MATHOPEDIA

AKNOWLEDGEMENT

To our parents,
The reason for what we are today. Thanks of
your great support and continuous care.

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MATHOPEDIA

Rational and Irrational

Rational Numbers:
𝑎
 Any number which can be represented as 𝑏 where
′𝒂′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ′𝒃′ are integers and b≠0, is called a Rational Number.
 The set of Rational Numbers is denoted by ‘Q’
𝒂
i.e : 𝑸 = { 𝒃 ∶ 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝒛 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 ≠ 𝟎 }
 Every integer may be positive, negative or zero and every
decimal number is a rational number.
𝑎
 There is always a negative rational number − for every
𝑏
𝑎
positive rational number
𝑏
−𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
That is, 𝑏 = −𝑏 = − 𝑏
 There exists another rational number between two rational
𝑎+𝑏
numbers, that is, a > 2 > b
 The sum of 2 rational number is always rational.
In the same way the answer is always rational for subtraction,
multiplication and division ( if divisor ≠ 0 )

Terminating decimals and Non-Terminating Recurring

decimals:
Every rational number can be expressed as a terminating or non-
terminating but recurring decimal.
NOTE:
 Rational numbers are terminating.
 If Rational numbers are non-terminating, they are recurring.
 If the denominator can be expressed in 2n × 5m form, where ‘n’
and ‘m’ are whole numbers, then the rational numbers is said to
be terminating
Irrational Numbers:
They are the numbers with roots (square roots, cube roots etc.)
of natural numbers when their exact value cannot be obtained. The set
−
of irrational number is denoted by ( 𝑸 )
Note :
 The Negative of Irrational numbers is Irrational.
 Sum of rational and irrational is always irrational.
 Products of non zero rational number and irrational
number is always irrational.

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Surds (Radical)
A surd is a rational number with an irrational root.
Every surd is an irrational number but every irrational number is not a
surd.
𝟑
Order ← √𝟐 → radicand
Order is the power of the root of the surd. Radical is the positive
rational number of a surd.
 Like Surds :
Surds having same radicand and same order
𝟑 𝟑
Eg:√𝟐, 𝟐√𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 √𝟓 , 𝟑√𝟓
 Unlike Surds:
Surds having any one of the component (radicand or order)not same.
 Unlike surds cannot be added or subtracted.
2 3
𝐸𝑔 ∶ Unlike surds : √2 and √2
3
Unlike surds : √2 and √5
 Rationalization:
When 2 irrational number are multiplied to form a rational
number, the two irrational number are called rationalizing
factors.
“This process of converting an irrational number to a
rational number is called Rationalization”.
Eg : √2 → 𝑅. 𝐹 = √2
√5 + 2 → 𝑅. 𝐹 = √5 − 2
√2 + √3 + √5 = R.F = (√2 + √3 ) - √5
Real Numbers ( R ) :
 The union of rational & irrational numbers is called the set of real
numbers, that is, : R = Q∪ 𝑄̅
REAL NUMBERS ( R )

Rational Number (𝑄) Irrational Numbers ̅̅̅̅̅

(𝑄̅ )

Integers Not integer rationals

(I or Z)

Negative numbers Natural numbers Whole numbers

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Note:

1. Addition or subtraction is done only for like surds.

2. Multiplication or division is possible for like surds and unlike
surds [ If order is different convert it into same order and
multiply].

Sets
Definition:
A set is a well-defined collection of objects, things or symbols etc. The
objects of a set are called members or elements.
Notation:
Usually capital letters are used to represent a set. The symbol ∈ means
‘ Belongs To’ and ∉ means ‘ Does not Belong to’.

Properties:- Operation

Addition Multiplication

1.Commutative a+b=b+a 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 𝑏× 𝑎
property

2.Assosiative [(a+b)+c] = [a+(b+c)] 𝑎(𝑏 × 𝑐) + (𝑎 × 𝑏)𝑐

property

3.Distributive 𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) = (𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐) _

property

4.Existance of a+0=0+a=a 𝑎 ×1 = 1×𝑎 = 𝑎

identity element

5.Existance of a + (-a) = (-a) + a =0 1 1

𝑎× = × 𝑎 = 1
inverse element 𝑎 𝑎

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Representation:
A set can be represented in 3 forms:-
 Description form
 Roster form ( tabular form )
 Set builder form ( rule method )
Descriptive form:
The description is enclosed in flower brackets { }.
Roster form:
Elements are separated by commas and are closed in flower brackets.
𝐸𝑥: − {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Set Builder Form:
We use a variable to represent the elements and describe the property
satisfied by all the elements.
𝐸𝑥: − { 𝑥: 𝑥 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑃}.
Types of sets:
 Finite set:
A finite set is a set which contains a countable number of
elements.
𝐸𝑥: {𝑣𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑠}
 Infinite set:
A set containing an uncountable number of distinct elements.
𝐸𝑥: {1,2,3 … … … … . . }
 Empty set:
A set containing no elements is called as an empty set. It is also
known as ‘Null set’. An empty set is denoted by ø or {}.
 Non-empty set:-
A set that is not a null set, that is, a set that contains at least
one element is called as a non-empty set.

NOTE: -ø or {} is an empty set. But {ø} and {0} are non

empty sets because each of these sets contains atleast
one element .

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Cardinal Number of a Set:

The number of distinct elements in a finite set is called as its cardinal
number. If ‘A’ is a finite set, then its cardinal number is denoted by
n(A).
𝐸𝑥: 𝑀 = {1,2,3}, 𝑛(𝑀) = 3. 𝑠𝑡𝑒 𝑀 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 3 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
Equivalent set:
Two sets are said to be equivalent if they contain exactly the same
number of elements. If ‘A’ and ‘B’ are two equivalent sets, then
n (A) =n (B) and we writeA ↔ B.
𝐸𝑥: 𝐴 = {2,4,6,8,10}
𝐵 = {10,12,14,16,18}
Equal set:-
Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they contain exactly the same
elements , that is , every element of A is an element of B and every
element of B is an element of A.
𝐸𝑥: 𝑖𝑓 𝐴 = {20,40,60}
𝐵 = {60,20,40}
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 = 𝐵
Percentage
Percent:
Percent means ‘for every hundred’.
Percentage:
The fraction whose denominator is 100 is called as a percentage
and the numerator of such a fraction is called as the Rate of
percent.
Note:
𝟏
 To convert a percentage into a fraction , multiply by
𝟏𝟎𝟎
and remove the sign %.
 To convert a fraction into a percentage , multiply the
fraction by 100 and put the sign %.
 To convert a percentage as a ratio , convert the given
percentage into a fraction and then covert into a ratio.
 To convert percentage to a decimal , write the percentage
as a fraction out of 100 and move the decimal point 2 places to
left.

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Two important results:

 Let a number (a) be increased by x%
𝒙
then 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = (𝟏 + )𝒂
𝟏𝟎𝟎
 Let a number (a) be decreased by x%
𝒙
then 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = (𝟏 − )𝒂
𝟏𝟎𝟎

Ratio and Proportion

Ratio
Ratio is the comparison of two quantities of the same kind and
expressed in the same unit obtained by dividing one by the other.
𝒂
The ratio of two quantities ‘a’ and ‘b’ (b≠ 0), is the fraction , written as
𝒃
‘a: b’ and read as ‘a is to b’.
a and b are called the terms of the ratio, ‘a’ is the first term
(antecedent) and ‘b’ is the second term (consequent).
Note: A ratio has no unit. Ratio ‘a: b’ is not same as ‘b: a’.
A ratio is said to be in simplest form if the terms of the ratio have no
common factor other than 1.
To express a ratio in its lowest terms, divide its terms by their H.C.F.
 To divide a term Q into a r atio a: b.
Ratio= a: b; sum of the terms 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝒄.
𝒂 𝒃
The parts of Q are: 𝒄 × 𝑸 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄 × 𝑸.
Types of ratios:
 Compound Ratio
𝒂∶ 𝒃 = 𝒄∶ 𝒅
𝒂×𝒄= 𝒃×𝒅

 Duplicate Ratio
𝒂 ∶ 𝒃 = 𝒂𝟐 ∶ 𝒃𝟐

 Triplicate Ratio
𝒂 ∶ 𝒃 = 𝒂𝟑 ∶ 𝒃𝟑

 Sub - duplicate Ratio

𝒂 ∶ 𝒃 = √𝒂 ∶ √𝒃

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 Sub –triplicate Ratio

𝟑
𝒂 ∶ 𝒃 = 𝟑√𝒂 ∶ √𝒃

 Reciprocal Ratio
𝟏 𝟏
𝒂∶ 𝒃 = ∶ = 𝒃∶ 𝒂
𝒂 𝒃

𝒃
 𝑵𝒆𝒘 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 =
𝒂
× 𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
Proportion:
It is an equation which states that 2 ratios are equal,
𝒂 𝒄
i.e. 𝒂: 𝒃 = 𝒄: 𝒅; =
𝒃 𝒅
We write a proportion as,
𝒂∶ 𝒃∶:𝒄∶ 𝒅
Here d is called the fourth proportion. 1st and 4th term are called
extremes, 2nd and 3rd terms are called means.

𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒔 = 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒔

𝒂×𝒅= 𝒃×𝒄
Continued Proportion:
Three quantities are said to be in continued proportion if the ratio of the
first to the second is equal to the ratio of the second and third, that is,
𝒂: 𝒃 = 𝒃: 𝒄.
If a, b and c are in continued proportion then ‘a’ is called first
proportion, ‘b’ is called the mean proportion and ‘c’ is called the third
proportion.
𝒂 𝒃
= , 𝒂𝒄 = 𝒃𝟐 , 𝒃 = √𝒂𝒄
𝒃 𝒄
Cross Product Rule:
When the terms of a proportion are cross multiplied, the cross products
are equal.

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Properties of a proportion:
 Invertendo:
If 𝒂: 𝒃 = 𝒄: 𝒅,
Then, 𝒃: 𝒂 = 𝒅: 𝒄
 Alternendo:
If 𝒂: 𝒃 = 𝒄: 𝒅,
Then, 𝒂: 𝒄 = 𝒃: 𝒅
 Componendo:
If 𝒂: 𝒃 = 𝒄: 𝒅,
𝒂+𝒃 𝒄+𝒅
Then, =
𝒃 𝒅
 Dividendo:
If 𝒂: 𝒃 = 𝒄: 𝒅,
𝒂−𝒃 𝒄−𝒅
Then, =
𝒃 𝒅
 Componendo and Dividendo:
If 𝒂: 𝒃 = 𝒄: 𝒅,
𝒂+𝒃 𝒄+𝒅
Then, =
𝒂−𝒃 𝒄−𝒅

Profit, Loss and Discount.

 Cost Price (CP):
A price at which an article is purchased is called as its cost
price.
 Selling Price (SP):
A price at which an article is sold is called as its selling price.
 Profit or gain:
If SP is more than the CP, then it is called as profit or gain.
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒊𝒕 (𝑷) = 𝑺𝑷 − 𝑪𝑷

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 Loss:
If SP is less than CP, then it is called as loss.
𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 (𝑳) = 𝑪𝑷 − 𝑺𝑷.
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡
 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 % = ( ) 100
𝐶𝑃
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠
 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 % = ( ) 100
𝐶𝑃
100+𝑃%
 𝑆𝑃 = ( ) 𝐶𝑃
100
100−𝐿%
 𝑆𝑃 = ( ) 𝐶𝑃
100
 Marked Price:
The price written on the article or tagged with the article is called
as its marked price or list price.
 Discount:
The reduction made on the marked price of an article is called
discount.
 D = MP – SP
𝐷
 𝐷% = ( ) 100
𝑀𝑃
𝑀𝑃−𝐶𝑃
 𝐷% = ( ) 100
𝑀𝑃
 Net Price:
The price after deducting the discount from the marked price is
called the net price or the selling price of the article.
100−𝐷%
 SP= ( ) 𝑀𝑃
100
 Successive Discount or Discount in Series:
If two successive discount of D1% and D2% are given then,
100−𝐷1 % 100−𝐷2 %
SP= ( )( ) 𝑀𝑃
100 100

Overhead charges:
Sometimes, an additional amount has to be paid for
transportation, repair etc., apart from the cost price of the article.

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Interest:
Simple Interest:
When the principal remains the same for the entire duration for which
the money is lent or borrowed, the interest calculated on the original
principal for the given time and rate is called simple interest.

𝑷×𝑹×𝑻
 𝑺𝑰 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎
 𝑨 = 𝑷 + 𝑺𝑰

Compound Interest:
The interest on interest is called as compound interest.
The total amount of the first year is the principle amount for the second
year.
𝑨𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 .
Note: interest of second year is always greater than that of first year.
𝑰𝟐 > 𝑰𝟏
 Formula to find amount on compound interest
annually:
𝑅 𝑛
A = P(1 + 100
) ; where ‘n’ is the number of years.
 Formula to find compound interest annually:
𝐶𝐼 = 𝐴 – 𝑃
𝑅 𝑛
𝐶𝐼 = 𝑃 [(1 + ) − 1]
100
 Successive rate of interest annually:
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝐴 = 𝑃 (1 + ) (1 + ) … ….
100 100
 Difference in interest for two consecutive years is
the interest on interest of previous year for one
year:
𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏 = Interest on 𝐼1 for one year
𝑰𝟑 −𝑰𝟐 = Interest on 𝐼2 for one year

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 Difference in amount of any two consecutive years

is the interest on the amount of the previous years
for one year :
𝑨𝟐 -𝑨𝟏 = Interest on 𝐴1 for one year
𝑨𝟑 -𝑨𝟐 = Interest on 𝐴2 for one year
 Formula to find
→ Growth or appreciation:
𝑹 𝒏
𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒏 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔 = 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 × (𝟏 + )
𝟏𝟎𝟎
→ Depreciation:
𝑹 𝒏
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 = 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒏 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔 𝒂𝒈𝒐 × (𝟏 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎)

Number of Amount on compound Amount on

years interest compounded compound interest
yearly compounded half-
yearly

n = 1 year 𝑟 1 𝑟 2×1
A = P(1 + 100) A= P(1 + 200)

1×2 2×3
𝑟 1 𝑟 2 𝑟 2
1 A = P(1 + ) .(1 + 200) A = P(1 + )
n =1 years
2
100 200

𝑟 2 𝑟 2×2
n = 2 years A = P(1 + 100) A = P(1 + 200)
1
n = 22 1×2 5×2
𝑟 2 𝑟 2 𝑟 2
A = P(1 + ) .(1 + ) A = P(1 + )
100 200 200

Sales Tax and VAT

Sales Tax:
It is the tax paid only by the customer.
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 = 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆 + 𝑻% 𝒐𝒇 𝑪. 𝑷.

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Value Added Tax (VAT):

The tax will be paid by everyone who are involved in the process if
selling the article.
𝑽𝑨𝑻 = 𝑻𝒂𝒙 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 – 𝑻𝒂𝒙 𝒑𝒂𝒊𝒅.
Note:
 Tax is paid on cost price not on market price.
 If an article is purchased from other state, tax should paid to
both State Government and Central Government.

Banking
Recurring Deposit:
 The same amount will be deposited before the 10th day of the
month.
 𝑴=𝑷×𝒏+𝑰
Where: 𝑷 is Principal Amount,
‘𝒏’ is number of months,
𝑰 is interest
‘𝑹’ is rate of interest
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒕:
𝒑𝒏(𝒏+𝟏)𝑹
𝑰=
𝟐×𝟏𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟐
𝒑𝒏(𝒏+𝟏)𝑹
𝑴=𝒑×𝒏+
𝟐×𝟏𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟐

Shares and dividend

Shares:
 The nominal value of a share is also called face value, register
value and printed value.
 The price of a share in the market is called its market value.
 Market value can be equal to or less than or greater than NV.
𝑰𝒇 𝑴𝑽 = 𝑵𝑽 → 𝑷𝒂𝒓 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
𝑰𝒇 𝑴𝑽 > 𝑵𝑽 → 𝒂𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒖𝒎
𝑰𝒇 𝑴𝑽 < 𝑵𝑽 → 𝒂𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕

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Dividend:

Profit which a share-holder gets for his investment in the
company is called dividend.
 Dividend is always expressed as a %age of the NV of the
share.
Formulae :
 𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒅 = 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒔 × 𝑴𝑽 𝒐𝒇 𝟏 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒆
 𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒅 = 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒔 × 𝑵𝑽 𝒐𝒇 𝟏 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒆
 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝟏 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒆 = 𝑫% × 𝑵𝑽 𝒐𝒇 𝟏 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒆
 𝑨𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒅 = 𝑫% × 𝑵𝑽 × 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒔
 𝑫% × 𝑵𝑽 = 𝑹% × 𝑴𝑽
 𝑴𝑽 = 𝑵𝑽 + 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒖𝒎
 𝑴𝑽 = 𝑵𝑽 − 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕
Permutation and Combination
Permutation:
Arrangement of ‘n’ elements taking ‘r’ elements at a time.
𝒏!
𝒏𝑷 𝒓 = (𝒏−𝒓)!
Combination:
Selection of ‘n’ element by taking ‘r’ elements at a time.
𝒏!
𝒏𝑪 𝒓 =
(𝒏 − 𝒓)! × 𝒓!
n n
Pr = Cr x r!
Formula to Find the Number of Diagonals of a Polygon:
𝑵𝒐 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔 = 𝒏𝑪 𝟐 – 𝒏( 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏 = 𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒔
Permutation Combination
If 𝑟 = 𝑛 If 𝑟 = 𝑛
n n
Pn = n! Cn = 1
If 𝑟 = 0 if 𝑟 = 1
n n
P0 = 1 C1 = n
If r=1 if 𝑟 = 0
n n
P1 = n Cr = nCn-r

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Sequence and Series

Sequence:
Arrangement of numbers in an order is called sequence
Arithmetic sequence/progression (AP)
In a sequence, where the difference between a term and its
previous term is constant the common difference, it is denoted
by ‘d’.
General form of an AP
𝑻𝟏 , 𝑻𝟐 , 𝑻𝟑 , … … … . 𝑻𝒏
𝒂, 𝒂 + 𝒅, 𝒂 + 𝟐𝒅, … … … … . (𝒂 + 𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅
 Formulae to find the nth term of an AP
𝑻𝒏 = 𝒂 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆,
𝑻𝒏 = 𝒏𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎
𝒂 = 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎
𝒏 = 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔
𝒅 = 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆
 Formulae to find common difference (d)
𝒅 = 𝒕𝟐− 𝒕𝟏
𝒕𝒑 −𝒕𝒒
𝒅 = 𝒑−𝒒

To check sequence in AP
 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 = 𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻𝒏 − 𝑻𝒏−𝟏
Arithmetic series
Sum of terms in AP is called as arithmetic series.
𝒏
 𝑺𝒏 = 𝟐 [ 𝟐𝒂 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅]
𝒏
 𝑺𝒏 = 𝟐 [𝒂 + 𝑻𝒏 ]
Geometric sequence/progression(GP)
In a sequence, where the ratio of a term and its previous term is
constant.
Common ratio is denoted by ‘r’

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General form : 𝑻𝟏 , 𝑻𝟐 , 𝑻𝟑 , … … … . 𝑻𝒏
𝒂, 𝒂𝒓, 𝒂𝒓𝟐 … … … … 𝒂𝒓𝒏−𝟏
 Formulae to find common ratio
𝑻𝟐
𝒓 = 𝑻𝟏
To check sequence in GP
𝒕𝟐 𝒕𝟑
 = 𝒕𝟐
𝒕𝟏
Geometric series
𝒓𝒏 − 𝟏
𝑺𝒏 = 𝒂 ; 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒓 > 𝟏
𝟏−𝒓
𝟏 − 𝒓𝒏
𝑺𝒏 = 𝒂 ; 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒓 < 𝟏
𝒓−𝟏
𝒂
𝑺∞ =
𝒓−𝟏
Harmonic progression (HP)
 Reciprocal of AP
𝟏
𝑻𝒏 =
𝒂+(𝒏−𝟏)𝒅
 Arithmetic mean:
𝒂+𝒃
𝑨=
𝟐
 Geometric mean
𝑮 = √𝒂𝒃
 Harmonic mean
𝟐𝒂𝒃
H=
𝒂+𝒃
Statistics
Grouped data

Median
 n= (∑ f)  even n  odd
𝑛 𝑛+1 th
𝑄2 = ( 2)th term 𝑄2 = ( ) term
2

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Formula to find Median

𝒏
− 𝒄𝒇
𝑴𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏 = 𝑳 + (𝟐 )𝒉
𝒇

Where :
L=lower limit of median class
Cf=preceding Cf of median class
f = frequency of median class
h = size of the class interval
Median can be found by Ogive(curve) graph
Mean
 Direct method
∑fX
𝑋= [xClass mark]
∑f
 Short cut method
∑fd
𝑋 =A+
∑f
 Step deviation method
∑fd
𝑋 =𝐴+ ∗ i [iSize of the class mark]
∑𝑓
Mode: Highest repeating frequency or scores.
Ungrouped data
𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒔
Mean: 𝑿 = 𝒏𝒐 .𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒔
n  even n  odd
n n+1 th
Lower quartile 𝑄1 = ( )th term 𝑄1 = ( ) term
4 4

Median 1 n n n+1 th
[( )th term+( + 1) th ( ) term
2 2 2 2
term]
Upper quartile 3n 3(n+1) th
𝑄3 = ( ) th term 𝑄3 = ( ) term
4 4

 Inter quartile range: 𝑄 = 𝑄3 – 𝑄1

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Median
 n( no. of scores )  even
1 n n
Median = 2[ ( )th term + ( + 1) th term ]
2 2
 n  odd
n+1 th
Median = ( ) term
2
Note: arrange the scores in ascending order.

H.C.F. AND L.C.M.

H.C.F
Highest Common Factor (abbreviated H.C.F.) of two natural numbers
is the largest common factor (or divisor) of the given natural numbers.
In other words, H.C.F. is the greatest element of the set of common
factors of the given numbers.
H.C.F. is also called Greatest Common Divisor (abbreviated G.C.D.)
L.C.M
Least Common Multiple (abbreviated L.C.M.) of two natural numbers
is the smallest natural number which is a multiple of both the numbers.
Relation between L.C.M. and H.C.F. of two natural
numbers
The product of L.C.M. and H.C.F. of two natural numbers = the product
of the numbers.
𝑯×𝑳 = 𝑨×𝑩
Note. In particular, if two natural numbers are co-prime then their
L.C.M. = the product of the numbers.
Method to find factors
 remainder theorem
 factor theorem
 synthetic method

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ALGEBRAIC IDENTITIES
 (𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃
 (𝒂 − 𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟐𝒂𝒃
 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐 = (𝒂 + 𝒃)(𝒂 − 𝒃)
 (𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄)𝟐 = 𝒂 𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃 + 𝟐𝒃𝒄 + 𝟐𝒄𝒂
 (𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟑 = 𝒂𝟑 + 𝒃𝟑 + 𝟑𝒂𝒃(𝒂 + 𝒃)
 (𝒂 − 𝒃)𝟑 = 𝒂𝟑 − 𝒃𝟑 − 𝟑𝒂𝒃(𝒂 − 𝒃)
 𝒂𝟑 + 𝒃𝟑 = (𝒂 + 𝒃)(𝒂𝟐 – 𝒂𝒃 + 𝒃𝟐 )
 𝒂𝟑 − 𝒃𝟑 = (𝒂 − 𝒃)(𝒂𝟐 + 𝒂𝒃 + 𝒃𝟐 )
 (𝒙 + 𝒂)(𝒙 + 𝒃) = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙(𝒂 + 𝒃) + 𝒂𝒃
 𝒂𝟑 + 𝒃𝟑 + 𝒄𝟑 = 𝟑𝒂𝒃𝒄 (𝒊𝒇 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝟎)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
 (𝒂 + 𝒂) 𝟐
= 𝒂𝟐 + (𝒂) + 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
 (𝒂 − 𝒂) 𝟐
= 𝒂𝟐 + (𝒂) − 𝟐
 (𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟐 + (𝒂 − 𝒃)𝟐 = 𝟐(𝒂 𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 )
 (𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟐 − (𝒂 − 𝒃)𝟐 = 𝟒𝒂𝒃
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
 (𝒂 + 𝒂) 𝟐
+ (𝒂 − 𝒂) 𝟐
= 𝟐 [𝒂𝟐 + (𝒂) ]
𝟏 𝟏
 (𝒂 + ) 𝟐
– (𝒂 − ) 𝟐
= 𝟒
𝒂 𝒂
 (𝒙 + 𝒂)(𝒙 + 𝒃)(𝒙 + 𝒄) = 𝒙𝟑 + (𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄) 𝒙𝟐 +
(𝒂𝒃 + 𝒃𝒄 + 𝒄𝒂)𝒙 + 𝒂𝒃𝒄
 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄 − 𝟑𝒂𝒃 =
(𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄)(𝒂 𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 – 𝒂𝒃 – 𝒃𝒄 – 𝒄𝒂)

LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

LINEAR EQUATION
In an equation if the highest degree of the variable is one then that
equation is called a linear equation.
STANDARD FORM OF LINEAR EQUATION IN ONE
VARIABLE
𝒂𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
Where : ‘a’ is the coefficient of ‘x’
c is the constant

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STANDARD FORM OF LINEAR EQUATION WITH

TWO VARIABLES
𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
‘a’ is the coefficient of x
‘b’ is the coefficient of y
‘c’ is the constant
SOLUTION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
Linear equation in one variable will have only one solution which is
a unique solution.
Linear equation with two variables will have many solutions.
NOTE
Addition and subtraction (of same quantities) should not change the
original equation.
Multiplication and division is possible with non-zero numerical.
SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS
 Simultaneous linear equations can be solved by various
methods such as:
Substitution Method
Elimination Method
Cross Multiplication Method
Graphical Method
 The standard form of simultaneous linear equations is:
𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒃𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒄𝟏 = 𝟎
𝒂𝟐 𝒙 + 𝒃𝟐 𝒙 + 𝒄𝟐 = 𝟎

 Cross multiplication method Formula

𝒙 𝒚 𝟏
= =
𝒃𝟏 𝒄𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝟏 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒄𝟐 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏

 Nature of straight lines (graph)

CONDITION 1:

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𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏
≠ [ Intersecting lines (one solution)]
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
CONDITION 2:
𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒄𝟏
= ≠ [ parallel lines (no solution)]
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐
CONDITION 3:
𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒄𝟏
= = [ co-incident lines (many solutions)]
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐

QUADRATIC EQUATION
In an equation if the highest degree of the variable is 2, then the
equation is called quadratic equation.
Quadratic equation in standard form:
𝐚𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐛𝐱 + 𝐜 = 𝟎 (𝒊𝒇 𝒂 ≠ 𝟎)
It has two roots,
Methods of finding the roots of a Quadratic equations
1. Factor method (splitting the middle term)
FACTORS
Middle LAST
term GREATER SMALLER TERM
FACTOR FACTOR
+ + + +
+ + - -
- - - +
- - + -
2. Formula method
−𝐛 ± √𝐛 𝟐 − 𝟒𝐚𝐜
𝐱=
𝟐𝐚
3. Graphical method:
Parabola represents quadratic equation in graphical method
[Curve (U)]

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4. Completing the square method

Relation between the roots(zero’s) and its co-efficient
−𝐛
 𝐒𝐮𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐭𝐬 = 𝐚
𝐜
 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐭𝐬 = 𝐚
Nature of roots of quadratic equation:
nature depends on 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄
 b2 -4ac = 0; roots are real and equal
 b2 -4ac>0; roots are real and distinct
 b2 -4ac<0: roots are imaginary.
FORMULA TO CONSTRUCT QUADRATIC EQUATION
𝒙𝟐 − (𝜶 + 𝜷)𝒙 − 𝜶𝜷 = 𝟎
CUBIC EQUATION
Standard form of a cubic equation is
𝐚𝐱 𝟑 + 𝐛𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐜𝐱 + 𝐝 = 𝟎
Cubic equation has 3 roots, i.e., α, β, γ
−𝐛
 𝛂 + 𝛃+ 𝛄 = 𝐚
𝐜
 𝛂 𝛃 + 𝛃𝛄 + 𝛂 𝛄 = 𝐚
−𝐝
 𝛂 𝛃𝛄 = 𝐚
Formula to construct cubic equation by using roots
𝐱 𝟑 − (𝛂 + 𝛃 + 𝛄) 𝐱 𝟐 + (𝛂 𝛃 + 𝛃𝛄 + 𝛂 𝛄)𝐱 – 𝛂𝛄𝛃 = 𝟎

INDICES
Definition: The exponent of a number says how many times to
use that number in a multiplication.
Laws of exponents
 𝒂𝒎 × 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂(𝒎+𝒏)
𝒂𝒎
 𝒂𝒏
= 𝒂(𝒎−𝒏) 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒎 > 𝒏
𝒂𝒎 𝟏
 𝒂𝒏
=
𝒂(𝒏−𝒎)
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏>𝒎
 𝒎 𝒏
(𝒂 ) = 𝒂 (𝒎×𝒏)

 (𝒂𝒃)𝒏 = 𝒂𝒏 × 𝒃𝒏

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 𝒂𝟎 = 𝟏
𝒂𝒏 𝒂 𝒏
 𝒃𝒏
= (𝒃)
𝟏
 𝒂−𝒏
= 𝒂𝒏
𝟏
 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂−𝒏
 (−𝒂)𝒏 = 𝒂 𝒏 [𝒊𝒇 𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓]
 (−𝒂)𝒏 = −𝒂 𝒏 [𝒊𝒇 𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒅𝒅 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓]

LOGARITHMS
If 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒃 , then 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒃 = 𝒏
 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 ( 𝒎 × 𝒏) = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒎 + 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒏
𝒎
 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 ( ) = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒎 − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒏
𝒏
 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒎𝒏 = 𝒏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒎
𝟏
 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒃 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒂
 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝟏 = 𝟎
 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒂 = 𝟏
 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒃 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒄 𝒃 × 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒄
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒂, 𝒃 𝒄 > 𝟎
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕 𝒎𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒃𝒆 𝒘𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒔,
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒃
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒄 𝒃 = .
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒄
Note:
 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏
 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐
 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟑
 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝟎. 𝟏 = −𝟏
 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 = −𝟐
 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏 = −𝟑
 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 ( 𝒎 + 𝒏) ≠ 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒎 + 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒏
𝒎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒎
 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 ( ) ≠
𝒏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒏

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MATRICES
MATRICES
Arrangement of elements in rows and columns in a set of rectangular
brackets is called as a Matrix.
1 5 0
For example: [0 9 2]
1 7 3
ORDER
The order of a matrix can be defined as the number of rows by number
of columns. In the above example, the order of matrix is 3 x 3.

TYPES OF MATRICES
Row Matrix: A matrix having a single row and ‘n’ no. of columns
A=[1 8 7]
Column Matrix: A matrix having a single column and ‘n’ no. of
rows.

Square Matrix: A matrix having equal no. of rows and columns

Unit or Identity Matrix: A square matrix in which the principle

diagonal element is 1 and the remaining elements are all 0.

Unit matrix is denoted by ‘I’

Null Matrix: matrix in which all elements are equal to 0.

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Transpose Matrix: If the rows and columns are inter-changed,

then the new matrix is called as its transpose of the given matrix.
1 4
1 2 3
𝐴=[ ] , 𝐴𝑇 [2 5]
4 5 6
3 6
Basics of geometry
Geometry is derived from two Greek words geo and metric.
where geo means earth and metric means measure.
Point
A plane figure with no dimensions is called a point.

A
Point A
Line
Movements of points without changing the directions is called a
line. Line does not have starting point and ending point.

A B
Line segment
A part of a line is called a line segment. It has both starting point
and ending point.

Ray
Movement of point in one direction is called ray. It has only
starting point and no ending point.

O A

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Angles
The deviation from the actual part is called as an angle.

Types of angles
i) 𝐼𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒; 0° < 𝑥 < 90°
ii) 𝐼𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 ; 𝑥 = 90°
iii) 𝐼𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒; 90° < 𝑥 < 180°
iv) 𝐼𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒; 𝑥 = 180°
v) 𝐼𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒; 180° < 𝑥 < 360°
vi) 𝐼𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒; 𝑥 = 360°
Adjacent angles
Adjacent angles is a pair of angles having a common arm which
lies in between the two uncommon arms.

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MATHOPEDIA

Linear pair
In adjacent angles if the uncommon arm is in the opposite
directions then they are called linear pair.

∠𝑪 + ∠𝑫 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎°

Intersecting lines
If two lines pass through a common point then they are called
intersecting lines. The point at which the lines intersect is called
“POINT OF INTERSECTION “.
Vertically opposite angles
The angles formed on the opposite side of point of intersection
are called vertically opposite angles they are also equal.

A D

C B
∠𝐴𝑂𝐶 = ∠𝐵𝑂𝐷
∠𝐴𝑂𝐷 = ∠𝐵𝑂𝐶

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Transversal
Transversal is a line which intersect two or more lines at distinct
points [different points].

Transversal intersecting parallel lines

If transversal intersects parallel lines then alternate angles are
equal, corresponding angles are equal and co-interior angles are
supplementary.

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MATHOPEDIA

Alternate angles
i) ∠𝐴𝐼𝐽 = ∠𝐷𝐽𝐼
ii) ∠𝐵𝐼𝐽 = ∠𝐶𝐽𝐼
iii) ∠𝐺𝐼𝐴 = ∠𝐻𝐽𝐷
iv) ∠𝐺𝐼𝐵 = ∠𝐻𝐽𝐶

Corresponding angles
i) ∠𝐴𝐼𝐺 = ∠𝐶𝐽𝐻
ii) ∠𝐵𝐼𝐽 = ∠𝐷𝐽𝐻
iii) ∠𝐺𝐼𝐵 = ∠𝐼𝐽𝐷
iv) ∠𝐴𝐼𝐽 = ∠ 𝐶𝐽𝐻
Co interior angles
i) ∠𝐴𝐼𝐽 + ∠𝐼𝐽𝐶 = 180⁰
ii) ∠𝐵𝐼𝐽 + ∠𝐼𝐽𝐷 = 180⁰

Complimentary angles
If adjacent angles are equal to 900 degrees, they are called
complementary angles
Eg: if one angle is x, complementary angle is 900-x.
Supplementary angles
If adjacent angles are equal to 1800 degrees, they are called
supplementary angles.
Eg: if one angle is x, supplementary angle is 1800-x.

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MATHOPEDIA

Triangles
A three sided polygon is called a Triangle

FIGURE PROPERTIES Formulae/

Mathematical
form
∠ABC +∠ACB +
The sum of the ∠BAC=180°
three angles of a
triangle is equal to
180°

∠ACD = ∠BAC+
Exterior angle of a ∠ABC
triangle =the sum of
its interior opposite
angles

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MATHOPEDIA

FIGURE PROPERTIES FORMULAE

AB=BC=AC √𝟑 𝟐
∠ABC=∠BCA=∠CAB 𝑨= 𝒂
𝟒
a=side

EQUILATERAL
TRIANGLE

AB=AC 𝟏
𝑨= ×𝒃×𝒉
∠ABC=∠ACB 𝟐
b =BASE; h =HEIGHT
HERON’S FORMULA:
ISOSCELES
TRIANGLE

AB≠BC≠AC HERON’S FORMULA

∠ABC≠∠ACB≠∠BAC √𝑆(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
𝑆=
2
a,b,c= sides of triangle
SCALENE
TRIANGLE

ONE ANGLE = 90° 𝐴𝐶 2 +𝐵𝐶 2 = 𝐴𝐵 2

PYTHAGORAS 1
A=2 × 𝑏 × ℎ
THEOREM
PYTHAGORAS
TRIPLETS:
Rlation:
RIGHT ANGLED 2n,𝑛2 + 1, 𝑛2 −1
TRIANGLE

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MATHOPEDIA

FIGURE PROPERTIES Formulae/

Mathematical form
P AND Q are mid PQ||CB
points of AB and AC PQ=𝟏 × 𝑩𝑪
𝟐
respectively.
𝐴𝑃 = 𝐵𝑃 ; 𝐴𝑄 = 𝑄𝐶
Property: In a
MID POINT triangle the line
THEOREM joining the mid-
points of any 2 sides
is parallel to the third
side and half of it.

A transversal makes
equal intercepts on 3
or more parallel
lines, then any other
line cutting them will
also make equal
INTERCEPT intercepts.
THEOREM

If two or more CONGURENCY

triangles are equal in RULES:
shape and size, then ASA RULE
they are congruent. SSS RLE
It is denoted as ′ ≅ ′ AAS RULE
CONGURENCE SAS RULE
OF TRIANGLES (A=ANGLE; S=SIDE)

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MATHOPEDIA

o Construction of triangles:
 To construct triangles minimum 3 components is
required.
 Sum of any 2 sides should be greater than the 3rd
side.

o Mid point theorem: In any triangle, the line joining the

midpoints of any two sides is parallel to the third side and
is half of it.

o Converse of mid point theorem: A straight line drawn

through the mid point of one side of a triangle and is
parallel to another then, bisects the 3rd side.

o Inequalities:
 The side opposite to greater angle is always greater.
 The angle opposite to greater side is always greater.

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MATHOPEDIA

QUADRILATERALS
It is a four sided closed figure.
Sum of interior angles of a quadrilateral is 360⁰

FIGURE PROPERTIES Formulae

SQUARE 1.All sides are The perimeter of a
equal. square:
2. Opposite Perimeter= 4a
sides are The area of a
Parallel. square:
Area = a2
3. Each angle is
The diagonal of a
equal to 90⁰ square:
4. Diagonals are 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑎√2
equal and they
bisect each
other
perpendicularly
RECTANGLE 1. Opposite The perimeter of a
sides are rectangle:
equal and Perimeter =2(l+b)
parallel. The area of a
2. Each angle rectangle:
Area = lXb
is equal to 90⁰
The diagonal of a
3. Diagonals rectangle:
are equal and
d= √𝐥𝟐 + 𝐛 𝟐
they bisect each
other.
PARALLELOGRAM 1. Opposite The perimeter of a
sides are equal parallelogram:
and parallel. Perimeter
2. Opposite = 2a + 2b
angles are The area of a
parallelogram:
equal Area = b x h
3. Diagonals are
not equal but
they bisect
each other.

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MATHOPEDIA

RHOMBUS 1.All sides are The perimeter of a

equal. rhombus:
2. Opposite Perimeter= 4a
sides are The area of a
parallel. rhombus:
𝟏
3. Opposite Area = 𝟐 d1Xd2
angle is equal
4. Diagonals are
not equal and
they bisect
each other
perpendicularly
ISO-TRAPEZIUM 1.One pair of The perimeter of a
opposite Sides trapezium
are parallel but P = 2(l+b)
Not equal and The area of a
non-parallel trapezium
𝟏
sides are equal. 𝑨 = × 𝒉(𝒂𝑿𝒃)
𝟐
2. Diagonals
are not Equal.
KITE 1. Adjacent sides The perimeter of a
are equal. Kite:
2. Diagonals Perimeter
are not equal. = 2a + 2b
3. Bigger The area of a kite:
𝟏
diagonal 𝑨 = × 𝒉𝟏 × 𝒉𝟐
𝟐
bisect the
smaller
diagonal.
4. Diagonal
intersect
Perpendicularly.

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MATHOPEDIA

Trigonometry
 Trigonometry is derived from three Greek words- ‘tri’,
‘gnon’ and ‘metry’ meaning three angle measurement.

 Trigonometric functions
Sine (sin)
Cosine (cos)
Tangent (tan)
Cotangent (cot)
Secant (sec)
Cosecant (cosec)
 Trigonometric ratios
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽 =
𝒉𝒚𝒑
𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = 𝒉𝒚𝒑
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 =
𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆
𝒉𝒚𝒑
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝜽 =
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑
𝒉𝒚𝒑
𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝜽 =
𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆
𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆
𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝜽 =
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑
 Complementary angles of trigonometric ratios
𝑺𝒊𝒏 (𝟗𝟎 − 𝜽) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
𝑪𝒐𝒔 (𝟗𝟎 − 𝜽) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝑻𝒂𝒏 (𝟗𝟎 − 𝜽) = 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝜽
𝑪𝒐𝒕 (𝟗𝟎 − 𝜽) = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽
𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄 (𝟗𝟎 − 𝜽) = 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝜽
𝑺𝒆𝒄 (𝟗𝟎 − 𝜽) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝜽

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MATHOPEDIA

 Standard angles
Angle - 0⁰ 30⁰ 45⁰ 60⁰ 90⁰

Sin 0 𝟏⁄ 𝟏⁄ √𝟑⁄ 1
𝟐 √𝟐 𝟐

Cos 1 √𝟑⁄ 𝟏⁄ 𝟏⁄ 0
𝟐 √𝟐 𝟐

Tan 0 𝟏⁄ 1 √3 ∞
√𝟑

Cot ∞ √3 1 𝟏⁄ 0
√𝟑

sec 1 𝟐⁄ √2 2 ∞
√𝟑

Cosec ∞ 2 √2 𝟐⁄ 1
√𝟑

 Trigonometric identities
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽+𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽 = 𝟏
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽 = 𝟏 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝜽
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝟐 𝜽 = 1+ 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟐 𝜽

 Application of trigonometry (Heights and Distance)

1. Line of sight is always parallel to the surface.
2. Elevation: looking up
3. Depression: looking down
Note:
If the observer moving towards the object, the angle of elevation
or depression increases.
If the observer moving away from the object, the angle of
elevation or depression decreases.

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MATHOPEDIA

Similar Triangles
 If any two triangles are similar; their corresponding
angles are equal and corresponding sides are
proportional.
A D

B C E F
If ∆𝑨𝑩𝑪~∆ 𝑫𝑬𝑭
∠𝑨 = ∠𝑫, ∠𝑩 = ∠𝑬, ∠𝑪 = ∠𝑭,
𝑨𝑩 𝑨𝑪 𝑩𝑪
= =
𝑫𝑬 𝑫𝑭 𝑬𝑭
All congruent triangles are similar but all similar triangles are not
congruent.
 Postulates to prove that the triangles are similar.
i. S.A.S Rule
ii. A.A.A Rule
iii. S.S.S Rule
 Basic Proportionality Theorem
Statement: A line drawn parallel to one side of the triangle
divides the other two sides in equal ratios.
A

D E

D E

B C
If 𝑫𝑬 ∥ 𝑩𝑪

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MATHOPEDIA

𝑨𝑫 𝑨𝑬
Then, =
𝑫𝑩 𝑬𝑪
 Converse of basic proportionality theorem
Statement: If the line divides two sides in equal ratio then that
line is parallel to the third side. A
𝑨𝑫 𝑨𝑬
If, = D E
𝑫𝑩 𝑬𝑪
Then, 𝑫𝑬 ∥ 𝑩𝑪
B C

Areas of Similar Triangles

 The areas of two similar triangles are proportional to the
squares on their corresponding sides.

A D

B C E F
If ∆𝑨𝑩𝑪~∆ 𝑫𝑬𝑭
𝒂𝒓(∆𝑨𝑩𝑪) 𝑨𝑩 𝟐 𝑨𝑪 𝟐 𝑩𝑪 𝟐
Then =( ) =( ) =( )
𝒂𝒓(∆𝑫𝑬𝑭) 𝑫𝑬 𝑫𝑭 𝑬𝑭
 If triangles have same vertex and their bases in a straight line
then the ratio of their areas is equal to the ratio of their bases.
A

B C D

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MATHOPEDIA

𝒂𝒓(∆𝑨𝑩𝑪) 𝑩𝑪
1. =
𝒂𝒓(∆𝑨𝑩𝑫) 𝑩𝑫
𝒂𝒓(∆𝑨𝑩𝑪) 𝑩𝑪
2. =
𝒂𝒓(∆𝑨𝑪𝑫) 𝑪𝑫
𝒂𝒓(∆𝑨𝑩𝑫) 𝑩𝑫
3. =
𝒂𝒓(∆𝑨𝑪𝑫) 𝑪𝑫
The median divides the triangles into two equal areas.
𝟏
𝒂𝒓(∆𝑨𝑩𝑫) = 𝒂𝒓(∆𝑨𝑪𝑫) and 𝒂𝒓(∆𝑨𝑩𝑫) = 𝒂𝒓(𝑨𝑩𝑪)
𝟐
A

B C D

Rectilinear Figures
Rectilinear figures: A plane figure bounded by straight lines is
called a Rectilinear figure.
Polygon: A closed rectilinear figure having three or more sides is
called a polygon.
Types of Polygon:
Convex: If each interior angle of a polygon is less than 180°, the
polygon is convex. If for each side of the polygon, the line containing
that side has all the other vertices on the same side of it.

Concave: If at least one interior angle of a polygon is greater than

180°.the polygon is concave.
Regular: If all the sides of a polygon are equal and all the angles are
equal, the polygon is called a regular polygon.
Formulae:
(i) Each interior angle of a regular polygon with n sides is
𝟐(𝒏−𝟒)×𝟗𝟎
𝒏

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MATHOPEDIA

(ii) Exterior angle is 𝟑𝟔𝟎⁰ − 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆.

(iii) 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆𝒔 = (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟒) 𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆𝒔.
(iv) 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒚𝒈𝒐𝒏 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎°

Symmetry
SYMMETRY:-The quality of being made up of exactly similar
parts facing each other or around an axis is called symmetry.

LINE OF SYMMETRY:-Line of symmetry is a line that

divides the figure into two congruent parts, each of which is the
mirror image of the other.

Types of geometrical Figures Lines of symmetry

figures
1. Line Has infinite number of
lines of symmetry

2. Line segment Two lines of symmetry

1. Perpendicular
bisector of the
A B line.
2. Line segment
itself
3. Angle with One-line symmetry
equal arms (Bisector of the angle)

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MATHOPEDIA

4. Equilateral Has three lines of

triangle symmetry (
perpendicular bisectors
of all the 3 sides).

5. Isosceles One line of symmetry

triangle (perpendicular between
equal sides).

6. Scalene triangle No lines of symmetry

7. Square Four lines of symmetry

(diagonals and
perpendicular bisectors
of opposite sides).

8. Rectangle Two lines of symmetry

(perpendicular bisectors
of opposite sides).

9. Parallelogram No lines of symmetry

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MATHOPEDIA

10. Rhombus Two lines of symmetry

(diagonals)

11. Kite One line of symmetry (

longer diagonal)

12. Semi circle One line of symmetry

(perpendicular bisectors
of diameter).

13. Circle Infinite lines of

symmetry
(diameter).

14. Isosceles One line of symmetry

trapezium (perpendicular bisector
of the parallel sides).

15. Octagon 8 lines of symmetry.

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MATHOPEDIA

16. Hexagon 6 lines of symmetry

17. Pentagon 5 lines of symmetry

18. Arrow head 1 line of symmetry

Co-ordinate Geometry
Distance Formula
( Distance Between 2 points ):

𝑨𝑩 = √(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )𝟐 − (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )𝟐

If points are collinear:

𝑨𝑪 = 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑩𝑪

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Section Formula:
Divide Internally:

𝒎 𝟏 𝒙 𝟐 + 𝒎 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏 𝒎 𝟏 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒎 𝟐 𝒚𝟏
𝑷(𝒙, 𝒚) = ( , )
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐

Mid Point Formula:

𝒎𝟏 : 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟏: 𝟏

𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒙 𝟐 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐
𝑷(𝒙, 𝒚) = ( , )
𝟐 𝟐

Centroid:
The points where the medians intersect is called centaroid.
The centroid divides the median in 2:1 ratio.

𝒙𝟏 +𝒙𝟐 +𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟏 +𝒚𝟐 +𝒚𝟑

𝑮(𝒙, 𝒚) = ( , )
𝟑 𝟑

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MATHOPEDIA

 Point at origin = (0, 0)

 Point on x-axis = (x, 0)
 Point on y-axis = (0, y)

Equation of a line:
Equation of a straight line is 𝒀 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄

Where m is the slope, c is y intercept.

Formula to find slope:

 𝒎 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽
 Converting linear equation into equation of line
(coefficient of ‘x’ is slope).
𝒚 −𝒚
 Two point slope form 𝒎 = 𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏
𝟐 𝟏

 Slope between parallel lines, 𝒎𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐

 Slope between perpendicular line 𝒎𝟏 × 𝒎𝟐 = −𝟏
 Slope between collinear lines, 𝒎𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐
 Equation of a line:
 Slope – intercept form: 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄
 Point – intercept form: 𝒚 – 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎 (𝒙 – 𝒙𝟏 )
𝒚 −𝒚
 Point – slope form: 𝒚 – 𝒚𝟏 = (𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏 ) (𝒙 – 𝒙𝟏 )
𝟐 𝟏
NOTE:
 If the line is parallel to x axis:
 Slope = 0 [as (θ) = 0 , m = tan θ ,therefore m = 0]
 If the line is perpendicular to x axis:
 Slope = infinity [ as θ = 0 , m = tan 90, therefore m =
infinity ]

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Polyhedrals
Polyhedral refers to solid figures.
Euler’s Relation for Solids: -
F+V=E+2
F - no. of faces
V - no. of vertices
E - no. of edges

In a solid if the faces are congruent to each other , then the
solids are called Platonic solids .
Graph (network)
Euler’s Relation for Network:-
N + R= A + 2
N - no. of Nodes (vertices)
R - no. of Regions (included external region)
A - no. of Arcs/ sides

Note: Loop means no. of Arcs = 2.

PROBABILITY:
Probability means prediction, which may happen or may not
happen.
𝑷(𝑬) → 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑷(𝑬̅ ) → 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕
Note: 𝑷(𝑬) + 𝑷(𝑬̅) = 𝟏
 Range of probability
𝟎 ≤ 𝑷(𝑬) ≤ 𝟏
 Formula to find probability
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔
𝑷(𝑬) =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔
 Sure event: 𝑷(𝑬) = 𝟏
 Impossible event: 𝑷(𝑬) = 𝟎

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SOLIDS:
Solid figure are 3 Dimensional(3D) figures (length, width, height).

Solid Figure Formulae

1. Cube 1. 𝐶. 𝑆. 𝐴 =
4(𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒)2
2. 𝑇. 𝑆. 𝐴 =
6(𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒)2
3. 𝑉 = (𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒)3

2. Cuboid 1. 𝐶. 𝑆. 𝐴 = 2ℎ(𝑙 +
𝑏)
2. 𝑇. 𝑆. 𝐴 = 2(𝑙𝑏 +
𝑏ℎ + 𝑙ℎ)
3. 𝑉 = 𝑙𝑏ℎ

3. Cylinder 1. 𝐶. 𝑆. 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
2. 𝑇. 𝑆. 𝐴 =
2𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + ℎ)
3. 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ

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4. Cone 1. 𝐶. 𝑆. 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟𝑙
2. 𝑇. 𝑆. 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟(𝑟 +
𝑙)
1
3. 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
3

5. Sphere 1. 𝐶. 𝑆. 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2
2. 𝑇. 𝑆. 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2
4
3. 𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3

6. Hemisphere 1. 𝐶. 𝑆. 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟 2
2. 𝑇. 𝑆. 𝐴 = 3𝜋𝑟 2
2
3. 𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3

7. Frustum of 1. 𝐶𝑆𝐴 = 𝜋𝑙(𝑅 +

cone 𝑟)
2. 𝑇𝑆𝐴 =
𝜋𝑙(𝑅 + 𝑟) +
𝜋(𝑅 2 + 𝑟 2 )
𝜋ℎ
3. 𝑉 = 3 (𝑅 2 +
𝑟 2 + 𝑅𝑟)
4. 𝑙 =
√ℎ2 + (𝑅 − 𝑟)2

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CIRCLES

Movement of points at equidistance from the fixed

point.

COMPONENTS OF A CIRCLE:

1. Radius: distance from a fixed

O A
point to point on a circle.
∴ 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠

2. Diameter: A line joining

any two points on a circle O
A B
passing through the Centre.

3. Chord: A line joining any 2 points on the circle.

Diameter is the biggest chord in the circle.

4. Arc: A part of a circle. Bigger part is called major arc and

smaller part is called minor arc.

5. Segment: region surrounded by arc and chord.

6. Sector: region surrounded by radii and arc.

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7. Secant: A line intersects the

circle at two distinct point.

8. Tangents: Special secant touches the circle.

RELATION BETWEEN RADIUS AND DIAMETER

𝒅 = 𝟐𝒓 (diameter is twice the radius)

Relationship between the Chord and Radius

1. A perpendicular line drawn from the centre bisects the chord.
and it’s converse.

𝒊𝒇 𝑶𝑨 ⊥ 𝑷𝑸; 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑷𝑨 = 𝑸𝑨

2. Equal chords are at equal distance from the centre.

𝒊𝒇 𝑨𝑩 = 𝑪𝑫; 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑶𝑴 = 𝑶𝑵

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3. Cyclic Quadrilateral:
(i) Sum of the opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are
supplementary.

∠𝑨 + ∠𝑪 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎°

(ii) Exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to its interior

opposite angle.

∠𝑩 = ∠𝑨𝑫𝑬
4. ARC AND CHORD PROPERTY:
(i) If two arcs subtend equal angles at the centre, they are
equal (also it’s convers).
𝒊𝒇 ∠𝐀𝐎𝐁 = ∠𝐃𝐎𝐂 ; 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐚𝐫𝐜(𝐀𝐁) = 𝐚𝐫𝐜(𝐃𝐂)

(ii) If chords are equal, then the angle formed at the centre
are equal (also it’s converse).
𝒊𝒇 𝑨𝑩 = 𝑪𝑫; 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 ∠𝑨𝑶𝑩 = ∠𝑫𝑶𝑪

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5. RELATION BETWEEN THE SEGMENT AND ARC:

(i) Angle formed at the centre is twice the angle
formed at the arc.

(ii) Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.

∠𝑨𝑫𝑩 = ∠𝑩𝑪𝑨

(iii) Triangle formed in a major segment is always an acute

angled triangle.
(iv) Triangle formed in a minor segment is always an obtuse
angled triangle.
(v) Triangle formed in a semi circle is a right angled triangle.

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6. PROPERTIES OF TANGENTS:
(i) The tangent at any point of a circle and the radius
through this point are perpendicular to each other.

(ii) Tangents drawn from an external point to a circle are

equal.

𝑨𝑷 = 𝑩𝑷
(iii) If two chords of a circle intersect internally, then the
product of the lengths of their segments is equal.

𝑨𝑬 × 𝑩𝑬 = 𝑪𝑬 × 𝑫𝑬
(iv) If two chords of a circle intersect externally, then the
product of the lengths of their segments is equal.

𝑨𝑷 × 𝑩𝑷 = 𝑪𝑷 × 𝑫𝑷

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(v) The angle between a tangent and a chord through the

point of contact is equal to an angle in the altenate
segment.

(vi) If a chord and a tangent intersect externally,then the

product of the lengths of the segments of the chord is
equal to the square of the length of the tangent from the
point of contact to the point of intersection.

𝐎𝐀 × 𝐎𝐁 = 𝐎𝐂²

7. CIRCLES TOUCHING EACH OTHER:

(i) If the circles touches externally, the distance between the
centres is the sum of their radius.
(ii) If the circles touches internally, the distance between the
centres is the difference of their radius.

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Area Related to Circles:

FORMULAE RELATES TO CIRCLES:

1. Area of circle: 𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐

2. Circumference of circle: 𝒄 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓
3. Area of Semicircle: 𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐
4. Perimeter of Semicircle: 𝒑 = 𝝅𝒓 + 𝟐𝒓
𝜽
5. Area of sector: 𝑨 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎° 𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝜽
6. 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝟑𝟔𝟎°

Note: Quadrant (sector) means 𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎°

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