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GPS AND GNSS TECHNOLOGY
IN GEOSCIENCES
Edited by
GEORGE P. PETROPOULOS
Assistant Professor of Geoinformatics, Department of Geography, Harokopio University of Athens, Greece
PRASHANT K. SRIVASTAVA
Assistant Professor Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development Banaras Hindu University, India
Elsevier
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Notices
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our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
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Contributors
Christos Chalkias Department of Geography, Nikolaos Katsenios Department of Soil Science,

Harokopio University of Athens, Athens, Institute of Soil and Water Resources, Hellenic
Greece Agricultural Organization e Demeter, Lycov-
Prem Chandra Pandey Center for Environ- risi, Attiki, Greece
mental Sciences & Engineering, Shiv Nadar Eleni Kokinou Department of Agriculture,
University, Uttar Pradesh, India Hellenic Mediterranean University, Heraklion,
Alison de Oliveira Moraes Instituto de Aero- Greece; Institute of Computer Science, Foun-
náutica e Espaço e IAE, São José dos Campos, dation for Research and Technology-Hellas,
SP, Brazil Heraklion, Greece
Aspasia Efthimiadou Department of Soil Sci- Amit Kumar Department of Geoinformatics,
ence, Institute of Soil and Water Resources, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi,
Hellenic Agricultural Organization e Demeter, Jharkhand, India
Lycovrisi, Attiki, Greece Pavan Kumar College of Forestry and Horti-
Antigoni Faka School of Environment, Geogra- culture, Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural
phy and Applied Economics, Department of University, Jhansi, India
Geography, Harokopio University of Athens, Sanjay Kumar Atmospheric Research Labora-
Athens, Greece tory Department of Physics, Banaras Hindu
Victor Hugo Fernandes Breder Instituto Tec- University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
nológico de Aeronáutica e ITA, São José dos Shubham Kumar Department of Geo-
Campos, SP, Brazil informatics, Central University of Jharkhand,
V.G. Ferreira School of Earth Sciences and En- Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
gineering, Hohai University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, Preet Lal Department of Geoinformatics, Cen-
China tral University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jhark-
João Francisco Galera Monico Sao Paulo State hand, India
University e UNESP, Presidente Prudente, SP, Lawrence Lau, PhD Department of Land Sur-
Brazil veying and Geo-Informatics, The Hong Kong
Grigoris Grigorakakis Department of Geogra- Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR,
phy, Harokopio University of Athens, Athens, China; Department of Civil Engineering, The
Greece University of Nottingham Ningbo China,
Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
Moisés José dos Santos Freitas Instituto Tec-
nológico de Aeronáutica e ITA, São José dos qukasz Lrmieszewski Jakub Paradyz_ Univer-
Campos, SP, Brazil sity, Faculty of Technology, Gorzów Wielko-
polski, Poland
Kleomenis Kalogeropoulos Department of Ge-
ography, Harokopio University of Athens, Kamil Maciuk AGH University of Science and
Athens, Greece Technology, Krakow, Poland
ix
x CONTRIBUTORS
R.K. Mall DST - Mahamana Centre of Excel- S.S. Rao Department of Physics, Institute of
lence in Climate Change Research (MCECCR), Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Uttar Pradesh, India
Pradesh, India Eurico Rodrigues de Paula National Institute
Jorge Martínez-Guanter Aerospace Engineer- for Space Research e INPE, São José dos
ing and Fluids Mechanics Department, Uni- Campos, SP, Brazil
versity of Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain Purabi Saikia Department of Environmental
Yenca O. Migoya-Orué The Abdus Salam In- Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand,
ternational Centre for Theoretical Physics Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
(ICTP), Trieste, Italy Lucas Alves Salles Instituto Tecnológico de Aer-
H.D. Montecino Departamento de Ciencias onáutica e ITA, São José dos Campos, SP, Brazil
Geodésicas y Geomática, Universidad de Con- Martin Schaefer University of Portsmouth,
cepción, Los Angeles, Biobío, Chile School of the Environment, Geography and
Adam Narbudowicz Trinity College Dublin, the Geosciences, Buckingham Building, Lion Ter-
University of Dublin, CONNECT Centre, race, Portsmouth, UK
Dublin, Ireland; Wroclaw University of Science Hao Sha Gyrfalcon Technology Inc., Milpitas,
and Technology, Telecommunications and CA, United States
Teleinformatics Department, Wroclaw, Poland
Jyoti Kumar Sharma Center for Environmental
C.E. Ndehedehe Australian Rivers Institute and Sciences & Engineering, Shiv Nadar University,
Griffith School of Environment & Science, Uttar Pradesh, India
Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
A.K. Singh Atmospheric Research Laboratory
Evgeny Ochin Jakub Parady_z University, Faculty Department of Physics, Institute of Science,
of Technology, Gorzów Wielkopolcki, Poland Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar
Manish Kumar Pandey Remote Sensing Labo- Pradesh, India
ratory, Institute of Environment and Sustain- R.P. Singh Atmospheric Research Laboratory
able Development, Banaras Hindu University, Department of Physics, Banaras Hindu Uni-
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India versity, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Zoi Papadopoulou Department of Natural Re- Arpine Soghoyan Gyrfalcon Technology Inc.,
sources and Agricultural Engineering, Agri- Milpitas, CA, United States
cultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Panagiotis Sparangis Department of Soil Sci-
Alastair Pearson University of Portsmouth, ence, Institute of Soil and Water Resources,
School of the Environment, Geography and Hellenic Agricultural Organization e Demeter,
Geosciences, Buckingham Building, Lion Ter- Lycovrisi, Attiki, Greece
race, Portsmouth, UK
Prashant K. Srivastava Remote Sensing Labo-
Manuel Perez-Ruiz Aerospace Engineering and ratory, Institute of Environment and Sustain-
Fluids Mechanics Department, University of able Development, Banaras Hindu University,
Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India; DST - Maha-
George P. Petropoulos Department of Geogra- mana Centre of Excellence in Climate Change
phy, Harokopio University of Athens, Athens, Research (MCECCR), Banaras Hindu Univer-
Greece; School of Mineral Resources Engineer- sity, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
ing, Technical University of Crete, Kounou- Nikolaos Stathopoulos Institute for Space
pidiana Campus, Greece Applications and Remote Sensing, National
Sandro M. Radicella The Abdus Salam Inter- Observatory of Athens, BEYOND Centre of EO
national Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), Research & Satellite Remote Sensing, Athens,
Trieste, Italy Greece
CONTRIBUTORS xi
Baohua Sun Gyrfalcon Technology Inc., Milpi- Shrini K. Upadhyaya Biological and Agricul-
tas, CA, United States tural Engineering Department, University of
Prasoon Tiwari DST - Mahamana Centre of California, Davis, CA, United States
Excellence in Climate Change Research Bruno César Vani Federal Institute of Educa-
(MCECCR), Banaras Hindu University, Vara- tion, Science and Technology of Sao Paulo e
nasi, Uttar Pradesh, India IFSP, Presidente Epitácio, SP, Brazil
Dimitris Triantakonstantis Department of Soil Michalis Vidalis-Kelagiannis Department of
Science, Institute of Soil and Water Resources, Geography, Harokopio University of Athens,
Hellenic Agricultural Organization e Demeter, Athens, Greece
Lycovrisi, Attiki, Greece T. Xu Nanjing University of Information Science
Amit Kumar Tripathi Center for Environmental and Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
Sciences & Engineering, Shiv Nadar University, Lin Yang Gyrfalcon Technology Inc., Milpitas,
Uttar Pradesh, India CA, United States
Andreas Tsatsaris Department of Surveying P. Yuan Geodetic Institute, Karlsruhe Institute
and Geoinformatics Engineering, University of of Technology, Karlsruhe, Baden-Württemberg,
West Attica, Athens, Greece Germany
Konstantinos Tserpes Harokopio University,
School of Digital Technology, Department of
Informatics and Telematics, Athens, Greece
Foreword
Although the Global Positioning System systems that would continue to enhance
(GPS) technology, developed by the US Air location and time accuracy and also diversify
Force to track their nuclear submarines, was the use of spatiotemporal data toward
ingeniously used by geoscientists in the 1990s sustainable development offers a highly
to detect nano-strain deformation of the promising approach toward building a
earth’s surface, its potential applications in hazard resilient society.
data-guided geo-science services to society This volume edited by scientists of
began to sprout only after the US Govern- proven credentials who have personally
ment, in 2000, ended the selective availability of contributed to advancing the wavefront of
its error-free signals. This landmark decision, GNSS applications from its initial tracking
by dramatically reducing real-time location and time stamping uses to the Internet of
errors by an order of magnitude, fueled the Things has rightly identified the critical el-
design and development of a wide variety of ements of scientific knowledge and the
progressively miniaturized receiver systems computational and technological challenges
and algorithms for guiding management needed to translate these into knowledge
strategies, environmental monitoring, products, to fashion its contents. These,
resource conservation, as well as individuals contained in 27 chapters, systematically
in planning their lives and works which, in address the important links in the long
turn, drove the evolution of new supportive chain of system structure and processes that
public infrastructure. Concomitantly, the reduce the end product of a highly sophis-
depoliticization of GPS signals catalyzed ticated technological system into one of
evolution of the transformative Global equally high social value. This book is thus
Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) which admirably designed to inform, educate, and
allows a civilian user to exploit the technical given the requisite motivation, empower
interoperability of the various national and both curious and dedicated individuals to
regional satellite networks, notably the professionally engage in aspects of the
modernized GPS, the European Galileo, and system that fire their interest.
the restructured Russian Glonass, to meet
user demands for ever more precise estima-
tions of earth coordinates and time. A
commitment by GNSS to promote the devel- Vinod Gaur
opment of and support to complementary Bangalore, February 10, 2021
xiii
C H A P T E R
1
Introduction to GPS/GNSS
technology
Amit Kumar1, Shubham Kumar1, Preet Lal1, Purabi Saikia2,
Prashant K. Srivastava3, 4, George P. Petropoulos5, 6
1
Department of Geoinformatics, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India;
2
Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand,
India; 3Remote Sensing Laboratory, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India; 4DST - Mahamana Centre of
Excellence in Climate Change Research (MCECCR), Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi,
Uttar Pradesh, India; 5Department of Geography, Harokopio University of Athens,
Athens, Greece; 6School of Mineral Resources Engineering, Technical University of Crete,
Kounoupidiana Campus, Greece
1. Background
The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) has become a crucial player in terms of the
country’s capability to monitor real-time activities across the world. The rapid growth in
GNSS was first observed through the development of commercial applications through
building navigation satellites and associated equipment. The next-level progression was
made in the positioning techniques using GNSS such as Global Positioning System (GPS),
the infrastructure of the mobile network, and their integration for applications such as auto-
matic vehicle location, tracking systems, navigation have drawn the attention of various
countries such as the United States, India, and China. Satellite navigation system (SNS) is
the system of offering real-time location service using navigation satellites to the users in
air, sea, ground, or space [59]. It is most popular among other navigation technologies as
it offers a real-time location in terms of position, velocity, and time (PVT) with very high pre-
cision. GNSS is a combined collection of satellite systems that directs to all the prevailing
worldwide SNSs as well as regional and advanced navigational systems. These SNSs consti-
tute several augmented systems to enhance system performance to achieve specific require-
ments. These are Japan’s Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System, United States of
GPS and GNSS Technology in Geosciences

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818617-6.00001-9 3 © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
4 1. Introduction to GPS/GNSS technology
America’s Wide Area Augmentation System, India’s GPS-aided GEO augmented navigation
(GAGAN), and Europe’s European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS).
Navigation is the science of providing directions from one place to another, based on land-
marks or reference points, and the human sense of direction [5,26,58]. Using the Sun and the
stars as reference for navigation on land as well as on ocean surfaces, (Hofmann-Wellenhof
et al., 2003; [53]) have various limitations such as nonvisibility during cloudy conditions,
the relative change in position of these references during various seasons, and position on
the Earth [3]. With the advent of geographical coordinates (latitudes and longitudes) and alti-
tude, the challenge with respect to two-dimensional and three-dimensional reference for
terrestrial navigation has been resolved [4,14]. In the recent past, the radio signals have
helped in the navigation to ensure safety during maritime and inland journeys [47]. Celestial
navigation is based on the triangulation method, in which celestial bodies are used as refer-
ence points, and the GPS is based on the concept of trilateration, which uses GPS satellites’
locations as reference [47]. GPS can measure the time, altitude, longitude, and latitude based
on the available satellite signals above the horizon [50] and contributes in determining the
precise positioning of an object on Earth that revolutionized the navigation and tracking ap-
plications [13,63]. It is one of the most popular satellite-based navigation radio systems due to
the global availability of signal as well as performance. The fundamental operations of the
GPS are one-way ranging that depends on satellite atomic clock predictability. GPS works
in an integrated manner with various supporting parameters such as satellite geometry,
communication link, the antenna of satellite and receiver, the position of the antenna, and
decoding parameters [43]. It is independent of any weather conditions, and day or night
limitations, and provides autonomous spatial positioning with global coverage. Real-time ki-
nematic (RTK) GPS has high producibility, is comparatively more flexible, and is cost- and
time-effective, which reduces the cost by w50% and time by w75% compared to traditional
techniques. It allows measuring positions of an object in real time with an accuracy of a few
centimeters [54].
The first GPS receivers were very simple, providing very basic information of latitude and
longitude with monochrome screens and higher prices. Over the years, the next-generation
SNS receivers brought more user-friendly map-based location devices with color screens
with in-built multiple advanced features, at comparatively lower prices. GPS also operates
independently, which makes it accessible by anyone and provides the ability to work freely
with other GPS receivers. Nowadays, it is being used by civil, military, and commercial users
vastly around the world with crucial information including speed, elevation, and geolocation
with the added base map. The system has revolutionized today’s technology by becoming
more interactive, effective, and useful in multiple industries. This chapter will explore the
basic principles of GPS, its various hardware that make it work in-depth, and the operation
of the system, including the theoretical calculations for positioning, speed, bearing, and dis-
tance to destination.
The history of navigation goes back as early as the invention of the magnetic compass as
mentioned by Ceruzzi [7]. The navigation in the later period was carried by a chronometer as
given by Ceruzzi [8], which resolved the problem of longitude. This was replaced by Quartz
oscillators in the 1920s. The next concurrent advancement was radio or the wireless. The next
advancement was Omega and Loran, which were the radio-based inertial navigation sys-
tems. This was further taken over by satellite-based navigation systems in the 1960s. The evo-
lution of GNSS as given in NASA (2020) is listed in Table 1.1.
I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

2. Major segments of GPS 5
TABLE 1.1 The evolution of GNSS.
1960 US Air Force and Navy commence research
1973 US Department of Defense unveils GPS project
1978 First US GPS satellite launched
1982 First Russian GLONASS satellite launched

1983 KAL 007 flight disaster
1994 Worldwide coverage achieved by GPS
2000 Full civilian accuracy permitted in the United States
2000 First Chinese BeiDou satellite launched
2005 First European Union Galileo satellite launched
2011 Worldwide coverage achieved by the Russian GLONASS system

2018 GPS III satellite launched
2020 Worldwide coverage is projected for China’s BeiDou constellation and the European Union’s Galileo
constellation
The commercial market of GPS emerged during 1983e95 [8], and the market converged
during 1995e2015 [8]. From 1995 to 2005, GPS found its use in several areas ranging from
research, surveying, military, and in hiking and hunting. In the second decade, from 2005
to 15, it drew public attention, and several new applications were created, which were never
thought of earlier, for example, in cell phones, in drones, in a smartphone, tracking and pri-
vacy, etc., to name a few. The future market growth of GNSS could be estimated only after
the full deployment of the Galileo and BeiDou satellite constellations is over. The European
GNSS Agency projects the current value of six billion GNSS deployed devices to grow to over
nine billion by 2023 (Jacobson, 2017). According to Research and Markets NASA (2020), the
GNSS market is estimated to grow at a compound annual growth rate of around 9.0% during
2018e22. As per GNSS Market Outlook 2022 NASA (2020), market dynamics would be led by
location-based services, transportation, surveying activities, and agriculture.
2. Major segments of GPS

GPS primarily consists of three different segments viz. (a) satellite constellation, (b) ground
control stations, and (c) receivers [10]. The space segment consists of constellations of satel-
lites that transmit pseudorandom noise (PRN)ecoded signals, which are used for the true
line-of-sight (LoS) range (speed*time) along with various error sources including satellite
clock error, atmospheric delays, receiver clock error, tracking errors, and receiver channel de-
lays [40]. The coded signals comprise the information about the position of the satellite, which

can be used by an unlimited number of users at a time [26]. The GPS satellite constellations in
the space segment are being monitored and controlled by the GPS control segment (CS) by
resolving satellite anomalies and collecting pseudorange and carrier-phase measurements
at the control stations to ascertain and refurbish satellite clock rectification, almanac, and
ephemeris at least once per day [49]. Additionally, the CS monitors the state of the satellite’s
health, controls its orbital position, and regulates the satellite bus and payloads [45]. The CS
has three different physical components such as the master control station (MCS), monitor
stations, and ground antennas. The receiver/user segment includes all military and civilian
users using the GPS signal for various purposes [13]. Each GPS receiver processes the trans-
mitted signals received from the satellites to determine the PVT of the receiver anywhere in
the world.
3. Functioning of GPS
GPS works on the ranging and trilateration by combining various groups of satellites
[34], functional in space as reference points. These satellites transmit a navigation message
consisting of information related to almanac, i.e., the orbital information about the entire sat-
ellite constellation, general system status messages, as well as ephemeris, and the detail of the
individual satellite’s position to regulate the orbital position of satellites. A minimum of four
common satellites are required in a group to determine the precise receiver’s position at any
time [21]. Only three distances to three simultaneously tracked satellites are needed to obtain
the latitude, longitude, and altitude information. However, the fourth satellite accounts for
the receiver clock offset and contributes in time rectification [27]. The GPS positioning is
further improved at subcentimeter to a few meters with the deployment of two receivers
simultaneously tracking the same GPS satellites [31]. GPS employs three basic binary codes
viz, (PRN code including precision (P) code, Coarse Acquisition (C/A) code, and the naviga-
tion code. The PRN code is a sequence of very precise time marks that allow the receivers to
estimate the transmission delay between the satellite and the control station [33,56].
The GPS satellites broadcast two carrier waves viz. L1 (390 MHz) and L2 (1500 MHz),
which are modulated by the coded information signal that is transmitted by the satellites
to communicate with the receivers. They are derived from the frequency of 10.23 MHz
through a very precise atomic clock. The high-frequency signals transmitted from the satel-
lites travel in a straight line and have very low power (50 W). It is very essential that the an-
tenna of the GPS receiver should have a direct view of the satellite. L1 and L2 carrier waves
are broadcasted at 1575.42 MHz and 1227.60 MHz, respectively. L1 carrier waves are modu-
lated with the C/A code at 1.023 MHz and the P-code at 10.23 MHz, while the L2 carrier
wave is modulated with only one code, i.e., P-code at 10.23 MHz. These coded signals are
used to calculate the transmission time of radio signals from the satellite to the receivers
on the Earth, i.e., the time of arrival, which is multiplied by the velocity of the signal to es-
timate the satellite range, which is the distance from the satellite to the receiver. The GPS
signal contains a navigation message of a low frequency (50 Hz), which is modulated on
the L1 and L2 carriers [16].

3. Functioning of GPS 7
3.1 Pseudorange
Pseudorange is the measure of apparent signal propagation time from the satellite to the
GPS receiver on the Earth. It is calculated by dividing the distance with the speed of light,
which is denoted with c, i.e., a universal physical constant. The apparent signal propagation
time is the deviation of signal reception by the receiver and the time of signal transmission by
the satellite. In other words, it is the time delay between the clocks of GPS receivers and sat-
ellites on the Earth, determined from the P-code and C/A code. Generally, the signal from the
satellite to the GPS receiver reaches in 0.06 s, if in case the satellite is in the overhead position
of an observer. It is called pseudorange because the clocks in the GPS receiver and the satellite
are not synchronized, and it is influenced by satellite orbital errors, user clock error, and iono-
spheric delay.
3.2 Carrier-phase measurement

The range between the carrier signal generated from the satellite and the carrier signal
generated by a GPS receiver’s internal oscillator can be obtained through the carrier-phase
measurement. The ranges calculated with the carriers are much more accurate than those
calculated with the pseudorange codes due to the better resolution of the carrier phase
(19 cm) in the case of L1 frequency than that of the pseudorange codes [33].
3.3 GPS broadcast message, ephemeris, and almanac

The navigation message included three types of components (a) the current date, time, and
the health of the satellite; (b) orbital information (ephemeris); and (c) the status of all the sat-
ellites in the GPS program (almanac). Each GPS satellite broadcasts microwave signals
regarding clock corrections, system and satellite status, and its position or ephemeris data.
The navigation message transmitted by the satellite contains the predicted satellite positions
in real time referred to as broadcast ephemeris. Each GPS receiver is capable of acquiring
either C/A code or P-code and can acquire the broadcast ephemeris in real time. This broad-
cast ephemeris is estimated using the past continuous tracking of the GPS satellites in space
by ground station and analyzed by the MCSs. New parameters for the satellites are trans-
mitted back to the GPS satellites on the hourly basis through a navigation message to predict
new orbital elements. In contrast, the more accurate satellite positions are obtained by post-
processing of actual tracking of GPS satellite data, referred to as precise ephemeris, and are
available at a later date [21,51].
Almanac data are transmitted from the satellite to the receivers and used to be stored in the
GPS receiver’s memory. The almanac consists of the data about the position of satellites in
space at any given time including coarse orbit, status information of satellites’ constellation,
an ionospheric model, and information to relate GPS-derived time to Coordinated Universal
Time. The entire almanac from a single satellite used to be received in ca. 12.5 min. GPS re-
ceivers in functional condition receive the latest corrected data within the last 4e6 h and are
referred to as warm condition, whereas almanac data are not updated in case GPS receivers
are not turned on for a long time and are referred to as cold receivers.

4. GPS errors
Both the GPS pseudorange and carrier-phase measurements are affected by different types
of random and systematic errors (biases) [42]. Based on the source of its origin, it can be clas-
sified broadly into three categories, i.e., the ephemeris or orbital errors, satellite clock errors,
and the errors originating at the satellites’ end. The receiver clock errors, multipath error,
receiver noise, and antenna phase center variations are the errors originating at the receiver
end. The delays occurred during the GPS signal pass through the ionosphere and troposphere
are the signal propagation errors, also called atmospheric refraction [28,29].
4.1 Satellite and receiver clock errors

The GPS satellite clocks are highly accurate but not perfect as their stability is about 1e2
parts in 1013 over a period of 1 day, which leads to the satellite clock error of ca.,
8.64e17.28 ns/day. Cesium clocks have better stability compared to rubidium clocks and
tend to perform better over a longer period [35]. Satellite clock errors can cause several
GPS navigations errors that can be corrected through differencing between receivers. It
may leave an error of the order of several nanoseconds, which translates to a range error
of a few meters, as 1 nanosecond error is equivalent to a range error of about 30 cm [12].
In contrast, the inexpensive crystal clocks used in GPS receivers are much less accurate
than the satellite clocks [29], and their errors can be rectified through differencing between
the satellites.
4.2 Multipath error

The interaction of GPS signals with various surfaces including large buildings or other el-
evations surrounding the receiver antenna before being captured by the receiver causes
multipath error in GPS signals. It distorts the original signal through interference with the re-
flected signals at the GPS antenna, which affects both carrier-phase and pseudorange mea-
surements [56]. The reflected signal takes more time to reach the receiver than the direct
signal resulting in errors in the range of a few meters that can be verified using a day-to-
day correlation of the estimated residuals [21]. The pseudorange multipath error is reduced
to several meters, even in a highly reflective environment with the help of new technology
viz. Strobe correlator (Ashtech Inc.), and MEDLL (NovAtel Inc.), and multipath mitigation
methods [55].
4.3 Ionospheric delay

Ionospheric propagation at the GPS L-band frequencies (1.2 and 1.6 GHz) is of great inter-
est for GPS. The ionosphere is a dispersive medium with maximum electron density in layer
F2 (210e1000 km). The altitude and thickness of those layers vary with time due to the
changes in the solar radiation and the magnetic field of the Earth. The F1 layer disappears
during the night and is more prominent in the summer than the winter [30]. This atmospheric
layer bends the GPS signal path and causes a range error, particularly if the satellite elevation

4. GPS errors 9
angle is greater than 5 degrees. It also causes a significant range error by speeding up the
propagation of the carrier phase beyond the speed of light, in contrast by slowing down
the PRN code and the navigation message at the same rate [21]. Ionosphere range delay
on GPS signals is a major error source in GPS positioning and navigation [60]. Total electron
content (TEC) of the ionosphere produces most of the effects on radio signals, and the GPS
signal delays are caused by the ionosphere to be proportional to TEC along the path from
the satellite to a terrestrial GPS receiver [60]. The highest TEC in the world occurs in the equa-
torial region, and it is maximum usually in the early afternoon and minimum usually just
before sunrise. Variations in TEC along the slant path connecting GPS satellites and receivers
represent irregularities and turbulence in ionospheric plasma density [46]. Conversely, the
steep gradients of ionospheric plasma cause the navigation satellite signals scintillation in
phase as well as amplitude. GPS is an effective tool to study the ionospheric disturbances
and irregularities caused by space weather due to these scintillations [9,41,48]; Cherniak
et al. (2018); [52].
4.4 Tropospheric delay

The electrically neutral troposphere (w50 km from the surface of the Earth) acts as a
nondispersive medium for radio frequencies below 15 GHz [19], which result in a longer
satellite-to-receiver range than the actual geometric range. Temperature, pressure, and hu-
midity in the signal path through the troposphere are the factors responsible for the tropo-
spheric delay. The signals from satellites at low elevation angles travel a longer path
through the troposphere than those at higher elevation angles. Therefore, the tropospheric
delay is minimum in the user’s zenith and maximum near the horizon [6]. The tropospheric
delay is frequency independent and can be removed by the addition of a second C/A code on
L2 as part of the modernization program [51].
4.5 GPS ephemeris errors

The position of each satellite in the constellation is a function of time because they keep on
moving with respect to time. It is included in broadcast satellite navigation messages and pre-
dicted from previous GPS observations at the ground control stations. Typically, overlapping
4-h GPS data spans are used by the operational control system to predict fresh satellite orbital
elements for each 1-h duration. The predicted satellite orbital information cannot consider the
forces influencing the GPS satellites, which may lead to some errors in the estimated satellite
positions (2e5 m) referred to as ephemeris errors. The ephemeris error for a particular satel-
lite is identical to all GPS users worldwide [12].
4.6 Other limitations

GPS was originally designed in such a way that the real-time autonomous positioning and
navigation with the civilian C/A code receivers would be less precise than military P-code
receivers. The GPS signals were intentionally introduced by the United States to disrupt po-
sition, navigation, and time through either spoofing (making a GPS receiver calculate a false

position) or jamming (overpowering GPS satellite signals locally so that a receiver can no
longer operate). Antispoofing (A/S) is an encryption of the P-code induced to prevent “the
enemy” from imitating a GPS signal. A/S does not pose a significant problem as precise
GPS techniques rely on measuring the phase of the carrier signal itself, rather than the pseu-
doranges derived from the P-code. Modern geodetic receivers can, in any case, form two pre-
cise pseudorange observables on the L1 and L2 channels, even if A/S is switched on.
However, the United States stopped the intentional degradation of GPS satellite signals in
May 2000, thereby eliminating a source of uncertainty in GPS performance to civil GPS users
worldwide [1].
The United States implemented the selective availability (SA) on Block II GPS satellites to
deny accurate real-time autonomous positioning to unauthorized users to ensure national se-
curity. SA was officially activated on March 25, 1990 [21], to either the satellite clock or delta
error or an additional slow varying orbital error or epsilon error. With SA turned on, nominal
horizontal and vertical errors can be up to 100 and 156 m, respectively, at the 95% probability
level [15]. The effect of signal spoofing in degrading the navigation solution can have serious
impacts on both military and civilian applications, especially those related to safety-of-life
services. Various techniques have been developed to detect and mitigate spoofing [25].
DGPS (to overcome the effect of the epsilon error) [12], signal quality monitor [38]; Ledvina
et al., 2010), and vestigial signal defense [57] are being used for better accuracy than the
standalone P-code receiver due to the elimination or the reduction of the common errors,
including SA.
5. GPS technologies
There is a variety of methods employing GPS to improve the accuracy and increase the
applicability of the system. RTK survey and differential GPS are few of them.
A differential GPS is an advanced form of GPS, providing very accurate and precise
location-based services. In general, two receivers that are relatively closer (within
10e15 km) receive the signal from approximately the same GPS satellites and experience
similar atmospheric errors. In DGPS, the difference between the concurrent coordinates
with respect to known coordinates (base receiver) is estimated and applied to fix the concur-
rent coordinates of unknown locations (rover receiver). The corrected information can be
applied to the roving receiver in real time in the field using radio signals or through postpro-
cessing after data capture using special processing software. RTK surveying is a carrier
phaseebased relative positioning technique that employs two (or more) receivers simulta-
neously tracking the same satellites. RTK increases the accuracy while surveying a large num-
ber of unknown points located in the vicinity with reference to a known point, provided the
area of investigation falls within 10e15 km to the known point, the connection between rover
and static is established, and the LoS and the propagation path are relatively unobstructed
[32]. In this method, the base receiver remains stationary over the known point and is
attached to a radio transmitter. The rover receiver is normally carried in a backpack and is
attached to a radio receiver. The base receiver measurements and coordinates are transmitted
to the rover receiver through the communication (radio) link [33].

6. Global Navigation Satellite System 11
6. Global Navigation Satellite System

The GNSS is defined as the group of all SNSs and their augmentations. There are 195
countries across the globe, but very few countries host their own navigation system through
a specific satellite (Jiang et al., 2013). Globally four countries host navigation systems: GPS
(US), GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS of Russia), Galileo (EU), and BeiDou
(China). Additionally, two countries have regional navigation systems: Quasi-Zenith Satel-
lite System (QZSS of Japan) and Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) or
Navigation Indian Constellation (NavIC of India). The GNSS constellation system is
depicted in Fig. 1.1.
6.1 NAVSTAR
GPS is a commonly used acronym of NAVSTAR (NAVigation System Time and Ranging)
and is the first SNS developed by the US Department of Defense in 1978. It is the first fully
operational GNSS consisting nominally of a constellation of 24 operational satellites
completed its initial operational capacity (IOC) on December 8, 1993 [21]. Its orbits are
NS:35
NOP:3
NS:24 OIA:55
NOP:6 OC:12 h 55 min
OIA:55 SO:MEO 21500
OC:11 h 58 min GEO 36000
SO:MEO 20220 IGSO 36000
GPS Beidou
GNSS
GLONASS Galileo
NS:24
NOP:3 NS:30
OIA:64.8 NOP:3
OC:11 h 15min OIA:56
SO:MEO 19130 OC:13 h
SO:MI:O 23222
NS: Number of Satellites; NOP: Number of Orbital Planes; OIA: Orbital Inclination Angle; OC: Operation Cycle; SO: Satellite Orbit in Km.
FIGURE 1.1 GNSS constellation systems. Adapted from Wu, J., Ta, N., Song, Y., Lin, J., Chai, Y., 2018. Urban form
breeds neighborhood vibrancy: a case study using a GPS-based activity survey in suburban Beijing. Cities 74, 100e108. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2017.11.008; pp.1e29).

approximately circular with an inclination of about 55 degrees at the satellite altitude of about
20,200 km above the Earth’s surface [36]. NAVSTAR GPS provides users with location-based
services very precisely in very little time. The satellites in NAVSTAR constellation orbit the
Earth in every 12 h transmitting continuous navigation signals in L1 and L2 frequencies.
NAVSTAR has four generations of satellite constellation viz. Block I (1978e85), Block II
(1989e90), Block II A (1990e97), Block II-R (1997e2004, Block IIR-M (2005e09), Block II-F
(2010e16), Block III-A (2018-present). Each newer Blocks replaced older Blocks after
completing their active service period (end of life) and are of the improved version. The sat-
ellites are orbiting at an altitude of ca. 20,200 km and arranged in a way that at least six sat-
ellites are always above the horizon everywhere on the globe (Fig. 1.2).
6.2 GLONASS
GLONASS is a satellite-based navigation system operated during the last decades of the
twentieth century by the Russian Aerospace Defence as an alternative to the US-based NAV-
STAR. At present, it is complimentary as well as an alternative option for an operational nav-
igation system with related precision and full coverage [20]. The launching of satellites
started in 1982 until the constellation was completed in 1995. The life cycle of GLONASS nav-
igation satellites was 5e7 years, and the new satellites are to be launched after a specific time
interval to fill the gap due to aging satellites [2,37,39]. In 2011, the full global coverage was
established with upgraded satellite constellations under GLONASS-K. GLONASS consists
of 24 satellites that are uniformly deployed in three approximately circular orbital planes
at an inclination of 64.8 degrees to the equator at the satellite altitude of about 19,100 km
above the Earth’s surface. Each GLONASS satellite transmits standard and high accurate sig-
nals in L1 (1598.06e1604.40 MHz) and L2 (1242.94e1248.63 MHz) frequencies. The modern
age GPS receivers are compatible with both NAVSTAR and GLONASS, thus providing
more flexibility of positioning and better accuracy.
FIGURE 1.2 Satellite constellations and orbital altitude of major navigation systems.

6. Global Navigation Satellite System 13
6.3 Galileo
Galileo was developed by the collaboration of the European Union and European Space
Agency in 2011, and the satellite constellation was completed in 2020 (https://ec.europa.
eu/growth/sectors/space/galileo/launches_en) with 30 satellites in orbit (24 operational
and 6 active spares) [11,18]. Additional satellites will be launched after in-orbit validation
phase to achieve IOC. Galileo will give position measurements, i.e., horizontal and vertical,
having the range of 1-meter precision. This positioning service even at high latitudes proves
more efficient than other relatively positioning systems. The Galileo constellation is evenly
distributed among three orbital planes inclined at 56 degrees relative to the equator with a
nominal semimajor axis of about 30,000 km. Galileo will transmit radio navigation signals
in E1 (1559e1594 MHz), E6 (1260e1300 MHz), E5a (1164e1188 MHz), and E5b
(1195e1219 MHz) frequencies. The EGNOS provides an augmentation signal to the GPS stan-
dard positioning service (SPS). Global Search and Rescue function is a unique feature of Gal-
ileo. Apart from Russian GLONASS and US GPS, high precision has been achieved in the
Galileo navigation and positioning system.
6.4 Compass/ BeiDou

China developed its own navigation satellite system “Compass/BeiDou” with five geosta-
tionary satellites and 30 nongeostationary satellites to date. BeiDou-1 consists of three satel-
lites and offers limited coverage (to users of China and their neighboring countries) and
applications. The second generation of this navigation system, referred to as Compass, is a
global SNS comprising 35 satellites. It has been operational with 10 satellites in orbit in China
since December 2011. By 2020, it is expected to be available to all global customers [23,61]. It
uses two different orbits with 55 degrees inclination for navigation satellites: (i) medium
Earth orbit (21,500 km) and (ii) inclined geosynchronous orbit (36,000 km). It works on three
channels: (i) B1: 1559.052e1591.788 MHz, (ii) B2: 1166.22e1217.37 MHz, and (iii) B3:
1250.618e1286.423 MHz frequencies. The system is providing two types of service at the
global level: open service (with a positioning accuracy of 10 m, a timing accuracy of 20 nano-
second, and a velocity accuracy of 0.2 m/s) and authorized service (with a provision of more
reliable PVT information and communications services as well as integrity information) [44].
6.5 Quasi-Zenith Satellite System

QZSS (also known as Michibiki) is a regional navigation satellite system developed by
Japan. It is a combination of four satellites (now expanded to four satellites) that are inclined
on orbital planes at 39 degreese47 degrees on two altitudes, 39,581 km and 31,911 km, which
provide navigation for East Asia, including Japan, and Oceania. The three satellites of this
constellation were fully operational in 2013 and the fourth satellite of QZSS services was
operational since November 1, 2018, and three more are satellites planned till 2023. The
design and concept of QZSS are purely different from GPS and GLONASS systems due to
the policy of national development [24]. QZSS is targeted to achieve communication-
related services, i.e., audio, video, and data with location information, and is useful in mobile
applications. QZSS is also termed as GNSS augmented service. It works on four frequency of

signal: (i) L1 (L1 C/A and the L1-SAIF: center frequency 1575.42 MHz), (ii) L2 (center fre-
quency 1227.6 MHz), (iii) L5 (center frequency 1176.45 MHz), and (iv) LEX (center frequency
1278.75 MHz) frequencies [62].
6.6 IRNSS/NavIC
IRNSS/NavIC is a regional SNS, developed by ISRO (Indian Space and Research Organi-
sation). It would comprise of two services, i.e., SPS for civilian users and restricted service for
authorized military users. Both services work on L5 (1176.5 MHz) and S-band (2492.08 MHz)
frequencies. The proposed navigation system would have a constellation of seven satellites
and a supported ground segment, and three satellites from the constellation will be kept
as geostationary satellites. GPS with aided augmented navigation system is initiated in India
with the collaborations of ISRO and Airport Authority of India (AAI), which is termed as
GEO augmented system (GAGAN). This system is used to enhance the accuracy of a
GNSS receiver based on reference signals. When GAGAN will be fully operational, it will
fulfill the requirements of the three geostationary satellites (GAGAN will help to get more
accuracy for IRNSS when it is fully completed and it will fulfill requirements of three geosta-
tionary satellites). The Indian subcontinent (India and neighboring countries) will be covered
with help of the footprint of its signal. The operational Satellite Based Augmentation System
implemented by AAI’s efforts tends to be a step in the field of modern communication, air
traffic control, and management and navigation (Table 1.2).
7. Applications of GPS/GNSS
7.1 Navigation
Navigation is of the most common uses of GPS, which aids in aviation, maritime, shipping,
and rail and road transportation. It also supports the public in their day-to-day activities by
providing the precise location with respect to the surroundings including geotagging, car-
pools, helping blind people navigate, safety and emergency assistance, security applications
including tracking of vehicles, vehicle guidance, hiking, skiing, paragliding, skydiving, etc.
(Jacobson, 2017).
7.2 Military services

The GPS of military services are far more precise than GPS used by civilians around the
world. It uses dual-frequency equipment to avoid signal distortions that could jeopardize
its mission or research. Although now dual frequencies are also used by government organi-
zations and commercial services, commonly for civilians, it is single-frequency GPS receiver
that makes a difference in precision too. It supports military operations, reconnaissance, and
surveillance and to navigate the unfamiliar areas and enhance the awareness of GPS-guided
missiles attack. Advanced GPS receivers are used for various military operations to achieve
goals and diffuse enemy installations, including navigating to the target locations, tracking
the movement of enemies, and supply delivery on the battlefield with precise computation.

7. Applications of GPS/GNSS 15
TABLE 1.2 Details of the major global and regional navigational satellite system.
System GPS GLONASS BeiDou Galileo NavIC QZSS
Owner United States Russia China European India Japan

union
Orbital 20,188 19,130 21,150 23,222 36,000 36,000
altitude (km)
Total number 01 01 01 01 02 01
of orbits
Total number 06 03 03 03 02 04
of orbital
planes
Total number 6*MEO 3*MEO 3*GEO, 3*MEO 3*GEO, 3*GSO, 1*GEO
of planes is 3*IGSO, 4*IGSO
constellation 3*MEO in
BeiDou-III
phase
Total number 31 24 35 22 08 04
of operational
satellites
Period 11.97 h 11.26 h 12.63 h 14.00 h 23.93 h 23.93 h
Number of 72 24 satellites 5 GEO 30 14 (8 active 7 (4 satellites in

satellites in three satellites, and 1 failed constellation and
orbital planes 30 MEO and 5 3 satellites are
whose satellites planned) planned by 2023)
ascending
nodes are 120
degrees apart
Frequency L1, L2 L1*, L2* B1, B2, B3 L1 L5, S-band L1, L2, L5, L6
Status as in Operational Operational Operational Operational Operational Operational
2020
Year of first 1978 1982 2000 2011 2013 2010
launch of the
satellite
Period of Fully Fully Fully Fully NA 2023
fully operational operational operational operational
operational but more but more
satellite series satellites satellite
planned planned till
2030
Horizontal 500e30 cm 5e10 m 3.6 m (public) 1 m (public), 1 m (public), PNT <10 m
accuracy (with vertical 2.6 m 1 cm 10 cm (public)
accuracy: (Asia pacific, (encrypted) (encrypted) SLAS <1 m
w15 m) public) (public)
10 cm CLAS <10 cm
(encrypted) (public)
B1, 1561.1 MHz; B2, 1207.14 MHz; B3, 1268.52 MHz; GEO, geosynchronous; L1*, 1602 MHz; L1, 1575.42 Mhz; L2*, 1246 MHz; L2,
1227.60 MHz; L5, 1176.45 MHz; L6, 1278.75 MHz; MEO, medium Earth orbit; S, 2492.028 MHz.

7.3 Geodetic control surveys

A geodetic control survey is based on a network of monumented control points on the
ground and a very precise survey method supporting mapping, construction, boundary sur-
veys, etc. GPS emerged as a better alternative to these precise surveys. The static method is
used in high-order geodetic control surveys, but for low-order control surveys such as in
photogrammetric and other types of mapping, fast static techniques are used.
7.4 Cadastral survey

With the introduction of GPS in surveying, cadastral surveys also share its benefits in the
precise demarcation of property boundaries. It is common in most of the cases of real-estate
deals where the conflict arises because of improper records of land sizes. GPS receivers
proved to be faster alternatives irrespective of the coverage area, without compromising
the accuracy of the measurements.
7.5 Photogrammetry, remote sensing, and GIS

GPS can be integrated with remote sensing and geographical information system (GIS) to
yield applications in various fields like natural resource management, environmental and at-
mospheric monitoring, precision farming and environmental modeling, urban planning, for-
est survey and management, animal behavior studies, meteorology and climate research,
disaster mitigation, emergency response, mobile mapping, etc. It can provide very accurate
controls required for satellite photogrammetry for mapping and creation of stereomodels.
It incredibly boosts the process like the creation of a new map, updating of existing maps, etc.
7.6 Ground truthing and validation

The use of GPS for ground truthing and validation in various types of R&D activities is
primarily a modernization of old techniques, i.e., surveying. Ground truth is simply observa-
tions or measurements made at or near the surface of the Earth of the air or space-based
remote sensing survey. GPS supports in identification as well as tracking of ground control
points and validation sites through its real-time positioning and navigation methods. The
modern-day handheld GPS also provides detailed data form with coordinates and enables
researchers to work confidently in remote areas of forest, glaciers, hills, desert, and in marine.
7.7 Disaster, response, and mitigation

The GPS technologies with its integration with remote sensing and GIS can have a signif-
icant role in disaster response and mitigation [17], including landslide and flood disaster pre-
vention, forest fire, cyclone tracking, and shifting of population. GPS enables the task forces

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THE
CORNHILL MAGAZINE.
JANUARY 1917.
UNCONQUERED: AN EPISODE OF
1914.
by maud diver.
Copyright, 1917, by Mrs. Diver, in the United States of America.
‘The stars are threshed and the souls are threshed from their
husks.’
Blake.
CHAPTER I.
‘Whom does love concern save the lover and the beloved?
Yet its impact deluges a thousand shores.’
E. M. Forster.
Sir Mark Forsyth pushed back his chair, left the dinner-table, and
strolled over to the bay window. He drew out his cigarette-case, but
apparently forgot to open it. He stood there, looking out across the
garden, that merged into rocky spaces of heather and bracken, and
culminated in an abrupt descent to the loch. Low above the
darkening hills the sunset splendour flamed along the horizon, and
all the waters beneath were alight with the transient glory. But the
man’s face wore the abstracted air of one who dwells upon an inner
vision. Though the subdued flow of talk behind him entered his ears,
it did not seem to reach his brain. ‘Bobs,’ his devoted Irish terrier,
crept out from under the table and, joining his master, made sundry
infallible bids for attention, without success.
Presently alluring whiffs of cigarette smoke, intruding on his
dreams, reminded Sir Mark of the unopened case in his hand.
‘I vote for coffee on the terrace, Mother,’ he said, turning his eyes
from the glory without to the dimness of the unlighted dining room.
‘Then we’ll have the boats out. There’s going to be an afterglow and
a half presently.’
‘I told Grant about the coffee two minutes ago, dear,’ Lady Forsyth
answered, smiling; but her eyes dwelt a little anxiously on the
silhouetted view of her son’s profile, as he set a match to his
cigarette. The straight, outstanding nose and square chin vividly
recalled his dead father. But the imaginative brow was of her
bestowing, and a splash of light on his hair showed the reddish
chestnut tint of her own people: the tint she loved.
‘Come along, children,’ she added, including in that category four
out of her five guests—two girls, unrelated to herself, Ralph Melrose,
a Gurkha subaltern, and Maurice Lenox, an artist friend of Mark’s.
Keith Macnair, professor of philosophy—his rugged face lined with
thought, his dark hair lightly frosted at the temples—was the only
genuine grown-up of her small house-party. A connection of her own,
and devoted to both mother and son, he was so evenly placed
between them in the matter of age that he could play elder brother to
Mark or younger brother to Lady Forsyth as occasion required. And,
whenever professional claims permitted, occasion usually did require
his presence, in some capacity, either at Wynchcombe Friars or
Inveraig. Between times, he lived and lectured and wrote
philosophical books in Edinburgh, having been a Fellow of the
University since his graduate days: and never, if he could help it, did
he fail to spend most of the long vacation at Inveraig.
When the party rose from the table he joined Mark in the window:
and as the two girls stood back to let Lady Forsyth pass out, she
slipped an arm round each. Her love of youth and young things
seemed to deepen with her own advancing years. But she had her
preferences; and it was the arm round Sheila Melrose that tightened
as they passed through the long drawing-room to the terrace, where
coffee was set upon a low stone table in full view of the illumined
lake and sky.
‘It’s splendid to have you safe back again, child,’ she said,
releasing Monica Videlle and drawing Sheila down to the seat beside
her. ‘India’s monopolised you quite long enough. There’s some
mysterious magnetism about that country. People seem to catch it
like a disease. And I was getting alarmed lest you might succumb to
the infection.’
Miss Melrose smiled thoughtfully at the sunset. ‘I’m not sure that I
haven’t succumbed already!’ she said in her low, clear-cut voice. ‘I
have vague tempting dreams of going back with Ralph when his
furlough is up; or with Mona, to help doctor her Indian women. But
probably they’ll never materialise⸺’
‘More than probably, if I have any say in the matter!’
Lady Forsyth spoke lightly, but under the lightness lurked a note of
decision. She had her own private dreams concerning this girl with
the softly shining eyes under level brows, and the softly resolute lips
that never seemed quite to leave off smiling even in repose.
At mention of India Miss Videlle’s thoughtful face came suddenly
to life. ‘It would be just lovely for me,’ she said. ‘Too good to be true!’
‘Never mind, Miss Videlle,’ Maurice consoled her almost tenderly.
‘This ripping evening’s not too good to be true. And I can put you up
to some tips for squaring Lady Forsyth—in strict confidence of
course!’
He bent towards her with a slightly theatrical offer of his arm, and
they moved off to a seat near the ivy-covered wall, looking towards
the distant rapids.
Lady Forsyth glanced after them with a passing twinge of concern.
The girl—a fairly recent acquisition of Sheila’s—was shy and
clever, with a streak of dark blood in her veins. She had done
brilliantly at Oxford, and was now qualified to take up the medical
work in India on which she had set her heart. Sheila had acquired
her while going through a course of massage and magnetic healing,
for which she showed so distinct a gift that she had serious thoughts
of taking it up in earnest. A vague idea of going out with Monica had
been simmering in her brain for the past week; but she had not
spoken of it till to-night.
‘Wonder what’s come to old Mark,’ mused Ralph pensively, stirring
his coffee. ‘Thought this picnic arrangement was all for his benefit
⸺’
‘Rather so!’ Mark’s voice answered him, as he and Macnair
strolled round the corner of the house. ‘Hurry up with the coffee,
Mums. I love dabbling my oars in the sunset. Lenox, old chap, you
two might go on ahead and give the word.’
They went on readily enough; and the rest soon followed them
through the wilder spaces of the garden, down rocky steps to the
bay, where sand and rough grass shelved gently to the water’s edge.
Here they found two boats already afloat, with Maurice and Monica
—she was commonly called Mona—established in one of them.
Lady Forsyth, nothing if not prompt, privately consigned Ralph to
that boat, Mark and Keith to her own. It was a heavenly evening, and
she thanked goodness they were going to have it to themselves:
quite a rare event since Maurice Lenox had discovered that
superfluous Miss Alison.
‘Coming to row stroke for us?’ she asked as Mark handed her in.
He shook his head, smiling down at her.
‘That’s to be Keith’s privilege! I’m for the other boat.’ But neither
his smile nor the light pressure of her arm could atone for the refusal.
‘Pointed and purposeless,’ she denounced it mentally; but within a
very few moments his purpose was revealed.
‘Down stream a bit first, Keith,’ he called out, as he pushed off his
own boat and sprang lightly in. ‘I want to run up to the village. Miss
Alison and her friend might like to join us.’
So they rowed down stream at his command: and for Lady Forsyth
the pleasure of the outing was gone; the peace and beauty of the
evening spoilt by fierce resentment against these intrusive strangers
who had no authorised position in the scheme of things. And her
natural vexation was intensified by concern for Sheila: though
whether the girl took Mark’s sudden and strange defection seriously
it was impossible to tell. She wore that smiling, friendly graciousness
of hers like a bright veil, that seemed to baffle attempts at intimacy,
while it enhanced her charm. Even with Lady Forsyth, who loved her
as a daughter, she had her reserves, notably on matters nearest her
heart.
‘After all, she knows the real Mark almost as well as I do,’ Mark’s
mother reflected by way of consolation. ‘And she’s wiser than I am,
in many ways, though she is nearly thirty years younger. I’m
probably racing on miles too fast. He’s barely known the girl a
fortnight. He couldn’t be so crazy⸺All the same, he’s no business
to—it’s distracting!’ she concluded, her irritation flaming up again at
sight of the two figures that were now approaching the shore,
escorted by Mark.
Miss Alison, the taller one, had unquestionably height and grace to
recommend her. Mark, who stood six feet in his socks, could barely
give her a couple of inches; and the languid deliberation of her
movements had, on Lady Forsyth, the same maddening effect as a
drawl in speech. Her own brain and body were too quick, in the
original sense of the word, not to make her a trifle intolerant towards
the ‘half-alive’; and, rightly or wrongly, Miss Alison was apt to
produce that impression even on her admirers, though no doubt they
expressed it differently.
Personal prejudice apart, Lady Forsyth preferred the girl’s
companion, Miss O’Neill, in spite of her wrong-headed zeal for the
Suffrage and Home Rule. Had Bel Alison been out in search of a foil,
she could have discovered none better than this big-hearted,
fanatical woman of five-and-thirty, shortish and squarely built, with an
upward nose, an ugly, humorous mouth, and a quantity of rough
brown hair in a chronic state of untidiness. Lady Forsyth gathered
that she was an active philanthropist, and that the incongruous pair
shared a flat somewhere in Earl’s Court. To outward seeming they
had certainly nothing beyond the same address in common.
If Bel’s movements were over-deliberate, Miss O’Neill’s were apt
to be sudden; and she strode into the boat with the decision of one
given to putting her foot down to some purpose.
‘Steady on! You evidently don’t do things by halves!’ Sir Mark
remonstrated, laughing, and consigning her to a cushion in the bows.
Bel had already usurped Maurice’s seat astern, and Mark rowed
stroke—this time without need of invitation. Then they turned about
and moved slowly up the loch, dabbling their oars in the sunset fires
and shivering the purple shadows of the hills.
And if for Helen Forsyth the pleasure of the evening was over, for
Mark it had but just begun. And she knew it. Therein lay the sting.
Though ‘the boy’ was now very much a man, she could honestly
have said, two weeks ago, that nothing beyond minor differences
and mutual flashes of temper had marred the deep essential unity of
their relation—a unity the more inestimably precious since he was
now all she had left of her nearest and dearest on earth. Husband,
daughter and younger son had all passed on before her into the
Silence, and of her own people one brother alone remained. At the
moment he was Governor of New Zealand, and seemed disposed to
stay on there indefinitely when his term of office expired. The
Empire, he wrote, was a saner, sweeter, more spacious place of
abode than twentieth-century England, which seemed temporarily
given over to the cheap-jack, the specialist, and the party politician.
And she—while loving every foot of her husband’s country and her
own—understood too well the frequent disappointment of those who
came, on rare and hardly earned leave, from the ends of the earth
and failed to find, in picture-palaces and music-halls, in the jargon of
Futurists and demagogues, the England of their dreams.
For this cause, her sole remaining brother had become little more
than a memory and a monthly letter. Yet could she never account
herself a lonely woman, while she had Keith for friend and mentor,
Mark for son, and Sheila for—more than possible—daughter. What
business had this unknown girl to step into their charmed circle and
unsettle the very foundation of things? Never, till to-night, had it
seemed possible to Mark’s mother that she could arrive at dreading
the fulfilment of his heart’s desire. Yet that was what it amounted to.
Dread lurked behind her surface irritation. The touch of second sight
in her composition made her vaguely conscious of danger in the air.
Small wonder if she anathematised Maurice Lenox for his knack of
picking up promiscuous strangers, and, in this case, aggravating his
offence by failing to appropriate his own discovery.
CHAPTER II.
Quand on vous voit, on vous aime; quand on vous aime, où

vous voit-on?
For a while the two boats kept in touch, so that talk passed easily
between them. Miss Alison spoke little. Silence rather became the
fair pensive quality of her charm—and probably she knew it. The
uncharitable supposition was Lady Forsyth’s: and she was fain to
confess that pensiveness and silence harmonised well with the fine,
straight nose, the mass of dull gold hair, and eyes of that transparent
blue which lacks warmth and depth, yet has a limpid beauty of its
own, especially where the pupils are large and the lashes noticeably
long.
Mark, too, had fallen silent: the worst possible sign. But Miss
O’Neill atoned for all deficiencies by discoursing vigorously to
Maurice’s swaying shoulders, upon the latest developments of the
suffrage campaign. Maurice, equal to any emergency, had no
difficulty in airing his own views on the subject—as it were, through
the back of his head—to one who had hammered shop windows with
her own hand, though she graciously drew the line at firing churches
and wrecking trains. Yet she was a woman of generous and, at
times, noble impulses. The greater part of her small annuity was
lavished on a very personal form of rescue work—and on Bel.
‘It’s rank injustice, say what you please,’ she declared in her
strong, vibrant tones, ‘to imprison and torture poor misguided girls
who have the courage of the faith that’s in them. The real blame lies
on the heads of those who’ve driven us to extremes.’
‘That sounds very fine, Miss O’Neill, but I’m afraid it won’t hold
water,’ Macnair put in quietly from the other boat. ‘It has been the
standing excuse of fanatics and—dare I add?—criminals all down
the ages. Your latest forms of argument will simply harden and justify
opposition to a cause that is not without certain elements of justice
and right.’
His pleasant voice had the clear, leisured enunciation of the
scholar, a quality peculiarly exasperating to the red-hot enthusiast
whose thoughts are, in the main, emotions intellectually expressed.
‘Justice and right indeed!’ Miss O’Neill fairly hurled the words at him.
‘That’s all we’re asking, isn’t it? And precisely what we’ll never be
getting under a man-made Government and man-made laws.’
Macnair smiled and shrugged his shoulders. He had no mind to let
argument and recrimination desecrate the peace and glowing beauty
of a Highland summer evening; and with practised ease he slid into
the calmer waters of generalisation, as much in the hope of weaning
Lady Forsyth from troubled thoughts as for the pleasure of
expressing his own.
‘The truth is,’ he said, resting on his oars, while the boats drifted
into a luminous bay, ‘every age, like every country, has its moral
microbe; and the microbe of this one is “Down with everything”;
“Can’t; won’t; shan’t; don’t; Pass it along the line,” that’s about the
tune of it, in all ranks. Kipling may or may not be a classic poet, but
his “Commissariat Camels” put the present-day spirit into a nutshell.
For nearly a hundred years the world has been fed on a steady diet
of revolt; and now we have the climax, distaste for duties and
clamour for rights. The fine, brave old wisdom of acceptance is
altogether out of court⸺’
Mark, withdrawing his gaze from Miss Alison’s profile, treated him
to a smile of amused approval. ‘Why this sudden access of
eloquence, old man?’ he asked; and Keith deliberately winked over
his shoulder.
‘Miss O’Neill there’s to blame; and the modern world does seem
rather egregiously modern when one’s been living for months in a
backwater with Pindar for company.’
‘Oh Keith, have you really found time for your promised translation
of the “Odes”?’ Lady Forsyth—herself a translator of some distinction
—leaned eagerly forward.
‘I’ve been making time for a few of them,’ he answered, pleased
with the success of his diversion, ‘by neglecting my Bergson book.’
‘Have you got them here?’
‘Yes. They’re in type, awaiting your consideration!’
‘Good. You’ll publish them, of course.’
He shook his head. ‘Not even to please you! I’ve simply been
enjoying myself, exploring a little deeper into the heart of an old
friend; one who could look life in the face without feeling convinced
that he personally could have made a better job of it. One suspects
even our poets, these days, of being propagandists in disguise.
Pindar is as sublime and as useless as a snow-peak; and one can
no more convey the essence of him in English than one could
convey the scent of a rose in Parliamentary language! Yet one is fool
enough to try.’
Sheila, who had been listening with her quiet intentness, remarked
softly, ‘Why don’t we all learn Greek?’
‘Because the humanities are out of court in an age of scientific
materialism. Wasn’t there a promise, once, that I should teach you?’
The girl flushed with pleasure. ‘I thought you’d forgotten.’
‘And I thought Miss Videlle had persuaded you to give up
everything for this massage you’re so keen about.’
Their talk took a more personal tone, and Lady Forsyth’s attention
strayed again towards the other boat. It had drifted a little farther off,
and a change of seats was in progress between Mark and Miss
Videlle. One moment his tall figure loomed against the dying
splendour; the next, he sank cautiously down beside Miss Alison,
who vouchsafed him a side-long glance of welcome.
‘We’re moving on a bit, Mother,’ he sang out, seeing her face
turned in their direction.
They moved on accordingly: and it did not occur to Lady Forsyth
that Miss O’Neill, sitting alone in the bows, obscured from vision of
the disturbing pair, was in much the same mood as herself. Lonely,
passionate, and emotional, her thwarted womanhood had found in
Bel Alison an object on which she could lavish at once the protective
tenderness of a mother and the devoted service of a man.
Unhappily, this last included a consuming jealousy of those who had
a better natural right to the girl than herself. Diligently and skilfully,
therefore, she had scattered seeds of prejudice against the unjust
half of creation—which, by the way, she very much appreciated in
units, while denouncing it in the mass. By way of a more positive
deterrent, her slender means were taxed to the utmost that Bel might
have cushions and flowers and curtains to suit her fastidious taste.
No one, least of all Miss Alison, suspected the extent of her secret
shifts and sacrifices. And, intermittently, she had her reward. But no
skill in self-deception could blind her to the fact that her lavish
devotion was as dust in the balance against the passing attentions of
a baronet, lord of two estates, and a fine-looking fellow to boot. To-
night the conviction rankled with peculiar keenness by reason of her
suppressed irritation with Macnair.
‘Shirking the issue. Just like a man!’ she soliloquised wrathfully.
‘And dragging in his own trumpery translations by the heels. The
conceit of the creatures! And the folly of them. Wasting good abilities
over the vapourings of a musty old Greek poet. Blind as a bat, or
simply not caring a snap that the world’s crammed with evils crying
out to be reformed. Let them cry, so long as he can scribble in
peace....’
At this point her somewhat chaotic thoughts were interrupted by
music from the other end of the boat. Mark was singing Wallace’s
lullaby, ‘Son of Mine’; half crooning it, at first, for the benefit of Miss
Alison, who did not know it. But as the strong swing of the melody
took hold of him, he let out his voice to the full—a true, clear
baritone; music in its every cadence; and something more than
music, for those who had ears to hear.
Harry, raging inwardly, heard, and understood very well that the
days of her own dominion were numbered. Lady Forsyth understood
equally well; but she had passed beyond the raging mood. The song
was an old favourite; every note of it laden with associations; and in
spite of herself tears started to her eyes.
As for Mark, others might understand or not as they pleased. He
was singing to an audience of one; to the girl who sat beside him,
her uncovered head lifted and half turned away toward the dark
sweeping curves of the hills.
When the murmur of applause died down she turned to him with
the slow lift of her lashes that, conscious or no, thrilled him afresh at
each repetition. ‘I didn’t know you could sing like that,’ she said
softly.
‘I can’t always,’ he answered, flushing under her implied praise.
‘Sometimes—it just takes hold of me. Don’t you sing yourself? I’m
sure you’ve got music in you.’
She suppressed a small sigh. ‘Oh yes. It’s one of my poor little
half-fledged talents; useless for want of proper development. My
elder sister’s the clever one, and she got all the chances. She found
me convenient sometimes for duets.’
‘Duets? Good. I know plenty. Let’s have a try. What was her line?’
‘Classical. Mostly German.’
Mark was silent a moment, raking his memory. Then he had an
inspiration. ‘Mendelssohn’s “I would that the love”...? Wasn’t that the
sort of thing?’
‘Yes. Very much so.’
‘Right! We’ll give them a treat. You take the air.’
She shook her head. ‘You’re going much too fast. I never said I’d
sing; and—I’ve rather forgotten the words.’
‘You won’t slip out of it that way!’ he told her; and leaning close he
crooned under his breath: ‘“I would that the love I bear thee, My lips
in one word could say; That soft word⸺”’
‘Oh yes, I remember now,’ she cut him short rather abruptly; but a
faint colour showed in her cheeks and this time she did not lift her
lashes. ‘Very pretty, but drenched with sentiment. That’s the worst of
German songs.’
‘Well, you can’t beat the music of ’em,’ he persisted, rebuffed a
little by her tone, and hoping it was assumed for the benefit of Miss
Videlle, who was most vexatiously in the way. ‘I’m set on it anyhow.
Are you ready?’
Taking her smile for consent he moved one hand, beating time in
the air; then, without preliminary, their united voices took up the
song. Bel’s, though sweet and true within its range, proved too slight
an organ to stand the open-air test, and Mark had need to moderate
his full-toned alto accordingly, thereby giving an added effect of
tenderness to words and music already sufficiently expressive.
And again Lady Forsyth—a most unwilling listener—understood
everything far too well. Deliberately she hardened herself against the
appeal of the music. For this time she was simply angry—angry as
she had never yet been with her son; though, needless to say, she
attributed his egregious behaviour entirely to Miss Alison.
‘How can he? How dare he!’ was the cry of her pained heart. ‘So
unlike him. An insult to Sheila. Flinging his folly in her face.’
But Sheila was drawing her finger-tips lightly through the water,
watching the effect with that shadowy smile of hers, and to all
appearances simply enjoying the song. Almost Lady Forsyth found
herself hoping that it was so. In any case, she was thankful when the
‘exhibition’ ended, and Maurice’s cheerful voice was heard calling
out: ‘Your turn, Miss Videlle! Can’t you give us a music-hall
masterpiece by way of diversion?’
But Miss Videlle disowned all knowledge of masterpieces, music-
hall or otherwise, and Maurice himself came nobly to the rescue.
‘I’m not up to Mark’s style; but I’m top-hole at genuine Harry
Lauders,’ he volunteered with becoming modesty. ‘And as you’re all
so pressing, it would be ungracious to hide my light under a bushel.’
‘Good egg!’ sang out Ralph from the second boat. ‘Give us
“Roamin’ in the Gloamin’.”’
And Maurice, with a deliberate wink at Mark over Miss Videlle’s
shoulder, proceeded to give it for all he was worth, in the broadest of
broad Scotch. But Mark was in no mood to see the joke of a
performance that sounded far too like a travesty of his own chosen
love-song.
‘“I kissed her-r twice and I asked her-r once if she would be my br-
ride,”’ sang Maurice with insolent gusto, burring his r’s like a
policeman’s rattle; and Mark simply wanted to kick him into the loch.
Lady Forsyth, on the other hand, was privately blessing the boy’s
foolery, that seemed to clear the air and sent the boats skimming
homeward to the swing of chorus on chorus; only her son’s voice
being conspicuous by its absence. Keith’s boat was leading now;
and without turning round deliberately she could see nothing of the
two who haunted her mind.
This was perhaps fortunate; for Mark’s arm lay along the back of
the seat, his shoulder was within three inches of Bel’s; and under
cover of the music they had picked up the dropped thread of their
talk in lowered tones that imparted a tender significance to the
simplest remark.
‘I don’t call your singing a half-fledged talent,’ he said with a faint
stress on the pronoun. ‘You’ve the gift, anyway. Why not make more
of it—study, practise?’
She smiled and lifted her shoulders. ‘I’ve tried, but I couldn’t keep
it up. Laziness, perhaps; I don’t know. Vanity, perhaps, a little. I either
want to do things splendidly or else—I can’t be bothered. I need
someone to spur me, to encourage me.’
‘Well, I should have thought Miss O’Neill⸺’
‘Harry? Oh yes, she’d lie down and let me walk over her if I
wanted to. But she’s swamped in “the Cause” and philanthropic
work. As for my talents, when I wanted the helping hand it wasn’t
there; and now—it’s too late. I’ve dabbled first in one thing and then
in another, and frittered away what little ambition I ever had.’
The emotionless quiet of her tone suggested a noble resignation
to the general obstructiveness of life; a resignation that, to the man’s

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GPS and GNSS Technology in

Geosciences George P. Petropoulos

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Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website

Publisher: Candice Janco

Christos Chalkias Department of Geography, Nikolaos Katsenios Department of Soil Science,

GPS and GNSS Technology in Geosciences

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

1982 First Russian GLONASS satellite launched

2011 Worldwide coverage achieved by the Russian GLONASS system

2. Major segments of GPS

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

3.2 Carrier-phase measurement

3.3 GPS broadcast message, ephemeris, and almanac

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

4.1 Satellite and receiver clock errors

4.2 Multipath error

4.3 Ionospheric delay

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

4.4 Tropospheric delay

4.5 GPS ephemeris errors

4.6 Other limitations

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

6. Global Navigation Satellite System

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

6.4 Compass/ BeiDou

6.5 Quasi-Zenith Satellite System

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

7.2 Military services

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

Owner United States Russia China European India Japan

Number of 72 24 satellites 5 GEO 30 14 (8 active 7 (4 satellites in

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

7.3 Geodetic control surveys

7.4 Cadastral survey

7.5 Photogrammetry, remote sensing, and GIS

7.6 Ground truthing and validation

7.7 Disaster, response, and mitigation

I. General introduction to GPS/GNSS technology

Release date: February 29, 2024 [eBook #73073]

Original publication: London: Smith, Elder and Co, 1860

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