Mader Biology: Ap Edition (AP Biology

Mader) Sylvia S. Mader

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/mader-biology-ap-edition-ap-biology-mader-sylvia-s-
mader/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Biology 13th Edition Sylvia Mader

https://ebookmass.com/product/biology-13th-edition-sylvia-mader/

Essentials of Biology 2023 7th Edition Sylvia S. Mader

https://ebookmass.com/product/essentials-of-biology-2023-7th-
edition-sylvia-s-mader/

Human Biology 17th Edition (International edition)

Sylvia S. Mader Dr.

https://ebookmass.com/product/human-biology-17th-edition-
international-edition-sylvia-s-mader-dr/

Inquiry into Life 17th Edition Sylvia Mader

https://ebookmass.com/product/inquiry-into-life-17th-edition-
sylvia-mader/
ISE Biology Laboratory Manual (Thirteenth Edition)
Darrell S. Vodopich

https://ebookmass.com/product/ise-biology-laboratory-manual-
thirteenth-edition-darrell-s-vodopich/

5 Steps to a 5: AP Biology 2017 1st Edition Anestis

https://ebookmass.com/product/5-steps-to-a-5-ap-biology-2017-1st-
edition-anestis/

5 Steps to a 5: AP Biology 2021 Mark Anestis

https://ebookmass.com/product/5-steps-to-a-5-ap-
biology-2021-mark-anestis/

5 Steps to a 5: AP Biology 2024 Mark Anestis

https://ebookmass.com/product/5-steps-to-a-5-ap-
biology-2024-mark-anestis/

Marine Biology: - Function, Biodiversity, Ecology 1st

Edition Jeffrey S. Levintons

https://ebookmass.com/product/marine-biology-function-
biodiversity-ecology-1st-edition-jeffrey-s-levintons/
 Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht
Appalachian State University

With contributions by
Jason Carlson
St. Cloud Technical and Community College
David Cox
Lincoln Land Community College
Gretel Guest
Durham Technical Community College
Jeffrey Isaacson
Nebraska Wesleyan University
BIOLOGY, TWELFTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed
in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2013, 2010, and 2007. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form
or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to,
in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOW/DOW 1 0 9 8 7 6 5

ISBN 978-0-07-802426-9
MHID 0-07-802426-9

Senior Vice President, Products & Markets: Kurt L. Strand

Vice President, General Manager, Products & Markets: Marty Lange
Vice President, Content Design & Delivery: Kimberly Meriwether David
Managing Director: Michael S. Hackett
Brand Manager: Chris Loewenberg
Director, Product Development: Rose Koos
Product Developer: Anne Winch
Marketing Manager: Christine Ho
Digital Product Developer: Christine Carlson
Director, Content Design & Delivery: Linda Avenarius
Program Manager: Angela R. FitzPatrick
Content Project Managers: Jayne L. Klein/Sherry L. Kane
Buyer: Sandy Ludovissy
Design: David W. Hash
Content Licensing Specialists: Lori Hancock/Beth Thole
Cover Image: Lionfish (Pteropterus radiata) and Squarespot anthias (Pseudanthias pleurotaenia) with soft corals in the ocean ©Panoramic Images/Getty Images
Compositor: Electronic Publishing Services Inc., NYC
Typeface: 10/12 Times Lt Std
Printer: R. R. Donnelley

All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Mader, Sylvia S.
Biology / Sylvia S. Mader, Michael Windelspecht, Appalachian State University ; with contributions by April Cognato. — Twelfth edition.
pages cm
I. Windelspecht, Michael, 1963- II. Cognato, April. III. Title.
QH308.2.M23 2016
570--dc23
2014022212

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the
authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

www.mhhe.com
About the Authors

Sylvia S. Mader Sylvia S. Mader has authored several nationally recognized biology texts published by McGraw-Hill.
Educated at Bryn Mawr College, Harvard University, Tufts University, and Nova Southeastern University, she holds degrees in both
Biology and Education. Over the years she has taught at University of Massachusetts, Lowell; Massachusetts Bay Community Col-
lege; Suffolk University; and Nathan Mayhew Seminars. Her ability to reach out to science-shy students led to the writing of her first
text, Inquiry into Life, that is now in its thirteenth edition. Highly acclaimed for her crisp and entertaining writing style, her books
have become models for others who write in the field of biology.
Although her writing schedule is always quite demanding, Dr. Mader enjoys taking time to visit and explore the various
ecosystems of the biosphere. Her several trips to the Florida Everglades and Caribbean coral reefs resulted in talks she has given
to various groups around the country. She has visited the tundra in Alaska, the taiga in the Canadian Rockies, the Sonoran Desert in Arizona, and tropical
rain forests in South America and Australia. A photo safari to the Serengeti in Kenya resulted in a number of photographs for her texts. She was thrilled
to think of walking in Darwin’s steps when she journeyed to the Galápagos Islands with a group of biology educators. Dr. Mader was also a member of a
group of biology educators who traveled to China to meet with their Chinese counterparts and exchange ideas about the teaching of modern-day biology.

Michael Windelspecht As an educator, Dr. Windelspecht has taught introductory biology, genetics, and human
genetics in the online, traditional, and hybrid environments at community colleges, comprehensive universities, and military insti-
tutions. For over a decade he served as the Introductory Biology Coordinator at Appalachian State University where he directed a
program that enrolled over 4,500 students annually. He currently serves as an adjunct professor of biology at ASU where he teaches
nonmajors biology and human genetics in the online and hybrid formats. He was educated at Michigan State University and the
University of South Florida. Dr. Windelspecht is also active in promoting the scientific literacy of secondary school educators.
He has led multiple workshops on integrating water quality research into the science curriculum, and has spent several summers
teaching Pakistani middle school teachers.
As an author, Dr. Windelspecht has published five reference textbooks, and multiple print and online lab manuals. He served as the series editor for
a ten-volume work on the human body. For years Dr. Windelspecht has been active in the development of multimedia resources for the online and hybrid
science classrooms. Along with his wife, Sandra, he owns a multimedia production company, Ricochet Creative Productions, which actively develops and
assesses new technologies for the science classroom.

Contributors
Jason Carlson is a Biology Instructor at St. Cloud Technical and Community College in Minnesota where he teaches introductory biology,
microbiology, nutrition, and human biology. Before entering higher education, he was a middle and high school science teacher with education
from the University of Idaho, Bemidji State University, and St. Cloud State University. In the classroom, he supports a student-driven applied
curriculum with relevant and hands-on research and investigation.

Dave Cox serves as Associate Professor of Biology at Lincoln Land Community College, in Springfield, Illinois. He was educated at Illinois
College and Western Illinois University. As an educator, Professor Cox teaches introductory biology for nonmajors in the traditional classroom
format as well as in a hybrid format. He also teaches biology for majors, and marine biology and biological field studies as study-abroad
courses in Belize. He is the co-owner of Howler Publications, a company that specializes in scientific study abroad courses. Professor Cox
served as a contributor to the fourteenth edition of Inquiry and the thirteenth edition of Human Biology.

Gretel Guest is a Professor of Biology at Durham Technical Community College, in Durham, North Carolina. She has been teaching non-
majors and majors Biology, Microbiology, and Genetics for more than 15 years. Dr. Guest was educated in the field of botany at the University
of Florida, and received her Ph.D. in Plant Sciences from the University of Georgia. She is also a Visiting Scholar at Duke University’s Gradu-
ate School. There she serves the Preparing Future Faculty program by mentoring post-doctoral and graduate students interested in teaching
careers. Dr. Guest was a contributor to the fourth edition of Essentials of Biology.

Jeffrey Isaacson is an Associate Professor of Biology at Nebraska Wesleyan University, where he teaches courses in microbiology, im-
munology, pathophysiology, infectious disease, and senior research. He also serves as the Assistant Provost for Integrative and Experiential
Learning. Dr. Isaacson was educated at Nebraska Wesleyan, Kansas State College of Veterinary Medicine, and Iowa State University. He
worked as a small-animal veterinarian in Nevada and California, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship in the Department of Immunology
at the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota. Dr. Isaacson has been a significant contributor and coauthor for three editions of Inquiry Into Life, for the eleventh edition
of Biology, and is a frequent contributor to McGraw-Hill’s LearnSmart adaptive learning program for several textbooks.

iii
Preface

Goals of the Twelfth Edition

The mission of Dr. Sylvia Mader’s text, Biology, has always been to give students an understanding of biological concepts and a working
knowledge of the scientific process. However, like the world around us, the process of teaching science is changing rapidly. Increasingly,
instructors are being asked to engage their students by making content more relevant, while still providing students with a firm foundation
in those core principles on which biology is founded. These changes are clearly outlined in the AAAS/NSF report, Vision and Change in
Undergraduate Biology Education (2009). The eleventh edition of Biology was one of the first texts to address the principles of Vision
and Change by integrating themes within the text. In this edition we expand on that effort with the development of a number of new
resources and processes.
In addition to the evolution of the introductory biology curriculum, students and instructors are increasingly requesting digital
resources to utilize as learning resources. McGraw-Hill Education has long been an innovator in the development of digital resources,
and the Biology text, and its authors, are at the forefront of the integration of these technologies into the science classroom.
In this edition, the authors focused on the following areas:
1. utilization of the data from the LearnSmart adaptive learning platforms to identify content areas within the text that students
demonstrated difficulty in mastering,
2. further development of the themes that connect the content of the text across multiple chapters,
3. development of a new series of videos and websites to introduce relevancy and engage students in the content,
4. refinement of digital assets to provide a more effective assessment of learning outcomes to enable instructors in the flipped,
online, and hybrid teaching environments.

Relevancy
The use of real world examples to demonstrate the importance • A new website, RicochetScience.com that provides updates
of biology in the lives of students is a key component of Vision on news and stories that are interesting to nonscience majors.
and Change and an effective teaching strategy for introductory The Biology101 project links these resources to the major
biology. The development of relevancy-based resources is a major topics of the text. The site also features videos to assist
focus for the authors of the Mader series of texts. Some examples the students in recognizing the relevancy of what they are
include: learning in the classroom.
• A series of new chapter openers to introduce relevancy to the
chapter. The authors chose topics that would be of interest to
a nonscience major, and represent what would typically be
found on a major news source.
• The development of new relevancy-based videos, BioNow
Sessions, that offer relevant, applied classroom resources
to allow students to feel that they can actually do and learn
biology themselves. For more on these, see page ix.
The Vision and Change document clearly identifies the
need to integrate core concepts throughout the curriculum.
We recognize that scientific literacy is not based upon the
memorization of a series of facts. Instead, learning is based on
establishing associations and links between what, at first glance,
appear to be diverse topics. The main themes we have chosen to
emphasize include:
• Evolution
• Nature of Science
• Biological Systems

iv
 These themes are integrated into all aspects
of the textbook, from the unit learning outcomes
to the theme-based feature readings in the text.
At the start of each chapter, “Following the
Themes” introduces the relationship of the chapter’s content to
each of the themes. At the end of each chapter, “Connecting the
Concepts with the Themes” not only reminds the student of the
relationships between chapter content and the three core themes,
but also acts as a prelude to topics in the next few chapters of
the text. In essence, the themes act as the threads that unite
the concepts throughout the text, enabling the student to see
relationships from the molecular to ecosystem levels of biology.

Evolution Theme
Evolutionary change, along with the mechanism of natural
selection, represents the unifying concept of the biological
sciences. In essence, biological evolution is the thread that
links all life together. Throughout this textbook, feature
readings on this theme both demonstrate the process of
evolution and illustrate how scientists study and measure
evolutionary change. By following this theme through the
book, students develop a better understanding of why
evolution is a dynamic process, and one that has shaped,
and will continue to influence, life on this planet.

Nature of Science Theme

Through the processes of observation, the application of
the scientific method, and the use of both inductive and
deductive reasoning, scientists study life. To develop a
deeper understanding of the biological sciences, students
must appreciate that the study of life is a process, and that
this process has application in their everyday lives. This
theme focuses not only on how biologists do science, but
also on the influences scientific inquiry has on our
understanding of our world.

Biological Systems Theme

From cells to ecosystems, all life is interconnected. Increasingly, scientists
are becoming aware that small changes in the chemical composition of an
ecosystem can have a tremendous influence on the life in that ecosystem.
This theme was chosen to provide a holistic approach to the study of the
life sciences, by demonstrating not only that all life is interconnected, but
also that the principles regulating life at the cellular level play a role in
physiology and ecosystem biology as well.

Assessment To help instructors assess their student’s understanding

of these core concepts, we have designed a series of Connect questions for
each theme in each unit of the text .

v
 Author’s Guide to Using the Textbook
I use LearnSmart Labs to encourage critical thinking, teach
scientific processes, and to integrate lab activities into the
classroom environment.
I encourage my students
to use the Before You
Begin feature to identify
concepts they need to
review before beginning to
read the chapter content.

Pre-Class During Class

Built-in Preview Discussion

and Review Tools Questions
and Activities
Students come to
class prepared Flip class and
engage students

Learning Outcomes at the start of each section provide a

preview of the content to come, while the Check Your Progress
feature at the end of the section helps my students assess how
well they understood the material. The learning outcomes are
the same ones used in Connect, so I can easily assign a quiz to
assess which topics I need to clarify during class.

I use the Questions to Consider at the end of each reading and

Thinking Scientifically questions at the end of the chapter as
the basis for class discussions and active learning exercises.

vi
 Media Study Tools includes a table
that shows students the animations,
videos, and multimedia assets
that are available to further explain
difficult topics. These may be used
as tutorials for the students, and
I may assign the accompanying
Connect activities to gauge whether
my students understand the content.

Post-Class

Assessment and
Integration

Apply content and

build critical thinking

Traditional end-of-chapter summaries and review questions provide students

with an opportunity for low-stakes assessment of their comprehension of the
chapter’s topics.

Features like Following the Themes and Connecting the Concepts with
the Themes help them understand how the main concepts of the chapter
relate to each other, building a deeper understanding of the content.

vii
 Author’s Guide to the Digital Classroom

Using reports from within the LearnSmart

system, especially the Most Missed
Questions report, I am able to identify areas
of content that my students are struggling
with before they enter the lecture.

Pre-Class During Class

LearnSmart & Instructor

SmartBook Resources

Students come to Flip class and

class prepared engage students

I generally assign 20-30 minutes of SmartBook 3-5 days before class. The assignments cover only the
core topics for the upcoming lesson.

viii
 During class I can focus on engaging the students with the
relevancy of the content using the BioNow Sessions videos,
active learning exercises, and animations. Tegrity lecture capture
lets my students review these concepts later.

Using feedback from the

LearnSmart reports, I am
Post-Class able to design Connect
assignments that act as
Connect tutorials that target the
concepts my students are
Apply content and struggling with.
build critical thinking

The Connect reports allow me to assess whether my students The quizzing option within Connect allows me to develop
have met the learning objectives. assessments for any classroom environment.

ix
Engaging Your Students
Today’s science classroom relies heavily on the use of digital assets, including animations
and videos, to engage students and reinforce difficult concepts. Biology 12e includes two
resources specifically designed for the introductory science class to help you achieve
these goals.

BioNow Sessions Videos

A relevant, applied approach
allows your students to feel they
can actually do and learn biology
themselves. While tying directly
to the content of your course, the
videos help students relate their
daily lives to the biology you teach
and then connect what they learn
back to their lives.

Each video provides an engaging

and entertaining story about
applying the science of biology
to a real situation or problem.
Attention is taken to use tools and
techniques that any regular person
could perform, so your students
see the science as something they
could do and understand.
A 27-video series narrated and produced by author Jason Carlson

Our new tutorials were prepared to assist

students in understanding some of the more
difficult topics in biology. Each of the videos
explores a specific figure in the text.

For students, these act as informal office

hours, where they can review the most difficult
concepts in the chapter at a pace which helps
them learn.

Instructors of hybrid and flipped courses will

find these useful as online supplements.

A 36-animation series narrated by Michael Windelspecht and produced by

Ricochet Creative Productions, LLC

x

Theme Evolution
Metagenomics 256
The Anatomy of Speciation 299
Carboniferous Forests 421
Evolutionary History of Maize 427
Survival Mechanisms of Plants 438
Theme Biological Systems
The Impact of Acid Deposition 31
How Cells Talk to One Another 87
Tropical Rain Forest Destruction and Climate Change 122
Moving Genes Between Species: Green Fluorescent
Protein and Cells 219
Same but Not the Same—the Role of Epigenetics 237
African Sleeping Sickness 388
Pathogenic Protists and Climate Change 386
Deadly Fungi 404
Theme Nature of Science
Saturated and Trans Fats in Foods 44
Microscopy Today 60
Enzyme Inhibitors Can Spell Death 107
Fermentation and Food Production 135
The G1 Checkpoint 150
Reproductive and Therapeutic Cloning 157
Meiosis and the Parthenogenic Lizards 171
Hemophilia and the Royal Families of Europe 203
Testing for Genetic Disorders 254
The Tree of Life: 150 Years of Support for the Theory of
Evolution by Natural Selection 272
Inbreeding in Populations 290
Genetic Basis of Beak Shape in Darwin’s Finches 308
DNA Barcoding of Life 342
Flu Viruses 359
DIY Bio 362
Bryophytes—Frozen in Time 418
The Many Uses of Bamboo 446
Plants Can Be Used for Cleaning and Discovery of
Minerals 462
Why So Many Scientists Work with Arabidopsis 488
Vertebrates and Human Medicine 555
A Genomic Comparison of Homo sapiens
and Chimpanzees 568
Readings
The Chemical Ecology of Plants 484
Plants and Their Pollinators 500
Evolution of the Animal Body Plan 518
Sexual Selection in Male Bowerbirds 830
Interactions and Coevolution 865
The Concept of Water Potential 467
Would You Eat Insects? 538
UV Rays: Too Much Exposure or Too Little? 593
AIDS and Opportunistic Infections 633
Drugs of Abuse 700
Preventing Transmission of STDs 787
Preventing and Testing for Birth Defects 805
When a Population Grows Too Large 848
Biomagnification of Mercury 901
Some Major Questions Remaining to Be Answered About
Human Evolution 576
Regenerative Medicine 588
Recent Findings About Preventing Cardiovascular
Disease 612
How Horseshoe Crabs Save Human Lives 617
Cancer Vaccines: Becoming a Reality 635
Should You Go Gluten-Free? 650
New Approaches to Treating Obesity 655
Artificial Lung Technology 671
Is “Vaping” Safer Than Smoking? 673
The Misuse of Erythropoietin in Sports 686
An Accidental Experimental Model for Parkinson
Disease 706
Artificial Retinas Come into Focus 723
The Accidental Discovery of Botox 744
Identifying Insulin as a Chemical Messenger 764
Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis 784
Do Animals Have Emotions? 825
Island Biogeography Pertains to Biodiversity 860
Global Climate Change 877
Wildlife Conservation and DNA 887
Overexploitation of Asian Turtles 915
Emiquon Floodplain Restoration 919
xi
Overview of Content Changes
to Biology, Twelfth Edition
Chapter 1: A View of Life has been reorganized to provide a
briefer overview of biology as a science. The content on the scien-
tific process (section 1.3) has been reworked with new examples
and a new section (1.4) has been added that explores some of the
major challenges facing science.
Unit 1: The Cell
Chapter 2: Basic Chemistry starts with new content on the search
for life on Mars. Chapter 3: The Chemistry of Organic ­Molecules
opens with a look at trans fats in common foods. ­Chapter 5:
­Membrane Structure and Function begins with a new open-
ing article on chili peppers and calcium channels. C ­ hapter 6:
Metabolism: Energy and Enzymes includes new material on
the function of ATP in cells. The content on redox reactions now
focuses more on the processes of photosynthesis and cellular res-
piration. Chapter 7: Photosynthesis begins with new content on
biofuels.
Unit 2: Genetic Basis of Life
Chapter 9: The Cell Cycle and Cellular Reproduction now
contains information on the structure of a eukaryotic chromosome
(section 9.2). Chapter 10: Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction
starts with a new essay on the importance of meiosis and a new
featured reading, “Meiosis and the Parthenogenic Lizards.” The
figure comparing meiosis I and II (Fig. 10.5) has been reworked to
provide an easier comparison of the two processes. Chapter 11:
Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance begins with a new essay on
PKU sensitivity. A new featured reading examines hemophilia
and the royal families of Europe. The content on polygenic in-
heritance now contains references to the genetics of skin coloring
(Fig. 11.17). Chapter 12: Molecular Biology of the Gene has a
new chapter opener that explains the genetic basis of skin, hair,
and eye coloration. The content on the eukaryotic chromosome
has been moved to chapter 9. There is a new illustration on semi-
conservative replication (Fig 12.6) and a new featured reading
that examines GFP protein. Chapter 13: Regulation of Gene
­Expression starts with new content on how gene regulation relates
to the physiology and behavior of primates. A new featured reading,
“Same but Not the Same—the Role of Epigenetics,” has been in-
cluded on epigenetic inheritance. Chapter 14: Biotechnology and
Genomics opens with a new essay on how biotechnology is being
used to treat dental disease. New illustrations on the PCR reaction
(Fig. 14.3) and the nature of transposons (Fig. 14.10) are included.
Unit 3: Evolution
Chapter 16: How Populations Evolve opens with an essay on
MRSA evolution. Chapter 17: Speciation and Macroevolution
contains an updated illustration on allopatric speciation (Fig. 17.8).
xii
Unit 4: Microbiology and Evolution
Chapter 20: Viruses, Bacteria, and Archaea contains a new fea-
tured reading, “DIY Bio,” that examines synthetic biology. A new
illustration (Fig. 20.8) on gram staining is included. Chapter 21:
Protist Evolution and Diversity has been restructured to give
more emphasis on the supergroup classification system. The chap-
ter begins with a new opener on Naegleria fowleri, and contains a
new featured reading on pathogenic protists and climate change.
The evolutionary relationships in Chapter 22: Fungi Evolution
and Diversity now includes the microsporidia (Fig. 22.1).
Unit 5: Plant Evolution and Biology
Chapter 23: Plant Evolution and Diversity contains a new
featured reading, “Bryophytes—Frozen in Time.” Chapter 24:
Flowering Plants: Structure and Organization begins with new
content on the importance of the neem tree. The chapter has been
reorganized to start with content on plant cells and tissues be-
fore exploring organ systems. Chapter 25: Flowering Plants:
­Nutrition and Transport now contains information on hydro­
ponics (Fig. 25.2) and effects of nutrient deficiencies on plants
(Fig. 25.3). Table 26.1 in Chapter 26: Flowering Plants: Control
of Growth Responses now contains the chemical structures of the
plant hormones. A new featured reading explores coevolution and
the chemical ecology of plants. Chapter 27: Flowering Plants:
Reproduction begins with a new essay on the economic impor-
tance of flowers.
Unit 6: Animal Evolution and Diversity
Chapter 28: Invertebrate Evolution begins with new content that
examines the importance of colony-collapse disorder in honeybees.
A new featured reading, “Would You Eat Insects?,” discusses the
potential benefits of using insects as a food source. Chapter 30:
Human Evolution contains a new featured reading that explores
some of the remaining questions on human evolution.
Unit 7: Comparative Animal Biology
Chapter 31: Animal Organization and Homeostasis begins with
an essay that examines the importance of homeostasis for astro-
nauts. Chapter 32: Circulation and Cardiovascular S ­ ystems
opens with material on cardiovascular-related diseases and the
NFL. Chapter 33: The Lymphatic and Immune Systems has
a new opener on foods and anaphylactic shock. Chapter 34:
­Digestive Systems and Nutrition contains a new featured read-
ing on gluten-free diets. Chapter 35: Respiratory Systems has
a new figure (Fig. 35.8) explaining the relationship between air
pressure and volume of a container. The chapter also contains a
new featured reading on the health aspects of using e-cigarettes.
­Chapter 37: Neurons and Nervous Systems begins with new
Overview of Content Changes to Biology, Twelfth Edition xiii

content on Parkinson disease. Chapter 39: Locomotion and Sup-
port Systems starts with a new essay on Olympian Gabby Doug-
las. Chapter 41: Reproductive Systems has a new opener that
explores variations between the sexes in the animal kingdom.
Unit 8: Behavior and Ecology
Chapter 43: Behavioral Ecology starts with content on behav-
ior and communication in honeybees. The featured reading on
animals and emotions has been updated to include recent develop-
ments. Chapter 44: Population Ecology contains a new illustra-
tion on the environmental impact of developed countries. The
predator-prey relationships and content on global climate change
in ­Chapter 45: Community and Ecosystem Ecology has been
updated to include more recent data. Chapter 47: Conservation
of Biodiversity now begins with an essay on the impact of invasive
species.

The Next Generation of Textbook Reviews: Heat Map Technology

The twelfth edition of Biology is the first text-
book in the Mader s­eries which utilized the
data derived from the LearnSmart platform as
a form of review,
The premise is very straightforward. Stu-
dents don’t know what they don’t know—but
LearnSmart does. By compiling data from all
of the probes answered by all of the students,
and then overlaying that data on the text, we
are able to visualize areas of content where
the students are having problems.
The authors were able to use this infor-
mation to not only identify areas of the text
that the students were having problems with,
but also areas that needed additional digital
resources, such as tutorials and new Connect
questions.
Acknowledgments

Dr. Sylvia Mader represents one of the icons of science education. Twelfth Edition Reviewers
Her dedication to her students, coupled to her clear, concise writing
LaQuetta Anderson, Grambling State University
style, has benefited the education of thousands of students over the
Isaac Barjis, City University of New York
past four decades. As an educator, it is an honor to continue her
Gladys Bolding, Georgia Perimeter College
legacy, and to bring her message to the next generation of students.
Bertha M. Byrd, Wayne County Community College District
As always, I had the privilege to work with the phenomenal
Sarah Clark, Howard Community College
team of science educators and coauthors on this edition. They are
Lewis Deaton, University of Louisiana at Lafayette
all dedicated and talented teachers, and their passion is evident in
Angela Edwards, Trident Technical College
the quality of this text. Thank you also to the countless instructors
Salman Elawad, Chattahoochee Valley Community College
who have invited me into their classrooms, both physically and
Victor Fet, Marshall University
virtually, to discuss their needs as instructors and the needs of their
Julie Fischer, Wallace Community College
students. Your energy, and devotion to quality teaching, is what
Monica Frazier, Columbus State University
drives a textbook revision.
Melanie Glasscock, Wallace State Community College
Many dedicated and talented individuals assisted in the de-
George Goff, Wayne County Community College District
velopment of this edition of Biology. I am very grateful for the
Shashuna J. Gray, Germanna Community College
help of so many professionals at McGraw-Hill who were involved
Sylvester Hackworth, Bishop State Community College
in the development of this project. In particular, let me thank my
Cameron Harmon, Fayetteville Technical Community College
product developer, Anne Winch, for not only keeping me on track
Zinat Hassanpour, Cabarrus College of Health Sciences/Rowan
and her valuable advice, but for her endless patience. My editor
Cabarrus Community College
for this text was Chris Loewenberg. From start to finish a project of
Holly Hereau, Macomb Community College
this magnitude can take over 18 months, and Chris has the natural
Dagne Hill, Grambling State University
ability of keeping his authors focused and in reminding me of the
Kimberly Brown, Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College
importance we are making in education. Thanks also to my market-
Ryan Lazik, Pacific College of Oriental Medicine
ing manager, Chris Ho, who offers a unique insight on the needs of
Lynne Lohmeier, Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College
our students. No modern team would be complete without digital
Geralyne Lopez-de-Victoria, Midlands Technical College
support, and for that I thank Eric Weber and Christine Carlson.
Tiffany McFalls-Smith, Elizabethtown Community and
Production of this text was directed by Angela Fitzpatrick
Technical College
and Jayne Klein, who faithfully steered this project through the
Christian Nwamba, Wayne County Community College District
publication process. I was very lucky to have Dawnelle Krouse,
Tom Reeves, Midlands Technical College
Deb Debord, and Rose Kramer as proofreaders and copy editors.
Lyndell Robinson, Lincoln Land Community College
Today’s textbooks are visual productions, and so I need to thank
William Simcik, Lone Star College-Tomball
the creative talents of David Hash. Lori Hancock and Evelyn Jo
Viji Sitther, Morgan State University
Johnson did a superb job of finding just the right photographs
Phillip Snider, Gadsden State Community College
and micrographs. Electronic Publishing Services produced this
Kimberly Sonanstine, Wallace Community College
textbook, emphasizing pedagogy and beauty to arrive at the best
Chris Sorenson, St. Cloud Technical and Community College
presentation on the page.
Salvatore A. Sparace, Clemson University
Who I am, as an educator and an author, is a direct reflection
Marinko Sremac, Mount Wachusett Community College
of what I have learned from my students. Education is a mutualistic
Todd Tolar, Wallace Community College
relationship, and it is my honest opinion that while I am a teacher,
Frances Turner, Howard Community College
both my professional and personal life have been enriched by inter-
Alanna M. Tynes, Lone Star College-Tomball
actions with my students. They have encouraged me to learn more,
Amale Wardani, Lincoln Land Community College
teach better, and never stop questioning the world around me.
Last, but never least, I want to acknowledge my wife, Sandra.
You have never wavered in your support of my projects. Devin and
Kayla, your natural curiosity of the world we live in gives me the
energy to want to make the world a better place.

Michael Windelspecht
Blowing Rock, NC

xiv
 Contents

Preface iv
7 Photosynthesis 114
1 A View of Life 1 7.1
7.2
Photosynthetic Organisms 115
The Process of Photosynthesis 117
1.1 The Characteristics of Life 2
7.3 Plants Convert Solar Energy 119
1.2 Evolution and the Classification of Life 6
7.4 Plants Fix Carbon Dioxide 123
1.3 The Process of Science 9
7.5 Other Types of Photosynthesis 125
1.4 Challenges Facing Science 13
8 Cellular Respiration 129
Unit
1 The Cell 18
8.1
8.2
8.3
Overview of Cellular Respiration 130
Outside the Mitochondria: Glycolysis 132
Outside the Mitochondria: Fermentation 134
2 Basic Chemistry 19 8.4
8.5
Inside the Mitochondria 136
Metabolism 141
2.1 Chemical Elements 20
2.2 Molecules and Compounds 24
2.3
2.4
Chemistry of Water 26
Acids and Bases 30
Unit
2 Genetic Basis of Life 146

3 The Chemistry of Organic Molecules 35

9 The Cell Cycle and Cellular Reproduction 147
3.1 Organic Molecules 36
9.1 The Cell Cycle 148
3.2 Carbohydrates 39
9.2 The Eukaryotic Chromosome 151
3.3 Lipids 42
9.3 Mitosis and Cytokinesis 152
3.4 Proteins 46
9.4 The Cell Cycle and Cancer 158
3.5 Nucleic Acids 50
9.5 Prokaryotic Cell Division 161
4 Cell Structure and Function 57
10 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction 166
4.1 Cellular Level of Organization 58
10.1 Overview of Meiosis 167
4.2 Prokaryotic Cells 62
10.2 Genetic Variation 169
4.3 Introduction to Eukaryotic Cells 64
10.3 The Phases of Meiosis 172
4.4 The Nucleus and Ribosomes 67
10.4 Meiosis Compared to Mitosis 174
4.5 The Endomembrane System 69
10.5 The Cycle of Life 176
4.6 Microbodies and Vacuoles 72
10.6 Changes in Chromosome Number and Structure 177
4.7 The Energy-Related Organelles 73
4.8 The Cytoskeleton 75
11 Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance 186
5 Membrane Structure and Function 82 11.1 Gregor Mendel 187
11.2 Mendel’s Laws 188
5.1 Plasma Membrane Structure and Function 83
11.3 Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance and Human
5.2 Passive Transport Across a Membrane 88
Disease 194
5.3 Active Transport Across a Membrane 91
11.4 Beyond Mendelian Inheritance 198
5.4 Modification of Cell Surfaces 95

6 Metabolism: Energy and Enzymes 100

12 Molecular Biology of the Gene 207
12.1 The Genetic Material 208
6.1 Cells and the Flow of Energy 101
12.2 Replication of DNA 211
6.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy Transformations 103
12.3 The Genetic Code of Life 216
6.3 Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes 105
12.4 First Step: Transcription 218
6.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions and Metabolism 109
12.5 Second Step: Translation 220

 xv
xviContents

13 Regulation of Gene Expression 228 22 Fungi Evolution and Diversity 395

13.1 Prokaryotic Regulation 229 22.1 Evolution and Characteristics of Fungi 396
13.2 Eukaryotic Regulation 232 22.2 Diversity of Fungi 398
13.3 Gene Mutations 238 22.3 Symbiotic Relationships of Fungi 405

14 Biotechnology and Genomics 244

5 Plant Evolution and Biology

14.1 DNA Cloning 245
Unit
14.2 Biotechnology Products 247 410
14.3 Gene Therapy 250
14.4 Genomics 251
23 Plant Evolution and Diversity 411

3
23.1 Ancestry and Features of Land Plants 412
Unit
Evolution 260 23.2 Evolution of Bryophytes: Colonization of Land 415
23.3 Evolution of Lycophytes: Vascular Tissue 417
23.4 Evolution of Pteridophytes: Megaphylls 419
15 Darwin and Evolution 261 23.5 Evolution of Seed Plants: Full Adaptation
15.1 History of Evolutionary Thought 262 to Land 423
15.2 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution 265
15.3 Evidence for Evolution 270 24 Flowering Plants: Structure
and Organization 435
16 How Populations Evolve 279 24.1 Cells and Tissues of Flowering Plants 436
16.1 Genes, Populations, and Evolution 280 24.2 Organs of Flowering Plants 440
16.2 Natural Selection 286 24.3 Organization and Diversity of Roots 442
16.3 Maintenance of Diversity 290 24.4 Organization and Diversity of Stems 445
17 Speciation and Macroevolution 296 24.5 Organization and Diversity of Leaves 450

17.1 How New Species Evolve 297

17.2 Modes of Speciation 303
25 Flowering Plants: Nutrition and Transport 456
17.3 Principles of Macroevolution 308 25.1 Plant Nutrition and Soil 457
25.2 Water and Mineral Uptake 461
18 Origin and History of Life 317 25.3 Transport Mechanisms in Plants 465
18.1 Origin of Life 318
18.2 History of Life 323 26 Flowering Plants: Control of Growth
18.3 Geological Factors That Influence Evolution 332 Responses 476
26.1 Plant Hormones 477
19 Taxonomy, Systematics, and Phylogeny 337 26.2 Plant Growth and Movement Responses 485
19.1 Systematic Biology 338 26.3 Plant Responses to Phytochrome 489
19.2 The Three-Domain System 341
19.3 Phylogeny 344 27 Flowering Plants: Reproduction 495
27.1 Sexual Reproductive Strategies 496
Unit
4 Microbiology and Evolution 352 27.2
27.3
Seed Development 502
Fruit Types and Seed Dispersal 504
27.4 Asexual Reproductive Strategies 507
20 Viruses, Bacteria, and Archaea 353
20.1 Viruses, Viroids, and Prions 354
20.2
20.3
20.4
The Prokaryotes 360
The Bacteria 363
The Archaea 368
Unit
6 Animal Evolution and Diversity 512

21 Protist Evolution and Diversity 373 28 Invertebrate Evolution 513

21.1 General Biology of Protists 374 28.1 Evolution of Animals 514
21.2 Supergroup Archaeplastida 377 28.2 The Simplest Invertebrates 521
21.3 Supergroup Chromalveolata 380 28.3 Diversity Among the Lophotrochozoans 524
21.4 Supergroup Excavata 385 28.4 Diversity of the Ecdysozoans 532
21.5 Supergroups Amoebozoa, Opisthokonta, and Rhizaria 389 28.5 Invertebrate Deuterostomes 539
Contents xvii

29 Vertebrate Evolution 544 37 Neurons and Nervous Systems 691

29.1 The Chordates 545 37.1 Evolution of the Nervous System 692
29.2 The Vertebrates 547 37.2 Nervous Tissue 695
29.3 The Fishes 548 37.3 The Central Nervous System 699
29.4 The Amphibians 551 37.4 The Peripheral Nervous System 707
29.5 The Reptiles 553
29.6 The Mammals 559 38 Sense Organs 714
38.1 Sensory Receptors 715
30 Human Evolution 564 38.2 Chemical Senses 716
30.1 Evolution of Primates 565 38.3 Sense of Vision 718
30.2 Evolution of Humanlike Hominins 569 38.4 Senses of Hearing and Balance 724
30.3 Evolution of Early Genus Homo 572 38.5 Somatic Senses 729
30.4 Evolution of Later Genus Homo 573
39 Locomotion and Support Systems 733
39.1 Diversity of Skeletons 734
Unit
7 Comparative Animal Biology 580
39.2 The Human Skeletal System 736
39.3 The Muscular System 742

31 Animal Organization and Homeostasis 581 40 Hormones and Endocrine Systems 750
31.1 Types of Tissues 582 40.1 Animal Hormones 751
31.2 Organs, Organ Systems, and Body Cavities 589 40.2 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 758
31.3 The Integumentary System 591 40.3 Other Endocrine Glands and Hormones 758
31.4 Homeostasis 594
41 Reproductive Systems 770
32 Circulation and Cardiovascular Systems 600 41.1 How Animals Reproduce 771
32.1 Transport in Invertebrates 601 41.2 Human Male Reproductive System 773
32.2 Transport in Vertebrates 603 41.3 Human Female Reproductive System 777
32.3 The Human Cardiovascular System 605 41.4 Control of Human Reproduction 781
32.4 Blood  613 41.5 Sexually Transmitted Diseases 785

33 The Lymphatic and Immune Systems 621 42 Animal Development 793

33.1 Evolution of Immune Systems 622 42.1 Early Developmental Stages 794
33.2 The Lymphatic System 623 42.2 Developmental Processes 798
33.3 Innate Immune Defenses 625 42.3 Human Embryonic and Fetal Development 802
33.4 Adaptive Immune Defenses 628 42.4 The Aging Process 809
33.5 Immune System Disorders
and Adverse Reactions 636

34 Digestive Systems and Nutrition 641

Unit
8 Behavior and Ecology 816
34.1 Digestive Tracts 642
34.2 The Human Digestive System 645 43 Behavioral Ecology 817
34.3 Digestive Enzymes 651 43.1 Inheritance Influences Behavior 818
34.4 Nutrition and Human Health 652 43.2 The Environment Influences Behavior 820
43.3 Animal Communication 824
35 Respiratory Systems 659 43.4 Behaviors That Increase Fitness 828
35.1 Gas-Exchange Surfaces 660
35.2 Breathing and Transport of Gases 665 44 Population Ecology 836
35.3 Respiration and Human Health 669 44.1 Scope of Ecology 837
44.2 Demographics of Populations 838
36 Body Fluid Regulation and Excretory 44.3 Population Growth Models 841
Systems 677 44.4 Regulation of Population Size 844
36.1 Animal Excretory Systems 678 44.5 Life History Patterns 846
36.2 The Human Urinary System 681 44.6 Human Population Growth 849
xviiiContents

45 Community and Ecosystem Ecology 855 Appendices

45.1 Ecology of Communities 856
45.2 Community Development 866
A Answer Key A-1
45.3 Dynamics of an Ecosystem 868 B Tree of Life A-16
46 Major Ecosystems of the Biosphere 881 Glossary G-1
46.1 Climate and the Biosphere 882
46.2 Terrestrial Ecosystems 885 Credits C-1
46.3 Aquatic Ecosystems 895 Index I-1
47 Conservation of Biodiversity 905
47.1 Conservation Biology and Biodiversity 906
47.2 Value of Biodiversity 908
47.3 Causes of Extinction 911
47.4 Conservation Techniques 916
 1
A View of Life

The themes of evolution, the nature of science, and biological

systems are important to understanding biology.

O ur planet is home to a staggering diversity of life. It is estimated that there are over
15 million different species, including our species, Homo sapiens, that inhabit the
globe. Furthermore, life may be found everywhere, from the deepest trenches in
Chapter Outline
1.1 The Characteristics of Life 2
1.2 Evolution and the Classification
the oceans to the tops of the highest mountains. Biology is the area of scientific study
of Life 6
that focuses on understanding all aspects of living organisms. To further our under-
1.3 The Process of Science 9
standing of what it means to be alive, biologists explore life from the molecular level of
the information in our genes to the large-scale ecological interactions of multiple spe- 1.4 Challenges Facing Science 13
cies and their environments.
In this text, we are going to focus on three themes that define these explorations.
The first is evolution—the central theme of biology and the explanation for how life
adapts and changes over time. The second theme is the nature of science. Science is
a process that relies on experimentation and hypothesis testing to validate its findings.
The third theme is biological systems. Throughout this text you will discover that life is
interconnected at many levels, from similarities in our genetic information to the cycling
of nutrients in ecosystems.
As we proceed through this chapter, consider how we as humans are intercon-
nected with other species by these three themes.
As you read through this chapter, think about the following questions:
1. Why is evolution a central theme of the biological sciences?
2. In what ways is life interconnected?
3. How do scientists use the scientific method to study life?

Following the Themes

chapter 1 a view of life

Understanding the scientific process, the theory of evolution, and the interaction
Evolution of biological systems is important in the study of biology.

Scientists make observations, form hypotheses, and conduct experiments in an

Nature of Science attempt to understand the principles of life.

From communities of organisms to individual cells, all life is based on atoms and
Biological Systems molecules.

1
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
consequences; and doing evil to be evil in itself, and evil in its
general and final consequences. In fact, as much is assumed in the
argument.[6]
But, however, if the discussion we have been passing through
supplies a true and complete solution of the interesting question this
chapter propounds, and I cannot but think that it does, then one of its
consequences will be, (though, indeed, it is a consequence in which
the world will not, now, take much interest) that Bishop Warburton’s
much-bruited Theory of the Divine Legation of Moses—as a
schoolboy I rejected it, but could not then answer it—will prove to be
but an Escurial in the air. That the Mosaic Dispensation made no use
of the Doctrine of a future life does not prove that it was upheld by a
daily renewed miracle. With contemporary and subsequent history
before us, we can see that the omission was originally made on
logical and administratively wise grounds.

We ask permission for one remark more. It will be observed that

the foregoing disquisition assumes to some degree that there is a
logical basis for belief in a future life. It is the argument which arises
in the bosom of social development. It is not precisely the same
process of thought as that which appears to have first implanted the
idea in the mind of the Aryan: that was, in some measure, founded
on a sentiment, which arose from the bosom of nature. But, however,
the old Aryan sentiment which, though a sentiment, had its logic,
combined with the distinctly logical argument, founded on the
recognition and eternity of justice, which there is no possibility of
working out on the stage of this world, where the same act carries
one man to the gallows and another to the throne, and which
argument social development makes palpable and intelligible, will
satisfy many minds and must have weight with every mind. That
something, and even that much, can be said on the other side, is a
remark of no weight. It is merely an assertion that, in this respect, the
question before us does not differ from other moral and religious
questions. The same observation may be made of every one of
them; for this is a world, as all must see, in which belief, just like
virtue itself which is the matured fruit of belief, can be the result only
of a right choice, after honest deliberation, between conflicting
considerations. This is of its very essence. The great argument,
however, itself, and everything that depends upon it, are lost to, and
obscured by, those who have persuaded themselves, and are
endeavouring to persuade others, to accept precisely what Christ
overthrew, and which He overthrew precisely that He might establish
belief in the future life.

I have dwelt on the question of this chapter, not on account of its

intrinsic interest, although that is great, but because it is a necessary
part of the survey of old Egypt. The history of Egypt must include
some account of the influence it had upon the world; and a great part
of that influence had to pass through, and be transmitted onward by,
the Hebrews. It was imperative, therefore, in a work of this kind, that
some attempt should be made to obtain a true conception of the
relations of Israel to Mizraim; and the most essential part of those
relations is that which is intellectual, moral, and religious. This
appears to be the only intelligible meaning that can be attached to
the reference ‘out of Egypt have I called my son’: His capital doctrine
was what had been the capital doctrine of Egypt. If, however, the
reference was not intended to have any meaning in the intellectual,
moral, and religious order, this passing comment is non-suited and
must be withdrawn. But, whatever may be the value of the
explanation I have been just attempting to give of the particular
question that has been before us, the fact itself remains, standing
forth on the long records of history as one of the most important they
contain, that, while the belief in future rewards and punishments was
the motive power of morality and religion in Egypt, among a
neighbouring people, who had in some sort been a secession from
Egypt, and always continued to be more or less affected by it,
morality and religion were able, under most adverse circumstances,
to maintain themselves for fifteen centuries without any formal or
direct support from this belief.
Verily we are debtors to the Jew for the great lesson contained in
this fact. Another religion—that one indeed which at the present day
commands the greatest number of believers—does, as some of its
own doctors tell us, leave open, to a considerable extent, this
question of future rewards and punishments, contenting itself with
teaching that virtue is its own sufficient reward; and that should it
have any consequences in a life to come they cannot be evil: and
the bearing of this evidence on the point before us is not
unimportant. Those, however, who are in the habit of passing by
unheeded what more than 300,000,000 of the human family have to
say on such questions, will not think it immaterial what the Jews
believed. And never had any people more unclouded faith in the
eternity and ultimate mundane triumph of truth, of right, and of
goodness than the Jews, although they seldom had any thought, and
then only very dimly; that they should themselves participate in, or
witness that triumph: they lived and died in the faith of it, never
having been supported and strengthened by the sight of it, but only
by the desire to see it: the better condition, which was to make
perfect theirs, having been reserved for other times. Never, however,
were any people more ready to sacrifice everything, even to life
itself, in proclaiming, and endeavouring to carry out, what they
believed. It was this that prompted, and made successful, the
Asmonæan insurrection against Greek domination; and which
afterwards impelled them to challenge single-handed the world-
Empire of Rome. Contemporary history, like much that has been
written subsequently, did not understand, indeed quite
misunderstood, their motives, and what was stirring within them; and
so failed to do them the honour they deserved for their heroic efforts
to prevent the extinction of their religion and morality. We, however,
can now, at the same time, both do them justice, and acknowledge
our obligations to them, for having taught us that the moral
sentiments have such deep root in man’s nature; and can maintain
so vigorous an existence by their own inherent power, without aid
from other-world hopes and fears, and against all of force or
seduction with which this world can assail them. This, I submit,
throws light upon much that, at the present day, and amongst
ourselves, stands somewhat in need of proof and distinctness.
It shows, I think, that there are in our composite mental and bodily
constitution principles, or laws, of morality, which, as they are
indestructible, and capable of maintaining themselves, and of acting
vigorously, under even the most adverse circumstances, must be
regarded as inseparable and essential parts of our being. This fact in
the natural history of morality may be illustrated by an analogous fact
in the natural history of language. A man cannot but use language,
and he cannot but use it in conformity with certain rules and laws. He
cannot alter one law of language any more than he could invent a
new language: he can even hardly add a single word, deliberately
and designedly, to an existing one. And he must not only use
language in conformity with its natural laws, but he must also use
that particular form of it which the working of general laws has
developed, necessarily, both for him, and in him. Just so is it with
morality. Indeed, the parallel is so complete as to lead one to
suspect that morality must to some considerable degree be
dependent upon language. Man seems to invent it; and so he does
in a certain sense. But, however, he cannot help inventing it; and he
must invent it in conformity with certain laws. Over these he has no
control: for though he must use, yet he does not invent, or originate,
them. That falls within the sphere of a Higher Power. In some form or
other, better or not so good, and in some measure, more or less,
morality is a congenital necessity of our being, and if society be fairly
and wisely dealt with (but of this when we speak of the wisdom of
Egypt, and again in our summing up) there are grounds for disposing
us to believe that moral, and not animal instincts, may in any people
be made the lords of the ascendant.
It will be enough to say here that extremes, then, appear in some
sense to have met. We believe just as distinctly as the Jew, or as the
Egyptian, that the law came from God; that in it God speaks within
us, and through us; and that our part is to hearken to, to bow down
before, and obey the Divinity. This involves morality, religion,
responsibility, conscience. They saw this through moral intuition. We
see it also through history and science. The primæval intuition, and
the modern demonstration, constructed out of the materials with
which our hoards of experience and observation have supplied us,
are in perfect accord. Intuition prior to knowledge, and accumulated
knowledge reasoning out the problem, have both arrived at the same
conclusion: and so we have sufficient grounds for believing that no
other conclusion is possible; and that what history has demonstrated
to be inseparable from the working of society, and from the being of
man, will endure as long as society and as man shall endure.[7]
 CHAPTER XXVI.
THE EFFECT OF EASTERN TRAVEL ON BELIEF.

Ignorance is the curse of God,

Knowledge the wing whereby we fly to Heaven.—Shakspeare.

The question that I find has been most frequently put to me since
my return home is—What effect travel in the East has on belief?
What the effect may be in any case will, of course, depend on
what were the ingredients and character of the belief. If, for instance,
a traveller makes the discovery that old Egypt was far grander, far
more civilized, and far more earnest than the mention of it in the
Hebrew Scriptures had led him to suppose, he will receive a shock;
or if a man finds the agricultural capabilities of the greater part of
Syria utterly unadapted to English methods of farming, and has no
idea of other methods; and if, furthermore, he is ignorant of the ways
in which commerce can maintain a large population anywhere, he
will receive another shock. We can imagine that such persons will
ever afterwards affirm that the effects are bad. They were bad in
their own minds, and they cannot see how they can be good in any
other mind.
We will take these two instances first. Suppose a different kind of
traveller, one who had previously arrived at some not altogether
inadequate conceptions of the mind, and of the greatness of old
Egypt. He had also observed the fact that these things are not dwelt
on in the Hebrew Scriptures, and had formed some opinion as to the
cause of the omission. Then he will receive no shock from what he
sees in the monuments of the greatness of Egypt, and of the
evidently high moral aims of its religion. Suppose, again, that he had
quite understood that he should not see the same kind of agriculture
in Syria as in Suffolk; and that when he was among the hills he had
found, often to a greater extent than he had expected, that formerly
every rood of ground had been turned to account; it is true, in a very
un-English manner, but still in a manner well adapted to the locality;
that terraces had been formed wherever terraces could be placed;
that corn, figs, olives, vines had been grown on these terraces (on
some hills the actual summit is still a vineyard), and that, where the
ground was not suitable for terracing, it had been depastured by
flocks and herds; and that there is evidence that many hills must
have been clothed from the bottom to the top with olives. And
suppose also that he was quite aware that populous cities could
have been maintained by trade and commerce in Judæa just as
easily, to say the least, as were Palmyra and Petra in the wilderness.
Then he will receive no shock from the un-English agricultural
aspects of Syria. Instead of any disagreeable sensation of that kind,
he will see in the present desolation of the country interesting and
instructive evidence of a change in the channels of commerce, and a
demonstration of the sad fact that where the Turk sets his foot,
although he is a very good fellow, grass will not grow.
But to go on with the discoveries that cause shocks. With many
Jerusalem is the great stumbling-block. If, however, we can imagine
a traveller visiting the Holy City with sufficient historical knowledge to
enable him to recall in a rough way the city of David and of Solomon,
we may be quite certain that he will, as far as that part of the subject
goes, receive no shock from the modern city. The same, too, I
believe, may be said, to a very great extent, even of the city of
Herod. One who can rightly imagine what that city was externally will
not, I think, be disappointed at the sight of modern Jerusalem. I am
not now speaking of the Greek traders, the Roman soldiers, the
Pharisees, and Sadducees, who might have been seen in the
streets, but of the city itself. It must be seen from the Mount of
Olives, and I submit that the grand Mosk of Omar, as beheld from
that point, is a far more imposing structure, architecturally, than the
temple of Herod was likely to have been, which, when seen from a
distance, being in the Greek style of architecture, was, probably, too
much wanting in height to produce any very great effect. The Mosk
combines great height with variety of form, for there are the curves of
the dome as well as the perpendicular lines of the walls and great
windows. The dwelling-houses, too, of the modern city must, with
their domed stone roofs be more imposing than those of the old city.
The cupolas and towers of the churches, and the minarets of the
mosks are additional features. The walls also of the modern city are
lofty, massive, and of an excellent colour; and I can hardly think that
those of old Jerusalem could have added more to the scene. Herod’s
Palace, and the greater extent of his city are probably the only
particulars in which what has passed away was superior to what is
seen now. As looked at from the mount of Olives this day, the city
does not appear to contain a single mean building. History, then, will
again save the traveller from receiving a shock at the sight of the
outward appearance of Jerusalem; or if it must be felt, will much
mitigate its force.
The traveller, however, might be one who had never rambled so
far as the field of history, and was only expecting to find in the
Christians of Jerusalem, that is, in the specimens of the Greek and
Latin communions there, living embodiments of the Sermon on the
Mount; but instead of this, finds littlenesses, frauds, formalism,
animosities, dirt. Of course, he receives a shock; and this is,
perhaps, the commonest shock of all. But the fault was in himself: he
ought to have known better than to have allowed himself to indulge
in such unlikely anticipations.
Every one, then, of these shocks was unnecessary and avoidable.
And now let us look at another order of suppositions. Suppose the
traveller is desirous of understanding something about the efforts
that have been made to interpret, and to shape man’s moral and
spiritual nature under a great, and, on the whole, progressive variety
of circumstances, out of which has arisen, from time to time, a
necessity for enlarging and recasting former conclusions, so as to
include the results of the new light, and to adapt ideas and practices
to new circumstances: then what he sees of the East, and of its
people, will help him mightily in understanding what he wishes to
understand. We are supposing that he has limited his expectations
to certain clearly-defined objects, such, for instance, as the
observation of what now can be seen, that will throw light on the
history of the people, whose record is in the Sacred volume, on what
kind of people they were, and how it came to pass that they became
what they were; and on what it was in the natural order that made
their minds the seed-bed for the ideas, with which, through their
Scriptures, we are all more or less familiar; and on what there was in
the people that made the moral element more prominent and active
in their civilization than in that of Greece and Rome: that is to say, if
his objects are strictly limited to what can be investigated and
understood by what one sees in the East, because it is the
investigation and understanding of what may be seen in the Eastern
man, and in Eastern nature; then I think that travel in Egypt and
Syria will not cause any shocks or disappointments. On the contrary,
I think the traveller will feel, on his return home, that he has brought
back with him some light, and some food for thought, he could not
have obtained elsewhere.
As to myself: for of course I can only give my own experience; and
equally, of course, it is only that that can be of value, should it
happen to possess any, in what I may have to say on this question: I
now feel, as I read the sacred page, that I understand it in a way I
never did before. It is not merely that I can, sometimes, fit the scene
to the transactions—that is something; but that, which is more, I am
better able to fit the people to the thoughts, and even to understand
the thoughts themselves. The interest, therefore, and possibly the
utility, too, of what I read is increased for me. I have seen the greater
simplicity of mind of these oriental people. I have seen that the moral
element in them is stronger, either relatively to their intellect, or
absolutely in itself—I know not which—and obtains more dominion
over them than over our beef-eating, beer-drinking, and indoor-living
people; that the idea of God is more present to them than to us, and
has a more constant, and sometimes a deeper, power over them.
Observations of this kind enable one to see and feel more clearly
what was in the minds and hearts of the old Orientals. This is true of
the whole of Scripture, from the first page to the last; but in an
especial manner is it true of the Psalms and of the Gospels. Before I
visited the East I saw their meaning through the, to a certain extent,
false medium of modern English thought. Elements of feeling and
meaning, which before were unobserved and unknown, now stand
out clear and distinct. I seem to be conscious of and to understand,
in a manner that would have been impossible before, the depth and
the exaltation of feeling of the Psalms, and their wonderful didactic
beauty, the result, clearly, of the feelings that prompted them, rather
than of the amount and variety of knowledge they deal with. The
simplicity, the single-mindedness, the self-forgetting heartiness of the
morality of the Gospel, also, I think, gains much from the same
cause. I think, too, that I understand now, better than I did before, the
fierce tone in which the Prophets denounced existing wrongs, and
their unfaltering confidence in a better future.
And as it is in great matters and on the whole, so is it in small
particulars. For instance, I heard a tall bony half-grey Syrian Arab, in
whose mind I had but little doubt that the thought of God was ever
present, cursing the God of the Christians. It had never crossed his
mind that the God of the Christians was the same as the God of the
Mahomedans. Here was the persistence to our own day of the old
exclusive idea.
A poor native Christian at Jerusalem told me that he believed the
holy places were not known now, because, in these days, men were
not worthy of such blessed knowledge. The old idea again of the
superior holiness of past times. And so one might go on with a
multitude of similar instances.
I will here give a tangible and distinct example of the change in
one’s way of looking at things, and of the consequent change in
feeling, which travel in the East actually brought about in one’s mind,
naturally and without any effort, just by allowing the trains of thought
that spontaneously arose to take their own courses, and, in
combination with pre-existing material, to work themselves out to
their own conclusions.
Formerly I never read the account of the deception Jacob
practised on his father at the instigation of his mother, and at the
expense of his brother; or the imprecations of the 109th Psalm; or
the account of the way in which David, for the purpose of appeasing
God (Who was supposed to be terribly afflicting an innocent people
for the mistaken zeal on His behalf of a deceased king), gave up
seven innocent men, sons and grandsons of Saul, to be hanged by
those whom Saul had sought to injure; without wishing, as I believe
almost everybody does, every time he hears these passages read,
that, by some process of beneficent magic, they could be made to
vanish from the Sacred Volume, and be heard of and remembered
no more for ever. But now they appear to me in quite a different light,
and I regard them with quite different sentiments. Now I am very far
indeed from wishing that they could be made to vanish away. I have
been among people who are, at this moment, thinking, feeling, and
acting precisely in the way described in those passages; and so I
have come to regard them as containing genuine, primitive, historical
phases of morality and religion, and as giving to the record, and just
for this very reason, no small part of its value. This primitive morality,
which has been kept alive all along, or to which men have again
reverted, in the East, belongs to the stage in which subtilty, although
it may, as in the instance before us, palpably mean deception, has
not yet been distinguished from wisdom; when men think they are
serving God by being ready to inflict any and every form of suffering,
and even, if it were possible, annihilation itself, on the man who
rejects, or who does not support, their ideas of morality and religion;
and when the current conception of responsibility is made to include
the family and descendants of the evil-doer. These very
misconceptions and aberrations are in conformity to the existing
sentiments and daily practice of the modern Oriental. With him
deception is a perfectly legitimate means for obtaining his ends; nor,
in his way of thinking, is any infliction too severe for misbelievers and
blasphemers of the Faith; and in the custom of blood-feuds the
innocent descendants of the man who shed blood are answerable
for the misdeed of their forefather. These, then, and similar mistakes,
the contemplation of which is so painful to us, were honestly made,
and were even consequences of deliberate and careful efforts to act
up to moral ideas under the conditions and in conformity with the
knowledge of the times.
I have thus come to see that morality and religion,—and this
includes my own morality and religion—are, in no sense, an arbitrary
creation, but a world-old growth. Thousands of years ago they were
forming themselves, in some stages of their growth, on the hill of
Zion, as they had been previously in earlier stages on the banks of
the Nile, and as they did subsequently in the grove of the Academy,
on the seven hills of Rome, and in the forests of Germany. This has
been brought home to me by actual acquaintance with people whose
morality and religion are different from my own—the difference very
much consisting in the fact that they are still in the early stage to
which the ideas in the passages referred to belong. To associate and
to deal with people who are mentally in the state, which the old
historic peoples were in, is to have the old history translated for you
into a language you can understand. What I now find in myself was
once, in its earlier days, just what I find described in those passages.
My morality and religion, which are my true self, have passed
through that stage; that is to say they were once in the stage of the
Patriarch and of the Psalmist. Virtually, I was in them. My more
perfect condition, therefore, must share the blame which mistakenly
appears—this is a mistake into which unhistorical minds fall—to
belong only to their more imperfect condition. Both are equally parts
of the same growth. I now look upon these earlier stages of my
moral being as I do upon my own childhood. To speak of the ideas,
or of the acts of the Patriarch, or of the Psalmist as, perhaps, I might
have been disposed to speak of them formerly would, I now feel, be
to blaspheme my own parentage. I look with a kind of awe on the
failure—so shocking and so intelligible—of their efforts to find the
right path upon which, through a long series of such efforts, I, their
moral offspring, and heir, have at last been brought. Now I link
myself to the past, and I feel the power and the value of the bond.
Now I know that my religion and morality are not a something or
other of recent ascertainable date; a something or other that has
come hap-hazard; even that might, conceivably, never have been.
They are something, I know, that appertains to man; that came into
being with him, indeed that is of his very being; that has grown with
his growth, and strengthened with his strength; and which
accumulating experience and enlarging knowledge have, all along,
ever been purifying, broadening, deepening. I see distinctly, now,
that they rest on foundations in man himself, which nothing can
overthrow or shake. A conviction is brought home to me that I am
standing on an everlasting rock. Formerly there might have been
some lurking germ of suspicion or misgiving that I was standing on
ground that was not quite defensible. Universal history, rightly
understood, dissipates these enfeebling misgivings, and generates
that invaluable conviction. It is a conviction which nothing can touch,
for it rests on incontrovertible facts and unassailable reasonings; and
which are such as will justify a man in expending his own life, and in
calling upon others to do the same, for the maintenance and
advancement of morality and religion.
And this connexion with the past appears to give a prospective as
well as retrospective extension to my being. If I am in the past, then,
by parity of reason, I am equally in the future. As my moral and
intellectual being was, in this way, forming itself before I was in the
flesh, it will continue, in the same way, the same process after I shall
have put off the flesh. The dissolution of the body will not affect what
existed before the assumption of the body.
These thoughts I did not take with me to the East, or, if I did, they
had at that time only a potential existence in my mind as
unquickened germs. It was what I saw and felt in the East that gave
them life and shape. At all events, I brought them back with me as
recognized and active elements of my mental being.
I am aware that there are some on whom the sight of the
diversities observable among different peoples in moral and religious
ideas has an effect the very contrary to that which I have been
describing. Instead of helping them to bring their knowledge on these
subjects into order, and giving them solid foundations to rest the
structure upon, it appears in them only to make confusion worse
confounded, and to render more incapable of support what had in
them little enough support before. But may not this arise from the
fact that the true idea of history does not exist in the minds of these
persons? For I suppose that just as true science infallibly generates
the craving, and, as far as it reaches, the successful effort, to
harmonize all nature, so does true history the craving, and, as far as
it reaches, the successful effort, to harmonize all that is known of
man. One man observes differences in moral ideas, and thence
infers that it is impossible to arrive at any fixed and certain
conclusions on such subjects. Another man observes the same
differences, but observing at the same time that they are those of
growth and development, thence infers that the principle of which
they are the growth and development must be as real and certain as
anything in the earth beneath, or in the heaven above.
There is no difficulty in understanding the prepotency these ideas
must have in modifying and forming a man’s conceptions of duty and
of happiness.

I have, then, no commiseration for those who receive the kind of

shocks we spoke of at the beginning of this chapter. If a man goes to
the East with anti-historical and unreasonable expectations, there is
nothing in the East, or the wide world, that can, so far as his
expectations go, be of any use to him. Wherever he comes upon
truth it will shock him. Nor do I think that travel in the East will be of
advantage to the man whose minute apprehension is incapable of
taking in anything higher than points of Zulu criticism. This is the
criticism of people who, like those kraal-inhabiting, skinclad
philosophers, are all for small particulars, and who appear to labour
under a congenital incapacity for large views, and for general ideas.
According to their logic, the best established general proposition in
contingent matter is not only utterly false, but even inconceivable, if
they can adduce a single case, or point even, in which it fails. If one
of this sort were to find a burr on your clothes, he would be unable to
see your clothes for the burr; or if he were to go so far beyond the
burr as to form any opinion about your clothes, it would be that they
were bad clothes, because of the burr. I have known a person of this
kind so perverse, that if you had told him that his wife and children
had been burnt to death on the first-floor of a house, the intelligence
would have had no effect upon him, if he chanced to suppose that
you were inaccurate, and were calling the ground-floor the first-floor.
He would be incapable of attending to the intelligence you had
brought him, till this had been rightly understood, and set right. Till
that had been done, he would be unable to think of anything else, or
talk of anything else. Such is the mind of the Zulu critic. Still,
however, there is a place for him, and he is of use in the general
scheme.
 But my late excursion to the East not only led to the question
which stands at the head of this chapter having frequently been put
me, and which may be regarded as illustrative of the mental
condition of an educated stratum of society amongst us, but it also
led to my obtaining the following illustration of the mental condition of
the uneducated class amongst us.
Shortly after my return I had the following conversation with one I
knew to be a good specimen of that class—an honest,
conscientious, religious soul.
‘They tell me, sir, you have been a long away off.’
‘Yes, neighbour, I have been to Jerusalem.’
I thought Jerusalem might touch a chord, but was not sure that
Egypt would.
‘What! Jerusalem, sir?’ with great surprise.
‘Yes: Jerusalem.’
‘Now, sir, you have surprised me. I did not know that there was
such a place as Jerusalem in the world. I had always thought that
Jerusalem was only a Bible word.’
 CHAPTER XXVII.
THE HISTORICAL METHOD OF
INTERPRETATION.

God who at sundry times, and in divers manners, spake in times past to the
Fathers.—Epistle to the Hebrews.

It belongs very closely to our subject to determine in what sense

the Hebrew Scriptures are to be interpreted, because, if the popular
interpretation is to be maintained at every point, Egyptology, and a
great deal more of what eventually must, and now ought to be, used
in the construction of religious thought, will continue for a time to be
deemed in popular opinion, and to be represented by its guides, as
hostile to religion. I would, then, submit that, if universal history is to
be aided at all by the Hebrew Scriptures, or if they are to be applied
to any historical purpose whatever, they must be interpreted
according to the received canons of historical criticism.
Those who deny this accept, in so doing—if they are logical and
consistent—one or other of two alternative consequences: either that
all contemporary and antecedent history is contained in the
interpretation they put upon the sacred records—that is, in what at
present happens to be the popular interpretation—so that nothing
that is not contained in, or deducible from, or in harmony with, that
interpretation is to be received as history; or else that history has
nothing at all to do with the documents, or the documents with
history.
There are, however, other people, not less learned nor less
desirous of attaining to the truth, who are completely incapable of
accepting either of these two alternatives. They value the Holy
Scriptures too highly to treat them in this way. They believe that,
though their primary object was not historical, they contain much
history of many kinds, and of great value. History of events, of the
human mind, of conscience, of religion—much of the history, in one
word, of man, or of humanity; but, furthermore, they believe—and in
this lies the gist of the controversy—that what they contain on any
one, and on all of these subjects, is to be ascertained only by critical
investigation. The single historical question with them is, when the
documents have been rightly interpreted, what do they really
contain?
They believe that the purpose, the character, and the contents of
the documents, alike, preclude the idea of fraud and deception. The
thought of the existence of any thing of the kind in them had its birth,
naturally and unavoidably, in the popular interpretation. A false and
ignorant interpretation was met by a false and ignorant attack. It
could not have been otherwise; for both belong to the same age. No
one, then, can be deceived by these documents, excepting those
who interpret them ignorantly and wrongly. It is a question of
interpretation. A false interpretation has surrounded them with
difficulties, and in a great measure destroyed with multitudes their
utility and their credit. The true interpretation will remove these
difficulties; and where mischief has been done, restore their credit
and utility.
But there appears to some a preliminary question: that of the right
of interpretation. About this there, however, can be no real question
at all, even among those who support what we call the popular
interpretation. How can they deny to others the right they claim for
themselves, of adopting the interpretation that appears to them most
in accordance with truth and fact? The third, the twelfth, the
sixteenth, and all other centuries, had a right to interpret the
document in the way which at the time seemed true. The nineteenth
century has the same right. The men of other times interpreted it
according to the combination of knowledge, and of ignorance, that
was in them. We must do the same.
Let us see, then, what is the difference between the popular, and
the historical methods of interpretation. Proximately we shall find it
very great; ultimately not much. But the point before us will not be
fully understood until it be seen in a distinct concrete instance. The
popular method goes on the assumption that the modes of thought,
and the modes of expression of early ages, and of other races of
men, must be accepted by us in the sense in which we must take
anything addressed to ourselves by a contemporary author. This, the
historical method tells us, is an impossibility. It has been rendered
impossible by subsequent advances in knowledge, in the
generalization of ideas, and in language through a larger use of
general and abstract terms. The historical method says that archaic
modes of thought, and modes of expression, must be translated into
our modes of thought, and our modes of expression.
I will now give an instance that will include both. In those early
times men had not been trained, as we have been, by ages of
culture, to think abstractedly. They could only think, if we may so
express it, concretely. It was necessary that a palpable image of
what was meant should be before their minds. This was what made
idolatry so attractive to the people Moses led up out of Egypt. It was
so to all the young world, and is so still to all who are in the infancy
of thought. And it was so in a pre-eminent degree with those Moses
had to deal with, for they had been mentally degraded below even
the level of the times, by the hard slavery in which they had been
kept for some generations. Even among our own labouring class this
inability to think abstractedly is very conspicuous. Their want of
intellectual training, their ignorance, their life of toil, their poverty of
language, particularly of abstract and general forms of expression,
are the cause of it. They can never tell you what they themselves
said, or what anybody else said, except in a dramatic form. With
them it is always ‘I said,’ and ‘he said;’ in each case the very words
being given. They cannot indicate the purport of what was said by
the general, or abstract, form of expression that a man consented, or
hesitated, or refused compliance, or remonstrated, &c. General
forms of thought and expression are beyond them. Nor will they, for
they cannot, tell you simply that a thing was done: instead of this
they must tell you every step of the process. That which is very
remarkable, in this nineteenth century, in one class, amongst
ourselves, was a law, a necessity, of thought among those with
whom Moses had to deal.
 As a foundation, then, for the theocratic system he was about to
establish, he had to announce the idea, not perhaps altogether new
to some of those who had come out of Egypt, but one to which the
thought of Greece and Rome was never conducted, that God was
the Creator. Suppose, then, that he had contented himself, as we
might, at this day, with stating it in that abstract form. We may be
absolutely certain that the statement would have fallen dead on the
ears of the people, to whom he had to address himself. They could
not have taken in the idea. No effect whatever could thus have been
produced upon them. He was therefore obliged, not as a matter of
choice, but of necessity, to present the idea to them in the concrete.
That is, to give them a series of pictures of creation. This, he had to
say, was the picture of things before creation begun. This was what
was done first. This was what was done next. And so on throughout
the whole. And this was what was said at each act of creation. When
the idea was presented to them in this concrete, dramatic form, they
could understand it, and take it in. It was the only mode of thought,
and the only mode of expression, that were possible then. When
translated into modern modes of thought, and modern modes of
expression, they simply mean God is the Creator. Nothing more.
Those who would press them further, do so because they are not
acquainted with the difference between archaic, rude, uncultured
modes of thought and expression, and those of minds that have
received culture, and been benefited by the slowly maturing fruits of
ages of culture.
This method of historical criticism offers similar explanations of
much besides these first chapters of Genesis. It tells us that good,
and true, and God-fearing men, and who were moved by a holy
spirit, which they described as coming to them ab extra (in which
their metaphysics, if erroneous, were honestly so) could hardly in
those times have thought, or expressed themselves otherwise than
as they did; and that if, through some realization of the Egyptian idea
of the transmigration of souls, they had returned to earth, and were
now amongst us, with precisely the same yearnings for justice, truth,
and goodness they had been moved by in those primitive days, they
would not express themselves now as they did then, but as we do.
Their metaphysics would have become the same as ours. But in
either case there would be no difference in their meaning.
It is evident, by the way, that the historical method of interpretation
differs also, in the effect it has on the feelings and practice, from the
popular interpretation of the present day, and of former times. It is
evident, for instance, that it could not lead a man to denounce the
mythology and religion of Egypt, the aims of which were distinctly
moral, as the invention of devils. The old popular methods of
interpretation, also, naturally sanctioned the persecution of those
who differ from us in religion, as they did at the time of the Crusades;
and of those who differ from us only in interpretation, as in the case
of the treatment of the Vaudois; and in the still more shocking case
of the creation and maintenance of the Inquisition, one of the most
dreadful episodes in human history. The historical method, however,
suggests nothing of the kind. It can regard such extravagancies only
as contradictions of the meaning and purpose of religion.
But to go back to the contrast between the popular and the
historical methods of interpretation as applied to the particular
instance I selected, that of the first chapters of the Book of Genesis.
Some little time back I met with the following illustration of the errors
into which we must fall, if we feel ourselves obliged to take them
precisely in the sense that would belong to their words, had they
been addressed by a living writer to ourselves. There happened to
be an equestrian circus exhibiting in the neighbouring town. The
gardener who was in my service at the time had rather an inquisitive
mind; and the word equestrian, which occurred in the posters that
announced the performance, puzzled him; and as he did not like to
give his money without knowing what it was for, he asked me what
the word meant. I told him it meant an exhibition in which horses
bore a part, and that the word was derived from equus, the Latin
name for a horse.
‘No,’ he exclaimed, ‘that can’t be right.’
‘Yes,’ I rejoined, ‘it is so.’
‘No;’ he continued, ‘it is impossible; because we are told that when
the animals were created they were all brought to Adam, and that