLOBALIZATION
A Very Short Introduction
sixth edition
 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Manfred B. Steger 2023
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First edition published 2003
Second edition published 2009
Third edition published 2013
Fourth edition published 2017
Fifth edition published 2020
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
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contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
In memory of Roland Robertson (1938–2022),
Model scholar, colleague, friend
Contents

Preface to the sixth edition xix

List of illustrations xxiii

List of maps xxv

List of figures xxvii

List of tables xxix

List of abbreviations xxxi

1 What is globalization? 1

2 Globalization in history 12

3 The economic and technological dimensions of globalization 34

4 The political dimension of globalization 66

5 The cultural dimension of globalization 83

6 The ecological dimension of globalization 95

7 Ideological confrontations over globalization 111

8 Present and future trends 127

References and further reading 137

Index 145
Preface to the sixth edition

It is a gratifying experience to present readers with the sixth

edition of a short book that has been so well received—­not only in
the English-­speaking world, but around the world in more than
20 languages. The necessary task of updating and expanding this
edition has been difficult in light of major global problems such as
pandemics, soaring inflation, social inequality, climate change,
cyber attacks, mass migrations, trade wars, job precarity, and the
resurgence of nationalisms. Hence, it seems appropriate to refer to
the present era as the ‘Great Unsettling’—shorthand for the
intensifying global dynamics of volatility, insecurity, and
dislocation. Two recent events, in particular, have added to this
disconcerting moment in human history.

First, starting in 2020, the COVID-­19 pandemic swept across the

world, uprooting the lives of its 7.8 billion inhabitants. By early
2023, official numbers showed that over 600 million people had
contracted multiple variants of the disease, resulting in more than
7 million confirmed deaths. But the actual toll is likely much higher.
Fortunately, effective vaccines were developed very quickly and by
August 2022, more than 12 billion shots had been administered. For
globalization scholars, this once-­in-­a-­century health crisis proved to
be an especially challenging research topic, since it required a
multi-­disciplinary approach to understanding the complexities
involved in the spread and possible containment of the virus.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
centuries of our era we find these Alans mentioned (Pliny, N. H., IV,
80; Dionysius Perigetes, 305, 306; Fl. Josephus, Bell. Jud., VII, VII,
4; Ptolemy, etc.), as neighbors of the Sarmatians on this side or the
other of the Don, living the same life and counting as one of their
tribes. That is, that the Ossetes, Jasy, Alans, Sarmatians[4] are all of
one stock, once nomad, now confined to the valleys of the central
chain of the Caucasus. The Ossetes are tall, well-made, and inclined
to be fair, corresponding to the description of the Alans in Ammianus
(XXXI, II, 21) and their Iranian language answers to the accounts of
the Sarmatians, of whom Pliny says ‘Medorum ut ferunt soboles’ (N.
H., VI, 19).”
4. The author agrees with Zaborowski and differs from Minns in his belief that
the Ossetes are of Nordic stock while the Sarmatians were Alpines.
Chantre found among the Ossetes 30 per cent of blonds. See
Chantre, 2.
66 : 16. Alans. See Jordanes, History of the Goths, Mierow
translation. Procopius, writing about 550 A. D., says: “At this time
the Alani and the Absagi were Christians and friends of the Romans
of old and lived in the neighborhood of the Caucasus.” In his vol. III,
chap. II, 2–8, we read of the period from 395–425 A. D. “There were
many Gothic nations in earlier times just as also at the present, but
the greatest and most important of all are the Goths, Vandals,
Visigoths and Gepædes. In ancient times, however, they were named
Sauromatæ and Melanchlæni, and there were some too who called
these nations Getic. All these, while they are distinguished from one
another by their names, as has been said, do not differ in anything
else at all. For they all have white bodies and fair hair and are tall
and handsome to look upon, and they use the same laws, and
practise a common religion. For they are all of the Arian faith and
have one language called ‘Gothic.’” (Procopius thinks they all came
originally from one tribe, and were distinguished later by the names
of those who led each group of old. They dwelt north of the Danube
and later the Gepædes took possession of the portion south of the
river. In regard to the derivation of the Goths and other tribes from
the Sauromatæ, compare the note on Sarmatians, for p. 143 : 21.) As
to the Goths in the Crimea see Zeuss, Die Deutschen, pp. 432 seq.; F.
Kluge, Geschichte der götischen Sprache, pp. 515 seq. Crim-götisch
existed as a language in southern Russia up to the 16th century.
 66 : 23. Scythians. See the note to p. 214 : 10.
66: 24. Indo-European. The earliest known occurrence of this term
is in an article in The Quarterly Review for 1813, written by Doctor
Thomas Young (no. XIX, p. 225).
Indo-Germanic. This term, although said not to have been
invented by Klaproth, was used by him as early as 1823. See Leo
Meyer, in Über den Ursprung der Namen Indo-Germanen, Semiten
und Ugro-finner, Göttingergelehrte Nachrichten, philologisch-
historische Klasse, 1901, pp. 454 seq.
67 : 4. The idea of an Aryan race was first promulgated by Oscar
Schrader in his Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte. That there
was an original Aryan tongue but no Aryan race was the idea of
Broca. Pösche identified the Aryans with the Reihengraber type.
Consult also Penka, Herkunft der Arier and Origines Ariacæ.
67 : 12. See Zaborowski, 1, pp. 1–10.
67 : 15. See the notes to p. 70: 22 seq.
67 : 19. See the notes to p. 242: 5.
68 : 11. See pp. 192–193 and elsewhere, in this book.

CHAPTER VI. RACE AND LANGUAGE

69 : 10. See T. Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 185–199. The same thing may
have happened in Britain at Cæsar’s conquest, and still more in the
Saxon conquest.
70 : 4 seq. See p. 206 : 13 and note.
70 : 12–71: 6. These paragraphs elicited a very interesting letter
from a British officer in Howrah, Bengal, India, in October, 1919. He
says: “May I offer one or two remarks on points of detail? On p. 70 it
is stated ‘The Hindu to-day speaks a very ancient form of Aryan
language but there remains not one recognizable trace of the blood of
the white conquerors who poured in through the passes of the
Northwest,’ and again at p. 261, ‘Of all the wonderful conquests of
the Sacæ there remain as evidence of their invasions only these
Indian and Afghan languages. Dim traces of their blood, as stated
before, have been found in the Pamirs and in Afghanistan, but in the
South their blond traits have vanished, even from the Punjab. It may
be that the stature of some of the Afghan hill tribes and of the Sikhs,
and some of the facial characters of the latter, are derived from this
source, but all blondness of skin, hair and eye of the original Sacæ
have utterly vanished.’
“This hardly agrees with my own observations during two years’
service in the Punjab and Northwest Frontier Province. I should say
that among the Pathans living in British territory about Peshawar,
blond traits,—fair skin, the color of old ivory, red or brown hair, grey,
green, or blue eyes,—are as common as really black hair is in
Scotland; while among Panjabi Mussulmans living about Jhelum
these traits are, if not common, at least not extremely rare. Judging
from the experience of one squadron of cavalry, I should put the
proportion of men with blond traits at not less than one per cent. The
women, whom one does not see, must be fairer than the men, as
elsewhere. I have seen a small Panjabi Mahommedan girl, from
about Dera Ismail Khan with yellow hair. I have also seen a Sikh
with red hair, but that was certainly exceptional.
“These remarks are based on what I have seen myself, though no
statistics are kept and it is possible that I am generalizing from
insufficient data. It would not, however, I think, be too much to say
that ‘Blond traits are not uncommon in Afghanistan, and are even to
be found among Mussulmans in the Northwestern Panjab.’ (Afghans
and Indian Mussulmans of course sometimes dye their beards red,
but this artificial blondness has not been confused with the real
thing.)”
The following quotation is from The Outlook for March 10, 1920,
which contains an article entitled “The Present Situation in India,”
by Major-General Thomas D. Pilcher, of the British Army.
“Beside these castes there are tribes, and the Brahmin from the
Punjab has very little indeed in common with the Brahmin from
Bengal or Madras. Many Pathans and Punjabi Mohammedans have
blue eyes and are no darker than a southern European, whereas
some of the depressed tribes are as black as Negroes. Many of the
northern peoples are at least as tall as men of our own race, whereas
other tribes do not average five feet.”
70 : 16. Castes. Deniker, 2, p. 403: “About 2,000 castes may be
enumerated at the present day, but year by year new ones are being
called into existence as a certain number disappear.” In his footnote
Deniker says: “The so-called primitive division into four castes:
Brahmans (priests), Kshatriya (soldiers), Vaisyas (husbandmen and
merchants), and Sudra (common people, outcasts, subject peoples?),
mentioned in the later texts of the Vedas, is rather an indication of
the division into three principal classes of the ruling race as opposed,
in a homogeneous whole, to the conquered aboriginal race (fourth
caste).” He continues: “The essential characteristics of all castes,
persisting amid every change of form, are endogamy within
themselves and the regulation forbidding them to come into contact
one with another and partake of food together.”
See also Zaborowski, Les peuples aryens, p. 65. There is, of course,
an enormous number of books which deal with the caste system of
India.
71 : 7. Sir G. Archdall Reid, 2, p. 186: “If history teaches any lesson
with clearness, it is this, that conquest, to be permanent, must be
accompanied with extermination; otherwise, in the fulness of time,
the natives expel or absorb the conquerors. The Saxon conquest of
England was permanent; of the Norman conquest there remains
scarcely a trace.”
71 : 24. See pp. 217–222 and notes.
72 : 4. See the notes to p. 141 : 4 seq.
72 : 19. Ripley, pp. 219–220, says: “The race question in Germany
came to the front some years ago under rather peculiar
circumstances. Shortly after the Franco-Prussian War, De
Quatrefages promulgated the theory ... that the dominant people in
Germany were not Teutons at all, but were directly descended from
the Finns. Being nothing but Finns, they were to be classed with the
Lapps and other peoples of western Russia.... Coming at a time of
profound national humiliation in France ... the book created a
profound sensation.... A champion of the Germans was not hard to
find. Professor Virchow of Berlin set himself to work to disprove the
theory which thus damned the dominant people of the empire. The
controversy, half political and half scientific, waxed hot at times....
One great benefit flowed indirectly from it all, however. The German
government was induced to authorize the official census of the color
of hair and eyes of the six million school children of the empire.... It
established beyond question the differences in pigmentation between
the North and the South of Germany. At the same time it showed the
similarity in blondness between all the peoples along the Baltic. The
Hohenzollern territory was as Teutonic in this respect as the
Hanoverian.”
73 : 6. Deniker is one of these. See his Races of Man, p. 334.
Collignon is another. See the Bulletin de la Société d’anthropologie,
Paris, 1883, p. 463; and L’Anthropologie, no. 2, for 1890.
73 : 11. See Keith, 3, p. 19; Beddoe, 4, p. 39; and Ripley, section on
Germany.
73 : 19. Beddoe, 4, pp. 39–40; Deniker, 2, p. 339; Ripley, p. 294.
74 : 12. See the note to p. 198 : 22.

CHAPTER VII. THE EUROPEAN RACES IN COLONIES

76 : 16. An old edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica states: “The

pure white population [of Venezuela] is estimated at only one per
cent of the whole, the remainder of the inhabitants being Negroes
(originally slaves, now all free), Indians and mixed races (Mulattoes
and Zambos).”
The 11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica estimates the
percentage of whites, the creole element (whites of European
descent), at 10 per cent, as in Colombia, and the mixed races at 70
per cent, the remainder consisting of Africans, Indians and resident
foreigners.
76 : 19. Jamaica. The New International Encyclopedia, 1915
edition, gives as follows figures which agree with the 1915
Statesman’s Yearbook:
Year White Colored Black Others Total
1861 13,816 81,065 346,374 441,255
1871 13,101 100,346 392,707 506,154
1881 14,432 109,946 444,186 12,240 580,804
1891 14,692 121,955 488,624 14,220 639,491
1911 15,605 163,201 630,181 [5]22,396 831,383
5. East Indians, 17,380; Chinese, 2,111; not stated, 2,905.
76 : 21. The 11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica gives the
entire population of Mexico as 13,607,259, of which less than one-
fifth (19 per cent) were classed as whites, 38 per cent as Indians, and
43 per cent as mixed bloods. There were 57,507 foreign residents,
including a few Chinese and Filipinos.
78 : 5. The Argentine Republic. In 1810 the population was
approximately 250,000; in 1895, 3,955,110; in 1914, 7,885,237. For a
total of fifty-nine years in which the statistics have been kept, the
number of immigrants from Montevideo is 4,711,013. They were
divided by nationality as follows:

Italians 2,259,933
Spaniards 1,492,848
French 225,049
English 56,448
Austrians 81,186
Swiss 33,326
Germans 62,329
Belgians 23,091
Russians 135,962
Ottomans 121,177
Other nationalities 189,664

For added information on the Argentine, see the Statistical Book

of the Argentine Republic, 1915; Argentine Geography, published by
Urien & Colombo; and Juan Alsina’s European Immigration to the
Argentine.
78 : 22. Philippines. The following figures were taken from the
New International Encyclopedia and the Statesman’s Yearbook for
1915. The size of the population was established in June, 1914.

Total population 8,650,937

Native-born 6,931,548 or 99.2%
Chinese 41,035 or 0.6%
Americans and Europeans 20,000 or 0.3%

The natives are mostly of the Malayan race with the exception of
25,000 Negrito tribesmen.
78 : 24. Dutch East Indies. The figures are taken from the census
of 1905.
 Total population is approximately 38,000,000
Europeans 80,910
Chinese 563,000
Arabs 29,000
Other Orientals 23,000

78 : 25. British India. The figures are from the census of 1911:

Total population 315,156,396

(Of these 650,502 were not born in India.)

The remainder are divided according to the languages spoken:

East Asiatics 4,410,000

Tibeto-Chinese 12,970,000
Dravidian 62,720,000
Aryan 232,820,000
European 320,000

81 : 5. See Francis Parkman, The Old Régime in Canada, vol. II,

pp. 12 and 13.
82 : 10. See Sir Harry Johnston, The Negro in the New World, p.
343.
83 : 8. See the Genealogical Records of the Society of the Colonial
Wars.
84 : 6. See the notes to p. 38.
84 : 11 seq. A letter from Abraham C. Strite, a lawyer of
Hagerstown, Maryland, contains additional information on the so-
called Pennsylvania Dutch. Mr. Strite says: “They are not Palatine
Germans, but largely Swiss who speak a dialect of German. The
writer happens to be of this stock. Its characteristics are round head,
black hair, dark brown eyes, stocky stature, brunet type, all clearly
indicating, according to your analysis, an Alpine origin. This
description fairly well averages up the prevailing Pennsylvania Dutch
type of this section although there are some red heads and some
blonds which would indicate a Nordic admixture, again meeting your
argument. There are many other varieties of Teutons in this section,
but I am confining my remarks to the class known as the
Pennsylvania Dutch. I have never made any head measurements
among them but I am of the opinion that the round-headed type
vastly predominates. The ancestors of these people emigrated from
southern Europe, mostly Switzerland, in quite some numbers
between the years 1700 and 1775, and settled in Lancaster County,
Pa.; from thence they have spread out over the adjoining sections of
Pennsylvania, down through the Cumberland valley and into the
valley of Virginia, and to-day they form an important element of the
population. They are the organizers in America of the religious sect
known as the Mennonites.
“The early settlers of Germantown who were Mennonites, were of
Palatine stock. Of this there can be no doubt. Later immigration to
Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, which constituted the bulk of the
Pennsylvania Dutch stock will be found, I think, largely to have come
from Switzerland, although not exclusively. Rupp’s 30,000 Names of
Immigrants to America gives the names, dates and sailings of this
Mennonite stock. Your conclusions are correct enough for all
practical purposes but it seemed to me that the immigrants from
Switzerland and from the Palatinate might be distinguished.”
Doctor C. P. Noble, of Radnor, Pa., writes concerning the
Pennsylvania Dutch: “I have seen much of them as patients and as I
have observed them they have the medium stature and stocky build
of the Alpines, also they have, usually, broad, round faces which are
associated with brachycephaly and certainly they have always
exhibited peasant traits. Moreover, it is unusual to find a blond
among them.”
Doctor Jordan, of the Pennsylvania Historical Society, furnished
Doctor Noble with some data concerning them. That there were
some Alpine elements among them will appear from what follows.
Doctor Jordan agreed that the present day Pennsylvania Germans
are almost exclusively brunet, with stocky bodies of moderate height.
Existing portraits of various leaders among them when they arrived
in Pennsylvania showed the same types. Furthermore, Doctor
Jordan’s extensive reading of early documents relating to them tends
to confirm the belief that the present day descendants represent the
original types. Tall blonds are very rare among them.
Doctor Noble knows some individuals with Nordic traits, but these
were acquired by intermarriage with Anglo-Saxons. Most of these
groups came from southern Germany, from Silesia on the east to the
Palatinate on the west.
The following are Doctor Jordan’s notes:
Moravians. They were located in Pennsylvania, at first in
Bethlehem and later in Nazareth. The land in Nazareth was
purchased of Whitfield, the predestinarian Methodist.
The Moravian immigration was carefully supervised. The church
either owned or chartered the vessels which brought over the
immigrants. Frequently it was definitely arranged as to how many
artisans of each trade should come over so that they would prosper
on arrival.
The Moravian immigration was small—about 500 up to 1750. Until
about 1840 the Moravian settlements were closed towns—no non-
Moravians could buy property.
Not one quarter of the present Moravians are descendants of the
early settlers. The rest are converts or descendants of converts. A
connection exists between the Moravians, Huss and his Protestant
followers, and the Waldenses. A short résumé of this will be found in
the Encyclopædia Britannica—under Huss and Moravians—from
the world standpoint.
Moravians migrated from Bohemia to Saxony and were protected
by Count Zinzendorf—a liberal Lutheran—and lived on his estates.
He assisted in their migration to Pennsylvania. Some went to
Georgia and later to Pennsylvania.
Schwenkfelders. These were the followers of Kaspar
Schwenkenfeld (1490–1561). See the Encyclopædia Britannica for a
short account. They formed a sect in Silesia which has persisted. In
1720 a commission of Jesuits was sent to convert them by force.
Most of them fled into Saxony and were protected by Count
Zinzendorf. From thence they migrated to Holland, England and
Pennsylvania. Frederick the Great, when he seized Silesia, protected
those remaining there.
 Ursinus College, Collegeville, is Schwenkfelder. The sect is not
large and was located in or around Montgomery County. Their
migration to Saxony and also to Pennsylvania antedated that of the
Moravians. Generally speaking, they have been much more
aggressive and vigorous than the Moravians.
The Dunkards, Mennonites, Amish, and Seventh Day Baptists
(Wissahickon and Ephrata, Pennsylvania), came from south
Germany and the Palatinate.
The Harmony Society, small in numbers, the Lutherans and
German Reformed, came largely from south Germany and the
Palatinate, but also from other parts of Germany. The Lutherans and
the Reformed were the large sects in Pennsylvania.
Germans from the Hudson valley migrated to Berks County
around Reading. The Swedes in New Jersey were almost exclusively
below Philadelphia—from Gloucester down the Delaware River.
Before the Revolution there were about 30,000 Germans in
Pennsylvania, out of a total estimated population of 100,000 to
120,000.
84 : 16. Scotch-Irish. See The Scotch-Irish in America, by Henry
Jones Ford; and also Sir George Trevelyan on the Irish Protestants in
chap. XI, vol. II, of George III and Charles Fox.
87 : 24. In this connection it is interesting to note that an early
Egyptian king said almost the same concerning the negroes of his
time. The quotation is taken from Hall’s Ancient History of the Near
East, pp. 161–162, and is a translation of a portion of the manifesto
of Senusert III, of the XIIth dynasty, which he caused to be set up at
the time of the Nubian wars: “Vigor is valiant, but cowardice is vile.
He is a coward who is vanquished on his own frontier, since the
negro will fall prostrate at a word; answer him, and he retreats; if one
is vigorous, he turns his back, retiring even when on the way to
attack. Behold, these people have nothing terrible about them; they
are feeble and insignificant; they have buttocks for hearts. I have
seen it, even I, the majesty; it is no lie....”
88 : 9. Barrett Wendell, A Literary History of America, chap. III.
88 : 28. The belief in the approximation of the Anglo-Saxon in
America to the Amerindian is widespread, but is entirely without
justification, scientific or otherwise.
 89 : 1. Hall, Immigration Restriction and World Eugenics, and
especially his Immigration, pp. 107–112.
91 : 1. Hall, 2.
94 : 1. Beddoe, 5, p. 416. For similar conclusions see DeLapouge,
passim; G. Retzius, 3; and Roese, Beiträge zur Europäischen
Rassenkunde. Fleure and James, pp. 125 and 151–152 make similar
observations.
 PART II
EUROPEAN RACES IN HISTORY

CHAPTER I. EOLITHIC MAN

97 : 10. Osborn, 1, the tables on pp. 18 and 41.

98 : 15. Galton, pp. 309–310; Woods, 1, chap. XVIII.
99 : 5–10. A Statistical Study of American Men of Science, J.
McKeen Cattell, especially Science, vol. XXXII, no. 828, pp. 553–555.
99 : 22. The authorities quoted by J. B. Bury in his History of
Greece are complete and concise. In chap. I he discusses the Dorian
conquest from p. 57 forward, and the Homeric-Mycenæan period
(1600–1100 B. C.) from p. 20. A very interesting instance of the truth
of the picture of Mycenæan culture as drawn by Homer occurs on p.
50, where it is stated that much described by the poet, even to small
articles, has been unearthed during archæological investigations.
“Although the poets who composed the Iliad and Odyssey probably
did not live before the ninth century, they derived their matter from
older lays.”
99 : 27. Crete. For systems of Cretan writing see Sir Arthur J.
Evans, Cretan Pictographs and Pre-Phœnician Script, Further
Discoveries of Cretan and Ægean Script, Reports of Excavations at
Cnossus, Prehistoric Tombs of Knossos, and Scripta Minoa. That the
aboriginal “Eteocretan” language existed until historic times is
attested by the discoveries of later inscriptions belonging to the fifth
and succeeding centuries B. C., which were written in Greek letters at
this time but in the indigenous, undecipherable tongue. They are
described by Comparetti, Mon. Ant., III, pp. 451 seq., and by R. S.
Conway, 2, 3, especially pp. 125 seq., in vol. VIII. In 1908 another
discovery was made by the Italian Mission at Phæstus, of a clay disk
with printed hieroglyphics which did not belong to the Cretan system
of writing. It is supposed to have come from Asia Minor.
For other discoveries in Crete and other authorities see R. M.
Burrowes, C. H. and H. B. Dawes. On Cretan pottery see Sir Duncan
Mackenzie, 2, and Sir Arthur Evans, 2. Sir Duncan Mackenzie also
has a book on the Cretan palaces. Bury, in his History of Greece, pp.
9 seq., gives a brief description of Crete as revealed by archæologists.
According to them, the palaces of Cnossus and Phæstus were erected
before 2100 B. C., when Cretan civilization was well advanced. See
also the note to p. 119 : 1 of this book.
99 : 28. Azilian period. See p. 115 of this book.
100 : 20 seq. Osborn, 1, p. 49 seq., and the note VII of the
appendix. See also the notes to p. 13 of this book.
100 : 28. Progressive dessication. Ellsworth Huntington, 2.
101 : 5. Arboreal Man. See the work of W. K. Gregory, especially 3,
p. 277; and John C. Merriam, pp. 203 and 206–207.
101 : 12. Osborn, 1, note VII, p. 511, of the appendix; and Merriam,
pp. 205–208.
101 : 15. J. Pilgrim, The Correlation of the Siwaliks with Mammal
Horizons of Europe.
101 : 21. Java and the Pithecanthropus erectus. Dubois, E. Fischer,
and particularly G. Schwalbe. For the land connection of Java with
the mainland see Alfred Russel Wallace’s Island Life, and The
Geography of Mammals, by W. L. and P. L. Sclater.
101 : 27. Gunz glaciation. See Osborn’s table of Geologic Time, in 1,
p. 41. The date given here is that made by Penck.
102 : 1. W. D. Matthew, Revision of the Lower Eocene Primates,
and W. K. Gregory, The Evolution of the Primates.
102 : 13. Schoetensack, Der Unterkiefer des Homo
Heidelbergensis aus den Sanden von Mauer bei Heidelberg im
Beitrag zur Paläontologie des Menschen.
102 : 21. At the beginning of this Eolithic period wood was used for
clubs and probably as levers along with the chance flints. Perhaps it
was employed even earlier, but of course no remains would come
down to us.

CHAPTER II. PALEOLITHIC MAN

For the material in this chapter the authorities, such as Cartailhac,

Boule, Breuil, Obermaier and Rutot are all given in Osborn, 1,
together with useful discussions of the evidence. In special instances
additional sources are inserted here.
105 : 17. Piltdown Man. See Charles Dawson, the discoverer, 1, 2
and 3. There is a tremendous bibliography on the Piltdown Man.
106 : 1. The Jaw of the Piltdown Man, Gerrit S. Miller. From a
later paper by Mr. Miller (2) we quote the following from pp. 43–44:
“The combined characters of the jaw, molars and skull were made
the basis of a genus Eoanthropus, placed in the family Hominidæ....
While the brain case is human in structure, the jaw and teeth have
not yet been shown to present any character diagnostic of man; the
recognized features in which they resemble human jaws and teeth
are merely those which men and apes possess in common. On the
other hand, the symphyseal region of the jaw, the canine tooth and
the molars are unlike those known to occur in any race of men....
Until the combination of a human brain case and nasal bones with
an ape-like mandible, ape-like lower molars and an ape-like upper
canine has actually been seen in one animal, the ordinary procedure
of both zoology and paleontology would refer each set of fragments
to a member of the family which the characters indicate. The name
Eoanthropus dawsoni has therefore been restricted to the human
elements of the original composite (Family Hominidæ), and the
name Pan vetus has been proposed for the animal represented by the
jaw (Family Pongidæ).”
See also The Dawn Man of Piltdown, England, by W. K. Gregory.
Ray Lancaster has made some interesting observations and is the
most recent authority on this subject.
106 : 14. On the Neanderthal Man see Osborn and his authorities.
107 : 21. A note on p. 385 of Rice Holmes’s Ancient Britain is
useful in this connection. “MM. de Quatrefages and Hamy affirm
that the Neanderthal race has left a permanent imprint on the
population, and refer to various skulls of the Neolithic and later
periods which resemble more or less closely that of Neanderthal.
Moreover, it is generally admitted that even at the present day a few
individuals here and there belong to the same type. But it does not
follow that these persons to whom Dr. Beddoe and M. Hamy refer
were descended from men who lived in Britain in the Paleolithic
age.”
 Taylor, Origin of the Aryans, mentions several famous men who
had typical Neanderthal skulls, among them Robert Bruce.
108 : 1 seq. Beddoe, 4, pp. 265–266; Ripley, pp. 326–334, but
especially pp. 266, 330–331.
108: 16. Alés Hrdlička, The Most Ancient Skeletal Remains of
Man, considers the Neanderthal type extinct, as do Keith, Antiquity
of Man, passim, and A. C. Haddon. Consult Barnard Davis,
Thesaurus Craniorum, especially p. 70, and Beddoe, 2, as well as
Osborn, 1, p. 217.
108 : 18. Firbolgs. See the note above to line 1; also Taylor, Origin
of the Aryans, p. 78.
109 : 8. Broca, according to Osborn, is responsible for this theory.
109 : 17 seq. See pp. 329 seq. of Galton’s Hereditary Genius.
110 : 8. In Dordogne, France, there are people who look as it is
thought the Cro-Magnons did. These modern people may belong to
that type in the same way that here and there people resembling the
Neanderthals are still found. In Dordogne these Cro-Magnon
features are quite common, and differ markedly from those of other
Frenchmen. For studies of this type see Collignon, 1. For full
discussions of the ancient Cro-Magnons see Keith, 1 and 2, and
Osborn, 1.
110 : 11. Dr. Charles B. Davenport, in correspondence, remarks:
“There can be no doubt that the prolific shall inherit the earth or the
proletariat shall inherit the earth, which is etymologically the same
thing. We see this law in action in Russia to-day.... Can we build a
wall high enough around this country, so as to keep out these
cheaper races, or will it be only a feeble dam which will make the
flood all the worse when it breaks? Or should we admit the four
million picks and shovels which many of our capitalists are urging
Congress to admit in order to secure what wealth we can for the
moment, leaving it for our descendants to abandon the country to
the blacks, browns and yellows, and seek an asylum in New Zealand?
I am inclined to think that the thing to do is to make better selection
of immigrants, admitting them in fairly large numbers so long as we
can sift out the defective strains.”
111 : 20 seq. É. Cartailhac says, in La France préhistorique: “The
race of Cro-Magnon is well determined. There is no doubt about
their high stature and Topinard is not the only one who believes that
they were blonds.” See also G. Retzius, 3. But he derives the Nordics
from them. On the other hand, the Dordogne people to-day are dark,
and many anthropologists are inclined to the belief that the Cro-
Magnons were brunets, a theory in which the writer heartily concurs.
112 : 1. L’Abbé H. Breuil, Les subdivisions du paléolithique
supérieur et leur signification, pp. 203–205. Other writers such as
Nilsson and Dawkins have also held this theory.
112 : 21. One of the few references to the bare possibility of a
Magdalenian dog occurs in Obermaier’s El Hombre Fósil, the
footnote on pp. 221 and 223. From this it appears that certain
conclusions are drawn that if the Alpera paintings are of late
Magdalenian age, if certain nondescript animals in those paintings
are intended for dogs and if those dogs are meant to be in a state of
domestication, then there can be no doubt whatever that the dog was
domesticated in Magdalenian times. But Obermaier does not feel
that this furnishes satisfactory proof.
112 : 25–p. 113. Bow and Arrow. Obermaier, 1, chap. V, The Upper
Paleolithic, p. 112, says: “The coarse stone implements of the lower
Paleolithic no longer exist, being replaced by an industry of very fine
flints and ... certain lances with points made of bone, horn or ivory,
which were very generally used. The use of the bow is proved by
certain representations in mural pictures (i. e., the Archers of Alpera,
etc., eastern Spain, Magdalenian; Archer of Laussel, France,
Aurignacian).” See the corresponding plates in chap. VII.
On p. 217 of chap. VII, Quaternary Art, there is a man depicted in
the pose of an archer. On p. 239 Obermaier says: “Among ... [the
paintings of Alpera] are sketches of more than 70 human figures, ...
13 are shown in the act of shooting an arrow at other men or
animals.”[6] On p. 241 he continues: “The paintings of eastern Spain
of Quaternary age also show archers.” A recent letter from the Abbé
Henri Breuil says that the bow and arrow did not exist in France in
Paleolithic times, and he is, of course, aware of the Laussel figure
found by Lalanne and referred to by Obermaier as proof. Alpera is
agreed by Obermaier to be of Tardenoisian age, consequently of the
transition period to the Neolithic. Beside Alpera, the only other
instance of pictured bows and arrows noted occurs at Calpatá, said to
be of Upper Paleolithic age and Capsian industry.
 6. If the Alpera paintings are of this (Magdalenian?) period, then the bow
certainly existed at this time, but there is reason to believe that the paintings
belong to a later epoch.
See Fig. 174, p. 353, of Osborn, 1, giving a large bison drawing in
the cavern of Niaux on the Ariège, showing the supposed spear or
arrowheads, attached to large shafts, which are represented as
having pierced its side. On p. 354 Osborn says: “It is possible,
although not probable, that the bow was introduced at this time and
that a less perfect flint point, fastened to a shaft like an arrowhead,
and projected with great velocity and accuracy, proved to be far more
effective than the spear.... From these drawings and symbols (Fig.
174), it would appear that barbed weapons of some kind were used in
the chase, but no barbed flints occur at any time in the Paleolithic,
nor has any trace been found of bone barbed arrowheads, or any
direct evidence of the existence of the bow.” On p. 410: “Here
[Cavern of Niaux] for the first time are revealed the early
Magdalenian methods of hunting the bison, for upon their flanks are
clearly traced one or more arrow or spear heads with the shafts still
attached; the most positive proof of the use of the arrow is the
apparent termination of the wooden shaft in the feathers which are
rudely represented in three of the drawings.”
113 : 3. Osborn, p. 456: “The flint industry [of the Azilian]
continues the degeneration begun in the Magdalenian and exhibits a
new life and impulse only in the fashioning of extremely small or
microlithic tools and weapons known as ‘Tardenoisian.’” See also pp.
465–475 for a more complete discussion and their distribution as
traced by de Mortillet. Also Breuil, 2, pp. 2–6, and 3, pp. 165–238,
but especially pp. 232–233.
Osborn continues, p. 450: “If it is true ... that Europe at the same
time became more densely forested, the chase may have become
more difficult and the Cro-Magnons may have begun to depend more
and more upon the life of the streams and the art of fishing. It is
generally agreed that the harpoons were chiefly used for fishing, and
that many of the microlithic flints, which now begin to appear more
abundantly, may have been attached to a shaft for the same purpose.
We know that similar microliths were used as arrowpoints in pre-
dynastic Egypt.”
The microliths may have been used on darts for bird hunting.
 113 : 21. See Osborn, pp. 333 seq., and in this book the note to p.
143 : 13 on the Tripolje culture.
115 : 9. Compare what Rice Holmes has to say on pp. 99–100 of his
Ancient Britain.
117 : 18. Maglemose. This culture was first found and described by
G. F. L. Sarauw, in a work entitled En Stenolden Boplads:
Maglemose ved Mullerup. The same material is given in “Trouvaille
fait dans le nord de l’Europe datant de la période de l’hiatus,” in the
Congrès préhistorique de France. A site equivalent to the
Maglemose in culture, but discovered later, is described in “Une
trouvaille de l’ancien âge de la pierre” (Braband), by MM. Thomsen
and Jessen. See also Obermaier, 2, pp. 467–469.
117 : 23. The Abbé Breuil, Les peintures rupestres d’Espagne (with
Serrano Gomez and Cabre Aguilo), IV, “Les Abris del Bosque à
Alpéra (Albacete)” says: “Other peoples known at present only from
their industries, were advancing toward the close of the Upper
Paleolithic along the northern and southern shores of the Baltic and
persisted for an appreciable time before the arrival of the tribes
introducing the early Neolithic-Campignian culture which
accumulated in the Kitchen Middens along the same shores. Like the
southern races of the Azilian-Tardenoisian times these northerly
tribes were truly Pre-Neolithic, ignorant of both agriculture and
pottery; they brought with them no domesticated animals excepting
the dog, which is known at Mugem, at Tourasse and at Oban, in
northwestern Scotland.”

CHAPTER III. THE NEOLITHIC AND BRONZE AGES

119: 1. See the Osborn tables. As evidence of far earlier dates of the
Neolithic in the east we may quote Sir A. J. Evans, 2, p. 721. He
calculates that the earliest settlement at Knossos in Crete, which was
Neolithic, is about 12,000 years old, for he assumes that in the
western court of the palace the average rate of deposit was fairly
continuous. Professor Montelius, in L’Anthropologie, t. XVII, p. 137,
argues from the stratigraphy of finds at Susa that the beginning of
the Neolithic Age in the east may be dated about 18,000 B. C.
119: 6. See the note to p. 147.
 119: 15. Balkh. Balkh, in Afghanistan, was the capital of Bactria, the
ancient name of the country between the range of the Hindu Kush
and the Oxus, and is now for the most part a mass of ruins, situated
on the right bank of the Balkh River. The antiquity and greatness of
the place are recognized by the native populations who speak of it as
the “Mother of Cities,” and it is certain that at a very early date it was
the rival of Ecbatana, Nineveh, and Babylon.
Bactria was subjugated by Cyrus and from then on formed one of
the satrapies of the Persian Empire. Zaborowski, 1, p. 43, says: “After
the conquests of Alexander there was founded a Greco-Bactrian
kingdom ... which embraced Sogdiana, Bactria and Afghanistan. The
Greco-Bactrian kings struck a quantity of coins. They bore a double
legend, the one Greek, the other still called Bactrian, which is not
Zend, nor even the language really spoken in Bactria. It is a popular
dialect derived from Sanskrit.” Again on p. 185: “Zend has been
called, and is still called, Bactrian or Old Bactrian, it may be because
Bactria has been conceived as the original country or an ancient
place of sojourn of the Persians; it may be because Zoroaster, a
Median Magus, had, according to a legend, fled to the Bactrians
where he found protection under Prince Vishtaspa. Eulogy of this
prince is often incorporated in the sayings of Zoroaster.”
Later a new race appeared, tribes called Scythians by the Greeks,
amongst which the Tochari, identical with the Yuë-Chih of the
Chinese, were the most important. According to Chinese sources,
they entered Sogdiana in 159 B. C.; in 139 they conquered Bactria,
and during the next generation they had made an end to the Greek
rule in eastern Iran. In the middle of the first century B. C. the whole
of eastern Iran and western India belonged to the great “Indo-
Scythian” Empire. In the third century the Kushan dynasty began to
decline; about 320 A. D. the Gupta Empire was founded in India. In
the fifth the Ephtalites, or “White Huns,” subjugated Bactria; then
the Turks, about A. D. 560, overran the country north of the Oxus. In
1220 Jenghis Khan sacked Balkh and levelled all buildings capable of
defence, while Timur repeated this treatment in the fourteenth
century. Notwithstanding this, Marco Polo could still, in the
following century, describe it as “a noble city and a great.”
See also Raphael Pumpelly, Explorations in Turkestan, where
10,000 years is said to be the age of the remains of early civilization.
More modern authorities, however, do not accept these ancient
dates.
119: 21. Osborn, 1, p. 479.
120: 1 seq. Osborn, 1, pp. 493–495; Ripley, pp. 486–487, and also
S. Reinach, 3, and G. Sergi, 2, pp. 199–220.
120: 28 seq. Oman, England before the Norman Conquest, pp.
642 seq., says: “The position which he [Harold] chose is that where
the road from London to Hastings emerges from the forest, on the
ground named Senlac, where the village of Rattle now stands.... This
hill formed the battleground.... On reaching the lower slopes of the
English position the archers began to let fly their shafts, and not
without effect, for as long as the shooting was at long range, there
was little reply, since Harold had but few bowmen in his ranks, (the
Fyrd, it is said, came to the fight with no defensive weapons but the
shield, and were ill-equipped, with javelins and instruments of
husbandry turned to warlike uses), and the abattis, whatever its
length or height, would not give complete protection to the English.
But when the advance reached closer quarters, it was met with a
furious hail of missiles of all sorts—darts, lances, casting axes, and
stone clubs such as William of Poictiers describes, and the Bayeux
Tapestry portrays—rude weapons, more appropriate to the neolithic
age.... Many a moral has been drawn from this great fight.... Neither
desperate courage, nor numbers that must have been at least equal
to those of the invader, could save from defeat an army which was
composed in too great a proportion of untrained troops, and which
was behind the times in its organization.... But the English stood by
the customs of their ancestors, and, a few years before, Earl Ralph’s
attempt to make the thegnhood learn cavalry tactics (see the Anglo-
Saxon Chronicle), had been met by sullen resistance and had no
effect.”
121 : 4. See the note top. 128 : 2.
121 : 15. F. Keller, The Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland and Other
Parts of Europe; Schenck, La Suisse préhistorique, pp. 533–549; G.
and A. de Mortillet, Le Préhistorique, part 3, and Munro, The Lake
Dwellings of Europe. The lake-dwelling, known as Pont de la Thièle,
between the lakes of Bienne and Neuchâtel, according to Grilliéron’s
calculations, is dated 5000 B. C. See Keller, p. 462; Lyell, Antiquity