Respiratory system anatomy

• The respiratory system consists of the nose, pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), trachea
(windpipe), bronchi, and lungs.

• Its parts can be classified according to either structure or function.

• Structurally, the components of the respiratory system are divided into two parts:

1. upper respiratory system

2. lower respiratory system.

• Functionally, the components of the respiratory system are divided into two zones:

1. conducting zone

2. respiratory zone.

Overview:
Nose

• The external portion of the nose is made of cartilage and skin and is lined with mucous
membrane.

• The bony framework of the nose is formed by the frontal, nasal and maxillary bones.

Pharynx

• The pharynx functions as a passageway for air and food, provides a resonating chamber for
speech sounds, and houses the tonsils, which participate in immunological reactions against
foreign invaders.
 • The pharynx can be divided into three anatomical regions:

1. nasopharynx

2. oropharynx

3. laryngopharynx.

Larynx

• The larynx (voice box) is a passageway that connects the pharynx and trachea.

• The larynx contains vocal folds, which produce sound when they vibrate.
The structures of voice production
Trachea

Bronchi

Lungs

• The lungs are paired organs in the thoracic cavity.

• The lungs are enclosed and protected by the pleural membrane.

Alveoli

The respiratory membrane is composed of:

1. a layer of type I and type II alveolar cells and associated alveolar macrophages that
constitute the alveolar wall

2. an epithelial basement membrane underlying the alveolar wall

3. a capillary basement membrane that is often fused to the epithelial basement

membrane

4. the capillary endothelium.

Blood supply to the lungs

• Blood enters the lungs via the pulmonary arteries (pulmonary circulation) and the bronchial
arteries (systemic circulation).

• Blood exits the lungs via the pulmonary veins and the bronchial veins.

• Ventilation-perfusion coupling:
 • Vasoconstriction in response to hypoxia diverts blood from poorly ventilated areas to
well-ventilated areas.

Pulmonary ventilation

• The process of gas exchange in the body, called respiration, has three basic steps:

1. Pulmonary ventilation, or breathing

2. External (pulmonary) respiration

3. Internal (tissue) respiration

Pressure changes during pulmonary ventilation

• Air moves into the lungs when the air pressure inside the lungs is less than the air pressure in
the atmosphere.

• Air moves out of the lungs when the air pressure inside the lungs is greater than the air pressure
in the atmosphere.

Boyle’s law

• Pressure changes that drive inhalation and exhalation are governed, in part, by Boyle’s law: the
volume of a gas varies inversely with its pressure.

Other factors affecting pulmonary ventilation

• Surface tension of alveolar fluid: inwardly directed force in the alveoli which must be overcome
to expand the lungs during each inspiration.

• Compliance of the lungs: ease with which the lungs and thoracic wall can be expanded.

• Airway resistance: any condition that narrows or obstructs the airways increases resistance, so
that more pressure is required to maintain the same airflow.

Breathing patterns and modified breathing movements

• Eupnea: a normal pattern of quiet breathing; can consist of shallow, deep, or combined shallow
and deep breathing.

• Costal breathing: a pattern of shallow (chest) breathing consisting of an upward and outward
movement of the chest due to contraction of the external intercostal muscles.

• Diaphragmatic breathing: a pattern of deep (abdominal) breathing consisting of the outward

movement of the abdomen due to the contraction and descent of the diaphragm.

• Dalton’s law:

• Each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure as if no other gases are present.

• Henry’s law:
 • The quantity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure
of the gas and its solubility coefficient when the temperature remains constant.

External and internal respiration

• During external respiration, oxygen will diffuse from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries.

• CO2 moves in the opposite direction.

• During internal respiration, oxygen will diffuse from the systemic capillaries into the tissue.

• CO2 moves in the opposite direction.

Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide

• Oxygen transport:

• 1.5% of O2 is dissolved in the plasma

• 98.5% of O2 is carried by haemoglobin (Hb).

• Carbon dioxide transport:

• 7% of CO2 is dissolved in plasma

• 23% of CO2 is carried by Hb inside red blood cells as carbaminohaemoglobin

• 70% of CO2 is transported as bicarbonate ions (HCO3).

Factors affecting the affinity of Hemoglobin for O2

• PO2

• Acidity (pH)

• Partial pressure of CO2

• Temperature

• BPG

• Type of Hb

Regulation of the respiratory centre

• Cortical influences on breathing:

• Allow conscious control of respiration that may be needed to avoid inhaling noxious
gases or water.

• Chemoreceptor regulation of breathing:

• Central and peripheral chemoreceptors monitor levels of O2 and CO2 and provide input
to the respiratory centre.

• Proprioceptor stimulation of breathing:

 • As soon as you start exercising, your rate and depth of breathing increase, even before
changes in PO2, PCO2 or H+ level occur.

• The inflation reflex:

• The reflex in adults is a protective mechanism that prevents excessive inflation of the
lungs, for example, during severe exercise, rather than a key component in the normal
control of breathing.

• Other influences on breathing:

• limbic system stimulation

• temperature.

• pain.

• stretching the anal sphincter muscle

• irritation of airways

• blood pressure.

Exercise and the respiratory system

• The respiratory and cardiovascular systems make adjustments in response to both the intensity
and duration of exercise.

• As cardiac output rises, the blood flow to the lungs, termed pulmonary perfusion, increases as
well.

• The O2 diffusing capacity may increase threefold during maximal exercise so there is a greater
surface area available for O2 diffusion.

Ageing and the respiratory system

• Ageing results in decreased:

• vital capacity

• blood O2 level

• alveolar macrophage activity

• ciliary action of respiratory epithelia.

• Consequently, elderly people are more susceptible to pneumonia, bronchitis, emphysema and
other issues.