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REFERENCE page 1
ALGEBRA GEOMETRY
Arithmetic Operations Geometric Formulas
Cut here and keep for reference
a c ad 1 bc
asb 1 cd − ab 1 ac 1 − Formulas for area A, circumference C, and volume V:
b d bd
a Triangle Circle Sector of Circle
a1c a c b a d ad A − 12 bh A − r 2 A − 12 r 2
− 1 − 3 −
b b b c b c bc
d − 12 ab sin C − 2r s − r s in radiansd
Exponents and Radicals

a r
xm h s
x m x n − x m1n − x m2n
xn ¨ r
b ¨
1
sx mdn − x m n x2n − n r
x
sxydn − x n y n SD x
y
n
−
xn
yn
Sphere Cylinder Cone
x − (s x)
m
x 1yn − s
n
x x myn − s
n m n
V− 4 3
V − r h 2
V − 13 r 2h
3 r
Î sx n
x A − 4r 2 A − rsr 2 1 h 2
s xy − s x s y
n n n n − n
y sy
r
Factoring Special Polynomials
r h
x 2 2 y 2 − sx 1 ydsx 2 yd h
x 3 1 y 3 − sx 1 ydsx 2 2 xy 1 y 2d r
x 2 y − sx 2 ydsx 1 xy 1 y d
3 3 2 2
Binomial Theorem Distance and Midpoint Formulas

sx 1 yd2 − x 2 1 2xy 1 y 2 sx 2 yd2 − x 2 2 2xy 1 y 2 Distance between P1sx1, y1d and P2sx 2, y2d:
sx 1 yd − x 1 3x y 1 3xy 1 y
3 3 2 2 3
d − ssx 2 2 x1d2 1 s y2 2 y1d2

sx 2 yd3 − x 3 2 3x 2 y 1 3xy 2 2 y 3
sx 1 ydn − x n 1 nx n21y 1
nsn 2 1d n22 2
2
x y
Midpoint of P1 P2: S x1 1 x 2 y1 1 y2
, D
SD
2 2
n n2k k …
1 … 1 x y 1 1 nxy n21 1 y n
k
where
n
k
− SD
nsn 2 1d … sn 2 k 1 1d
1?2?3?…?k
Lines
Slope of line through P1sx1, y1d and P2sx 2, y2d:
Quadratic Formula m−
y2 2 y1
2b 6 sb 2 2 4ac x 2 2 x1
If ax 2 1 bx 1 c − 0, then x − .
2a
Point-slope equation of line through P1sx1, y1d with slope m:
Inequalities and Absolute Value
y 2 y1 − msx 2 x1d
If a , b and b , c, then a , c.
If a , b, then a 1 c , b 1 c. Slope-intercept equation of line with slope m and y-intercept b:
If a , b and c . 0, then ca , cb.
y − mx 1 b
If a , b and c , 0, then ca . cb.
If a . 0, then Circles
| |
x − a means x − a or x − 2a
Equation of the circle with center sh, kd and radius r:
| |
x , a means 2a , x , a
| x | . a means x . a or x , 2a sx 2 hd2 1 s y 2 kd2 − r 2
REFERENCE page 2
TRIGONOMETRY
Angle Measurement Fundamental Identities
radians − 1808 1 1
csc − sec −
s sin cos
180° r
18 − rad 1 rad − sin cos
180 ¨
tan − cot −
r cos sin
s − r
s in radiansd 1
cot − sin2 1 cos2 − 1
tan
Right Angle Trigonometry 1 1 tan2 − sec 2 1 1 cot 2 − csc 2
opp hyp
sin − csc − sins2d − 2sin coss2d − cos
hyp opp
S D
hyp
adj hyp opp
cos − sec − tans2d − 2tan sin 2 − cos
hyp adj ¨ 2
S D S D
adj
opp adj
tan − cot − cos 2 − sin tan 2 − cot
adj opp 2 2
Trigonometric Functions
The Law of Sines B
y r y
sin − csc − sin A sin B sin C
r y a
− −
(x, y) a b c
x r r
cos − sec − C
r x c
y x ¨
tan − cot −
x
The Law of Cosines
x y b
a 2 − b 2 1 c 2 2 2bc cos A
Graphs of Trigonometric Functions b 2 − a 2 1 c 2 2 2ac cos B
y y y y=tan x c 2 − a 2 1 b 2 2 2ab cos C A
y=sin x y=cos x
1 1
π 2π Addition and Subtraction Formulas
2π
x π 2π x π x sinsx 1 yd − sin x cos y 1 cos x sin y
_1 _1 sinsx 2 yd − sin x cos y 2 cos x sin y
cossx 1 yd − cos x cos y 2 sin x sin y

y y=csc x y y=sec x y y=cot x cossx 2 yd − cos x cos y 1 sin x sin y
tan x 1 tan y
1 1 tansx 1 yd −
1 2 tan x tan y
π 2π x π 2π x π 2π x tan x 2 tan y
tansx 2 yd −
_1 _1 1 1 tan x tan y
Double-Angle Formulas
sin 2x − 2 sin x cos x
Trigonometric Functions of Important Angles
cos 2x − cos 2x 2 sin 2x − 2 cos 2x 2 1 − 1 2 2 sin 2x
radians sin cos tan
2 tan x
08 0 0 1 0 tan 2x −
1 2 tan2x
308 y6 1y2 s3y2 s3y3
458 y4 s2y2 s2y2 1 Half-Angle Formulas
608 y3 s3y2 1y2 s3
1 2 cos 2x 1 1 cos 2x
908 y2 1 0 — sin 2x − cos 2x −
2 2
REFERENCE page 3
SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
Cut here and keep for reference
Power Functions f sxd − x a
(i) f sxd − x n, n a positive integer y
y
y=x $
(1, 1)
y=x ^ y=x #
y=≈
y=x %
(_1, 1) (1, 1)
0 x
0 x (_1, _1)
n even
n odd
(ii) f sxd − x 1yn − s

n
x , n a positive integer y y
(1, 1) (1, 1)
0 x 0 x
x
ƒ=œ„ # x„
ƒ=œ
1
(iii) f sxd − x 21 − y
x
y=∆
0 1 x
Inverse Trigonometric Functions y

π
2

arcsin x − sin21x − y &? sin y − x and 2 <y<
2 2 0
lim tan21 x − 2
x x l 2` 2
arccos x − cos21x − y &? cos y − x and 0 < y <
lim tan21 x −
_ π2 xl` 2

arctan x − tan21x − y &? tan y − x and 2 ,y,
2 2 y=tan–!x=arctan x
REFERENCE page 4
SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions y
y y=´
log b x − y &? b − x y=x
ln x − log e x, where ln e − 1
ln x − y &? e y − x 1 y=ln x
0
Cancellation Equations Laws of Logarithms 1 x
log bsb x d − x b log b x − x 1. log bsxyd − log b x 1 log b y
lnse x d − x e ln x − x 2. log b SD x
y
− log b x 2 log b y lim e x − 0
x l 2`
lim e x − `
xl`
3. log bsx r d − r log b x lim ln x − 2` lim ln x − `

x l 01 xl`
y 10® 4® e® 2®
” 2 ’® ” 4 ’®
1 1 y y=log™ x
1.5®
y=ln x
1 y=log∞ x
y=log¡¸ x
0 x
1® 1
0 x
Exponential functions Logarithmic functions
Hyperbolic Functions y
x y=cosh x
e 2e 2x
1
sinh x − csch x −
2 sinh x y=tanh x
x
e 1e 2x
1
cosh x − sech x −
2 cosh x
x
sinh x cosh x
tanh x − coth x −
cosh x sinh x
y=sinh x
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
y − sinh21x &? sinh y − x sinh21x − lns x 1 sx 2 1 1 d
y − cosh21x &? cosh y − x and y > 0 cosh21x − lns x 1 sx 2 2 1 d
y − tanh21x &? tanh y − x tanh21x − 12 ln S D 11x

12x
CALCULUS
NINTH EDITION
JAMES STEWART
McMASTER UNIVERSITY
AND
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO
DANIEL CLEGG
PALOMAR COLLEGE
SALEEM WATSON
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, LONG BEACH
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James Stewart, Daniel Clegg, Saleem Watson
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Contents
Preface x
A Tribute to James Stewart xxii
About the Authors xxiii
Technology in the Ninth Edition xxiv
To the Student xxv
Diagnostic Tests xxvi
A Preview of Calculus 1
1 Functions and Limits 7

1.1 Four Ways to Represent a Function 8
1.2 Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions 21
1.3 New Functions from Old Functions 36
1.4 The Tangent and Velocity Problems 45
1.5 The Limit of a Function 51
1.6 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws 62
1.7 The Precise Definition of a Limit 73
1.8 Continuity 83
Review 95
Principles of Problem Solving 99
2 Derivatives 107
2.1 Derivatives and Rates of Change 108
wr i t in g pr oj ec t • Early Methods for Finding Tangents 120
2.2 The Derivative as a Function 120
2.3 Differentiation Formulas 133
applied pr oj ec t • Building a Better Roller Coaster 147
2.4 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 148
2.5 The Chain Rule 156
applied pr oj ec t • Where Should a Pilot Start Descent? 164
2.6 Implicit Differentiation 164
d is cov ery pr oj ec t • Families of Implicit Curves 172
iii
iv CONTENTS
2.7 Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences 172

2.8 Related Rates 185
2.9 Linear Approximations and Differentials 192
d is cov ery pr oj ec t • Polynomial Approximations 198
Review 199
Problems Plus 204
3 Applications of Differentiation 209

3.1 Maximum and Minimum Values 210
applied pr oj ec t • The Calculus of Rainbows 219
3.2 The Mean Value Theorem 220
3.3 What Derivatives Tell Us about the Shape of a Graph 226
3.4 Limits at Infinity; Horizontal Asymptotes 237
3.5 Summary of Curve Sketching 250
3.6 Graphing with Calculus and Technology 258
3.7 Optimization Problems 265
applied pr oj ec t • The Shape of a Can 278
applied pr oj ec t • Planes and Birds: Minimizing Energy 279
3.8 Newton’s Method 280
3.9 Antiderivatives 285
Review 292
Problems Plus 297
4 Integrals 301
4.1 The Area and Distance Problems 302
4.2 The Definite Integral 314
d is cov ery pr oj ec t • Area Functions 328
4.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 329
4.4 Indefinite Integrals and the Net Change Theorem 339
wr itin g pr oj ec t • Newton, Leibniz, and the Invention of Calculus 348
4.5 The Substitution Rule 349
Review 357
Problems Plus 361
5 Applications of Integration 363

5.1 Areas Between Curves 364
applied pr oj ec t • The Gini Index 373
CONTENTS v
5.2 Volumes 374

5.3 Volumes by Cylindrical Shells 388
5.4 Work 395
5.5 Average Value of a Function 401
applied pr oj ec t • Calculus and Baseball 404
Review 405
Problems Plus 408
6 Inverse Functions: 411

Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions
6.1 Inverse Functions and Their Derivatives 412
Instructors may cover either Sections 6.2–6.4 or Sections 6.2*–6.4*. See the Preface.
6.2 Exponential Functions and 6.2* The Natural Logarithmic

Their Derivatives 420 Function 451
6.3 Logarithmic 6.3* The Natural Exponential
Functions 433 Function 460
6.4 Derivatives of Logarithmic 6.4* General Logarithmic and
Functions 440 Exponential Functions 468
6.5 Exponential Growth and Decay 478

applied pr oj ec t • Controlling Red Blood Cell Loss During Surgery 486
6.6 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 486
applied pr oj ec t • Where to Sit at the Movies 495
6.7 Hyperbolic Functions 495
6.8 Indeterminate Forms and l’Hospital’s Rule 503
wr i t in g pr oj ec t • The Origins of l’Hospital’s Rule 515
Review 516
Problems Plus 520
7 Techniques of Integration 523

7.1 Integration by Parts 524
7.2 Trigonometric Integrals 531
7.3 Trigonometric Substitution 538
7.4 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions 545
7.5 Strategy for Integration 555
7.6 Integration Using Tables and Technology 561
d is cov ery pr oj ec t • Patterns in Integrals 566
7.7 Approximate Integration 567
vi CONTENTS
7.8 Improper Integrals 580

Review 590
Problems Plus 594
8 Further Applications of Integration 597

8.1 Arc Length 598
d is cov ery pr oj ec t • Arc Length Contest 605
8.2 Area of a Surface of Revolution 605
d is cov ery pr oj ec t • Rotating on a Slant 613
8.3 Applications to Physics and Engineering 614
d is cov ery pr oj ec t • Complementary Coffee Cups 625
8.4 Applications to Economics and Biology 625
8.5 Probability 630
Review 638
Problems Plus 640
9 Differential Equations 643

9.1 Modeling with Differential Equations 644
9.2 Direction Fields and Euler’s Method 650
9.3 Separable Equations 659
applied pr oj ec t • How Fast Does a Tank Drain? 668
9.4 Models for Population Growth 669
9.5 Linear Equations 679
applied pr oj ec t • Which Is Faster, Going Up or Coming Down? 686
9.6 Predator-Prey Systems 687
Review 694
Problems Plus 697
10 Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates 699

10.1 Curves Defined by Parametric Equations 700
d is cov ery pr oj ec t • Running Circles Around Circles 710
10.2 Calculus with Parametric Curves 711
d is cov ery pr oj ec t • Bézier Curves 722
10.3 Polar Coordinates 722
d is cov ery pr oj ec t • Families of Polar Curves 732
CONTENTS vii
10.4 Calculus in Polar Coordinates 732

10.5 Conic Sections 740
10.6 Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates 749
Review 757
Problems Plus 760
11 Sequences, Series, and Power Series 761

11.1 Sequences 762
d is cov ery pr oj ec t • Logistic Sequences 776
11.2 Series 776
11.3 The Integral Test and Estimates of Sums 789
11.4 The Comparison Tests 798
11.5 Alternating Series and Absolute Convergence 803
11.6 The Ratio and Root Tests 812
11.7 Strategy for Testing Series 817
11.8 Power Series 819
11.9 Representations of Functions as Power Series 825
11.10 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 833
d is cov ery pr oj ec t • An Elusive Limit 848
wr i t in g pr oj ec t • How Newton Discovered the Binomial Series 849
11.11 Applications of Taylor Polynomials 849
applied pr oj ec t • Radiation from the Stars 858
Review 859
Problems Plus 863
12 Vectors and the Geometry of Space 867

12.1 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems 868
12.2 Vectors 874
d is cov ery pr oj ec t • The Shape of a Hanging Chain 884
12.3 The Dot Product 885
12.4 The Cross Product 893
d is cov ery pr oj ec t • The Geometry of a Tetrahedron 902
12.5 Equations of Lines and Planes 902
d is cov ery pr oj ec t • Putting 3D in Perspective 912
12.6 Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces 913
Review 921
Problems Plus 925
viii CONTENTS
13 Vector Functions 927

13.1 Vector Functions and Space Curves 928
13.2 Derivatives and Integrals of Vector Functions 936
13.3 Arc Length and Curvature 942
13.4 Motion in Space: Velocity and Acceleration 954
applied pr oj ec t • Kepler’s Laws 963
Review 965
Problems Plus 968
14 Partial Derivatives 971

14.1 Functions of Several Variables 972
14.2 Limits and Continuity 989
14.3 Partial Derivatives 999
d is cov ery pr oj ec t • Deriving the Cobb-Douglas Production Function 1011
14.4 Tangent Planes and Linear Approximations 1012
applied pr oj ec t • The Speedo LZR Racer 1022
14.5 The Chain Rule 1023
14.6 Directional Derivatives and the Gradient Vector 1032
14.7 Maximum and Minimum Values 1046
d is cov ery pr oj ec t • Quadratic Approximations and Critical Points 1057
14.8 Lagrange Multipliers 1058
applied pr oj ec t • Rocket Science 1066
applied pr oj ec t • Hydro-Turbine Optimization 1068
Review 1069
Problems Plus 1073
15 Multiple Integrals 1075

15.1 Double Integrals over Rectangles 1076
15.2 Double Integrals over General Regions 1089
15.3 Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates 1100
15.4 Applications of Double Integrals 1107
15.5 Surface Area 1117
15.6 Triple Integrals 1120
d is cov ery pr oj ec t • Volumes of Hyperspheres 1133
15.7 Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates 1133
d is cov ery pr oj ec t • The Intersection of Three Cylinders 1139
CONTENTS ix
15.8 Triple Integrals in Spherical Coordinates 1140

applied pr oj ec t • Roller Derby 1146
15.9 Change of Variables in Multiple Integrals 1147
Review 1155
Problems Plus 1159
16 Vector Calculus 1161

16.1 Vector Fields 1162
16.2 Line Integrals 1169
16.3 The Fundamental Theorem for Line Integrals 1182
16.4 Green’s Theorem 1192
16.5 Curl and Divergence 1199
16.6 Parametric Surfaces and Their Areas 1208
16.7 Surface Integrals 1220
16.8 Stokes’ Theorem 1233
16.9 The Divergence Theorem 1239
16.10 Summary 1246
Review 1247
Problems Plus 1251
Appendixes A1
A Numbers, Inequalities, and Absolute Values A2
B Coordinate Geometry and Lines A10
C Graphs of Second-Degree Equations A16
D Trigonometry A24
E Sigma Notation A36
F Proofs of Theorems A41
G Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises A51
Index A135
Preface
A great discovery solves a great problem but there is a grain of discovery in the solution
of any problem. Your problem may be modest; but if it challenges your curiosity and
brings into play your inventive faculties, and if you solve it by your own means, you may
experience the tension and enjoy the triumph of discovery.
george polya
The art of teaching, Mark Van Doren said, is the art of assisting discovery. In this Ninth
Edition, as in all of the preceding editions, we continue the tradition of writing a book
that, we hope, assists students in discovering calculus — both for its practical power and
its surprising beauty. We aim to convey to the student a sense of the utility of calculus as
well as to promote development of technical ability. At the same time, we strive to give
some appreciation for the intrinsic beauty of the subject. Newton undoubtedly experi-
enced a sense of triumph when he made his great discoveries. We want students to share
some of that excitement.
The emphasis is on understanding concepts. Nearly all calculus instructors agree that
conceptual understanding should be the ultimate goal of calculus instruction; to imple-
ment this goal we present fundamental topics graphically, numerically, algebraically,
and verbally, with an emphasis on the relationships between these different representa-
tions. Visualization, numerical and graphical experimentation, and verbal descriptions
can greatly facilitate conceptual understanding. Moreover, conceptual understanding
and technical skill can go hand in hand, each reinforcing the other.
We are keenly aware that good teaching comes in different forms and that there
are different approaches to teaching and learning calculus, so the exposition and exer-
cises are designed to accommodate different teaching and learning styles. The features
(including projects, extended exercises, principles of problem solving, and historical
insights) provide a variety of enhancements to a central core of fundamental concepts
and skills. Our aim is to provide instructors and their students with the tools they need
to chart their own paths to discovering calculus.
Alternate Versions
The Stewart Calculus series includes several other calculus textbooks that might be
preferable for some instructors. Most of them also come in single variable and multi-
variable versions.
• Calculus: Early Transcendentals, Ninth Edition, is similar to the present textbook

except that the exponential, logarithmic, and inverse trigonometric functions are
covered in the first semester.
• Essential Calculus, Second Edition, is a much briefer book (840 pages), though it
contains almost all of the topics in Calculus, Ninth Edition. The relative brevity is
achieved through briefer exposition of some topics and putting some features on the
website.
PREFACE xi
• Essential Calculus: Early Transcendentals, Second Edition, resembles Essential

Calculus, but the exponential, logarithmic, and inverse trigonometric functions are
covered in Chapter 3.
• Calculus: Concepts and Contexts, Fourth Edition, emphasizes conceptual under-
standing even more strongly than this book. The coverage of topics is not encyclo-
pedic and the material on transcendental functions and on parametric equations is
woven throughout the book instead of being treated in separate chapters.
• Brief Applied Calculus is intended for students in business, the social sciences, and
the life sciences.
• Biocalculus: Calculus, Probability and Statistics for the Life Sciences is intended to
show students in the life sciences how calculus relates to biology. It includes three
chapters covering probability and statistics.
What’s New in the Ninth Edition?

The overall structure of the text remains largely the same, but we have made many
improvements that are intended to make the Ninth Edition even more usable as a teach-
ing tool for instructors and as a learning tool for students. The changes are a result of
conversations with our colleagues and students, suggestions from users and reviewers,
insights gained from our own experiences teaching from the book, and from the copious
notes that James Stewart entrusted to us about changes that he wanted us to consider for
the new edition. In all the changes, both small and large, we have retained the features
and tone that have contributed to the success of this book.
• More than 20% of the exercises are new:
Basic exercises have been added, where appropriate, near the beginning of exer-
cise sets. These exercises are intended to build student confidence and reinforce
understanding of the fundamental concepts of a section. (See, for instance, Exer-
cises 7.3.1 – 4, 9.1.1 – 5, 11.4.3 – 6.)
Some new exercises include graphs intended to encourage students to understand
how a graph facilitates the solution of a problem; these exercises complement
subsequent exercises in which students need to supply their own graph. (See
Exercises 5.2.1– 4, Exercises 10.4.43 – 46 as well as 53 – 54, 15.5.1 – 2, 15.6.9 – 12,
16.7.15 and 24, 16.8.9 and 13.)
Some exercises have been structured in two stages, where part (a) asks for the
setup and part (b) is the evaluation. This allows students to check their answer
to part (a) before completing the problem. (See Exercises 5.1.1 – 4, 5.3.3 – 4,
15.2.7 – 10.)
Some challenging and extended exercises have been added toward the end of
selected exercise sets (such as Exercises 5.2.87, 9.3.56, 11.2.79 – 81, and 11.9.47).
Titles have been added to selected exercises when the exercise extends a concept
discussed in the section. (See, for example, Exercises 3.4.64, 10.1.55 – 57, and
15.2.80 – 81.)
Some of our favorite new exercises are 1.3.71, 2.6.63, 3.5.41 – 44, 5.2.79, 5.5.18,
6.4.99 (also 6.4*.67), 10.5.69, 15.1.38, and 15.4.3 – 4. In addition, Problem 14 in
the Problems Plus following Chapter 5 and Problem 4 in the Problems Plus fol-
lowing Chapter 15 are interesting and challenging.
xii PREFACE
• New examples have been added, and additional steps have been added to the solu-
tions of some existing examples. (See, for instance, Example 2.1.5, Example 5.3.5,
Example 10.1.5, Examples 14.8.1 and 14.8.4, and Example 16.3.4.)
• Several sections have been restructured and new subheads added to focus the
organization around key concepts. (Good illustrations of this are Sections 1.6, 11.1,
11.2, and 14.2.)
• Many new graphs and illustrations have been added, and existing ones updated, to
provide additional graphical insights into key concepts.
• A few new topics have been added and others expanded (within a section or
in extended exercises) that were requested by reviewers. (Examples include a
subsection on torsion in Section 13.3, symmetric difference quotients in Exer-
cise 2.1.60, and improper integrals of more than one type in Exercises 7.8.65 – 68.)
• New projects have been added and some existing projects have been updated.
(For instance, see the Discovery Project following Section 12.2, The Shape of a
Hanging Chain.)
• Alternating series and absolute convergence are now covered in one section (11.5).
• The chapter on Second-Order Differential Equations, as well as the associated
appendix section on complex numbers, has been moved to the website.
Features
Each feature is designed to complement different teaching and learning practices.
Throughout the text there are historical insights, extended exercises, projects, problem-
solving principles, and many opportunities to experiment with concepts by using tech-
nology. We are mindful that there is rarely enough time in a semester to utilize all of
these features, but their availability in the book gives the instructor the option to assign
some and perhaps simply draw attention to others in order to emphasize the rich ideas
of calculus and its crucial importance in the real world.
n Conceptual Exercises
The most important way to foster conceptual understanding is through the problems that
the instructor assigns. To that end we have included various types of problems. Some
exercise sets begin with requests to explain the meanings of the basic concepts of the
section (see, for instance, the first few exercises in Sections 1.5, 1.8, 11.2, 14.2, and
14.3) and most exercise sets contain exercises designed to reinforce basic understanding
(such as Exercises 1.8.3 – 10, 4.5.1 – 8, 5.1.1 – 4, 7.3.1 – 4, 9.1.1 – 5, and 11.4.3 – 6). Other
exercises test conceptual understanding through graphs or tables (see Exercises 2.1.17,
2.2.34 – 36, 2.2.45 – 50, 9.1.23 – 25, 10.1.30 – 33, 13.2.1 – 2, 13.3.37 – 43, 14.1.41 – 44,
14.3.2, 14.3.4 – 6, 14.6.1 – 2, 14.7.3 – 4, 15.1.6 – 8, 16.1.13 – 22, 16.2.19 – 20, and 16.3.1 – 2).
Many exercises provide a graph to aid in visualization (see for instance Exer-
cises 5.2.1 – 4, 10.4.43 – 46, 15.5.1 – 2, 15.6.9 – 12, and 16.7.24). Another type of exercise
uses verbal descriptions to gauge conceptual understanding (see Exercises 1.8.12,
2.2.64, 3.3.65 – 66, and 7.8.79). In addition, all the review sections begin with a Concept
Check and a True-False Quiz.
We particularly value problems that combine and compare graphical, numerical, and
algebraic approaches (see Exercises 2.7.27, 3.4.33 – 34, and 9.4.4).
PREFACE xiii
n Graded Exercise Sets

Each exercise set is carefully graded, progressing from basic conceptual exercises, to
skill-development and graphical exercises, and then to more challenging exercises that
often extend the concepts of the section, draw on concepts from previous sections, or
involve applications or proofs.
n Real-World Data
Real-world data provide a tangible way to introduce, motivate, or illustrate the concepts
of calculus. As a result, many of the examples and exercises deal with functions defined
by such numerical data or graphs. These real-world data have been obtained by contact-
ing companies and government agencies as well as researching on the Internet and in
libraries. See, for instance, Figure 1 in Section 1.1 (seismograms from the Northridge
earthquake), Exercise 2.2.34 (number of cosmetic surgeries), Exercise 4.1.12 (velocity
of the space shuttle Endeavour), Exercise 4.4.73 (power consumption in the New Eng-
land states), Example 3 in Section 14.4 (the heat index), Figure 1 in Section 14.6 (tem-
perature contour map), Example 9 in Section 15.1 (snowfall in Colorado), and Figure 1
in Section 16.1 (velocity vector fields of wind in San Francisco Bay).
n Projects
One way of involving students and making them active learners is to have them work
(perhaps in groups) on extended projects that give a feeling of substantial accomplish-
ment when completed. There are three kinds of projects in the text.
Applied Projects involve applications that are designed to appeal to the imagina-
tion of students. The project after Section 9.5 asks whether a ball thrown upward takes
longer to reach its maximum height or to fall back to its original height (the answer
might surprise you). The project after Section 14.8 uses Lagrange multipliers to deter-
mine the masses of the three stages of a rocket so as to minimize the total mass while
enabling the rocket to reach a desired velocity.
Discovery Projects anticipate results to be discussed later or encourage discovery
through pattern recognition (see the project following Section 7.6, which explores pat-
terns in integrals). Other discovery projects explore aspects of geometry: tetrahedra
(after Section 12.4), hyperspheres (after Section 15.6), and intersections of three cyl-
inders (after Section 15.7). Additionally, the project following Section 12.2 uses the
geometric definition of the derivative to find a formula for the shape of a hanging chain.
Some projects make substantial use of technology; the one following Section 10.2
shows how to use Bézier curves to design shapes that represent letters for a laser printer.
Writing Projects ask students to compare present-day methods with those of the
founders of calculus — Fermat’s method for finding tangents, for instance, following
Section 2.1. Suggested references are supplied.
More projects can be found in the Instructor’s Guide. There are also extended exer-
cises that can serve as smaller projects. (See Exercise 3.7.53 on the geometry of beehive
cells, Exercise 5.2.87 on scaling solids of revolution, or Exercise 9.3.56 on the forma-
tion of sea ice.)
n Problem Solving
Students usually have difficulties with problems that have no single well-defined
procedure for obtaining the answer. As a student of George Polya, James Stewart
experienced first-hand Polya’s delightful and penetrating insights into the process
of problem solving. Accordingly, a modified version of Polya’s four-stage problem-
solving strategy is presented following Chapter 1 in Principles of Problem Solving.
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his faculties was at an end, the interest that it had excited seemed to
be entirely wiped from his mind; and the latter returned to that state
of interior meditation and absorption in the contemplation of the
world disclosed to the inner sense, which had apparently become his
normal condition.
I was in fact struck, and perhaps a little shocked, by the want of
interest in things and persons around him displayed by the great
man—not that, as I have said, he was not very helpful and
considerate in special cases—but evidently that part of his nature
which held him to the actual world was thinning out; and the
personalities of attendants and of those he might have casual
dealings with, or even the scenes and changes of external nature,
excited in him only the faintest response.
As I have said he seemed to spend the greater part of the
twenty-four hours wrapt in contemplation, and this not in the woods,
but in the interior of his own apartment. As a rule he only took a brief
half-hour’s walk mornings and evenings, just along the road and
back again, and this was the only time he passed out of doors.
Certainly this utter independence of external conditions—the very
small amount of food and exercise and even of sleep that he took,
combined with the great vigor that he was capable of putting forth on
occasion both bodily and mentally, and the perfect control he had
over his faculties—all seemed to suggest the idea of his having
access to some interior source of strength and nourishment. And
indeed the general doctrine that the gñáni can thus attain to
independence and maintain his body from interior sources alone (eat
of the “hidden manna”) is one much cherished by the Hindus, and
which our friend was never tired of insisting on.
Finally, his face, while showing the attributes of the seer, the
externally penetrating quick eye, and the expression of illumination—
the deep mystic light within—showed also the prevailing sentiment of
happiness behind it. Sandósiam, Sandósiam eppótham—“Joy,
always joy”—was his own expression, oft repeated.
Perhaps I have now said enough to show—what of course was
sufficiently evident to me—that, however it may be disguised under
trivial or even in some cases repellent coverings, there is some
reality beneath all these—some body of real experience, of no little
value and importance, which has been attained in India by a portion
at any rate of those who have claimed it, and which has been
handed down now through a vast number of centuries among the
Hindu peoples as their most cherished and precious possession.
CHAPTER IX.
CONSCIOUSNESS WITHOUT THOUGHT.
The question is, What is this experience? or rather—since an

experience can really only be known to the person who experiences
it—we may ask, “What is the nature of this experience?” And in
trying to indicate an answer of some kind to this question I feel
considerable diffidence, just for the very reason (for one) already
mentioned—namely that it is so difficult or impossible for one person
to give a true account of an experience which has occurred to
another. If I could give the exact words of the teacher, without any
bias derived either from myself or the interpreting friend, the case
might be different; but that I cannot pretend to do; and if I could, the
old-world scientific forms in which his thoughts were cast would
probably only prove a stumbling-block and a source of confusion,
instead of a help, to the reader. Indeed, even in the case of the
sacred books, where we have a good deal of accessible and
authoritative information, Western critics though for the most part
agreeing that there is some real experience underlying, are sadly at
variance as to what that experience may be.
For these reasons I prefer not to attempt or pretend to give the
exact teaching, unbiassed, of the Indian Gurus, or their experiences;
but only to indicate as far as I can, in my own words, and in modern
thought-forms, what I take to be the direction in which we must look
for this ancient and world-old knowledge which has had so
stupendous an influence in the East, and which indeed is still the
main mark of its difference from the West.
And first let me guard against an error which is likely to arise. It
is very easy to assume, and very frequently assumed, in any case
where a person is credited with the possession of an unusual faculty,
that such person is at once lifted out of our sphere into a
supernatural region, and possesses every faculty of that region. If for
instance he or she is or is supposed to be clairvoyant, it is assumed
that everything is or ought to be known to them; or if the person has
shown what seems a miraculous power at any time or in any case, it
is asked by way of discredit why he or she did not show a like power
at other times or in other cases. Against all such hasty
generalisations it is necessary to guard ourselves. If there is a higher
form of consciousness attainable by man than that which he for the
most part can claim at present, it is probable, nay certain, that it is
evolving and will evolve but slowly, and with many a slip and hesitant
pause by the way. In the far past of man and the animals
consciousness of sensation and consciousness of self have been
successively evolved—each of these mighty growths with
innumerable branches and branchlets continually spreading. At any
point in this vast experience, a new growth, a new form of
consciousness, might well have seemed miraculous. What could be
more marvelous than the first revealment of the sense of sight, what
more inconceivable to those who had not experienced it, and what
more certain than that the first use of this faculty must have been
fraught with delusion and error? Yet there may be an inner vision
which again transcends sight, even as far as sight transcends touch.
It is more than probable that in the hidden births of time there lurks a
consciousness which is not the consciousness of sensation and
which is not the consciousness of self—or at least which includes
and entirely surpasses these—a consciousness in which the contrast
between the ego and the external world, and the distinction between
subject and object, fall away. The part of the world into which such a
consciousness admits us (call it supramundane or whatever you will)
is probably at least as vast and complex as the part we know, and
progress in that region at least equally slow and tentative and
various, laborious, discontinuous, and uncertain. There is no sudden
leap out of the back parlor onto Olympus; and the routes, when
found, from one to the other, are long and bewildering in their variety.
And of those who do attain to some portion of this region, we are
not to suppose that they are at once demi-gods, or infallible. In many
cases indeed the very novelty and strangeness of the experiences
give rise to phantasmal trains of delusive speculation. Though we
should expect, and though it is no doubt true on the whole, that what
we should call the higher types of existing humanity are those most
likely to come into possession of any new faculties which may be
flying about, yet it is not always so; and there are cases, well
recognised, in which persons of decidedly deficient or warped moral
nature attain powers which properly belong to a high grade of
evolution, and are correspondingly dangerous thereby.
All this, or a great part of it, the Indian teachers insist on. They
say—and I think this commends the reality of their experience—that
there is nothing abnormal or miraculous about the matter; that the
faculties acquired are on the whole the result of long evolution and
training, and that they have distinct laws and an order of their own.
They recognise the existence of persons of a demonic faculty, who
have acquired powers of a certain grade without corresponding
moral evolution; and they admit the rarity of the highest phases of
consciousness and the fewness of those at present fitted for its
attainment.
With these little provisos then established I think we may go on
to say that what the Gñáni seeks and obtains is a new order of
consciousness—to which for want of a better we may give the name
universal or cosmic consciousness, in contradistinction to the
individual or special bodily consciousness with which we are all
familiar. I am not aware that the exact equivalent of this expression
“universal consciousness” is used in the Hindu philosophy; but the
Sat-chit-ánanda Brahm to which every yogi aspires indicates the
same idea: sat, the reality, the all pervading; chit, the knowing,
perceiving; ánanda, the blissful—all these united in one
manifestation of Brahm.
The West seeks the individual consciousness—the enriched
mind, ready perceptions and memories, individual hopes and fears,
ambitions, loves, conquests—the self, the local self, in all its phases
and forms—and sorely doubts whether such a thing as an universal
consciousness exists. The East seeks the universal consciousness,
and in those cases where its quest succeeds individual self and life
thin away to a mere film, and are only the shadows cast by the glory
revealed beyond.
The individual consciousness takes the form of Thought, which
is fluid and mobile like quicksilver, perpetually in a state of change
and unrest, fraught with pain and effort; the other consciousness is
not in the form of Thought. It touches, sees, hears, and is these
things which it perceives—without motion, without change, without
effort, without distinction of subject and object, but with a vast and
incredible Joy.
The individual consciousness is specially related to the body.
The organs of the body are in some degree its organs. But the whole
body is only as one organ of the cosmic consciousness. To attain
this latter one must have the power of knowing one’s self separate
from the body, of passing into a state of ecstasy in fact. Without this
the cosmic consciousness cannot be experienced.
It is said:—“There are four main experiences in initiation, (1) the
meeting with a Guru, (2) the consciousness of Grace, or Arul (which
may perhaps be interpreted as the consciousness of a change—
even of a physiological change—working within one), (3) the vision
of Siva (God), with which the knowledge of one’s self as distinct from
the body is closely connected, (4) the finding of the universe within.”
“The wise,” it is also said, “when their thoughts cease to move
perceive within themselves the Absolute consciousness, which is
Sarva sakshi, Witness of all things.”
Great have been the disputes among the learned as to the
meaning of the word Nirwana—whether it indicates a state of no-
consciousness or a state of vastly enhanced consciousness.
Probably both views have their justification: the thing does not admit
of definition in the terms of ordinary language. The important thing to
see and admit is that under cover of this and other similar terms
there does exist a real and recognisable fact (that is a state of
consciousness in some sense), which has been experienced over
and over again, and which to those who have experienced it in ever
so slight a degree has appeared worthy of lifelong pursuit and
devotion. It is easy of course to represent the thing as a mere word,
a theory, a speculation of the dreamy Hindu; but people do not
sacrifice their lives for empty words, nor do mere philosophical
abstractions rule the destinies of continents. No, the word represents
a reality, something very basic and inevitable in human nature. The
question really is not to define the fact—for we cannot do that—but
to get at and experience it.
It is interesting at this juncture to find that modern Western
science, which has hitherto—without much result—been occupying
itself with mechanical theories of the universe, is approaching from
its side this idea of the existence of another form of consciousness.
The extraordinary phenomena of hypnotism—which no doubt are in
some degree related to the subject we are discussing, and which
have been recognised for ages in the East—are forcing Western
scientists to assume the existence of the so-called secondary
consciousness in the body. The phenomena seem really inexplicable
without the assumption of a secondary agency of some kind, and it
every day becomes increasingly difficult not to use the word
consciousness to describe it.
Let it be understood that I am not for a moment assuming that
this secondary consciousness of the hypnotists is in all respects
identical with the cosmic consciousness (or whatever we may call it)
of the Eastern occultists. It may or may not be. The two kinds of
consciousness may cover the same ground, or they may only
overlap to a small extent. That is a question I do not propose to
discuss. The point to which I wish to draw attention is that Western
science is envisaging the possibility of the existence in man of
another consciousness of some kind, beside that with whose
working we are familiar. It quotes (A. Moll) the case of Barkworth
who “can add up long rows of figures while carrying on a lively
discussion, without allowing his attention to be at all diverted from
the discussion”; and asks us how Barkworth can do this unless he
has a secondary consciousness which occupies itself with the
figures while his primary consciousness is in the thick of argument.
Here is a lecturer (F. Myers) who for a whole minute allows his mind
to wander entirely away from the subject in hand, and imagines
himself to be sitting beside a friend in the audience and to be
engaged in conversation with him, and who wakes up to find himself
still on the platform lecturing away with perfect ease and coherency.
What are we to say to such a case as that? Here again is a pianist
who recites a piece of music by heart, and finds that his recital is
actually hindered by allowing his mind (his primary consciousness)
to dwell upon what he is doing. It is sometimes suggested that the
very perfection of the musical performance shows that it is
mechanical or unconscious, but is this a fair inference? and would it
not seem to be a mere contradiction in terms to speak of an
unconscious lecture, or an unconscious addition of a row of figures?
Many actions and processes of the body, e.g. swallowing, are
attended by distinct personal consciousness; many other actions and
processes are quite unperceived by the same; and it might seem
reasonable to suppose that these latter at any rate were purely
mechanical and devoid of any mental substratum. But the later
developments of hypnotism in the West have shown—what is well
known to the Indian fakirs—that under certain conditions
consciousness of the internal actions and processes of the body can
be obtained; and not only so, but consciousness of events taking
place at a distance from the body and without the ordinary means of
communication.
Thus the idea of another consciousness, in some respects of
wider range than the ordinary one, and having methods of
perception of its own, has been gradually infiltrating itself into
Western minds.
There is another idea, which modern science has been
familiarising us with, and which is bringing us towards the same
conception—that namely of the fourth dimension. The supposition
that the actual world has four space-dimensions instead of three
makes many things conceivable which otherwise would be
incredible. It makes it conceivable that apparently separate objects,
e.g. distinct people, are really physically united; that things
apparently sundered by enormous distances of space are really
quite close together; that a person or other object might pass in and
out of a closed room without disturbance of walls, doors, or windows,
etc.; and if this fourth dimension were to become a factor of our
consciousness it is obvious that we should have means of
knowledge which to the ordinary sense would appear simply
miraculous. There is much apparently to suggest that the
consciousness attained to by the Indian gñánis in their degree, and
by hypnotic subjects in theirs is of this fourth-dimensional order.
As a solid is related to its own surfaces, so, it would appear, is
the cosmic consciousness related to the ordinary consciousness.
The phases of the personal consciousness are but different facets of
the other consciousness; and experiences which seem remote from
each other in the individual are perhaps all equally near in the
universal. Space itself, as we know it, may be practically annihilated
in the consciousness of a larger space of which it is but the
superficies; and a person living in London may not unlikely find that
he has a backdoor opening quite simply and unceremoniously out in
Bombay.
“The true quality of the soul,” said the Guru one day, “is that of
space, by which it is at rest, everywhere. But this space (Akása)
within the soul is far above the ordinary material space. The whole of
the latter, including all the suns and stars, appears to you then as it
were but an atom of the former”—and here he held up his fingers as
though crumbling a speck of dust between them.
“At rest everywhere,” “Indifference,” “Equality.” This was one of
the most remarkable parts of the Guru’s teaching. Though (for family
reasons) maintaining many of the observances of Caste himself, and
though holding and teaching that for the mass of the people caste
rules were quite necessary, he never ceased to insist that when the
time came for a man (or woman) to be “emancipated” all these rules
must drop aside as of no importance—all distinction of castes,
classes, all sense of superiority or self-goodness—of right and wrong
even—and the most absolute sense of Equality must prevail towards
every one, and determination in its expression. Certainly it was
remarkable (though I knew that the sacred books contained it) to find
this germinal principle of Western democracy so vividly active and at
work deep down beneath the innumerable layers of Oriental social
life and custom. But so it is; and nothing shows better the relation
between the West and the East than this fact.
This sense of Equality, of Freedom from regulations and
confinements, of Inclusiveness, and of the Life that “rests
everywhere,” belongs of course more to the cosmic or universal part
of man than to the individual part. To the latter it is always a
stumbling-block and an offence. It is easy to show that men are not
equal, that they cannot be free, and to point the absurdity of a life
that is indifferent and at rest under all conditions. Nevertheless to the
larger consciousness these are basic facts, which underlie the
common life of humanity, and feed the very individual that denies
them.
Thus repeating the proviso that in using such terms as cosmic
and universal consciousness we do not commit ourselves to the
theory that the instant a man leaves the personal part of him he
enters into absolutely unlimited and universal knowledge, but only
into a higher order of perception—and admitting the intricacy and
complexity of the region so roughly denoted by these terms, and the
microscopical character of our knowledge about it—we may say
once more, also as a roughest generalisation, that the quest of the
East has been this universal consciousness, and that of the West the
personal or individual consciousness. As is well known the East has
its various sects and schools of philosophy, with subtle
discriminations of qualities, essences, god-heads, devilhoods, etc.,
into which I do not propose to go, and which I should feel myself
quite incompetent to deal with. Leaving all these aside, I will keep
simply to these two rough Western terms, and try to consider further
the question of the methods by which the Eastern student sets
himself to obtain the cosmic state, or such higher order of
consciousness as he does encompass.
CHAPTER X.
METHODS OF ATTAINMENT.
The subject of the methods used by the yogis for the attainment of
another order of consciousness has its physical, its mental, and its
moral sides—and doubtless other sides as well.
Beginning with the physical side, it is probable that the discounting
or repression of the physical brain—or of that part of it which is the
seat of the primary consciousness—is the most important: on the
theory that the repression of the primary consciousness opens the way
for the manifestation of any other consciousness that may be present.
Thus hypnotism lulls or fatigues the ordinary brain into a complete
torpor—so allowing the phenomena connected with the secondary
consciousness to come out into the greater prominence. It need not be
supposed that hypnotism induces the secondary consciousness, but
only that it removes that other consciousness which ordinarily conceals
or hinders its expression. Some of the methods adopted by the yogis
are undoubtedly of this hypnotic character, such as the sitting or
standing for long periods absolutely fixed in one position; staring at the
sun or other object; repeating a word or phrase over and over again for
thousands of times, etc.; and the clairvoyant and other results
produced seem in many respects very similar to the results of Western
hypnotism. The yogi however by immense persistence in his practices,
and by using his own will to effect the change of consciousness,
instead of surrendering himself into the power of another person,
seems to be able to transfer his “I” or ego into the new region, and to
remember on his return to ordinary consciousness what he has seen
there; whereas the hypnotic subject seems to be divided into a double
ego, and as a rule remembers nothing in the primary state of what
occurred to him in the secondary.
Others of the yogis adopt prolonged fasting, abstinence from
sleep, self-torture and emaciation, with the same object, namely the
reduction of the body, and apparently with somewhat similar results—
though in these cases not only insight is supposed to be gained, but
added powers over nature, arising from the intense forces of control
put forth and educed by these exercises. The fact that the Siddhi or
miraculous powers can be gained in this way is so universally
accepted and taken for granted in India that (even after making all
allowances) it is difficult not to be carried away on the stream of belief.
And indeed when one considers the known powers of the will—
cultivated as it is to but a feeble degree amongst most of us—there
seems to be an inherent probability in the case. The adepts however
as a rule, though entirely agreeing that the attainment of the Siddhi
powers is possible, strongly condemn the quest of them by these
methods—saying with great justice that the mere fact of a quest of this
kind is a breach of the law of Indifference and Trust, and that the quest
being instigated by some desire—ambition, spiritual pride, love of gain,
or what not—necessarily ends either by stultifying itself, or by feeding
the desire, and, if some powers are gained, by the devotion of them to
evil ends.
Thus the methods that are mainly physical produce certain results
—clairvoyances and controls—which are largely physical in their
character, and are probably for the most part more or less morbid and
dangerous. They are however very widely spread among the inferior
classes of yogis all over India, and the performances which spring from
them, by exciting the fear and wonder of the populace, often become—
as in the case of mesmeric performances in the West—a source of
considerable gain to the chief actor.
There remain two other classes of methods—the mental and the
moral.
Of the mental no doubt the most important is the Suppression of
Thought—and it is not unlikely that this may have, when once
understood, a far-reaching and important influence on our Western life
—over-ridden and dominated as it is by a fever of Thought which it can
by no means control. Nothing indeed strikes one more as marking the
immense contrast between the East and the West than, after leaving
Western lands where the ideal of life is to have an almost insanely
active brain and to be perpetually on the war-path with fearful and
wonderful projects and plans and purposes, to come to India and to
find its leading men—men of culture and learning and accomplishment
—deliberately passing beyond all these and addressing themselves to
the task of effacing their own thoughts, effacing all their own projects
and purposes, in order that the diviner consciousness may enter in and
occupy the room so prepared.
The effacement of projects and purposes—which comes to much
the same thing as the control of desire—belongs more properly to the
moral side of the question, and may be considered later on. The
subjection of Thought—which obviously is very closely connected with
the subjection of Desire—may however be considered here.
The Gñana-yogis (so called, to distinguish them from the Karma-
yogis who rely more upon the external and physical methods) adopt
two practices, (1) that of intense concentration of the thoughts on a
fixed object, (2) that of the effacement of thought altogether.
(1) The thoughts may be fixed on a definite object, for instance, on
one’s own breathing—the inflow and outflow of the atmosphere
through the channels of the physical body. The body must be kept
perfectly still and motionless for a long period—so that it may pass
entirely out of consciousness—and the thoughts fixed on the regulated
calm tide of respiration, to the complete exclusion of every other
subject. Or the name of an object—a flower for instance—may be
repeated incessantly—the image of the object being called up at the
same time—till at last the name and the image of the object blend and
become indistinguishable in the mind.
Such practices have their literal and their spiritual sides. If carried
out merely as formulæ, they evidently partake of a mesmeric (self-
mesmeric) character, and ultimately induce mesmeric states of
4
consciousness. If carried out with a strong sense of their inner
meaning—the presence of the vast cosmic life in the breathing, the
endeavor to realise Brahma himself in the flower or other object
contemplated—they naturally induce a deeper sense of the universal
life and consciousness than that which belongs to the mesmeric state.
Anyhow they teach a certain power and control over the thoughts; and
it is a doctrine much insisted on by the Gurus that in life generally the
habit of the undivided concentration of the mind on that which one is
doing is of the utmost importance. The wandering of the mind, its
division and distraction, its openness to attack by brigand cares and
anxieties, its incapacity to heartily enjoy itself in its work, not only lame
and cripple and torment it in every way, but are a mark of the want of
that faith which believes in the Now as the divine moment, and takes
no thought for the Morrow. To concentrate at all times wholly and
unreservedly in what you are doing at the moment is, they say, a
distinct step in Gñánam.
4
The Rev. H. Callaway, in a paper on
“Divination among the Natives of Natal” (Journal of
the Anthropological Institute, vol. i. p. 176), says
that the natives, “in order to become clairvoyant,
attempt to effect intense concentration and
abstraction of the mind—an abstraction even from
their own thoughts.” And this is done by herdsmen
and chiefs alike—though of course with varying
success.
(2) The next step, the effacement of Thought, is a much more

difficult one. Only when the power of concentration has been gained
can this be attempted with any prospect of success. The body must be
kept, as before, perfectly motionless, and in a quiet place free from
disturbance; not in an attitude of ease or slumber, but sitting or
standing erect with muscles tense. All will-power is required, and the
greatest vigilance. Every thought must be destroyed on the instant of
its appearance. But the enemy is subtle, and failure—over a long
period—inevitable. Then when success seems to be coming and
Thought is dwindling, Oblivion, the twin-foe, appears and must also be
conquered. For if Thought merely give place to Sleep, what is there
gained? After months, but more probably years, of intermittent practice
the power of control grows; curious but distinct physiological changes
take place; one day the student finds that Thought has gone; he
stands for a moment in Oblivion; then that veil lifts, and there streams
through his being a vast and illumined consciousness, glorious, that
fills and overflows him, “surrounding him so that he is like a pot in
water, which has the liquid within it and without.” In this consciousness
there is divine knowledge but no thought. It is Samádhi, the universal “I
Am.”
Whatever people may think of the reality of this “Samádhi,” of the
genuineness or the universality of the consciousness obtained in it,
etc. (and these are questions which of course require examination), it
is incontestable that for centuries and centuries it has been an object
of the most strenuous endeavor to vast numbers even of the very
acutest and most capable intellects of India. Earthly joys paled before
this ecstasy; the sacred literatures are full of its praise. That there lurks
here some definite and important fact of experience is I think obvious
—though it is quite probable that it is not yet really understood, either
by the East that discovered it or the West that has criticised it.
Leaving however for the present the consideration of this ultimate
and transcendent result of the effacement of Thought, and freely
admitting that the Eastern devotees have in the ardor of their pursuit of
it been often led into mere absurdities and excesses—that they have in
some cases practically mutilated their thinking powers—that they have
refrained from speech for such prolonged years that at last not only the
tongue but the brain itself refused to act—that they have in instances
reduced themselves to the condition of idiots and babbling children,
and rendered themselves incapable of carrying on any kind of work
ordinarily called useful—admitting all this, it still remains true I think
that even in its lower aspects this doctrine is of vast import to-day in
the West.
For we moderns, while we have dominated Nature and external
results in the most extraordinary way through our mechanical and
other sciences, have just neglected this other field of mastery over our
own internal mechanism. We pride ourselves on our athletic feats, but
some of the performances of the Indian fakirs in the way of mastery
over the internal processes of the body—processes which in ordinary
cases have long ago lapsed into the region of the involuntary and
unconscious—such as holding the breath over enormous periods, or
reversing the peristaltic action of the alimentary canal throughout its
entire length—are so astonishing that for the most part the report of
them only excites incredulity among us, and we can hardly believe—
what I take it is a fact—that these physiological powers have been
practised till they are almost reduced to a science.
And if we are unwilling to believe in this internal mastery over the
body, we are perhaps almost equally unaccustomed to the idea of
mastery over our own inner thoughts and feelings. That a man should
be a prey to any thought that chances to take possession of his mind is
commonly among us assumed as unavoidable. It may be a matter of
regret that he should be kept awake all night from anxiety as to the
issue of a lawsuit on the morrow, but that he should have the power of
determining whether he be kept awake or not seems an extravagant
demand. The image of an impending calamity is no doubt odious, but
its very odiousness (we say) makes it haunt the mind all the more
pertinaciously—and it is useless to try to expel it.
Yet this is an absurd position—for man, the heir of all the ages, to
be in: hag-ridden by the flimsy creatures of his own brain. If a pebble in
our boot torments us we expel it. We take off the boot and shake it out.
And once the matter is fairly understood it is just as easy to expel an
intruding and obnoxious thought from the mind. About this there ought
to be no mistake, no two opinions. The thing is obvious, clear, and
unmistakable. It should be as easy to expel an obnoxious thought from
your mind as to shake a stone out of your shoe; and till a man can do
that, it is just nonsense to talk about his ascendancy over Nature, and
all the rest of it. He is a mere slave, and a prey to the bat-winged
phantoms that flit through the corridors of his own brain.
Yet the weary and careworn faces that we meet by thousands,
even among the affluent classes of civilisation, testify only too clearly
how seldom this mastery is obtained. How rare indeed to meet a man!
How common rather to discover a creature hounded on by tyrant
thoughts (or cares or desires), cowering wincing under the lash—or
perchance priding himself to run merrily in obedience to a driver that
rattles the reins and persuades him that he is free—whom we cannot
converse with in careless tête-à-tête because that alien presence is
always there, on the watch.
It is one of the most prominent doctrines of the Gñánis that the
power of expelling thoughts, or if need be of killing them dead on the
spot, must be attained. Naturally the art requires practice; but like other
arts, when once acquired there is no more mystery or difficulty about it.
And it is worth practice. It may indeed fairly be said that life only begins
when this art has been acquired. For obviously when instead of being
ruled by individual thoughts, the whole flock of them in their immense
multitude and variety and capacity is ours to direct and despatch and
employ where we list (“for He maketh the winds his messengers and
the flaming fire his minister”), life becomes a thing so vast and grand
compared with what it was before that its former condition may well
appear almost antenatal.
If you can kill a thought dead, for the time being, you can do
anything else with it that you please. And therefore it is that this power
is so valuable. And it not only frees a man from mental torment (which
is nine-tenths at least of the torment of life), but it gives him a
concentred power of handling mental work absolutely unknown to him
before. The two things are correlative to each other. As already said
this is one of the principles of Gñánam. While at work your thought is
to be absolutely concentrated in it, undistracted by anything whatever
irrelevant to the matter in hand—pounding away like a great engine,
with giant power and perfect economy—no wear and tear of friction, or
dislocation of parts owing to the working of different forces at the same
time. Then when the work is finished, if there is no more occasion for
the use of the machine, it must stop equally absolutely—stop entirely—
no worrying (as if a parcel of boys were allowed to play their
devilments with a locomotive as soon as it was in the shed)—and the
man must retire into that region of his consciousness where his true
self dwells.
I say the power of the thought-machine itself is enormously
increased by this faculty of letting it alone on the one hand and of
using it singly and with concentration on the other. It becomes a true
tool, which a master-workman lays down when done with, but which
only a bungler carries about with him all the time to show that he is the
possessor of it.
Then on and beyond the work turned out by the tool itself is the
knowledge that comes to us apart from its use: when the noise of the
workshop is over, and mallet and plane laid aside—the faint sounds
coming through the open window from the valley and the far seashore:
the dim fringe of diviner knowledge, which begins to grow, poor thing,
as soon as the eternal click-clack of thought is over—the extraordinary
intuitions, perceptions, which, though partaking in some degree of the
character of thought, spring from entirely different conditions, and are
the forerunners of a changed consciousness.
At first they appear miraculous, but it is not so. They are not
miraculous, for they are always there. (The stars are always there.) It
is we who are miraculous in our inattention to them. In the systemic or
secondary or cosmic consciousness of man (I daresay all these ought
to be distinguished, but I lump them together for the present) lurk the
most minute and varied and far-reaching intuitions and perceptions—
some of them in their swiftness and subtlety outreaching even those of
the primary consciousness—but to them we do not attend because
Thought like a pied piper is ever capering and fiddling in front of us.
And when Thought is gone, lo! we are asleep. To open your eyes in
that region which is neither Night nor Day is to behold strange and
wonderful things.
* * * * *
As already said the subjection of Thought is closely related to the
subjection of Desire, and has consequently its specially moral as well
as its specially intellectual relation to the question in hand. Nine-tenths
of the scattered or sporadic thought with which the mind usually
occupies itself when not concentrated on any definite work is what may
be called self-thought—thought of a kind which dwells on and
exaggerates the sense of self. This is hardly realised in its full degree
till the effort is made to suppress it; and one of the most excellent
results of such an effort is that with the stilling of all the phantoms
which hover round the lower self, one’s relations to others, to one’s
friends, to the world at large, and one’s perception of all that is
concerned in these relations come out into a purity and distinctness
unknown before. Obviously while the mind is full of the little desires
and fears which concern the local self, and is clouded over by the
thought-images which such desires and fears evoke, it is impossible
that it should see and understand the greater facts beyond and its own
relation to them. But with the subsiding of the former the great Vision
begins to dawn; and a man never feels less alone than when he has
ceased to think whether he is alone or not.
It is in this respect that the subjection of desire is really important.
There is no necessity to suppose that desire, in itself, is an evil; indeed
it is quite conceivable that it may fall into place as a useful and
important element of human nature—though certainly one whose
importance will be found to dwindle and gradually disappear as time
goes on. The trouble for us is, in our present state, that desire is liable
to grow to such dimensions as to overcloud the world for us, emprison,
and shut us out from inestimable Freedom beneath its sway. Under
such circumstances it evidently is a nuisance and has to be
dominated. No doubt certain sections of the Indian and other ascetic
philosophies have taught the absolute extinction of desire, but we may
fairly regard these as cases—so common in the history of all traditional
teaching—of undue prominence given to a special detail, and of the
exaltation of the letter of the doctrine above the spirit.
The moral element (at which we have now arrived) in the
attainment of a higher order of consciousness is of course recognised
by all the great Indian teachers as of the first importance. The sacred
books, the sermons of Buddha, the discourses of the present-day
Gurus, all point in the same direction. Gentleness, forbearance
towards all, abstention from giving pain, especially to the animals, the
recognition of the divine spirit in every creature down to the lowest, the
most absolute sense of equality and the most absolute candor, an
undisturbed serene mind, free from anger, fear, or any excessive and
tormenting desire—these are all insisted on.
Thus, though physical and mental conditions are held—and rightly
—to be important, the moral conditions are held to be at least equally
important. Nevertheless, in order to guard against misconception
which in so complex a subject may easily arise, it is necessary to state
here—what I have hinted before—that different sections and schools
among the devotees place a very different respective value upon the
three sets of conditions—some making more of the physical, others of
the mental, and others again of the moral—and that as may be easily
guessed the results attained by the various schools differ considerably
in consequence.
The higher esoteric teachers naturally lay the greatest stress on
the moral, but any account of their methods would be defective which
passed over or blinked the fact that they go beyond the moral—
because this fact is in some sense of the essence of the Oriental inner
teaching. Morality, it is well understood, involves the conception of
one’s self as distinct from others, as distinct from the world, and
presupposes a certain antagonism between one’s own interests and
those of one’s fellows. One “sacrifices” one’s own interests to those of
another, or “goes out of one’s way” to help him. All such ideas must be
entirely left behind, if one is to reach the central illumination. They
spring from ignorance and are the products of darkness. On no word
did the “Grammarian” insist more strongly than on the word Non-
differentiation. You are not even to differentiate yourself in thought from
others; you are not to begin to regard yourself as separate from them.
Even to talk about helping others is a mistake; it is vitiated by the
delusion that you and they are twain. So closely does the subtle Hindu
mind go to the mark! What would our bald commercial philanthropy,
our sleek æsthetic altruism, our scientific isophily, say to such
teaching? All the little self-satisfactions which arise from the sense of
duty performed, all the cheese-parings of equity between oneself and
others, all the tiny wonderments whether you are better or worse than
your neighbor, have to be abandoned; and you have to learn to live in
a world in which the chief fact is not that you are distinct from others,
but that you are a part of and integral with them. This involves indeed a
return to the communal order of society, and difficult as this teaching is
for us in this day to realise, yet there is no doubt that it must lie at the
heart of the Democracy of the future, as it has lain, germinal, all these
centuries in the hidden womb of the East.
Nor from Nature. You are not to differentiate yourself from Nature.
We have seen that the Guru Tilleináthan spoke of the operations of the
external world as “I,” having dismissed the sense of difference
between himself and them. It is only under these, and such conditions
as these, that the little mortal creature gradually becomes aware of
What he is.
This non-differentiation is the final deliverance. When it enters in
the whole burden of absurd cares, anxieties, duties, motives, desires,
fears, plans, purposes, preferences, etc., rolls off and lies like mere
lumber on the ground. The winged spirit is free, and takes its flight. It
passes through the veil of mortality and leaves that behind. Though I
say this non-differentiation is the final deliverance (from the bonds of

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Calculus: Early Transcendentals 9th Edition SOLUTIONS

Single Variable Calculus: early transcendentals 9th

Single Variable Calculus: Early Transcendentals 9th

Single Variable Calculus: Early Transcendentals, Metric

Student Solutions Manual, Chapters 10-16 for

Precalculus - Mathematics for Calculus 8th Edition

Calculus Concepts and Contexts - 5th Edition James

Student Solutions Manual, Chapters 10-17 for Stewart’s

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Exponents and Radicals

Binomial Theorem Distance and Midpoint Formulas

d − ssx 2 2 x1d2 1 s y2 2 y1d2

cossx 1 yd − cos x cos y 2 sin x sin y

Power Functions f sxd − x a

(i) f sxd − x n, n a positive integer y

(ii) f sxd − x 1yn − s

Inverse Trigonometric Functions y

log bsb x d − x b log b x − x 1. log bsxyd − log b x 1 log b y

3. log bsx r d − r log b x lim ln x − 2` lim ln x − `

Exponential functions Logarithmic functions

y − sinh21x &? sinh y − x sinh21x − lns x 1 sx 2 1 1 d

y − cosh21x &? cosh y − x and y > 0 cosh21x − lns x 1 sx 2 2 1 d

y − tanh21x &? tanh y − x tanh21x − 12 ln S D 11x

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1 Functions and Limits 7

Principles of Problem Solving 99

2.7 Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences 172

Problems Plus 204

3 Applications of Differentiation 209

Problems Plus 297

Problems Plus 361

5 Applications of Integration 363

5.2 Volumes 374

Problems Plus 408

6 Inverse Functions: 411

6.2 Exponential Functions and 6.2* The Natural Logarithmic

6.5 Exponential Growth and Decay 478

Problems Plus 520

7 Techniques of Integration 523

7.8 Improper Integrals 580

Problems Plus 594

8 Further Applications of Integration 597

Problems Plus 640

9 Differential Equations 643

Problems Plus 697

10 Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates 699

• Calculus: Early Transcendentals, Ninth Edition, is similar to the present textbook

• Essential Calculus: Early Transcendentals, Second Edition, resembles Essential