Pseudo-Noun Incorporation and

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Pseudo-Noun Incorporation and
Differential Object Marking
 OX F O R D S T U D I E S I N T H E O R E T I C A L
LINGUISTICS

General Editors
David Adger and Hagit Borer, Queen Mary University of London

Advisory Editors
Stephen Anderson, Yale University; Daniel Büring, University of
Vienna; Nomi Erteschik-Shir, Ben-Gurion University; Donka Farkas,
University of California, Santa Cruz; Angelika Kratzer, University of
Massachusetts, Amherst; Andrew Nevins, University College London;
Christopher Potts, Stanford University; Barry Schein, University of
Southern California; Peter Svenonius, University of Tromsø; Moira
Yip, University College London

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For a complete list of titles published and in preparation for the

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Pseudo-Noun Incorporation and
Differential Object Marking
IMKE DRIEMEL
 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the

University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by
publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press
in the UK and in certain other countries

© Imke Driemel 2023

The moral rights of the author have been asserted

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior
permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law,
by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights
organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above
should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address
above

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Data available

Library of Congress Control Number: 2023930766

ISBN 978–0–19–286640–0

DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866400.001.0001

Printed and bound by

CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
 Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for
information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in
any third party website referenced in this work.
 Contents

General preface
Preface
List of symbols and abbreviations

1. Introduction

2. Methodology and main results

2.1 Diagnostics
2.2 Elicitation methods, consultants
2.3 Main results

3. Pseudo-incorporation as a category change phenomenon

3.1 Sequential hybrids
3.2 Theoretical assumptions
3.3 Implementation
3.4 Sequential hybrids vs layered projections

4. Pseudo-incorporation vs differential object marking

4.1 Case loss is post-syntactic
4.2 PNI within post-syntactic DOM accounts
4.3 Case studies
4.3.1 Tamil
4.3.2 Mongolian
4.3.3 Turkish
4.3.4 Korean
4.3.5 German
5. PNI-property I: Restriction to low scope
5.1 Evidence for scopal inertness of verbal categories
5.2 PNI-ed arguments are restricted to the event domain
5.3 PNI-ed arguments reconstruct
5.4 Case studies
5.4.1 Tamil
5.4.2 Mongolian
5.4.3 Turkish
5.4.4 Korean
5.4.5 German

6. PNI-property II: Lack of binding and control

6.1 Tamil
6.2 Mongolian
6.3 Turkish
6.4 Korean
6.5 German

7. PNI-property III: Movement patterns

7.1 Tamil
7.2 Mongolian
7.3 Turkish
7.4 Korean
7.5 German

8. Differential object marking

8.1 Tamil
8.2 Korean

9. Previous approaches
9.1 Head movement accounts
9.2 DP/NP accounts
 9.3 Raising accounts
10. Summary

References
Language Index
Subject Index
 General preface

The theoretical focus of this series is on the interfaces between

subcomponents of the human grammatical system and the closely
related area of the interfaces between the different subdisciplines of
linguistics. The notion of ‘interface’ has become central in
grammatical theory (for instance, in Chomsky’s Minimalist Program)
and in linguistic practice: work on the interfaces between syntax and
semantics, syntax and morphology, phonology and phonetics, etc.
has led to a deeper understanding of particular linguistic phenomena
and of the architecture of the linguistic component of the
mind/brain.
The series covers interfaces between core components of
grammar, including syntax/morphology, syntax/semantics,
syntax/phonology, syntax/pragmatics, morphology/phonology,
phonology/phonetics, phonetics/speech processing,
semantics/pragmatics, and intonation/discourse structure, as well as
issues in the way that the systems of grammar involving these
interface areas are acquired and deployed in use (including language
acquisition, language dysfunction, and language processing). It
demonstrates, we hope, that proper understandings of particular
linguistic phenomena, languages, language groups, or inter-
language variations all require reference to interfaces.
The series is open to work by linguists of all theoretical
persuasions and schools of thought. A main requirement is that
authors should write so as to be understood by colleagues in related
subfields of linguistics and by scholars in cognate disciplines.
 In recent years, investigations of the relationship between a verb
and its object have begun to uncover rich patterns of complexity.
While some objects maintain a fair amount of independence with
respect to the selecting verb, others are morphologically and
semantically bonded to it. The closest such bonding is full noun
incorporation, where the verb and object form a single word, but
there are looser dependencies and one of these, pseudo-noun
incorporation, is the focus of this volume. In a careful, cross-
linguistic exploration of the construction, Imke Driemel shows that it
is distinct from full incorporation, and from the superficially similar
Direct Object Marking phenomenon, and argues that it involves a
categorial change in the object from a nominal to a verbal category.
This categorial change explains patterns of movement, control, and
binding in the syntax, but in addition feeds into the systems that
interface with syntax to capture the particular semantic and
morphological patterns that collocate cross-linguistically with pseudo
noun incorporation. Overall, the book not only makes a strong
argument for a more complex typology of verb object dependencies
in the syntax than is usually assumed, but also shows how to
understand that complexity in terms of established syntactic
possibilities.

David Adger
Hagit Borer
 Preface

This book is a revised version of my dissertation, filed in April 2020

at Leipzig University. The work was made possible to a large extent
by the people who shared their language with me. I thank the
speakers of the languages of this study, who invested time and
energy into answering the many questions I had via skype,
facebook, email, phone, online questionnaires, and in person—thank
you all so much for your patience! My work also benefited from
conversations I had with a number of linguists. Since there is
significant overlap between these two sets, I will list them all
together: Artemis Alexiadou, Sukhbat Baatar, Rajesh Bhatt, Bronwyn
Bjorkman, Emily Clem, Rümeysa Dijle, Erdenekhishig Eldev-Ochir,
Daniel Gleim, Dolgor Guntsetseg, Fabian Heck, Johannes Hein, Anke
Himmelreich, Adiyasuren Jamiyandagva, Greg Kobele, Hyunjung Lee,
Gereon Müller, Andrew Murphy, Johannes Mursell, Jegan Murugesan,
Yining Nie, Bilal & Fatoş Özdemir, Manfred Sailer, Martin Salzmann,
Ganzaya Sengee, Rajamathangi Shanmugam, Barbara Stiebels,
Aravindhan Sukumar, Sandhya Sundaresan, Sergej Tatevosov, Sören
Tebay, Gombosuren Tsermed, Philipp Weisser, Joanna Zaleska, and
Malte Zimmermann.
I have presented parts of this work at a number of conferences
and departments, where I received valuable feedback. Thanks go to
the audiences of the Workshop on Nominals at the Interfaces
(2018), North East Linguistic Society (2019), Jahrestagung der
Deutschen Gesellschaft für Sprachwissenschaft (2019), GLOW in Asia
(2022), as well as the linguistics departments at Leipzig University,
Humboldt-University Berlin, Potsdam University, Goethe University
Frankfurt, and University of Pennsylvania.
Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends, including
Jasper, Kati, Jette, Tabea, Theresa, Siri, Jelena, Luise, Anne, Elton,
Paula, and Maria for being supportive and accepting the increasingly
workaholic lifestyle I have adopted over the past couple of years,
while writing this book.
 List of symbols and abbreviations

Glosses
1,2,3 1st, 2nd, 3rd person
ABL ablative
ABS absolutive
ACC accusative
ADD additive particle
ADV adverbial suffix
ADJ adjectival suffix
AG agent
AGR agreement
AOR aorist
ATTR attributive
AV agent voice
CAUS causative
CL classifier
CLIT clitic
CMPD compound
COMP complementizer
CONJ conjunction
COP copula
CV converb
DAT dative
DECL declarative
DEF definite
DEM demonstrative
DET determiner
DOM differential object marking
DP discourse particle
DUR durative
EMPH emphatic
ERG ergative
EXIST existential
F feminine
FACT factual
FAM familiar
FOC focus
FUT future
GEN genitive
HAB habitual
HON honorific
INF infinitive
IMP imperative
IMPF/IPFV imperfective
IND indicative
INST instrumental
INT intimate
INTR/INTRANS intransitive
JOIN epenthetic vowel
L L-suffix
LNK linking morpheme
LOC locative
M masculine
MIR mirative
MOD modality
N neuter
NE nominal particle
NEG negation
NMLZ nominalizer
NOM nominative
NPREF nominal prefix
NSF noun suffix
NT neutral
OBJ object
OBL oblique
OV patient voice
PAT patient
PERF/PFV perfective
PL plural
POSS possessive
PROG progressive
PST past
PRS present
PUNC punctual
REFL reflexive
REL relative
RES resultative
S S-suffix
SBJ subject
SG singular
STAT stative
T tense
TR/TRANS transitive
TOP topic
UNM unmarked morphological case
VOL volitional

Abbreviations
BIER binder index evaluation rule
DM Distributional Morphology
DOM differential object marking
EC existential closure
EF edge feature
EI event identification
FA functional application
[∙F∙] structure-building feature
[*F*] agree feature
[∙F∙], [*F*], [F] deactivated features
GQ generalized quantifier
LF Logical Form
NI noun incorporation
OT Optimality Theory
MIR movement interpretation rule
PA predicate abstraction
PIC Phase Impenetrability Condition
PF Phonological Form
PM predicate modification
PNI pseudo-noun incorporation
QR quantifier raising
SCC Strict Cycle Condition
 1
Introduction

Pseudo-noun incorporation (PNI) describes a phenomenon in which

an argument forms a ‘closer than usual’ relation with the verb. The
syntactic consequence most often diagnosed is loss of case marking,
potentially along with the lack of other functional material such as
number marking and overtly expressed determiners. A correlating
interpretive consequence is expressed by scope inertness. Both
aspects are exemplarily shown for Hindi in (1), where (1a) shows
that objects can be optionally marked for case and (1b) illustrates
the correlation of case loss and a obligatory narrow scope reading.
(1)

A common intuition many analyses share is that pseudo-incorporated

arguments are somehow reduced in their syntactic as well as their
semantic capacity. Together with the observation that pseudo-
incorporation seems to be restricted to occur with bare nouns and
indefinites, both case loss and scope inertness are often traced back
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
covered the shrubs, and the
attendant was separated from
Hoamakeikekula. In this
separation Hoamakeikekula was
enveloped in the thick fog and
mist until she arrived at
Keawewai, a place in the
uplands of Kawaihae. The way
was indicated by a colored
cloud. 9 At this time Kalamaula
the high chief was living with his
parents. Kaholeiwai was the
father, Kekoolauwahineolalo was
the mother and
Kanaheleikaukawaokele was the
sister. They were chiefs of
Kawaihae at this time.
Kalamaula was a handsome
youth but was not in the same
rank with Hoamakeikekula.
Upon their arrival at the house,
the sun had set and darkness
was approaching. They then
entered the house where
Kalamaula was living. When
Kalamaula saw this beautiful
woman coming in he greeted
her; and Hoamakeikekula
returned the greeting in a very
low voice saying: “My greeting to
you my lord.” Soon after this
nahele, kaawale ke kahu o
Hoamakeikekula, kaawale kona
haku kina ole. Ma keia kaawale
ana, ua lilo o Hoamakeikekula
maloko o ka ohu, a me ka noe, a
hiki i Keawewai mauka o
Kawaihae, he ua koko ke alanui.
E noho ana o Kalamaula ke ’lii
me kona mau makua, o
Kaholeiwai ka makuakane, o
Kekoolauwahineolalo ka
makuahine, o
Kanaheleikawaokele ke
kaikuahine. He mau alii lakou no
ia aina o Kawaihae ia wa, a he
kanaka maikai no hoi, o
Kalamaula, he ui a he nani ke
nana; aka, aole nae e loaa ae o
Hoamakeikekula.
A hiki laua nei i ka hale, ua
molehulehu ahiahi iho la, komo
aku la i ka hale o Kalamaula e
noho nei, nana mai la lakou i
keia wahine ui, nani loa. Aloha
mai o Kalamaula: “Aloha oe.”
Aloha aku o Hoamakeikekula me
ka leo oluolu: “Aloha oe e kuu
haku.” Mahope o keia hai aku la
o Elepaio i ke ano o ka loaa ana
ia ia o Hoamakeikekula.
Elepaio related the way he found
Hoamakeikekula.
Then Kalamaula seized hold of
Hoamakeikekula and drew her to
him. Hoamakeikekula then said:
“My lord don’t defile me, your
maid servant, for it would be a
wrong I would suffer from later in
life. If you really desire that I
become your wife, then allow me
thirty days, possibly the
response will arise within me
during that time.”
On hearing this reply Kalamaula
was much impressed and
agreed to the conditions.
Hoamakeikekula remained there,
but she would not touch the food
placed before her, nor did she go
out of the house.
At the end of three days, she
saw in a dream a man
approaching her with a war club
in his right hand, who said: “Your
grandmother promised me that
you were to be mine and I have,
therefore, waited many days for
you until my spirit within me has
fainted because that promise
has not been fulfilled. Therefore,
Mahope o laila, lalau mai o
Kalamaula ia Hoamakeikekula, a
huki aku, pane aku o
Hoamakeikekula. “Ekuu haku,
mai hoohaumia pono ole oe i
kau kauwa wahine o lilo ia i kina
no kau kauwa nei, o hooili ia ia
mea ino ma ka hope o ko’u mau
la. Ina he manao kou peia, e
kakali oe ia’u i ekolu anahulu,
malama o hiki mai ka ae ana o
ka hoao i loko o ia wa.” Ua
maikai keia olelo ia Kalamaula.
Noho iho la o Hoamakeikekula
me ka ai ole i ka ai, me ka puka
ole i waho.
Ekolu la i hala ia ia, ike aku la ia
ma ka moe uhane i keia kanaka
e hele mai ana me ka newa, i ka
lima akau, e paa ana olelo mai
la: “Ua haawi mai ko
kupunawahine ia oe na’u, a ua
kakali au i loko o na la he nui
lao, a ua maule wale iho kuu
manao nou i ka hooko ole ia o
ka haawi. Nolaila, e
prepare yourself to go on a
strange journey.”
Hoamakeikekula replied: “I did
not come here with the consent
of my people, nor were my
footsteps that led me here as a
stranger bargained for, therefore,
I shall take your words as a
mantle and wear it over my
shoulders at all times.”
She then woke up and
discovered that she had been
dreaming. She then tried to
fathom the meaning of the
dream but it was beyond her
understanding. Her mind,
however, seemed to dwell on the
forests. On retiring the next night
she again dreamed of the same
person and held the same
conversation. She then fell in
love with the person in her
dreams so much so that she
woke up startled and cried. She
then folded her arms, 10
lamenting. When Kalamaula
heard her weeping he asked her:
“What are you weeping for? You
have never done this before, not
hoomakaukau oe no ka hele ana
i ke ala au e hele malihini nei.” I
aku o Hoamakeikekula: “Aole au
i hele mai ma ke ala o ka ae ia,
aole hoi i kuai i ko’u mau kapuai
no ke ala malihini nei; nolaila, o
kau olelo, oia ka’u e lei ai ma
luna ae o kuu poohiwi nei.”
Puoho ae la ia, he moe uhane
kana; noonoo ae la ia i ke ano a
me ka manao, aohe loaa. Aka,
ua kau wale mai no ke ano o ka
nahele ia ia.
Moe hou iho la ia, o ka lua ia o
ka po, loaa hou ka moe, o ia
mau olelo no nae. Ia wa puni ia i
ke aloha i kela uhane; puoho ae
la ia a uwe, puliki iho la i ke kino
a paiauma. Ninau mai o
Kalamaula: “Heaha keia au e
uwe nei? Aole hoi oe pela
mamua aku nei, mai kou la i hiki
mai ai a hiki i keia la.” Aohe
ekemu aku o Hoamakeikekula. A
kokoke e wehe mai ka pawa o
ke ao, ia wa kaiauna mai la ke
kau a ke ao. Ia manawa, kulu
pakakahi mai la ka ua me ka
makani, kokolo mai ana ka ohu
me ka pahola i luna o ka
mamane, iho mai la ka onohi
anuenue a kokoke i ke alo o ia
since the first day you arrived
here.” Hoamakeikekula did not,
however, make answer. Very
early that morning just before
dawn, the mountain clouds
began to thicken; drops of rain
began to fall one by one; the
wind began to rise; the fog
began to come creeping over the
mamane; a rainbow appeared
and stood before her. She was
then entirely enveloped in a thick
fog which hid everything from
view.
She then rose and went out of
the house and wandered over
the deserted hills and plains until
she arrived in the uplands of
Pahulumoa, a place entirely
uninhabited. She lived here
without tasting food and spent
her days picking and stringing
lehua [538]blossoms. At night she
would retire and dream of the
same person. Thus they were
united in love, which became
steadfast in Hoamakeikekula.
It was because of her suffering
and lonesomeness in the forest
that she was called,
Hoamakeikekula. 11 After leading
nei, ia wa ua puni keia i ka ohu a
me na mea a pau loa.
Lilo aku la keia i ke kula
mehameha kanaka ole, a noho
mauka o Pahulumoa, he aina
mehameha kanaka ole; malaila
ia i noho ai me ka ai ole i ka ai, o
ka lehua [539]kana mea walea o
ka la e noho ai. A po iho, o kela
uhane kana kane e moe ai, pela
ko laua pili ana me ke aloha, a
me ka paa o ke aloha ia
Hoamakeikekula. No loko o laila
keia inoa o Hoamakeikekula, no
kona noho mehameha ana.
A liuliu kona mau la ma ia wahi,
loaa i kekahi kanaka huli laau
hale, o Puuhue kona inoa. O
kona kumu i ike ai, he ahi a i ke
the life of a wanderer for some
days, she was at last found by a
man called Puuhue who was
after some house timber. He
found her in the following
manner: On coming to an
olapa 12 tree he saw something
bright at noon time, up in this
tree. When he looked up the tree
he saw a very beautiful woman
hiding in the ieie 13 vines; so he
stood under the tree and called
out: “Say, come down that I may
fondle you and that I may speak
to you.”
Hoamakeikekula then climbed
down from the tree. When she
stood on the ground, Puuhue
sprang forward, lifted up and
kissed the bottom of her feet and
said: “I am indeed blessed in
beholding your eyes and your
face. I humbly beg of you that if
in your goodness and beauty, I
would be so fortunate as to
please you my princess, 14 that I
offer you my noble lord, whose
spirit you have often seen in your
dreams.” This person was
Puuonale, the king of Kohala,
whose spirit Hoamakeikekula
had so often seen in her dreams
awakea i luna o ke kumu olapa.
A hiki ia, nana aku la i keia mea
nani loa i luna o ke kumu olapa,
ua pee i loko o ka pohai ieie,
noho paa iho la ia malalo o ke
kumu laau, a liuliu, kahea aku la:
“E, iho mai i lalo nei, e milimili
aku wau ia oe, a e ha’i aku no
hoi au i ka’u olelo.”
Iho iho la o Hoamakeikekula i
lalo a hiki, lele aku la o Puuhue a
ma ka poli wawae, honi iho la, a
olelo aku la: “Pomaikai au i ko’u
ike ana i kou mau maka a me
kou helehelena. Ke nonoi
haahaa aku nei au ia oe, ina
nolaila kou nani a me kou
maikai, e loaa ia’u ka mahalo ia
mai e kuu haku wahine. Eia o
kuu Haku kane, nona ka uhane
au e ike la ma ka moe uhane.” O
Puuonale ka inoa o ke kino
maoli, he ’lii no Kohala, nona
kela uhane a Hoamakeikekula e
aloha nei, ua like ko laua nani a
me ko laua kina ole.
and for whom she already had a
deep attachment. He was as
handsome as she was beautiful,
both were without blemish.
As soon as Puuhue ended, the
heart of Hoamakeikekula was
changed by his words, so that
she left Pahulumoa and
accompanied him. When they
arrived at a place called
Keolewa, they found Puuonale
the king living there. When
Hoamakeikekula looked on and
saw the object of her dreams,
she was unable to withhold her
tears which flooded her eyes.
At seeing this Puuonale asked:
“Why these tears from the eyes
of my queen?” “I have seen
some one like you in my dreams
constantly during the past days
in a form without bones for
whom I am paying my debt of
love with these tears; hence my
sadness and tears.”
After pondering the matter over
for a while, Puuonale asked:
“Whom did he resemble?” “He
looked just like you; your voice
A pau ka olelo a Puuhue, ua
hoololi ia ka naau o
Hoamakeikekula e ia olelo;
nolaila, ua haalele ia ia
Pahulumoa, a hoi pu mai la me
Puuhue. A hiki laua ma
Keolewa, e noho ana o
Puuonale ke ’lii, a nana aku la
keia, ua like me ke ano o ke kino
uhane ana e ike ai ma ka moe,
kulu iho la ka waimaka me ka
haloiloi.
Ninau mai o Puuonale: “E kuu
haku, heaha ka mea i helelei iho
ai kou waimaka i keia wa?” “He
mea ano like me oe ka’u e uwe
nei, ua launa me a’u i na la
mamua aku nei, maloko o ke
kino iwi ole. A no ia mea au i
luuluu iho ai i ke kaumaha, a o
kuu mea ia e hookaa nei i ka aie
a ke aloha, he kulu waimaka.”
Noonoo iho la o Puuonale a
liuliu, pane aku la ia: “Pehea ke
ano a me ka helehelena i kau
ike.” “O kou ano a pau loa, oia
sounds just like his; he, however,
carried a war club and wore a
feather cape and a feather
helmet.” Puuonale then took up
his war club, the feather cape
and helmet and placed them
before Hoamakeikekula. She
then took them up kissed them
and wept over them.
Puuonale then took
Hoamakeikekula as his wife. At
their union the thunder was
heard; the lightning flashed;
eight rainbows arched the
heavens; the pools of Kahoolana
on Kahua were flooded; red rain
passed in procession on the
ocean; the hills were covered
with fog; and a thick mist
covered the land for ten days.
These were the signs [of
recognition]. 15 The two lived on
happily as husband and wife.
In due course of time
Hoamakeikekula conceived and
gave birth to child to whom the
name of Alelekinana was given.
It did not have a human form but
that of a wooden image; hence
the saying: “In the upland is
kona, o kau mau olelo, oia kana,
eia nae, he laau newa ma kona
lima, a o ka aahu, he ahuula, a
he mahiole ma kona poo.” Lalau
aku la o Puuonale i ka newa, ka
ahuula, ka mahiole, a waiho mai
la imua o Hoamakeikekula, lalau
iho la ia a honi iho la me na
waimaka e hiolo ana mai na
maka aku.
I kona naha ana, kui ka hekili
pamaloo, lapalapa ka uwila, pio
na anuenue ewalu, lana na
kiowai o Kahoolana, i luna o
Kahua, lalani ka ua koko ma ka
moana, aaki ka ohu i na puu, uhi
ka pohina hookahi anahulu, o ia
na hoailona.
Noho iho la laua he kane a he
wahine, a liuliu, hapai o
Hoamakeikekula, a hana o
Alelekinana, he kino kii, aohe
keiki maoli, nolaila keia olelo: “I
uka o Hookukekii, i [541]kai o
Kahua.” No keia keiki kii kela
Hookukekii, in the lowland is
Kahua.” [540]The saying
originated from this child image,
and it is used to this day. This
image gave the people of Kohala
the idea of making idols, from
which the worshiping of idols
throughout Kohala in ancient
time originated.
The word Hoamakeikekula was
also derived from the fact that
Kohala is a rolling country and
has plains, and because of this
the people of Kohala have a fond
attachment for the land of their
birth. Therefore, Kohala is noted
as the proud land with lonesome
loving meadows. Such is the
place of this legend obtained by
me, which I have narrated. [533]
olelo, ua kaulana ia a hiki i keia
la. O ia ke kumu o na kii a pau o
Kohala, no loko o laila na kii
hoomana a pau o Kohala i ka wa
kahiko. A o kela inoa o
Hoamakeikekula hoi, nolaila, nui
na kula ma Kohala a puni i keia
wa e waiho nei, no loko o kela
inoa, nolaila, he kula aloha o
Kohala a hiki i keia wa. Nolaila,
kaulana o Kohala i ka aina
haaheo, a me ke kula anoano
aloha, pela kahi o keia kaao i
loaa i loaa ia’u, a pela au e hoike
nei. [540]

1 The banana bud, for smoothness,

was the ideal of flesh condition to
the Hawaiian mind; no skin could be
smoother, nor firmer. ↑
2 Weleweka, velvet, borrows an
introduced modern term for an
ancient setting. ↑
3 Ala, a variety or species of taro
(Colocasia antiquorum), tough and
stringy; not a stone, as readily comes to
mind. The former might be seized by
hungry dogs while the latter would have
no attraction. ↑
4 This wrapping of pukohukohu, a noni
colored kapa, was likely one of the
paus, or skirts of the grandmother,
generally worn in several folds. ↑
5 Palama is used here in the sense of
strict surveillance of secrecy under a
sacred kapu. Elsewhere the word is
used as one espoused; a fiancée. ↑
6 Kula, not a plain or open place, but a
section of the ohia grove where the
lehua blossoms are abundant, for the
sake of which the birds assemble and
sit. ↑
7 The bird elepaio (Chasiempis
sandwichensis) is the favorite
messenger or agent for carrying out the
plots in Hawaiian myths more than any
other. Prof. H. W. Henshaw observed:
“No bird has a more important place in
Hawaiian mythology than the elepaio,
and omens and warnings were formerly
read from its actions and notes.” ↑
8 Awa (Piper methysticum), usually of
ground culture, appears to have a
variety or species which thrives in tree
stumps. ↑
9 Ua koko, literally red rain, is defined
as “a cloud standing erect and
having different colors, somewhat like
the rainbow.” ↑
10 Puliki ke kino is more the folding the
arms on the body, in distress. ↑
11 Hoa-make-i-ke-kula, companion in
suffering in the plain. ↑
12 Olapa (Cheirodendron
gaudichaudii). ↑
13 Ieie vine (Freycinetia arnotti). ↑
14 Kuu haku wahine, my mistress, yet
more dignified in its meaning. ↑
15 Various disturbances of the
elements and strange phenomena
were ever interpreted as manifestations
of the gods in favor, or recognition, of
the alii. The more severe or
pronounced the weather phenomena
the higher rank it denoted. ↑
[Contents]
Legend of
Kapuaokaoheloai.
Ku was the father and Hina 1 was
the mother. They had two
children,
Hookaakaaikapakaakaua 2 a son,
and Kapuaokaoheloai 3 a
daughter. Waiakea in Hilo is the
country where these people
lived. The brother was the first
born and the sister the last.
These people were of high chief
rank of Hilo. These two children
were brought up without knowing
that they were brother and sister.
They never saw each other
although they lived in the same
house. The brother had a male
attendant and the sister a female
attendant. They were brought up
under a very strict kapu; they
never went out of doors, not
even for the calls of nature. Ku
Kaao no
Kapuaokaoheloai.
O Ku ka makuakane, o Hina ka
makuahine, o
Hookaakaaikapakaakaua ke
kaikunane, o Kapuaokaoheloai
ke kaikuahine. O Waiakea, i Hilo
ka aina, o ka mua ke kaikunane,
o ka muli ke kaikuahine, he mau
alii lakou no Hilo. Hookahi o laua
hale i hanai ia ai, aole ike kekahi
i kekahi, he kahu kane ko ke
kaikunane, he kahu wahine ko
ke kaikuahine; he kapu loa ko
laua hanai ia ana, aole hele i
waho o ka hale, i loko no e hana
lepo ai. Ua olelo o Ku a me Hina
i na kahu hanai, ina e kii ke
kaikunane i ke kaikuahine, alaila,
hele kana hanai me kona kahu i
Kuaihelani e noho ai (i ka aina i
Kahiki), a pela kekahi. A hala na
makahiki he iwakalua ia laua o
and Hina also left word with the
attendants that if the brother
sought the sister, then he and his
attendant would be banished to
Kuaihelani (a land in Tahiti), and
so with the other. This manner of
living was maintained for twenty
years, without their seeing one
another. One day the attendants
as was their custom went to the
uplands of Kaumana, directly
above Punahoa to do farm work.
After the departure of the
attendants in the early morning,
Kapuaokaoheloai arose and
walked out of doors. Upon
looking back at the house she
saw a bright light within; so she
again entered the house and
began a search and found a
door, which she opened. As she
walked in she saw a red object
lying on a bed. She removed the
tapa from the face and saw a
very handsome young man.
They then slept together until the
sun had passed the meridian,
when she returned to her part of
the house.
When the attendants returned
they did not discover the actions
of their two charges. This
keia noho kaawale ana, me ka
ike ole kekahi i kekahi, pii na
kahu o laua e mahiai i uka o
Kaumana, aia ia wahi i uka pono
o Punahoa.
A hala na kahu i ke kakahiaka
nui, ala ae la o Kapuaokaoheloai
a hele i waho o ka hale, i nana
ae kona hana, e a ana keia mea
wena i ka hale o lakou, hele aku
keia huli, loaa ka puka, wehe
aku la. Nana aku la ia e moe ana
keia mea ula, komo aku la ia a
wehe ae la, he kanaka maikai
loa, ia wa moe laua, a aui ka la,
hoi aku la keia i kona wahi. A hoi
mai la na kahu, aole ike i keia
hana a ka laua mau hanai, pela
mau no ka laua hana ana a hala
ke anahulu okoa.
I kekahi ahiahi, hopuhopu iho la
o Kapuaokaoheloai he mau
moa, hoihoi aku la a ma kona
conduct was kept up for ten full
days. One evening
Kapuaokaoheloai caught some
chickens and brought them to
her bed where they were
concealed. That evening she
and her attendant retired very
early. Not very long after they
had retired, Kapuaokaoheloai
woke up and shook the chickens
which caused the roosters to
crow. She then said to her
attendant: “It is daylight. It is now
time for you two to go up and
tend to our farm work.” The
attendant replied: “How quickly
daylight has come. It seems that
I have just closed my eyes when
I heard the cock crowing.” She
woke up and went out of doors
and looked up at the Milky Way
which had not made its
appearance: so she reentered
the house and went to bed
again. Kapuaokaoheloai after
[542]a while again reached for the
chickens and shook them and
the roosters again crowed. She
woke her attendant and said: “It
is daylight, the chickens are all
crowing together.” Her attendant
then rose and went over to the
other part of the house where
wahi, moe iho la laua me kona
kahu, i ke ahiahi ana aku, aole i
liuliu iho ka moe ana. Kii aku la o
Kapuaokaoheloai a na moa,
hoonioni; pukoko ka moa a kani
ae la, i aku i ke kahu: “Ua ao, e
pii ae olua i ka mahiai i na mala
a kakou.” I aku ke kahu:
“Hikiwawe hoi ha ke ao, o ka pili
ana iho nei no ka o na maka la,
o ke kani e mai nei no ia o ka
moa.” Puka ae la keia a waho
nana ae la i ka huli o ka ia, hoi
[543]aku la no moe. Lalau hou
keia i ka moa, kani hou, hoala
aku la no keia: “Ua ao, ke
olowalu mai nei ka moa.” Ala ae
la ke kahu wahine, kii aku la a ke
kahu kane hoala, ala ae la, a pii
aku la laua i ka mahiai.
A hala laua, ala ae la o
Kapuaokaoheloai a hoi aku la
ma kahi o kona kaikunane, moe
iho la laua. Pii na kahu o laua a
waena, noho kakali o ke ao ae,
aohe ao iki, hoi mai la laua a hiki
i ka hale, loaa pono mai la na
hanai e moe pu ana. I aku ke
kane i ka wahine: “E pii ana au e
hai i na makua, e like me na
olelo i kinohi.” Ae aku ka wahine:
“Ae, o pii.”
the male attendant was sleeping
and woke him up. The two rose
and started on their way to the
farm lands. As soon as they left,
Kapuaokaoheloai got up and
went over to the other side of the
house where her brother was
and they slept together. When
the two attendants were half way
up to the farm lands, they sat
down to await the approach of
daylight. After waiting for some
time and daylight not appearing
they returned to the house and
discovered their charges
sleeping together. The male
attendant then said to the female
attendant: “I am going up to
inform their parents in obedience
to the instructions given us in the
beginning.” The female attendant
who was his wife replied: “Yes,
you must go up.” When the male
attendant arrived at the home of
Ku and Hina, he told them of the
conduct of their two charges. At
this Ku gave orders to his men to
go and kill the female attendant.
When the men arrived they
caught her to carry out the death
order, but she spoke up: “Don’t
kill me here, take me to the
chief’s presence and there I will
A hiki aku la ia o Ku ma laua o
Hina, hai aku la i na hanai a
laua, ia wa kena mai la o Ku i na
kanaka, e kii i ua wahi kahu
wahine nei e pepehi ai. A hiki
lakou lalau aku la i ke kahu e
make. Olelo mai ke kahu: “Alia
au e make, a ke alo o ke ’lii,
alaila au make, aia a lohe ke ’lii i
ka’u mau olelo.” A hiki keia i mua
o Ku me Hina, olelo mai la o Ku i
na kanaka: “Heaha iho la ka ka
mea i hoola ia mai nei, aohe
pepehi iho a make?” “Ka, olelo
mai nei, aia a lohe oe i kana
olelo, alaila ka make ia.”
I mai la o Ku: “Heaha kau olelo?”
Olelo aku ke kahu: “Ua olelo ke
’lii, ina na ka’u hanai ke kii,
alaila, oia a me a’u e hoi i
Kuaihelani. A pela no hoi kekahi
o maua me kana hanai. Oia ka’u
olelo i ke ’lii.” “Ae, ua pono, aole
oe e make, e hoi oe me kau
hanai i Kuaihelani.”
die. I want the chief to hear me
first.” When they arrived in the
presence of Ku and Hina, Ku
asked the men: “Why did you
save her? Why didn’t you kill
her?” “She asked that after you
have heard what she has to say
then she will die.” Ku then asked:
“What have you to say?” The
attendant replied: “The chief
said, that if my charge should
make the first approach then I
was to be banished with her to
Kuaihelani. This was also your
charge and command in
reference to the other one of us
and his charge. That is what I
wish to say to the chief.” “Yes,
you are right, you shall not die;
you and your charge shall go to
Kuaihelani.”

When she arrived in the A hiki keia i mua o ka hanai,

presence of her charge, the
double canoe was made ready
and they sailed off; herself and
her charge and two canoe
paddlers making four of them.
They sailed from Hawaii to Maui;
from Maui to Oahu; from Oahu to
Kauai and landed at Waimea. As
they went ashore they saw a
canoe on the beach from the
hoomakaukau iho la na waa, a
holo aku la, oia nei, o ka hanai, o
na hoewaa elua, aha lakou. Mai
Hawaii mai lakou a Maui, mai
Maui mai a Oahu, mai Oahu a
Kauai, a pae lakou ma Waimea.
E kau ana ilaila he waa imi
wahine na ke ’lii o Kuaihelani,
mai Kuaihelani mai, ike mai la i
ka wahine maikai o
king of Kuaihelani who was in
search of a wife. When the two
messengers saw
Kapuaokaoheloai and her
beauty, they said: “We are going
to make an inspection of the
whole group and if we fail to find
a woman who will surpass your
beauty, then we will take you as
the wife for our king.”
Kapuaokaoheloai and her
companions, therefore, stayed at
Waimea for over ten days, till the
return of the messengers who
reported that they had failed to
find one equally as beautiful as
Kapuaokaoheloai; so they
embarked on their canoe and set
sail for Kuaihelani. After they had
been on their way for over forty
days, the messengers of
Kuaihelani said: “We will soon
see land; we have yet, however,
to smell the sweet perfume of
the kiele.” After some days they
caught the perfume of the kiele
and soon after saw a beautiful
country. The men then said to
Kapuaokaoheloai: “When we
reach land and arrive at the
king’s house, and he should
invite you to come up to him on
the kapa cloth, 4 don’t accept the
Kapuaokaoheloai, olelo mai la:
“E hele maua e nana i keia mau
moku a pau loa, a i loaa ole ka
wahine, alaila, o oe no ka
wahine.” Nolaila, noho iho la
lakou i Waimea a hala ke
anahulu, hoi mai la na kanaka
imi wahine, aole nae i loaa ka
wahine. Holo lakou a hala eha
anahulu i ka moana, olelo aku
na kanaka o Kuaihelani: “Kokoke
kakou e ike i ka aina, aia nae a
honi i ke ala o ke kiele.”
He mau la i hala, honi lakou i ke
ala o ke kiele, ike aku la lakou
he aina maikai o Kuaihelani.
Olelo aku na kanaka ia
Kapuaokaoheloai: “I pae kakou,
a kahi o ke ’lii, i kahea mai ia oe
e pii aku i luna o ka nio, mai pii
oe he make; pela ke
kaikamahine, i kahea mai ia oe e
pii i ka anuu, mai pii oe o make,
aia a kii mai i ko lima e paa ai,
alaila, oe pii aku.”
Pae aku la lakou a uka, hele aku
la lakou a hiki i ke lii, aloha mai
ke ’lii, aloha aku keia, kahea mai
ke ’lii e pii ae maluna o ka nio,
hoole aku keia, aole. [545]
invitation for it will mean death to
you. If his daughter should invite
you on the steps with her don’t
go or it will be your death; only
when they take you by the hand
must you accept.” They then
landed and proceeded to the
place of the king. Upon seeing
her the king greeted her, which
greeting she returned. The king
then invited her to come to him
on to the kapa, this she refused.
[544]

The king’s daughter was at this O ke kaikamahine a ua ’lii la, aia

time living all by herself at a no i luna o ka anuu kapu loa me
place away from her father, and kana wahine mua a make, o
occupied a very sacred place, 5 Kapuaokaohelo ka inoa. Kauoha
with a former wife who had been aku la kona makuakane i na
dead for some time. The name manu e kii a iho mai e nana i
of his daughter was keia wahine, ina e lawe i aikane
Kapuaokaohelo. The king nana, a i ole, i wahine no na
desiring to know his daughter’s ianei.
opinion sent word to her by a
couple of birds with orders to
come and look at this woman;
and see if she intended making
her a friend, or if she would
advise him to take her as his
wife.

When the daughter arrived, she A hiki mai la, aloha, olelo mai la
invited Kapuaokaoheloai to e pii i ka anuu, hoole aku keia,
come up on the platform and sit
by her; but Kapuaokaoheloai
refused to accept the invitation.
The king’s daughter then came
down and took her hand and led
her up to the platform. When
they were about half way up the
steps, Kapuaokaoheloai slipped
and fell behind; this was due to
the dislike of the platform as she
had lost her virginity. Her friend
again reached out for her hand
and led her to the top of the
platform where they sat being
ministered to by the birds.
After they had lived here for
some days the king’s daughter
became anxious regarding her
friend wishing to see if her body
was as well formed as she was
beautiful; so she invited her to go
bathing to which her friend
agreed. When they reached the
bathing pool, which was also a
very sacred place, those having
lost their virginity, or who were
defiled, were not allowed to
bathe in it, the friend said: “This
my bathing pool is a very sacred
place. The bathers must remove
all covering before entering it.”
Kapuaokaoheloai agreed to
kii mai la kela a ka lima huki i
luna, pii aku la laua a waena o
ka anuu, kaa keia mahope,
hehee hou keia i hope, no ka
hookae o ka anuu. O ke kumu
hookae o ka anuu ia ia nei o ka
noha ana o ka mai o ia nei. Kii
mai la ke aikane paa ma ka lima,
a hiki laua i luna noho iho la, he
manu ke kanaka lawelawe.
A hala he mau la ia laua o ka
noho ana, uluhua ke aikane i ka
ike ole i ke kino o ianei, manao
iho la keia, ma waho wale no ka
maikai, aole ma ke kino, nolaila,
olelo aku i ke aikane: “Kaua e
auau,” ae mai ke aikane. A hiki
laua i ke kiowai auau, he kiowai
kapu loa, aole e auau ka poe i
naha, a me ka poe haumia.
Olelo mai ke aikane: “He
kanawai ko kuu wai, he wehe ke
kapa a pau a koe o ke kino,
alaila, auau.” Ae aku keia; wehe
ae la keia i ke kapa a pau, lele
aku la i loko o ka wai, nana mai
la ke aikane, aohe puu aohe
observe the rule, removed all her kee, pela ke kua me ke alo, aia
clothes and jumped into the nae ma ka oloolo wawae he
water. Her friend then looked on nahu. Pii mua ke aikane i luna o
admiringly seeing that she was ka wai, kaa keia mahope, hoholo
indeed faultless; but detected the keia i lalo, huli mai ke aikane a
marks of a bite on one of her huki i ka lima, o ke kumu o keia
calves. The king’s daughter then hoholo no ka ike o ka wai ua
climbed up the bank first when naha keia.
Kapuaokaoheloai followed after;
but when she tried to climb the
bank she slipped back, a sign
that she had lost her virginity. At
this her friend reached out her
hand and helped her out of the
water. When the king’s daughter
saw the sign that her friend had
lost her virginity she got angry
and refused to speak to her, eat
with her, or reside with her; she
was so angry that she
immediately sent some birds to
go to her father and inform him
of her discovery and to punish
her with death.

When the father heard the report Ia wa maopopo iho la i ke

from the birds he ordered all the
priests who were versed in the
telling of coming events and
hidden things, to come and
inspect the stranger to see
whether she was of high rank or
not. “If she is of very high rank
aikane, ua naha keia, nolaila,
huhu ke aikane, aohe ekemu,
aohe ai pu, aohe noho pu; no
keia huhu, kena aku la i na
manu, e hele e olelo aku i ka
makuakane e make ke aikane,
no ka naha ana o ka mai a no ka
she shall not die. If she is not of
high rank then she must die.”
The priests then gathered and
inspected her and at the end
they all agreed that her parents
were not of high rank. They were
of one mind with the king that
she must indeed die, because
she had climbed the sacred
platform. There was, however,
one amongst the priesthood who
was not present at this time; so
he was sent for by the king, to
come and tell his knowledge
concerning the stranger. When
he arrived in the presence of the
king, the king asked him: “Can
you give a true interpretation
concerning the rank of this
woman? Whether she is of high
rank or not?” The priest replied:
“Yes.” The priest then continued:
“She is of the highest rank and is
a chiefess from the east; she is
even more sacred than your
daughter. The sacred platform is
not for such as your daughter; it
is the resting place of this one.
She is far above your daughter
in rank. She is none other, but is
of your own blood; her mother,
Hina, was the first-born and you
came after. She [546]originally
haumia o kona kino. A lohe ka
makuakane i ka olelo a na
manu, hoouna aku la ia i na
kanaka a pau loa i ike i ka nana
ouli, kilokilo, kuhikuhi puuone, e
hele mai e nana i ke
kaikamahine malihini, he ’lii paha
aole paha. Ina ke ’lii aole e
make, ina aohe alii, alaila make.
Nana mai la na mea a pau loa,
aohe alii mai na makua mai;
nolaila, hookahi o lakou manao
me ke ’lii o ka make wale no, no
ka pii ana i ka anuu kapu loa.
Aia hoi, he kanaka i koe, he
kuhikuhi puuone no Kena aku la
ke ’lii e hele mai e ha’i i kona ike.
A hiki mai la ua kanaka la i kahi
o ke ’lii, ninau aku la ke ’lii: “E
hiki anei ia oe ke olelo pololei i
ke ano o keia kaikamahine, i ke
’lii, i ke ’lii ole?” Ae mai kela. I
aku ke kuhikuhi puuone: “He ’lii
nui keia no ka hikina a ka la, he
kapu, aohe kapu o kau
kaikamahine, o ka anuu kapu,
aole no kau, no keia
kaikamahine ia anuu, maluna ko
ianei alii malalo ko kau. Aole he
kaikamahine e, mai loko [547]aku
no ou, o ka mua o Hina ko ianei
makuahine, o ka hope oe, mai