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SOCIOLOGY 2251/12
Paper 1 May/June 2017
2 hours (including 15 minutes’ reading time)
No Additional Materials are required.
1 Source A
This image is a historical document showing boys from different social classes in Britain in the
early part of the twentieth century. Sociologists have recently become more interested in ‘visual
sociology’, which means using photographs as a tool of investigation. Personal documents are
also a popular source for research.
(a) From Source A, identify two differences between social classes. [2]
(b) Identify two methods sociologists might use to investigate social class differences, apart from
‘personal documents’. [2]
(c) Using Source A, describe two ways in which historical documents may not be valid. [4]
(d) Describe two strengths of using content analysis for sociological research. [4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using longitudinal studies for sociological
research. [8]
(f) Explain why some sociologists believe that research should be reliable. [10]
(g) To what extent are historical and personal documents representative? [15]
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2 Since the mid-twentieth century modern industrial societies have become increasingly child-
centred. Evidence from research carried out in the USA in the ‘Cost of Raising a Child’ report has
shown that since 1960 the cost of raising a child has increased dramatically.
(b) Describe two ways childhood has changed over time. [4]
(c) Explain how socialisation is carried out within the family. [6]
(d) Explain why sanctions are applied to individuals who do not conform. [8]
(e) To what extent do the roles of children vary between cultures? [15]
3 In many countries top jobs in government and the legal system are dominated by an elite. This
means there is limited social mobility and distinct social classes still exist.
(c) Explain how members of the upper class are able to maintain their social position. [6]
(d) Explain why lifestyle can be used as an indicator of an individual’s social class. [8]
(e) To what extent do barriers to social mobility remain in modern industrial societies? [15]
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2251/12
2 Cambridge
C O Level – Mark
M Schem
me May/June
M 201
17
P
PUBLISHED D
Section A
Source A
This image is a historiccal documeent showing boys from different so ocial classess in Britain in the early
part of the ttwentieth ce
entury. Sociologists ha
ave recently
y become more interestted in ‘visua al
sociology,’ which means using ph hotographs as a tool off investigatio
on. Personaal documen nts are also
a popular ssource for reesearch.
1(a) From So
ource A, ide
entify two d
differences
s between social
s classses. 2
Responses need to show two ccomparisons s of the boyys on the rigght and the
boys on the
t left (diffe
erent sociall classes) to
o gain full marks.
m
• Cloth
hing style e..g. formal a nd casual
• Evideence of wea alth e.g. sm
mart suitcasees, shiny shhoes, flowerr in button
hole / evidence of
o poverty e e.g. warm clothes,
• Quality of clothin
ng e.g. boyss on the right have clotthes that arre untidy annd
poorly fitted
• How smartly dre essed they a ys on left ha
are e.g. boy ave very sh iny
shoees / boys on the left havve scruffy sh
hoes
• Acceept any diffe
erence identtified betweeen the boys s on the rig ht and on
the le
eft
• Any other
o reaso
onable respo onse
Note: Do not accept compariso n based on inference e.g.e the boyys on the lefft
look conffident and th
he boys on the right loo
ok less conffident.
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2251/12 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme May/June 2017
1(b) Identify two methods sociologists might use to investigate social class 2
differences, apart from ‘personal documents’.
1(c) Using Source A, describe two ways in which historical documents may 4
not be valid.
Validity refers to when when findings accurately reflect the reality that it is
intended to capture.
Answers must refer to the source e.g. mention of the boys or that it is a
photograph. The source includes the text underneath the photograph.
Band 2 (3–4)
To reach this band candidates must make reference to Source A. They will
begin to show the ability to interpret data and use it to support their answer.
To reach the top of the band candidates will give two reasons with
development and reference to the Source A.
E.g. Secondary data may not be valid because those who created it may
have deliberately set out to lie, for example in Source A the photographer
may have selected this image to represent the upper class even though it is
unrepresentative. We can’t tell if this is typical of that social group.
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2251/12 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme May/June 2017
Limitations
• Massive commitments over an extended period of time
• High attrition rate e.g. people drop out
• Unrepresentative because of high attrition rate
• Hawthorne effect e.g. participants change their behaviour because they
are conscious that they will have to tell the researchers about some
aspect of their lives
• Takes so long findings can be out of date before study is complete
• Not reliable as there are too many variables to repeat
• Emotional involvement over time, the researcher may become biased
• Expensive over time – funding / loss funding
• Researcher abandons research
7 • Any other reasonable response
© UCLES 201 Page 4 of 18
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For
• Wide range of materials available which can cover large populations so
can be representative
• Representative of attitudes, norms and values of certain groups e.g.
help us to know about the differences in norms and values of different
groups
• Official statistics like old census records can be very representative
because they are large scale
• Visual sociology from photographs can be representative of the lives of
some groups can show details of large group interactions
• Any other reasonable response
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Against
• Bias e.g. contain personal bias which is not representative of the norms
and values of the majority e.g. newspapers and speeches
• Intelligentsia e.g. certain types of documents only representative of
academics e.g. books, novels
• Elite e.g. more surviving documents for upper classes and elites, lives of
the ‘great and good’ e.g. parliamentary or church records / legislation
• Minority view e.g. too narrow in range to be representative of the whole
population diaries, letters and photos
• Representative of literate classes e.g. may only tell us about the lives of
those who can write e.g. diaries, letters
• Any other reasonable response
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will be clearly focused on the question and address the
‘extent’ to which historical / personal documents are representative of the
wider population. Candidates show excellent grasp of sociological terms and
knowledge. At the bottom of the band, candidates will offer a range of
arguments both for and against the question but may not offer an evaluative
conclusion. At the top of the band, there will also be an evaluative conclusion
e.g. ‘whilst it could be argued that the some historic and personal documents
are not representative as they only reflect the limited experience of small
section of society some quantitative historical documents like census
materials are representative. To some extent it depends on the nature of the
historic or personal document.
Section B
Since the mid-twentieth century modern industrial societies have become increasingly child-
centred. Evidence in the ‘Cost of Raising a Child’ report, research carried out in the USA, has
shown that since 1960 the cost of raising a child has increased dramatically.
2(d) Explain why sanctions are applied to individuals who do not conform. 8
Candidates must focus on why sanctions are applied; candidates who just
describe sanctions should not receive more than 4 marks.
Candidates are likely to focus on negative sanctions to answer this question
but it is equally valid to think about positive sanctions. Positive sanctions
may be discussed in the context of a non-conformist sub-culture.
Possible answers may include:
• Need for social order
• To prevent deviance
• To prevent crime
• Need to maintain social control
• Need for the powerful to maintain their power
• To prevent chaos, confusion and disorder
• To get them to conform either by coercion or reward
• So that norms and values of society are not undermined
• Marxist view – to maintain capitalism
• Feminist view – to maintain patriarchy
• Functionalist view
• Any other reasonable response
Band 2 (4–6)
Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and
understanding. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At
the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and
concepts accurately. Answers may focus on describing sanctions; this may
include description of positive and negative sanctions e.g. There are two
types of sanctions that can be used one is negative, like prison and fines
which try to force people to conform the other is positive which try to
persuade people to conform. At the top of the band, candidates may be
beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy.
However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed.
© UCLES 2017 Page 10 of 18
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PUBLISHED
2(d) Answers which describe, rather than explain why should not be given more
than 4 marks.
Band 3 (7–8)
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and
understanding of why sanctions are applied and will be well developed and
explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately. Answers
will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons
presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout.
Against
• All children are dependent to some extent
• Children do not have the same rights as adults
• All children go through a period of education / learning / apprenticeship
• Child is a distinct phase of life and there is a rite of passage to take on
the role of adult
• Gender more important than culture
• Biological differences between child and adult
• Some roles are almost universal e.g. son / daughter
• Any other reasonable response
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show an excellent knowledge and understanding of
the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate
and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well
developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of
points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the
band, some attempt at a conclusion will be made. At the top of the band,
there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what
extent ?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. E.g. ‘to some
extent the idea of childhood and the role of the child as a learner may exist in
many cultures but the roles played by children can vary greatly. In the
developed world children are usually dependents whilst in the developing
world children can be the main bread winner or even combatants in a war.
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2251/12 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme May/June 2017
PUBLISHED
Section C
In many countries top jobs in government and the legal system are dominated by the elite.
This means there is limited social mobility and distinct social classes still exist.
Elite refers to those at the highest level in society, those with the best life
chances.
One mark for partial definition e.g. upper class / ruling class
Two marks for clear definition e.g. the highest level of society with all the
best life chances / high status / power.
One mark for each social class correctly identified (up to maximum of two).
One mark for each social class that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
3(c) Explain how members of the upper class are able to maintain their 6
social position.
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2251/12 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme May/June 2017
• Those who enjoy so called high culture e.g. western style opera or ballet
may be seen as upper class / upper middle class
• Working class pastimes may be viewed as going to a football match on
Saturday
• Middle class have dinner parties and go to theatre
• Working class go out drinking on Friday night
• Jet set / pop aristocracy life style for the upper class to distinguish them
from the middle class but also distinguish them from entrepreneurial rich
who tend to work more – board meetings etc.
• Underclass has a culture of poverty or be people who rely on welfare or
who laze about all day.
• Educational differences – access to the best schooling resulting in good
qualification and access to best employment opportunities and ‘old boys’
networks
• Healthcare differences access to the best health provisions ensures that
their health is maintained and their life chances are not restricted by
illness
• Consumption choices e.g. in terms of consumer culture
• Popular culture – often seen as inferior to high culture
• Any other reasonable response
Band 3 (7–8)
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and
understanding of how lifestyle can be seen as an indicator of social class
and this will be well developed and explained. Sociological terms and
concepts will be used accurately. Answers will be well focused on the
question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the
band explanations will be clear throughout.
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Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate.
Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there
will be no real attempt to address the issues raised by the question. There
may be limited use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided
responses are unlikely. At the top of the band, candidates may describe
examples of mobility e.g. a son can be upwardly mobile if he works hard at
school even though his father was a fisherman, he can be a doctor.
3(e) Note: A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Two sided
answers must show good sociological knowledge and understanding to
reach band 3.
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show an excellent knowledge and understanding of
the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate
and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well
developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of
points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the
band, some attempt at a conclusion will be made. At the top of the band,
there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what
extent ?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. e.g. ‘whilst
modern industrial societies are open societies and mobility is not prevented
on the grounds of ascribed characteristics those with certain characteristic
may find it more difficult to be mobile. These individuals may have life
chances which are worse than others without these characteristics.
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SOCIOLOGY 2251/13
Paper 1 May/June 2017
No Additional Materials are required. 2 hours (including 15 minutes’ reading time)
CHILD SOLDIERS
Child soldier. Some words don’t belong together.
It’s bad enough that children’s lives are torn apart by wars they didn’t start. But when they’re
forced into fighting in the conflict themselves, it causes psychological and physical damage that
can often never be repaired.
Every child has the right to go to school and to live free from violence. Using children as soldiers
is a breach of those rights and it is simply wrong.
This image is an example of secondary data from the website of the charity ‘War Child’.
(a) From Source A, identify two facts a sociologist might learn about the impact of war on
children. [2]
(b) Identify two ways in which secondary data may be biased. [2]
(c) Using information from Source A, describe two ways of using secondary data in sociological
research. [4]
(d) Describe two limitations of using field experiments in sociological research. [4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using case studies in sociological research. [8]
(f) Explain why primary data may not be valid. [10]
(g) To what extent is the interpretivist approach the best way of conducting sociological research?
[15]
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2 In modern multicultural society the experience of socialisation can be diverse. Cultural diversity
may mean that socialisation in the family does not produce value consensus. Despite cultural
diversity, there are certain universal values that all members of society share.
3 The poverty line is the dividing point between those who are poor and those who are not. The
official poverty line used in the UK is 60% of the average income. Those living below this line can
experience poor life chances.
(d) Explain why life chances differ between social groups. [8]
(e) To what extent does gender discrimination still exist in modern industrial societies? [15]
Permission to reproduce items where third-party owned material protected by copyright is included has been sought and cleared where possible. Every
reasonable effort has been made by the publisher (UCLES) to trace copyright holders, but if any items requiring clearance have unwittingly been included, the
publisher will be pleased to make amends at the earliest possible opportunity.
To avoid the issue of disclosure of answer-related information to candidates, all copyright acknowledgements are reproduced online in the Cambridge International
Examinations Copyright Acknowledgements Booklet. This is produced for each series of examinations and is freely available to download at www.cie.org.uk after
the live examination series.
Cambridge International Examinations is part of the Cambridge Assessment Group. Cambridge Assessment is the brand name of University of Cambridge Local
Examinations Syndicate (UCLES), which is itself a department of the University of Cambridge.
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2251/13 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme May/June 2017
Section A
Question Answer Marks
CHILD SOLDIERS
Child soldier. Some words don’t belong together.
It’s bad enough that children’s lives are torn apart by wars they didn’t start. But when they’re
forced into fighting in the conflict themselves, it causes psychological and physical damage that
can often never be repaired.
Every child has the right to go to school and to live free from violence. Using children as soldiers
is a breach of those rights and it is simply wrong.
1(a) From Source A, identify two facts a sociologist might learn about the 2
impact of war on children.
Any two facts from:
• 250 000 child soldiers
• 40% girls
• Not all directly involved in combat
• Wives of combatants
• Forced to kill family member
• Some governments use child soldiers
• Psychological and physical damage
• Any other reasonable response
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Band 2 (3–4)
To reach this band candidates must make reference to Source A. They
will begin to show the ability to interpret data and use it to support their
answer. To reach the top of the band candidates will give two reasons with
development and reference to the Source A.
e.g.
Sociologist might use secondary data to look for bias. In source A you can
see that there is a lot of emotive language to get the audience involved it
talks about horrendous breaches and ‘damage’ that can never be repaired.
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2251/13 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme May/June 2017
1(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using case studies 8
sociological research.
Possible answers:
Strengths:
• Allow different aspects of the case being studied to be explored
using appropriate methods
• Can provide deep and detailed accounts of the case
• It may be possible to draw wider conclusions from a careful selected
and well conducted case study
• Can produce findings that can be tested by other research
elsewhere
• May allow greater rapport/understanding
• Any other reasonable response
Limitations:
• The findings may only apply to this single case and generalisation
may not be possible
• The findings could be impossible to replicate/unreliable
• Greater chance of research effect
• Higher chance of researcher bias
• Can be relatively expensive and time consuming compared to other
methods (candidates need to qualify this statement)
• Any other reasonable response.
Four marks are available for strengths and four marks for limitations.
One mark for each strength correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each strength that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each limitation correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each limitation that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
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Section B
In modern multicultural society the experience of socialisation can be diverse. Cultural
diversity may mean that socialisation in the family does not produce value consensus. Despite
cultural diversity, there are certain universal values that all members of society share.
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2251/13 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme May/June 2017
Against
• Value of life
• Property
• Respect for elders
• Education
• Generally agreed outlawing of incest
• Any other reasonable response
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show an excellent knowledge and understanding of
the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate
and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well
developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of
points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the
band, some attempt at a conclusion will be made. At the top of the band,
there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what
extent ?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. e.g. ‘Human
beings may appear to share some values but there are very few which could
be regarded as truly universal it would be more realistic to suggest that most
values are social constructs.
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Section C
The poverty line is the dividing point between those who are poor and those who are not. The
official poverty line used in the UK is 60% of the average income. Those living below this line
can experience poor life chances.
One mark for each cause correctly identified (up to maximum of two).
One mark for each cause that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
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For
• Feminist views – inequalities in the labour market e.g. pay gap/glass
ceiling/domestic division of labour
• Functionalist view – meritocracy
• Religious views e.g. love honour and obey
• Unequal distribution of wealth and power
• Persistence of patriarchal structures in society
• Media representations of women still stereotypical and contribute to
discrimination
• Bias in legal system e.g. favouring male or female child custody
• Nature works against women because they have to bare children
• Any other reasonable response.
Against
• Impact of anti-discrimination legislation
• More opportunities in labour market
• Changes to education system have benefitted females e.g.
coursework in examinations
• Other social characteristics are more important e.g. age, social
class/status
• Single sex shortlists e.g. in job and political selection
• Post-modernist views – rational choice e.g. women choose part time
jobs because they want to be with their children
• Any other reasonable response.
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show an excellent knowledge and understanding of
the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate
and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well
developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of
points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the
band, some attempt at a conclusion will be made. At the top of the band,
there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent ?’
part of the question through a focused conclusion. e.g. ‘despite much
legislation in MIS to ensure equality, gender still plays an important role in an
individual’s life chances a women’s chances of achieving a top role and
breaking through the glass ceiling are still limited therefore gender is still an
important factor in MIS.
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SOCIOLOGY 2251/12
Paper 1 October/November 2017
No Additional Materials are required. 2 hours (including 15 minutes’ reading time)
Interviewer: Do your parents have lots of rules that you follow about television?
Son 2: Yes.
Son 1: They tell us to go up to our bedrooms at about 9.30pm and then we just watch
television in our bedrooms until they come up and tell us to switch it off.
Adapted from Moira Bovill and Sonia Livingstone ‘Children and their Changing Media Environment’.
(a) Using Source A, identify two findings from the interview. [2]
(b) Identify two types of interview that might be used to research home life. [2]
(c) Using information from Source A, describe two ways researchers attempt to ensure the
validity of their research. [4]
(d) Describe two ways the interviewer may cause bias when carrying out sociological research.
[4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of the micro approach to sociological research.
[8]
(f) Explain why it would be difficult to make generalisations from a single interview. [10]
(g) To what extent do Marxists and feminists have different views about society? [15]
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2 Children are socialised through a variety of processes, this includes imitation. Children who have
inadequate socialisation may not share the same norms and values as their peers.
(b) Describe two processes of primary socialisation, apart from imitation. [4]
(c) Explain how children are socialised by agencies of secondary socialisation. [6]
(d) Explain why inadequate socialisation may have negative consequences for the individual.
[8]
(e) To what extent is education the most important agency of secondary socialisation? [15]
3 Women are still disadvantaged in modern industrial societies. They often have to take paid
employment and look after a family. Women are less likely, because of the gendered division of
labour, to have the best life chances.
(c) Explain how women’s roles have changed in modern industrial societies. [6]
(e) To what extent is income the most important influence on life chances in modern industrial
societies? [15]
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2251/12 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme October/November
Section A 2017
Source A
In general, family rules about media use in the home are typically less important to children than
they are to their parents. For example, one middle-class British father claimed that he censored
television for his children and would not allow them to watch television after 9pm. However, in
another room, talking to another interviewer his sons (aged 13 and 10) said something very
different.
Interviewer: Do your parents have lots of rules that you follow about television?
Son 2: Yes.
Son 1: They tell us to go up to our bedrooms at about 9.30pm and then we just watch television in
our bedrooms until they come up and tell us to switch it off.
Adapted from Moira Bovill and Sonia Livingstone ‘Children and their Changing Media Environment’.
1(b) Identify two types of interview that might be used to research home 2
life.
• Group interview
• Structured interview
• Semi structured interview
• Unstructured interview
• Formal interview
• Informal interview
• Any other reasonable response
Two marks for any two methods identified. (Up to a maximum of two).
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2251/12 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme October/November
2017
Question Answer Marks
Band 2 (3–4)
To reach this band candidates must make use of Source A. They will begin
to show the ability to interpret the source and use it to support their answer.
To reach the top of the band candidates will give two reasons with
development and use of Source A.
e.g. They will try to make sure that they get truthful answers from the
respondent, taking the children out of the room where their parents are
means the children are less likely to be influenced by parental expectations.
1(d) Describe two ways the interviewer may cause bias when carrying out 4
sociological research.
• May lead the subject
• May ask questions they want to know the answers to
• Interviewer effect
• Interviewee may say what they think the researcher wants to hear
• Interviewers body language may indicate a certain response
• Interviewers social characteristics may alienate the interviewee
• Lack of rapport
• Creating biased questions in initial preparation
• Asking biased questions in the interview
• Bias in analysis of data i.e. ignoring evidence that doesn’t match
the hypothesis
• Any other reasonable response
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1(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of the micro approach to 8
sociological research.
Strengths
• Understand feelings
• Depth of understanding
• Putting yourself in position of the subject
• Establish verstehen
• More valid
• Qualitative data
• Any other reasonable response
Limitations
• Not reliable because usually micro approach is not repeatable
• Difficult to quantify
• Can’t establish social facts
• Difficult to generalise
• Not representative because of small sample size
• Any other reasonable response
One mark for each strength correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each strength that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each limitation correctly identified (up to a maximum of two)
One mark for each limitation that is developed (up to a maximum of two)
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1(g) To what extent do Marxists and Feminists have different views about 15
society?
For
• Patriarchy
• Gender specific socialisation
• Stereotyped roles
• Bias in education system
• Glass ceiling in employment
• Role of agencies of socialisation
• Domestic division of labour
• Life chances limited by gender
• Male dominated state apparatus
• Discrimination based on gender characteristics
• Objectification of women
• Marxism is gender blind
• Any other reasonable response
Against
• Relationship to means of production (Marxist feminists)
• Lack of educational opportunity – working class / women
• Material deprivation – working class and women
• Hidden curriculum – legitimates gender and class inequality
• Life chances limited by social class/gender
• Reserve army of labour – working class / women
• Both structuralist/ macro approaches
• Conflict theories
• Both based on inequality
• Both theories have theoretical subsets e.g. liberal feminists, neo
Marxists
• Any other reasonable response
Band 0
No creditworthy response.
Band 1 (1–4)
Answers in this band may be largely based on common sense showing
limited or no knowledge of sociological terms or concepts. At the top of the
band, candidates may make one or two general points about
Marxism/Feminism, but they won’t be well-linked to the question, e.g. There
is inequality because the rich have all the opportunities.
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PUBLISHED 2017
Section B
Possible responses:
• Manipulation
• Canalisation
• Use of sanctions, rewards and coercion
• Role modelling e.g. father figure, mothering role e.g. parent
showing child suitable behaviour
• Positive sanctions e.g. boys being praised for being rough
• negative sanctions e.g. punishing a girl for playing rough
• Any other reasonable response
One mark for each process correctly identified (up to maximum of two).
One mark for each process that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
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For
• Universal norms and values
• Values of the whole society
• Hidden curriculum
• Marxist view passes on the ideology of the ruling class to the
masses
• Influence of strata, age, ethnicity
• Amount of time young people spend in education
• Functionalist view-key function of education to spread consensus
• Any other reasonable response
Against
• Role of other agencies
• Religion
• Peers
• Media
• Work place
• Dependent on social characteristics of age, class, gender, ethnicity
• Other reasonable response
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate.
Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there
will be no real attempt to address the issues raised by the question. There
may be limited use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided
responses are unlikely. At the top of the band, candidates may describe
examples of socialisation e.g. In school individuals are socialised through
the hidden curriculum, these are things which are learnt that are not a part
of the formal curriculum, like some subjects are for boys and others for girls.
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PUBLISHED 2017
Section C
Question Answer Marks
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Question Answer Marks
3(e) To what extent is income the most important influence on life chances 15
in modern industrial societies.
Candidates need to consider whether income or other social characteristics
such as ethnicity or social class are the most significant factors in
influencing life chances
Arguments for:
• Better housing
• Better health care
• Better access to the education system
• Cultural capital
• Any other reasonable response
Arguments against
• Gender – e.g. worse life chances because they face discrimination
in work
• Status e.g. even if you have high income you may not be accepted
in some circles so are not able to get the top positions
• Social class e.g. may not share mainstream values like deferred
gratification
• Age-e.g. lack of experience
• Ethnicity e.g. discrimination in employment, labelled and targeted
by police
• Old boys network i.e. lack of access to networks of power
• Improved rights and legislation
• Any other reasonable response
SOCIOLOGY 2251/13
Paper 1 October/November 2017
No Additional Materials are required. 2 hours (including 15 minutes’ reading time)
Answer Question 1.
20 20 19.3 18
Key
% population 15
with disability
10
7 6.4 6.3
5.6
5
2.5 2.1
0
SA
la a
Pa esh
an
a
lia
K
Vi ka
ng hin
di
U
na
ra
an
st
U
In
d
Ba C
ki
st
et
iL
Au
Sr
(a) From the evidence in Source A, which two countries have the highest percentage of disabled
people in their population? [2]
(b) Identify two methods that could be used to collect data from a large sample. [2]
(c) Using Source A, describe two reasons why the data collected for India may not be accurate.
[4]
(d) Describe two strengths of using official statistics in sociological research. [4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using sampling in sociological research. [8]
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Answer either Question 2 or Question 3.
The Amish are a religious community in Pennsylvania, USA. Their strict religious beliefs mean
they reject some features of modern lifestyles, like the motor car. Individuals who do not conform
to the norms of the group can face ostracism by their community. The Amish have become a
tourist attraction because their way of life is so different. There can be conflict between them and
the tourists as their religion means they are not happy to be photographed.
(b) Describe two examples of a sub-culture, apart from religious sub-cultures. [4]
(c) Explain how individuals are encouraged to conform to the norms and values of their
sub-culture. [6]
(d) Explain why individuals from religious sub-cultures may find themselves in conflict with the
mainstream culture. [8]
(e) To what extent is religion the most important agency of social control? [15]
3 Aspects of stratification such as gender, ethnicity and social class can have a significant impact
on an individual’s life chances. An individual’s social position at birth can reduce their chances of
upward social mobility and even shorten their life expectancy.
(b) Describe two examples of social groups who may be disadvantaged. [4]
(c) Explain how the life chances of minority ethnic groups differ from those of the majority ethnic
group. [6]
(e) To what extent is social class still important in modern industrial societies? [15]
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2251/13 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme October/November
PUBLISHED 2017
Section A
Source A
1(a) From the evidence in Source A, which two nations have the highest 2
percentage of disabled people in their population?
Australia
USA
One mark for each nation correctly identified up to a maximum of two
1(b) Identify two methods that could be used to collect data from a large 2
sample.
• Social surveys
• Questionnaires
• Postal questionnaires
• Telephone questionnaires
• Internet surveys
• Interview (any type)
• Census
• Any other reasonable response
Two marks for any two methods identified. (Up to a maximum of two).
1(c) Using Source A, describe two reasons why the data collected for India 4
may not be accurate.
Possible answers included
• The way the data was coded
• Errors in collection of data
• The way the ‘enumerators’ asked householders questions
• Not counting people because they didn’t look disabled
• People not counted because they didn’t define themselves as
disabled
• Respondents not understanding the question
• Respondents lying/hiding disability
• Any other reasonable response
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PUBLISHED 2017
Question Answer Marks
Band 2 (3–4)
To reach this band candidates must make use of Source A. At the bottom of
the band candidates offer one reason and support from the source (3
marks) They will begin to show the ability to interpret data and use it to
support their answer. To reach the top of the band candidates will give two
reasons with development and use of Source A.
e.g. the data for India is very low compared to Australia and this may be
because of the difficulties of collecting data given the size of the population
of India as people may have been missed.
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PUBLISHED 2017
Question Answer Marks
One mark for each strength correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each strength that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each limitation correctly identified (up to a maximum of two)
One mark for each limitation that is developed (up to a maximum of two)
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PUBLISHED 2017
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will be clearly focused on the question and address the
‘extent’ to which objectivity can be achieved. Candidates show excellent
grasp of sociological terms and knowledge. At the bottom of the band,
candidates will offer a range of arguments both for and against the question
but may not offer an evaluative conclusion. At the top of the band, there will
also be an evaluative conclusion e.g. ‘whilst positivists might argue that
objectivity can be achieved, interpretivist would argue that attempts to be
objective are impossible because even the choice of research method is a
reflection of the researchers own values and means ultimately the research
is not objective.
A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks.
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Question Answer Marks
2(c) Explain how individuals are encouraged to conform to the norms and 6
values of their sub-culture.
Possible answers include:
• The need to belong
• The need to fit in
• Rewards
• Inclusion
• Sanctions
• Coercion
• Ostracism
• Shunning
• Excommunication
• Any other reasonable response
Band 2 (4–6)
A clear and accurate explanation showing good sociological knowledge and
understanding of how sub-cultures enforce norms and values which is
supported by relevant examples. Sociological terms should be expected. At
the top of the band candidates will use sociological terms and concepts,
referring to a range of ways in which sub-cultures enforce their norms and
values.
2(d) Explain why individuals from religious sub-cultures may find 8
themselves in conflict with the mainstream culture.
Possible answers include:
• Religious requirements clash with norms of mainstream culture e.g.
dress requirements of Muslim religion for Muslims living in the west
• Customs and holidays/holy days e.g. observation of religious
holidays which may mean absence from work
• Literal or fundamentalist interpretations of holy books e.g.
Darwinism vs. creationism Scopes trial ‘monkey trial’ USA 1925
• Beliefs and values differ e.g. patriarch vs. equality
• Lack of assimilation
• Religious requirements clash with those of public institutions e.g.
clashes over school uniform, lack of gender segregation, or having
to wear a helmet in the police force rather than religiously
proscribed headwear
• Religious requirements clash with health and safety legislations
e.g. requirement to wear/not wear certain items of clothing/
religious symbols
• Any other reasonable response
Band 3 (7–8)
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and
understanding of why individuals from religious sub-cultures may find
themselves in conflict with the mainstream culture and this will be well-
developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used
accurately. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a
range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear
throughout.
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2(e) To what extent is religion the most important agency of social control? 15
Candidates should be expected to discuss religion as an agent of social
control and whether it has greater influence than other agents of social
control. Candidates need to be aware that the influence of religion depends
on the nature of the society and that the influence of religion may be less in
a secular society than in a religious one.
Possible arguments for:
• Universalistic religious values
• Rewards and sanctions of religious group
• More influence in non-secular society e.g. Iran
• Any other reasonable response
Possible arguments against:
• Media’s role
• Role and influence of peer group e.g. peer pressure
• Role of the family
• Work place
• Education e.g. hidden curriculum
• Church declining in the west e.g. secularisation
• Secular societies
• Any other reasonable response.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate.
Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there
will be no real attempt to address the issues raised by the question. There
may be limited use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided
responses are unlikely. At the top of the band, candidates may describe
examples of religious traditions and behaviour e.g. religion is an important
means of social control because from an early age individuals are taught to
fear God and may believe they will be damned if they do not follow religious
teachings
A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks.
Section C
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PUBLISHED 2017
Section C
3(c) Explain how the life chances of minority ethnic groups differ from 6
those of the majority ethnic group.
Band 2 (4–6)
A clear and accurate explanation showing good sociological knowledge and
understanding of the concepts of ethnicity and life chances which is
supported by relevant examples. Sociological terms should be expected. At
the top of the band candidates will use sociological terms and concepts,
referring to a range of factors. Candidates will address how the life chances
of ethnic minority groups differ.
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2251/13 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme October/Novembe 2017
Question Answer Marks
SOCIOLOGY 2251/12
Paper 1 May/June 2018
Additional Materials: Answer Booklet/Paper 2 hours (including 15 minutes’ reading time)
Answer Question 1.
1 Source A
Diane Reay and her colleagues wanted to study people going to university in the UK, who were
not from traditional middle class backgrounds.
The researchers studied people from six different universities as their sample population. They
gave out 502 questionnaires and followed this up with 53 interviews with students. The qualitative
interviews were thought not to be representative of the whole sample population.
The students were given a free choice to define their own ethnicity. The result was not as the
researchers expected. In the UK the majority of the people are ‘White’ but less than half of the
sample defined their ethnicity this way. One interviewee defined himself by his nationality rather
than by his ethnicity.
Adapted from Moore et. al. Sociology
(a) Using Source A, identify the two research methods used by the researchers. [2]
(b) Identify two methods that might be used to research who goes to university, apart from those
in Source A. [2]
(c) Using Source A, describe two problems with the researchers’ methods. [4]
(d) Describe two reasons why research may be conducted covertly. [4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using self-completion questionnaires in
sociological research. [8]
(f) Explain why sociologists may use triangulation in their research. [10]
(g) To what extent is it possible to generalise from research? [15]
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3
2 Adolescents often feel peer pressure to fit in with their friends. This may lead to them changing
their norms, values and identity in order to be accepted by their peer group.
(d) Explain why belonging to a youth sub-culture may have a negative impact on the individual.
[8]
(e) To what extent is the peer group the most important agency of socialisation? [15]
3 Minority ethnic groups are at higher risk of poverty and often have to rely on the welfare state. Some
sociologists claim that this is due to unemployment and low pay.
(b) Describe two ways governments can improve the life chances of the poor. [4]
(c) Explain how minority ethnic groups face inequality in modern industrial societies. [6]
(d) Explain why the welfare state may have failed to reduce poverty in modern industrial societies.
[8]
(e) To what extent has discrimination been eliminated in modern industrial societies? [15]
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PUBLISHED
Question Answer Marks
Source A
Diane Reay and her colleagues wanted to study people going to university in the UK, who were not
from traditional middle class backgrounds.
The researchers studied people from six different universities as their sample population. They
gave out 502 questionnaires and followed this up with 53 interviews with students. The qualitative
interviews were thought not to be representative of the whole sample population.
The students were given a free choice to define their own ethnicity. The result was not as the
researchers expected. In the UK the majority of the people are ‘White’ but less than half of the
sample defined their ethnicity this way. One interviewee defined himself by his nationality rather
than by his ethnicity.
Adapted from Moore et. al. Sociology
1(a) Using Source A, identify the two research methods used by the 2
researchers.
Acceptable responses:
• questionnaires;
• interviews.
One mark for each method correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
1(b) Identify two methods that might be used to research who goes to 2
university, apart from those in Source A.
Possible responses:
• surveys;
• structured interviews;
• content analysis;
• observation;
• case studies;
• longitudinal studies;
• triangulation;
• experiments;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each method correctly identified (up to maximum of two).
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2251/12 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme May/June 2018
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PUBLISHED
Question Answer Marks
Limitations:
• questionnaires often lack validity – closed questions don’t yield depth
and detail;
• qualitative data – questionnaires use closed questions which don’t allow
for depth and detail;
• the sample may not be representative as only those with time may reply,
thus negatively affecting the response rate;
• there is always the danger that questions might be misinterpreted or just
not understood and as the researcher is not there to clarify or explain
some questions may be left or answered inaccurately;
• with self-completion questionnaires there is no guarantee that the
questionnaire will be completed by intended recipient e.g. a husband
may complete it for his wife, thus having a negative effect on the
sampling;
• self-completion questionnaires, particularly those sent out by post, are
notorious for having a low response rate e.g. may not be returned,
negatively affecting the amount of data gathered;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each limitation correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each limitation that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
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2251/12 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme May/June 2018
Question Answer Marks
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2251/12 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme May/June 2018
Question Answer Marks
Adolescents often feel peer pressure to fit in with their friends. This may lead to them changing their
norms, values and identity in order to be accepted by their peer group.
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Question Answer Marks
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Question Answer Marks
2(e) To what extent is the peer group the most important agency of 15
socialisation?
Arguments for:
• in the peer group we often see the influence of friendship networks with
close emotional and social ties and this can have a more powerful
impact – particularly in the teenage years – than any other agency of
socialisation;
• the peer group within the workplace can be extremely effective as an
agency of socialisation, so occupational subcultures involving work
mates may exist which can influence individuals into doing things they
would ordinarily avoid such as criminal acts e.g. the banking fraternity;
• young people especially spend a vast amount of time with their peers –
at school and socialising after school – it is thus unsurprising that peers
influence each other during the school years;
• functionalists argue that youth is a time of transition and the peer group
functions as a source of support in the chaotic and turbulent teen years
in which they are experimenting with lifestyle and trying to establish their
own identity;
• the quest for promotion involves individuals in demonstrating work place
values in an effort to move up the hierarchy, the influence of this is
particularly strong in those who are committed to establishing a
successful career;
• peer groups are often influential in shaping image and identity via
constant positive and negative pressure, above and beyond the
influence of agencies such as the media;
• anti-school subcultures demonstrate that, despite the good intentions of
the family and of teachers, some youth fall under the sway of negative
influences which can effectively hamper their future life chances;
• any other reasonable answer.
Arguments against:
• functionalists argue that the family, particularly the nuclear family, is a
more important agency of socialisation than the peer group as it
provides primary socialisation into socially acceptable norms and values
and without this work none of the secondary agencies would be able to
function;
• the family socialises children into their gender identity (Oakley) which is
often fundamental to how we see ourselves, and how others see us,
providing a platform for future roles and relationships;
• the family is a more important agency of socialisation as it provides the
core skills such as speaking, walking and toileting without which
individuals would not find acceptance in wider society e.g. feral children;
• in some cultures religion is a more potent socialising force than peers –
the influence of religious teachings transmitted through role models and
reinforced via the most serious sanctions (e.g. heaven and hell) can
transcend other agencies;
• postmodernists would argue that in today’s media-saturated society tv,
advertising and social media are the single most effective transmitter of
a wide variety of norms and values to individuals, ranging from gender
norms to consumer values;
• both functionalists and Marxists maintain that education is highly
effective as an agency of socialisation and social control as it builds
directly upon primary socialisation and continues through the formative
years via the hidden curriculum;
• any other reasonable response.
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Minority ethnic groups are at higher risk of poverty and often have to rely on the welfare state.
Some sociologists claim that this is due to unemployment and low pay.
Welfare state = the way in which government try to provide for the less well-
off and reduce social inequality.
3(b) Describe two ways governments can improve the life chances of the 4
poor.
Possible answers:
• education e.g. through free and universal state education or through
programmes like Sure Start, aiming to create equal opportunity amongst
the very young;
• housing e.g. social housing schemes and housing benefits;
• the provision of free and/or universal healthcare e.g. the NHS in the UK
is ‘free at the point of delivery’;
• the redistribution of wealth via progressive taxation e.g. in Scandinavian
countries the benefits and taxation systems are used so the wealthy pay
for some benefits for the poor;
• the subsidising or providing free of charge goods or services for the
poorer members of society e.g. in the UK free bus passes and a winter
fuel allowance;
• legislation such as national minimum wage laws or equal opportunities
laws that try to remove discrimination from minorities e.g the 2010
Equality act which brought together earlier laws protecting the rights of
the vulnerable and minorities;
• the introduction of old age pensions and national insurance schemes, as
in the UK, which creates a fund through which the sick and the
unemployed are supported;
• Any other reasonable response.
One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two).
One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
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Possible answers:
• institutional racism – some minority groups face discrimination that is
built in to the way an organisation or system works so that discrimination
is not the result of an individual’s prejudice or actions e.g. being targeted
by police due to police assumptions and policies;
• being pre-judged, usually negatively, due to cultural or racial factors;
• discrimination in education e.g through the ethnocentric curriculum
and/or teacher labelling which may end up in a self-fulfilling prophesy of
underachievement;
• inequality in employment, recruitment and pay is well documented e.g.
biased selection procedures, the glass or concrete ceiling and horizontal
segregation in low pay, low status occupations;
• some ethnic minorities are more likely to suffer unemployment e.g the
Pakistani and Bangladeshi communities in the UK;
• inequality in housing – some ethnic groups are effectively segregated
within deprived urban areas, often in low quality housing facilities or are
made to feel unwelcome in private housing developments;
• inequality in health care;
• inequalities in the media – interactionists argue that the labelling and
scapegoating of minorities as ‘scroungers’ and potential terrorists or
criminals is a familiar sight in the media;
• lack of proportionate representation in film and tv, the relative invisibility
of ethnic minority groups in mainstream tv and film is evidence of
discrimination;
• Any other reasonable response.
Band 2 [4–6 marks]
A clear and accurate explanation showing good sociological knowledge and
understanding of the concepts of inequality which is supported by relevant
examples. Sociological terms should be expected. At the top of the band
candidates will use sociological terms and concepts, referring to a range of
factors. Candidates will address how ethnic minorities face inequality.
3(d) Explain why the welfare state may have failed to reduce poverty in 8
modern industrial societies.
Possible answers:
• welfare benefits have become too generous and therefore act as a
disincentive to finding employment, thus only helping to maintain people
on poverty level incomes;
• some argue that there is still not enough investment e.g. initiatives to
bring equal opportunities for children (like Sure Start) or to fund
employment and skills-building enterprises which could help to alleviate
future poverty;
• some individuals are caught in the poverty trap (i.e. when poor people
are unable to escape being in poverty) despite welfare measures being
put in place – this happens because the poor may need to borrow from
moneylenders who charge high interest or they need to pay
childminders so they can work, in effect taking away any advantages
that work brings;
• the New Right believe there is a risk of producing an underclass whose
values are antithetical to the mainstream e.g. the notion of the idle or
undeserving poor;
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SOCIOLOGY 2251/13
Paper 1 May/June 2018
Answer Question 1.
1 Source A
There was a radio broadcast in 1938 called ‘‘The War of the Worlds’’. The story is about an alien
invasion. Whilst it was not real the broadcast became famous for causing mass panic in parts of
the USA. Many people believed that Earth was being invaded by aliens. The first part of the broadcast
was in the style of news bulletins, which made some people believe that the alien invasion was
real.
In 1940 Hadley Cantril researched the effect this broadcast had on the audience. He interviewed
135 people and found 74 per cent had believed the broadcast was real. However another piece of
research, a large national survey, found different results. In this study only 12 per cent believed
the alien invasion was real.
(a) From the evidence in Source A, identify the two research methods used. [2]
(b) Identify two ways in which primary data may be biased. [2]
(c) Using information from Source A, suggest two possible reasons why the results of the interviews
were different to those of the national survey. [4]
(d) Describe two strengths of using field experiments in sociological research. [4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using non-official statistics in sociological
research. [8]
(f) Explain why research based on media content may not be valid. [10]
(g) To what extent is the positivist approach the best way of conducting sociological research?
[15]
06_2251_13_2018_1.2
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3
2 In modern industrial societies some sociologists believe most people share a common culture.
They live in families, see education as a good thing, vote and respect the law. However others
believe people do not share a common culture but are divided into many sub-cultures. These can
be based around social class, age, religion and ethnicity.
3 Nineteenth-century Britain was a very patriarchal society. Since then governments have introduced
legislation that has improved the rights of women and reduced discrimination. Despite this, feminists
would still suggest that patriarchy is an important feature of modern industrial societies.
(b) Describe two examples of discrimination faced by women in modern industrial societies. [4]
(c) Explain how governments have used legislation to improve the rights of women. [6]
(d) Explain why females may have lower status than males in modern industrial societies. [8]
(e) To what extent have social inequalities been reduced in modern industrial societies? [15]
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Source A
There was a radio broadcast in 1938 called ‘The War of the Worlds’. The story is about an alien
invasion. Whilst it was not real the broadcast became famous for causing mass panic in parts of the
USA. Many people believed that Earth was being invaded by aliens. The first part of the broadcast
was in the style of news bulletins, which made some people believe that the alien invasion was
real.
In 1940 Hadley Cantril researched the effect this broadcast had on the audience. He interviewed
135 people and found 74 per cent had believed the broadcast was real. However another piece of
research, a large national survey, found different results. In this study only 12 per cent believed the
alien invasion was real.
1(a) From the evidence in Source A, identify the two research methods 2
used.
Acceptable answers:
• interview
• survey
Possible answers:
• primary data may be biased according to who collects it, e.g. a charity
may be trying to promote a particular message and either intentionally
or unintentionally skew the data to favour their perspective;
• primary data may reflect the ideology or sociological perspective of the
group/researchers producing the data e.g. Marxist research on social
class issues and inequalities;
• a rogue researcher may allow bias in research in order to promote self-
interest e.g. exaggerating details in a covert participant observation with
the hope of publishing and profiting from it in a book or possibly gaining
academic promotion;
• primary data may contain lies or exaggeration on the part of
respondents if sufficient care is not taken to ensure maximal validity,
confidentiality, etc.;
• primary data may be written with the intention of publication e.g. diaries
of politicians and statesmen who hope to make money and cement their
reputations;
• Primary data may be affected by interviewer bias, etc.
• Any other reasonable response.
Two marks for any two ways identified. (Up to a maximum of two).
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1(c) Using information from Source A, suggest two possible reasons why 4
the results of the interviews were different to those of the national
survey.
Possible answers include:
• there are differences in scale e.g. Cantril only used 135 people which
would make it unrepresentative and difficult to generalise from
compared to a national survey;
• the interviewer effect may have taken place, e.g. Cantril may have
inadvertently ‘led’ the respondents into giving the answers they thought
he wanted thus allowing social desirability to take place which is less
likely in a survey which is often self-completion;
• the face to face format of the interview and probing means that validity
is enhanced e.g. it is easier to ascertain if the effect was ‘real’ in an
interview but in the survey people could just lie;
• the survey may have offered anonymity therefore it could be more valid
than the interview because people are more likely to tell truth if they
think they cannot be identified;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 2 [3–4 marks]
To reach this band candidates must make reference to Source A. They will
begin to show the ability to interpret the source and use it to support their
answer. To reach the top of the band candidates will give two reasons with
development and reference to Source A.
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Possible answers:
Strengths:
• non-official statistics are cheap compared to doing your own large scale
primary research in order to generate the same statistics;
• they are readily available and therefore are convenient for the
researcher e.g. can be found online, in libraries;
• it could be argued that certain non-governmental organisations may be
more likely to be free from political bias and therefore that the resulting
statistics offer more valid data;
• it is easy to identify patterns/trends over time or between different social
groups, as with any statistics and this may be particularly useful to
positivist researchers;
• statistics tend to be large scale and representative so offer findings
which can be generalised to the whole research population;
• non-official statistics from charitable organisations like the Joseph
Rowntree Foundation or the Wellcome Trust use professional
researchers so standards and ethics are high and researchers can
therefore trust them;
• non-official statistics are usually high in reliability because of the
standardised measuring tools used and positivist sociologists put this
as a top priority in their research;
• any other reasonable response.
Limitations:
• non-official statistics may lack validity because they are quantitative
data derived from largely closed or pre-coded questions and therefore
cannot give depth and detail;
• they may still contain researcher bias even though they are not
government generated e.g. the statistics may be promoting the agenda
of the charity concerned;
• all statistics are a social construct, i.e. they are a product of the
definitions and measurements set by the researchers rather than
‘objective facts’ so caution needs to be exercised when using them;
• non-official statistics may be incomplete or inaccurate e.g. people may
lie as it is not official but done by market researchers in the street;
• comparisons over time can only be made if the phenomenon has been
measured in the same way over time and this cannot be guaranteed;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each strength correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each strength that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each limitation correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each limitation that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
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1(f) Explain why research based on media content may not be valid. 10
Possible answers:
• the media may be biased and selective in its content and thus research
using media sources as secondary evidence is liable to the same flaws;
• research conducted by for example documentary teams may be limited
in scope and thus ultimately it cannot pretend to paint an accurate
picture of the whole population being studied;
• media sources need to be checked against other sources as some
newspapers and many TV programmes are made, at least partially, for
entertainment purposes so are likely to sensationalise and exaggerate;
• the recent proliferation of ‘fake news’ across media such as the press,
television and the internet illustrates how careful researchers have to be
when taking material from media sources;
• data in media products reflect the views only of the individuals or
organisations producing them e.g. the recent concerns over the
journalistic objectivity at ‘Russia Today’;
• some media products such as newspapers may exclude the
marginalised in society;
• the journalists or media pundits producing the data may not be an
expert on what they are commenting on or researching, therefore
mistakes can be made which compromise the validity of the data
gathered;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 3 [8–10 marks]
The candidates’ answer is fully focused on the question e.g. the problem
with secondary data from electronic media is that it may be biased because
the individuals producing it want to show themselves in a positive light so
they may not tell the truth about themselves, equally they may not have a
valid perspective on events because they are commenting on things which
are outside their expertise. There is evidence of good use of sociological
terms. At the bottom of the band the range of reasons may be narrow. At
the top of the band, candidates should offer a range of reasons as well as
demonstrate accurate use of sociological concepts.
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1(g) To what extent is the positivist approach the best way of conducting 15
sociological research?
Positivism = an approach based on the study of society in the manner of the
natural sciences, producing quantitative data.
Arguments for:
• the macro approach associated with positivism allows for large scale
research on whole societies which the micro approach cannot achieve;
• positivism offers a scientific approach to the study of social behaviour
and allows for causality and correlation between different social
variables to be explored;
• positivist methods are quantitative and allow for the identification of
patterns and trends in the data which are useful in comparative studies
over time and between different social groups;
• data produced is usually high in reliability due to the standardised
measuring tools used e.g. closed questions in surveys;
• positivist methods are seen as being more objective and aiming at
value freedom which should minimise the amount of bias and enhance
accuracy;
• positivist approach has some practical advantages e.g. positivists
favour social surveys or questionnaires which are relatively cheap and
easy compared to interpretivist methods e.g. it is cheaper to send out a
questionnaire than pay for an experienced interviewer;
• a positivist approach could be better than an interpretivist one
depending on the topic e.g. if researchers are investigating the extent to
which the British people are still in favour of Brexit then a nationwide
survey would be the most appropriate;
• Any other reasonable response.
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In modern industrial societies some sociologists believe most people share a common culture.
They live in families, see education as a good thing, vote and respect the law. However others
believe people do not share a common culture but are divided into many sub-cultures. These can
be based around social class, age, religion and ethnicity.
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Possible answers:
• sub-cultures can be formed as a means of rebellion against society and
its norms and values e.g. hippies’ rejection of contemporary sexual
morality;
• those who lack power and status set up sub-cultures as a way to
achieve power and status e.g. Cohen’s anti-school sub-culture as a
reaction to the experience of status frustration;
• Marxists would argue that some sub-cultures form against capitalist
values because the system offers them nothing, hence they may turn to
anti-social and/or criminal behaviour to get what they lack;
• functionalists may argue that sub-cultures may be formed as a safety
valve and means for adolescences to manage the transition to
adulthood and assert their independence, allowing for peer support in a
turbulent time;
• sub-cultural theorists would argue that sub-cultures form when the
socially approved goals can’t be achieved by socially acceptable means
and hence deviation occurs;
• minority ethnic groups or disadvantaged social classes are more likely
to gravitate towards a sub-culture as a means of showing solidary with
those in similar social situations e.g. some young Muslims being
attracted to extremist groups;
• feminists like McRobbie argue that girls may join a ‘bedroom sub-
culture’ as a respite and quasi-rebellion against sexual subordination;
• some argue that certain sub-cultures are effectively created by media
as fashions and trends that subsequently disappear when the media
interest wanes e.g. ravers;
• members of religious sects reject mainstream values and set up their
own communities which are often isolated from the mainstream e.g.
sects;
• any other reasonable answer.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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Possible answers:
• the age of majority is not consistent across different societies e.g. when
you become an adult may be 18 in the UK but 20 in Japan;
• rites of passage differ in different societies/cultures – the meanings,
rights and responsibilities initiated by such ceremonies vary widely e.g.
the responsibilities into which a Jewish male is inducted in the Bar
Mitzvah and very different to the initiation rites in other communities
such as secular British culture in which adulthood is signalled by
various rights such as voting, marriage without parental consent,
drinking alcohol, etc.;
• retirement did not exist as such in the past and retirement ages differ
across societies and are therefore relative, even within Britain there has
been recent change such that there is now no compulsory retirement
age suggesting a changing view of ageing;
• MIS are more child-centred so childhood lasts longer and is a more
defined phase with generally clear norms and values but this represents
a change and some even argue that ‘childhood is disappearing’
(Postman);
• postmodernists argue that the boundaries between the ages are
blurring especially in MIS where people live longer e.g. some now see
60 as the new 40, etc. and this is catered for in consumer culture via
cosmetisation;
• any other reasonable response.
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Question Answer Marks
Nineteenth-century Britain was a very patriarchal society. Since then governments have introduced
legislation that has improved the rights of women and reduced discrimination. Despite this,
feminists would still suggest that patriarchy is an important feature of modern industrial societies.
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3(c) Explain how governments have used legislation to improve the rights 6
of women.
NOTE: Legislation can vary considerably and there is much scope for local
examples to be used in this answer.
Possible answers:
• the Equal Pay Act (1970) laid down the principle of equal pay for equal
work between the sexes in the UK and prohibits gender discrimination
in terms and conditions of employment;
• the legal right to statutory maternity leave means that women in careers
are entitled to an amount of paid leave before and after the birth of their
baby;
• the right to vote for women is now commonly accepted across most
modern industrial societies and this gives women the recognition of full
citizenship and political participation;
• the legal right to hold political office allows women to run for election in
local or national assembles with the corresponding power to effect
social change;
• the legal right to compulsory state education has transformed women’s
lives across the world – as women in developing countries achieve
better literacy now;
• females are outstripping males in certain educational areas e.g. girls do
better than boys at GCSE level in the UK and this inevitably has a
knock-on effect in terms of life chances;
• laws regulating advertising standards can prevent the mis-
representation of women e.g. pornographic stereotypes;
• the legal right to own property contributes to greater female power,
status and independence;
• the legal right to divorce frees women who are trapped in abusive and
loveless marriages so they can reassert their independence and/or look
for another life-partner;
• laws preventing forced marriage mean that the view of the women must
be taken into account and her consent obtained as she is more than the
property of her father;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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3(d) Explain why females may have lower status than males in modern 8
industrial societies.
Possible responses:
• feminists argue that patriarchy still exists across cultures and this
explains why females have lower status at every level of society,
including MIS’s;
• the gender pay gap affects status – women tend to be less well paid
than men as they have jobs linked to traditional female roles e.g.
nursery nurse or cleaner which tend to be low paid;
• women are disproportionately concentrated in part time jobs, including
on zero-hours contracts, which bring in less income and with it less
status compared to full-time employment;
• the domestic work that women do unpaid is low status in MIS’s e.g.
women who are ‘only a housewife’ and it is still unusual for males to
take on the role of ‘househusband’;
• the expectation that women carry out childcare responsibility puts
women at a disadvantage in terms of the workplace as they often fall
behind in their career meaning that they lose status, or have less
opportunity to achieve higher status, compared to male colleagues in
the workplace;
• there are relatively few female role models in high status roles, for
example in business, engineering, computing, etc. and therefore
women are not breaking through to achieve the status rewards that
males achieve in these areas;
• political and legal institutions are still male dominated and so women
still lag behind in terms of representation in these fields which affects
their status in terms of how they are seen and how they see
themselves;
• the theory of the male gaze (Mulvey) argues women are portrayed in
media and the arts from a male perspective which tends to show them
in ‘passive, weak or subordinate’ roles and this brings with it a lower
social status than men who are depicted as active, string and dominant;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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SOCIOLOGY 2251/12
Paper 1 October/November 2018
Additional Materials: Answer Booklet 2 hours (including 15 minutes’ reading time)
A famous study by Elton Mayo was conducted in the USA in the 1920’s. The study was done in
the Hawthorne factory. Mayo was asked to observe a group of workers and conduct a series of
experiments. This was to allow the owners of the factory to create the best possible working
conditions for them to get the most amount of work completed by their employees. To do this Mayo
experimented with:
Mayo discovered that, no matter how the working conditions changed, the amount of work completed
always increased. The possible explanations for this were:
1. The working conditions make little difference to the way people work.
2. Mayo’s presence changed the behaviour of the workers.
(a) From the evidence in Source A, identify the two research methods being used. [2]
(b) Identify two problems researchers might have when interviewing people about their job. [2]
(c) Using information from Source A, describe two factors affecting the validity of the research.
[4]
(d) Describe two strengths of using telephone questionnaires in sociological research. [4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of structured interviews. [8]
(f) Explain why findings from participant observation may be valid. [10]
(g) To what extent is the functionalist view of society correct? [15]
11_2251_12_2018_1.1
© UCLES 2018 [Turn over
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3
2 Some researchers have claimed that traditional working class identity has declined because of the
decrease in manual work. Other researchers have claimed there is now a new working class who
have a clear social identity.
(b) Describe two processes through which children learn social expectations. [4]
(d) Explain why individuals from different social classes may not experience the same socialisation
as each other. [8]
(e) To what extent is social class the most important factor in creating social identity? [15]
3 The welfare state is viewed by some sociologists as a cause of poverty. This is because they believe
it makes people unwilling to work. Critics of this view say there are a large number of people who
are willing to work but find themselves in a poverty trap.
(d) Explain why the children of professional workers have better life chances than the children of
the working class. [8]
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2251/12 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme October/November
2018
Question Answer Marks
1(a) From the evidence in Source A, identify the two research methods 2
being used.
Acceptable responses:
• observation/participant observation/overt participant observation;
• experiment/field experiments.
One mark for each method correctly identified from Source A (up to a
maximum of two).
1(c) Using information from Source A, describe two factors affecting the 4
validity of the research.
Possible answers:
• the Hawthorne Effect – Mayo’s presence changed the behaviour of the
workers and thus a true picture may not have emerged;
• the study took place in a naturalistic environment – the factory – and
this is likely to lead to more natural behaviour on the part of the
workers;
• Mayo couldn’t control all the variables even when he thought he could
e.g. he changed the lighting and length of breaks but he wouldn’t be
able to change factors like how much sleep the workers had or illness
levels, etc.;
• worker’s perception of why Mayo was there made them suspicious (the
owner’s requested the experiments) and made them more productive
which may have given a false picture;
• the research took place in the 1920s – it is therefore outdated and may
not present an accurate picture of how working conditions affect
productivity today;
• as Mayo did not participate as a worker he may not be able to fully
understand their actions and therefore results may not be fully valid;
• the working conditions made little difference to the way people worked –
suggesting that Mayo’s presence affected the workers’ behaviour;
• the findings of observation may be subjective as the researcher selects
and interprets what they see which may then be biased;
• any other reasonable answer.
One mark for each point correctly identified from the source (up to a
maximum of two).
One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). Page 3 of 23
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PUBLISHED 2018
Question Answer Marks
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PUBLISHED 2018
Question Answer Marks
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2(d) Explain why individuals from different social classes may not 8
experience the same socialisation as each other.
Possible answers:
• education may socialise the classes differently e.g. the hidden
curriculum of private schools versus state schools;
• language may differ – middle and upper class students may learn
elaborate code whilst the working class learn restricted code
(Bernstein);
• some middle class parents place a higher value on education and this
transmits to their children, whilst the parents of working class children
may not see it as vital to life chances;
• individuals in different social classes may have been socialised into
different values within the family and primary socialisation e.g.
immediate vs deferred gratification or different views, manners, etc.;
• socialisation into gender roles may be affected by social class e.g.
socialisation into hegemonic masculinity in the old working class versus
the middle class ‘new man’;
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• the New Right theorists like Charles Murray argue that the underclass
have inadequate socialisation due to lack of relevant role models e.g.
lack of male role models in female headed or one parent families;
• some individuals in the underclass may have been socialised into anti-
social values e.g. if they grow up as part of a criminal sub-culture they
may not feel guilt and remorse for what others may see as wrong doing;
• the values and norms of work may vary in terms of social class e.g.
members of underclass may have poor socialisation in terms of the
value of work because generations have been unemployed and have
transmitted negative values;
• any other reasonable response.
2(d) Band 3 [7–8 marks]
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and
understanding of why patterns of socialisation may differ. This will be well
developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used
accurately. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a
range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear
throughout.
2(e) To what extent is class the most important factor in creating social 15
identity?
Arguments for:
• the different social classes have distinct values e.g. members of the
upper class are likely to see themselves as belonging to a sort of
exclusive club, based on their ability to spend a lot of money
(conspicuous consumption), which signals their wealth and difference to
others whereas the underclass may enshrine fatalism, immediate
gratification etc.;
• there is a strong sense of working class community in areas with an
industrial past linked to manual work e.g. in the UK coal, steel and
shipbuilding industries boys would often follow their fathers to work and
marriages often were made in the community;
• membership of trade unions, voting patterns and shared working and
living conditions created a strong sense of collective identity that was
stronger in the working class than in some other classes;
• social class may still affect language e.g. restricted and elaborate code,
accent, etc. Which can all create a sense of identity and belonging;
• different classes may participate in different cultural activities and this
can affect identity e.g. members of the working class may associate
themselves more with the products of popular rather than high culture;
• social class can also affect aspects of identity such as gender e.g. the
distinct norms of behaviour linked with the working class culture of
hegemonic masculinity;
• although working class incomes have changed there is still a gap
between the working class and middle and upper classes especially in
terms of consumption and lifestyle and this affects social identity, e.g.
the working class could be distinguished by the styles of clothing they
choose to wear or their ‘fake’ couture;
• working class youth sub-cultures are an exaggeration of the working
class identity e.g. skinheads (Cohen);
• media reporting of the working-class has become very negative,
representing them stereotypically as lazy and scrounging off welfare
e.g. the demonisation of the word ‘chav’ in the UK and this impacts on
identity;
• any other reasonable response.
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3(d) Explain why the children of professional workers have better life 8
chances than the children of the working class.
Possible answers:
• the higher income of professional workers will mean access to better
schools e.g. professional workers can move to catchment area of better
performing schools, arrange for private tuition or even pay for private
education, all of which are likely to improve educational achievement
and thus opportunities in the workplace;
• some argue that the cultural capital passed on via primary socialisation
may effect life chances between different groups e.g. professional
workers will instil values such as deferred gratification, use elaborate
code and lay a strong emphasis on a good education whereas the
working class may be more fatalistic, stress immediate gratification and
the importance of working at an early age;
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SOCIOLOGY 2251/13
Paper 1 October/November 2018
Additional Materials: Answer Booklet 2 hours (including 15 minutes’ reading time)
READ THESE INSTRUCTIONS FIRST
An answer booklet is provided inside this question paper. You should follow the instructions on the front cover
of the answer booklet. If you need additional answer paper ask the invigilator for a continuation booklet.
Answer Question 1 and either Question 2 or Question 3.
The number of marks is given in brackets [ ] at the end of each question or part question.
1 Source A
Answer Question 1 key
male
Life expectancy for selected countries (2010)
female
*6412954366*
88
86
86.0
84
84.4
84.4
84.3
84.2
83.7
83.0
83.0
82.9
82
82.4
age
(years) 80
79.5
79.4
79.2
79.0
78.9
78.7
78.7
78
78.3
77.8
77.4
76
74
72
Japan Switzerland Italy Australia Iceland Spain Sweden France Canada Israel
country
Source: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Health Data 2010.
(a) From the evidence in Source A, identify the two countries with the lowest male life
expectancy. [2]
(b) Identify two reasons for conducting a pilot study. [2]
(c) Using information from Source A describe two problems sociologists might have conducting
research on a global scale. [4]
(d) Describe two limitations of using open questions in sociological research. [4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of feminist views about society. [8]
(f) Explain why ethical issues may be a problem when conducting sociological research. [10]
(g) To what extent is sampling representative? [15]
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2 In England there is a custom to eat using a knife and fork. Should people not conform to this custom
they often suffer negative informal sanctions from others, which may include receiving angry looks
or even negative comments. Customs such as this are culturally relative.
(b) Describe two ways rewards can be used to make people conform. [4]
(d) Explain why minority ethnic groups may not share the norms and values of the country they
live in. [8]
(e) To what extent do the working class still have a distinct social identity? [15]
3 Sociologists disagree about the causes of poverty. Some blame society, others blame the individual.
Oscar Lewis argued that poverty was caused by a ‘culture of poverty’. However, Charles Murray
blamed the underclass, who he claimed were lazy and did not wish to work.
(d) Explain why the welfare state has failed to reduce social inequality. [8]
(e) To what extent has racial discrimination been eliminated in modern industrial societies? [15]
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2251/13 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme October/November
PUBLISHED 2018
Source A
Answer Question 1
88
86 key
86.0
male
84
84.4
84.3
84.4
84.2
83.7
female
83.0
83.0
82.9
82
82.4
age
(years) 80
79.5
79.4
79.2
79.0
78.9
78.7
78.7
78
78.3
77.8
77.4
76
74
72
Japan Switzerland Italy Australia Iceland Spain Sweden France Canada Israel
country
Source: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Health Data 2010.
1(a) From the evidence in Source A, identify the two countries with the lowest male 2
life expectancy.
Acceptable responses:
• Spain;
• France
One mark for each country correctly identified from Source A (up to a maximum of
two).
Possible answers:
• to save money;
• to test methodology so that a researcher is confident that good quality data will
be gained;
• to check questions are understandable;
• to save time and effort later, e.g. don’t have to repeat work because there was
an error in the initial methodology;
• to test feasibility, e.g. can you reach the groups needed/do you get the type of
data you want?;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each reason correctly identified (up to maximum of two).
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1(c) Using information from Source A describe two problems sociologists might 4
have conducting research on a global scale.
Possible answers:
• data may not be available from some countries so a completely accurate picture
is not possible;
• data may originate from different sources which many have used different
methodologies, e.g. world bank, UN, UNICEF;
• it is expensive because it means co-ordinating statistics from multiple countries;
• accessing a large enough sample may be problematic if primary data is
collected – may pose problems for representativeness and generalisability;
• we don't know how the OECD collect their data – is it reliable or valid?;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each point correctly identified from the source (up to a maximum of
two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
1(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of feminist views about society. 8
Possible answers:
Strengths:
• usually focuses on the macro scale so identifies trends which affect the female
half of the population;
• it gives a perspective on areas of social life that for many years mainstream
‘male’ stream sociology ignored;
• it helps to explain specific social phenomena, e.g. gender role socialisation,
female under representation in certain areas of the economy;
• Marxist feminists are able to explain how both gender and class intersect in
women’s experiences of oppression and inequality;
• black feminists have exposed that mainstream sociology is colour blind;
• any other reasonable response.
Limitations:
• critics argue that feminism is too narrow in focus, e.g. the concept of patriarchy
ignores or underestimates other forms of inequality;
• it fails to recognise other causes of inequality, e.g. ethnicity, social class, age;
• some argue that as a structuralist approach it is over focused on structures
rather than individual interactions;
• feminism is sometimes alleged to be anti-men and hence biased;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each strength correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each strength that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each limitation correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each limitation that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
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1(f) Explain why ethical issues may be a problem when conducting sociological 10
research.
Possible responses:
• there is a requirement to do no harm and this may restrict the types of research
that can be carried out, e.g. experiments like Milgram’s electric shock
experiment would be unethical;
• the requirement to get informed consent may be difficult to achieve especially
where the researcher wants to do the research covertly to avoid researcher
effect or wants to research a group who can’t give consent, e.g. children,
persons in institutions viewed as not of sound mind;
• the requirement to not invade the participant’s privacy can limit any type of
observation or limit the use of personal documents;
• the requirement to not deceive participants can make it difficult to achieve
validity, e.g. if participants are aware of why they are being researched they may
change their behaviour to please the researcher;
• researchers should try to ensure anonymity but this can make follow up research
difficult, e.g. an anonymous survey where people don’t give personal details
cannot be followed up;
• it can be difficult to achieve confidentiality if the researcher is researching a very
small social group they may be too readily identifiable;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 3 [8–10 marks]
At this level the candidates’ answer is fully focused on the question and
demonstrates good sociological understanding, e.g. ‘in covert observation the
researcher is deceiving the participants because if he/she doesn’t the Hawthorne
Effect will occur and data will not be accurate or valid’. There is evidence of good
use of sociological terms At the bottom of the band the range of reasons may be
narrow. At the top of the band, candidates should offer a range of reasons as well as
demonstrate accurate use of sociological concepts.
Arguments against:
• it can’t ever be fully representative as it is impossible to research the entire
population;
• there will always be sampling errors so one can never be wholly sure that
conclusions drawn from a sample are true of the target population;
• no researcher could afford to carry out the research on the scale required to be
fully representative;
• opportunity samples simply choose from who is available at the time, hence are
often unrepresentative;
• a truly representative sample of a large target population would take too long to
compile so it isn’t a realistic goal;
• sometimes it is impossible to achieve a representative sample, e.g. in snowball
sampling because there is no sample frame available, e.g. heroin users;
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2(b) Describe two ways rewards can be used to make people conform. 4
Possible responses:
• praise, e.g. pat on the back, verbal ‘well done’ brings a feel-good factor
encouraging repetition;
• promotion, e.g. working hard and being punctual makes you a good employee
so you get promoted to a higher post and this incentivises workers;
• additional benefits or remuneration, e.g. pay rises and bonuses encourage a
sense of loyalty and conformity;
• inclusion/acceptance, e.g. accepted into an elite group or gang is a positive
sanction which has the effect of encouraging social solidarity and conformity;
• merits, e.g. in school encourage children to stick to the rules;
• in family rewards, e.g. extra pocket money, sweets encourage repetition of the
norm or behaviour;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each way identified (up to maximum of two).
One mark for each way developed (up to a maximum of two).
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Question Answer Marks
2(d) Explain why minority ethnic groups may not share the norms and values of the 8
country they live in.
Possible responses:
• there may be different patterns of socialisation in terms of the host country and
the ethnic minority culture and this can lead to a culture clash;
• some youth may become alienated as they struggle to be accepted and hence
they may developed a sub-culture which is resistant to the dominant culture;
• in some cultures ethnic minorities may form an underclass who are socially
isolated and excluded from the mainstream cultural values of the dominant
ethnic group;
• some minority ethnic groups may be subject to prejudice and discrimination and
hence rebel against oppression, retreating into their traditional norms and
values;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 3 [7–8 marks]
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of
why norms and values of ethnic minority groups are different. This will be well
developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately.
Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons
presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout.
2(e) To what extent do the working class still have a distinct social identity? 15
Possible answers:
Arguments for:
• there is still a strong sense of community in areas with an industrial past, e.g.
areas associated with coal mining, shipbuilding and steel-making;
• some working class areas still have their own language or idioms, e.g. Cockney
and this gives them a distinct identity;
• some would argue that the working class still have their own culture, e.g. popular
culture rather than high culture and this unites them;
• some parts of the working class may have their own set of values, e.g.
immediate gratification, anti-school, fatalism, etc. which mark them out as a
distinctive group in society;
• the working class may have distinct norms of behaviour e.g. the culture of
traditional or hegemonic masculinity is still very much the norm for working class
males;
• incomes have changed but there is still a gap between the working class and
middle and upper classes especially in terms of lifestyle and so there are clear
similarities among working class people in terms of the goods and services they
consume, e.g. working class could be distinguished by the styles of clothing they
chose to wear or their ‘fake’ couture
• working class youth sub-cultures are an exaggeration of the working class
identity, e.g. skinheads (Cohen) and display a clear and distinct social identity;
• any other reasonable response.
Arguments against:
• traditional working class communities have disappeared, e.g. the old industries
have gone and communities have dispersed and fragmented resulting also in a
fragmentation in identity;
• political de-alignment has occurred, e.g. the working class no longer vote just for
socialist parties like Labour in UK or join trade unions;
• postmodernists argue that class culture has been replaced by consumer culture,
e.g. in MIS the working class now have the wealth to aspire to consumer goods
and activities they could not afford in the past;
• embourgeoisement has taken place and some members of the old working class
are now part of the lower middle class so the boundaries are being blurred;
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Question Answer Marks
3(d) Explain why the welfare state has failed to reduce social inequality. 8
Possible answers:
• there is a dependency culture, i.e. welfare state is too generous there is no
incentive to get off benefits;
• the inadequacy of the welfare state, i.e. welfare benefits are not generous
enough people end up in a poverty trap;
• the culture of poverty, i.e. the way the poor are socialised prevents them from
escaping poverty;
• the unequal power of disadvantaged groups, e.g. the poor don’t have the money
to lobby policy makers to improve the welfare provision;
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Question Answer Marks
• a lack of political will by policy makers, e.g. improved welfare would require
higher taxation which would be a vote loser;
• the inverse care laws – research shows that benefits sometimes do not reach
those they are intended for and instead the more prosperous middle classes are
able to take advantage and ‘milk’ the system;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 3 [7–8 marks]
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of
why social inequality occurs and this will be well developed and explained.
Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately. Answers will be well
focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of
the band explanations will be clear throughout.
3(e) To what extent has racial discrimination been eliminated in modern industrial 15
societies?
Possible answers:
Arguments for:
• there is a host of legislation to prevent discrimination, e.g. race discrimination
acts, ending of apartheid;
• evidence of differential achievement, e.g. some minority groups have more
success in education than the racial majority;
• there are many examples of success by individuals from ethnic minorities, e.g.
the wealth and success of sportsmen and businessmen from certain ethnic
groups;
• racial barriers being broken down in politics, e.g. African American succeeding in
becoming president of USA;
• any other reasonable response
Arguments against:
• there remains significant evidence of underachievement by certain ethnic groups
in society, e.g. black children in British education due to labelling, the
ethnocentric curriculum, etc.;
• there is evidence of a lack of opportunity in employment due to prejudice and
discrimination, e.g. institutional racism in recruitment practices;
• some ethnic groups have poorer life chances due to discrimination in housing
and health;
• there is evidence of institutional racism in the criminal justice system, e.g. police
arrest rates and prison populations;
• there is an over concentration of ethnic minorities in certain fields and
occupations which suggests that other avenues to success are closed;
• there is legislation but it is difficult to enforce, e.g. employers get round the
legislation through their recruitment processes;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 1 [1–4 marks]
Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing
limited knowledge of the debate. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-
sided, e.g. ‘ethnic minorities can now get top jobs’. At the bottom of the band, use of
sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. At the top of the band, candidates
may understand the meaning of racial discrimination or be able to list examples of
racial discrimination but have no understanding of why it might be eliminated.
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SOCIOLOGY 2251/12
Paper 1 May/June 2019
Additional Materials: Answer Booklet/Paper 2 hours (including 15 minutes’ reading time)
Feminist researchers are often concerned that the balance of power between the researcher and
respondent is likely to affect any data gathered. They argue that the interviewer and the interviewee
should be seen as equals in the research process. Feminists prefer unstructured interviews which
give time and space for the interviewee to offer their views.
In structured interviews the interviewer is the one in control, they direct the questioning and record
the data. In unstructured interviews the interviewees describe their experiences in their own words
with the interviewer acting only as a guide. This is why feminists prefer to use unstructured interviews.
Feminists also like to use focus groups in their research.
Positivists select objective methods that avoid interviewer bias but feminists reject this approach.
Instead feminists claim that developing a relationship with respondents is an essential part of
establishing trust and respect. Positivists also argue that unstructured interviews are very difficult
to repeat.
(a) From Source A, identify two research methods used by feminists. [2]
(b) Identify two types of observation used by sociologists. [2]
(c) Using information from Source A, describe two reasons why some sociologists like to use
unstructured interviews. [4]
(d) Describe two strengths of using a social survey in sociological research. [4]
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(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using focus groups in sociological research.
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(g) To what extent is validity the most important aspect of sociological research? [15]
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Answer either Question 2 or Question 3
Section B: Culture, identity and socialisation
2 Peer groups are an important part of growing up and are an agency of informal social control,
particularly for gender identity. Peer pressure can make individuals conform to the norms of the
peer group and may cause role conflict for young people.
One mark for each type of observation correctly identified (up to maximum
03
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of two).
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PUBLISHED
Question Answer Marks
1(c) Using information from Source A, describe two reasons why some 4
sociologists like to use unstructured interviews.
Possible answers:
• feminists argue that the interviewer and the interviewee should be
seen as equals in the research process – this gives the interviewee
confidence to open up;
• unstructured interviews give time and space for the respondent to
offer their views – thus enhancing the level of detail achieved;
• in an unstructured interview the respondent describes their experiences
in their own words with the interviewer acting only as a guide –
thus allowing rich qualitative data to be gained;
• developing a relationship with interviewees is important – it is an
essential part of establishing trust, respect and maintaining a
compassionate position;
• it allows the researcher to probe for more detailed answers;
• it allows the researcher to gain empathy and this may raise the
possibility of achieving verstehen;
• researchers can develop rapport leading to the respondent feeling more
comfortable in giving honest answers, enhancing validity;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each point correctly identified from the source (up to a
maximum of two).
One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
• surveys offer a good way of gathering large amounts of data from large
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1(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using focus groups in 8
sociological research.
Possible answers:
Strengths:
• they give detailed qualitative data – this gives greater validity;
• it saves time – a focus group is a group interview and is less time-
consuming than one-on-one interviews;
• focus groups are a relatively cheap way to collect data – it doesn’t
require multiple researchers and can interview a group for the same
cost as one;
• focus groups allow researchers to observe body language – this can tell
us something about their feelings about the conversation and also may
reveal whether they are telling the truth or not;
• focus groups allow researchers to observe the interaction between
multiple participants and this may yield interesting data which may not
have arisen in a one-to-one situation;
• focus groups are flexible – participants may ask each other follow-up
questions, agree or disagree with one another and the interviewer can
prompt and ask further questions as appropriate;
• focus groups may be particularly useful for gaining information from
children as they may feel reassured in the company of their peers and
hence be more open and honest;
• any other reasonable response.
Limitations:
• some participants may be less comfortable talking about sensitive
issues in a group and hence hold back, negatively affecting the validity
of the data;
• the group may be affected by interviewer bias – the intentional or
unintentional effects of the way the interviewer asks questions or
interprets answers and hence validity is compromised;
• social desirability – respondents may feel uncomfortable disagreeing
with other respondents and so change their answers to conform with
the group;
• they can be expensive – if a room needs to be hired, equipment such
as projectors etc need to be present plus the interviewer needs to be
well trained for the group to be successful in achieving its outcomes;
• as a qualitative method focus groups tend to have smaller samples and
thus can never be fully representative or generalisable;
/8
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• there is always the danger that some participants may dominate the
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group and this can mean that some points of view are missed;
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• focus groups lack reliability – the dynamic of the group would make it
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of research if the researcher isn’t skilled enough and this can waste
s.
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Question Answer Marks
1(g) To what extent is validity the most important aspect of social research? 15
Arguments for;
• interpretivist approaches prioritise micro or small-scale phenomena
favouring qualitative methods that are high in validity;
• in sociological research it is vital we are measuring what it is we want to
/8
findings accurately reflect reality – without this the value of the research
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is compromised;
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sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response
6
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may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some
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development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with
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range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band,
6
3-
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8 4-
answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover
-4
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03
Possible answers:
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• young people are influenced by the culture of society but form sub-
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•
03
peer groups are often formed along gender lines and subsequently
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shape the way we see ourselves in relation to the group e.g. single-sex
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• Norms;
• hegemonic notions of masculinity e.g. the male as breadwinner and
protector still shape how many men see themselves and their social
role;
• many religions have different expectations for different genders and
within the leadership roles are segregated along gender lines e.g. in
Catholicism women can still not become priests or the wearing of hijab or
burka in order to preserve female modesty;
• any other reasonable response.
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Question Answer Marks
2(e) Against:
• according to postmodernists gender is far more fluid these days as
alternative and non-traditional role models are emerging and this
ultimately minimises the effects of traditional gender stereotypes;
• traditional notions of gender are breaking down, we now have multiple
acceptable masculinities and femininities, gender convergence etc, and
so traditional ideas of gender are a far less important factor in shaping
our sense of self;
• Marxists would argue that social class and access to cultural capital is
more important in shaping our social identity as it determines who we
interact with, our aspirations and our life chances;
• for some groups race, ethnicity and religious background are more
important influences upon social identity than gender e.g. nationalist
groups or religious cults/sects;
• social identity is not fixed and as we get older our age is important in
shaping our sense of self;
• gender does not work in isolation and it is a combination of factors, such
as age, ethnicity and gender that operate together to influence our
social identity;
• postmodernists would argue that we live in a consumer society and a
media-saturated society and in a such a reality we are free to choose
our identity via our consumption patterns and lifestyle choices –
traditional sources of identity such as gender have dwindled in
importance;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for partial definition e.g. where people in the same society have
21
03
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Two marks for clear definition e.g. the inequality between groups in a
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Possible answers:
• discrimination based on ethnicity/class etc. e.g. the underclass being
treated as outcasts in society;
• examples of exclusion based on closed societies such as norms around
the interaction between Untouchables and other castes in India;
• exclusion from banking and financial services – those who a bad credit
history or who are homeless may be unable to get a bank account or
borrow money;
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3(c) Explain how equal opportunities legislation has improved people’s life 6
chances.
Possible answers:
• now laws have increased opportunities in the work place (gender,
ethnicity, disability, age);
• the Equal Pay Act now means it’s illegal to pay men and women
differently for work of equal value thus enhancing life chances as
women in particular will benefit economically;
• the introduction of the welfare state via legislation creates more equal
opportunities e.g. free education for all improves social mobility;
• civil partnerships and single sex marriage have given parity to all groups
across all forms of sanctioned union and this gives social recognition
and value to such partnerships;
• access to paid maternity/paternity leave has offered protection, support
and flexibility to new parents allowing both parents to take of work
without losing their job and this can only help in terms of childcare and
the socialisation of children and also ensures that loss of income is
minimised;
Band 2 [4–6 marks]
Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing
good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and
/8
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6
concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the
3-
33
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range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band,
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03
answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover
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3(d) Explain why welfare states have been introduced in some societies. 8
A
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3(e) To what extent does gender inequality still exist in the workplace? 15
Possible answers: For:
• there is evidence of continuing vertical segregation – men are still more
likely to hold dominant positions in organisations and businesses;
• there is evidence of continuing horizontal segregation – there are clear
divisions in work sectors for men and women e.g. construction/caring
and these are linked to inequalities in income and status;
• there is often a gendered division of labour in the workplace which arises
from the institutional rules, norms and practices that govern the
allocation of tasks between women and men stemming from childhood
socialisation;
• evidence of the glass ceiling in the work place – women still face
barriers to promotion due to gender stereotypes and prejudices centred
/8
• woman are more likely to be in part time work – this often caused by the
8 4-
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21
social expectation that they will have domestic responsibilities and this
03
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affects their income, status and future possibility for career progression;
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• woman are often paid less for equivalent work despite legislation to secure
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3(e) Against:
• examples of high powered women demonstrate women can achieve
high positions – e.g.
Angela Merkel is a role model for aspiring women
• there are increasing numbers of positive role models for women –
Theresa May is the UK’s second female prime minister – and there are
more women now acting as board members and CEOs of top
businesses
• feminists have and are still successfully campaigning for change –
feminists have brought about not only changes of expectations but also
changes in laws that have empowered women
• changes to equality laws – this now means that overt gender
discrimination is illegal and sets out a framework for what is socially and
legally acceptable
• the changing nature of the economy – there is now less manufacturing
and this has mean the disappearance of traditional ‘masculine’ jobs –
the feminisation of the workplace (e.g. in the service sector) has given
increased opportunities to women
• changes in the socialisation of girls – particularly at school – has seen a
change of aspiration with many girls now thinking about employment as
a priority rather than marriage and children
• changing attitudes to gender in the workplace has seen the
normalisation of non-gender specific employment opportunities and this
has encouraged more women to enter typically ‘male’ careers like
construction, law etc.
• any other reasonable response.
Band 1 [1–4 marks]
Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense
showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or
concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-
sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points.
Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points
and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question.
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SOCIOLOGY 2251/13
Paper 1 May/June 2019
Additional Materials: Answer Booklet 2 hours (including 15 minutes’ reading time)
Answer Question 1
1 Source A
Devising sociological research can be affected by various factors such as: the researcher’s social
identity, their personal experiences and interests as well as their theoretical perspective and
preferences for particular sociological approaches. Other factors affecting research design include:
ethical issues, time constraints, accessing samples and funding. Doing research can be expensive
so getting funding is important. Many sociologists get their funding from governments or charities.
Although all parts of the research process are important pilot studies are considered essential by
many researchers. A pilot study is a preliminary small scale study that is carried out before the
main research. It can help researchers decide how to carry out a large scale study as well as identify
potential problems with the method, sample or research question.
(a) From Source A, identify two ways sociologists get their funding. [2]
(c) Using information from Source A, describe two reasons why researchers like to use pilot
studies. [4]
(d) Describe two strengths of using semi-structured interviews in sociological research. [4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using snowball sampling in sociological research.
[8]
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(f) Explain why sociologists should follow ethical guidelines when carrying out research. [10]
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(g) To what extent are positivist methods the most effective way of carrying out sociological
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research? [15]
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3
2 Norms and values in modern industrial societies are changing rapidly. Migration patterns have led
to multicultural societies. Gender expectations are less fixed and feminine and masculine roles
vary across societies. Also, due to increased life expectancy and different types of family, society
is changing the way it sees the elderly.
(e) To what extent are masculine roles changing in modern industrial societies? [15]
3 Prejudice exists in all societies and can be positive or negative. Negative prejudice can lead to
discrimination against many groups in society. It is argued by some ethnic minority groups that
agencies of social control have become institutionally racist. Discrimination can have a big impact
on people’s life chances.
(c) Explain how gender discrimination can affect women’s income. [6]
(d) Explain why the elderly may lack status in society. [8]
(e) To what extent is social mobility possible in modern industrial societies? [15]
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Question Answer Marks
1(a) From Source A identify two ways sociologists get their funding. 2
Acceptable responses:
• governments
• charities
One mark for each way correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
1(b) Identify two examples of sampling frames used by sociologists. 2
Possible answers:
• electoral roll;
• telephone directory;
• school register;
• followers of a social network group;
• list of members of a club or society;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each example correctly identified (up to maximum of two).
•
3-
a pilot study helps to identify ethical and practical issues which might
33
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occur;
21
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• a pilot study can ensure the research question is appropriate and likely
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s.
One mark for each point correctly identified from the source (up to a
maximum of two).
One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
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Question Answer Marks
One mark for each strength that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
1(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using snowball sampling 8
in sociological research. Possible answers:
Strengths
• the technique may require less planning – the sample gets bigger
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Limitations
• the researcher has little control over the sample and so the sample is
unreliable and/or small;
• the participants that the researcher can obtain rely mainly on the
previous participants that were researched – which may be biased or
they may fail to get a sample;
• lacks the variety required for a representative sample e.g. only
women/young people may be recruited and this may not represent the
group under study;
• it is possible that the sample that the researcher will obtain is only a
small subgroup of the entire population - problems of generalizability
due to the likelihood of a small and/or unrepresentative sample;
• sampling bias is likely when using this sampling technique – the power
and control is with respondents who may only ask their friends etc.
• it can be time-consuming as the researcher has to wait for respondents
to find others to take part;
• any other reasonable response.
Possible responses:
• if researchers want to study minors (under age 18), they must obtain a
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03
consent;
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1(g) To what extent are positivist methods the most effective way of 15
carrying out sociological research?
Arguments for;
• positivist approaches focus on macro issues so often use social surveys
as these will give a bigger picture of big social issues;
• positivists are interested in ‘social facts’ and therefore often use official
statistics which are large scale, cheap and easy to access;
• positivists methods are high in reliability, such as questionnaires, and
therefore they can be repeated to check for consistency of results;
• positivists prefer standardised measurements so that comparisons can
be made and thus they favour methods like surveys or structured
interviews;
• positivists like to identify trends so choose methods that yield
quantitative data that will allow them to analyse the data in order to
identify any patterns;
• positivists like to explain cause and effect relationships so they choose
methods such as experiments where variables may be controlled to
ensure reliability of results;
• positivists model their approach on scientific methodology and so use
methods that are objective and not as open to researcher bias;
• any other reasonable response.
Arguments against:
• some positivist methods may cause ethical issues such as experiments
(e.g. deception in a covert observation) and this will need to be taken
into account in the research design;
• many sociologists will use a triangulation of methods to overcome the
perceived weaknesses of positivist methods thus illustrating that a
solely positivist approach may be inadequate;
• some methods are expensive so are difficult to fund such as
experiments or large scale social surveys and this means that a
positivist approach is not always possible even if desired;
• methods that are high in reliability may lack validity and interpretivists
would argue that it is more important to have an accurate picture of
what is being studied;
• interpretivists argue that qualitative data is more valuable than
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1(g) • interpretivists argue small scale research, that enables verstehen, are
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1(g) • interpretivists argue small scale research, that enables verstehen, are
better than structured questionnaires because they give a holistic
understanding of the research subjects and their lives;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 4 [13–15 marks]
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of
the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as
accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will
be well-developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide
range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on
each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a
specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer
an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’ part of the question through a
focused conclusion.
• the elderly are confused/lack the ability to think clearly e.g. stereotypes
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• the elderly are retired/reclusive e.g. withdrawing from the workplace and
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• the elderly live in the past and are set in their ways e.g. reminiscing
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about times past and being unable to move with the age;
• the elderly are despondent or fatalistic e.g. taking the view that they
have seen it all before;
• the elderly as perfect grandparents e.g. in adverts;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each stereotype identified (up to maximum of two).
One mark for each description (up to a maximum of two).
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Question Answer Marks
communities;
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• in a multicultural society it is hard to find consensus around such things
as attitudes to food, music, dress etc. and this can cause conflict e.g.
the wearing of hijab in France has now been banned;
• different cultures have different attitudes towards gender roles and
gender socialisation and this can cause tensions e.g. Bangladeshi
women in the UK may not work or speak much English and this draws
criticism from other groups;
• members of minority communities may remain separate from the rest of
society and not integrate, leading to a ‘them and us’ mentality;
• institutional racism exists in many societies and this causes conflict
between ethnic groups as it leads to inequalities and social division;
• a shortage of resources, such as housing, or opportunities, such as
employment, may contribute to a culture of blame leading to conflict e.g.
the attack upon immigrants who are blamed for ‘taking jobs’;
any other reasonable response.
•
38
Against:
R
s.
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Question Answer Marks
Two marks for clear definition e.g. a preconceived opinion that a group of
8 4-
-4
21
Possible answers:
.D
-H
38
e,
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which may restrict their ability to get higher paid jobs in the future e.g.
8
-4
21
03
health and social care or child care leading to them going into caring or
&
00
78
nursery nursing;
56
2 34
-3
r.0
domestic activities which may impact their career aspirations in later life
-H
38
e,
e.g. girls as cleaners and cooks which tend to be low paid and low
rS
ou
eC
status;
R
s.
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might start his working life as a clerk but end up as a senior manager or
A
H
.D
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Question Answer Marks
Against:
Arguments against –
• Right wing sociologists argue that middle class occupations will usually
be taken by those with middle class origins as either they are more
talented and/or inherit the talent and ability of their parents;
• some argue that there is a cycle of poverty from which it is difficult to
break out from – for example a child from poverty is unlikely to do well
in school and thus is likely to remain in a similar social position to
parents;
• Goldthorpe’s study of social mobility can be criticized; for example he
fails to acknowledge the existence of the upper class and he assumed
that class can be based on the occupation of the male breadwinner.
Criticisms such as these render his conclusions flawed;
3(e) • it is now harder to enjoy upward mobility after starting work, e.g. in
professions such as nursing a degree is now compulsory in the UK;
• the glass ceiling acts as a bar to the social mobility of women;
• ethnic minorities still suffer prejudice and racism in the workplace and in
wider society and hence their chances for social mobility are
diminished;
• the Marxist proletarianisation thesis whereby part of the middle class
has now effectively part of the working class e.g. office workers and
retail staff;
• major structural inequalities still act as obstacles to social mobility in
various areas of social life such as education, housing, the workplace
etc.
• any other reasonable response.
Band 2 [5–8 marks]
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate.
Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there
will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There
may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may
be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-
sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response
may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some
development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with
some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development
covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks.
/8
/7
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SOCIOLOGY 2251/12
Paper 1 October/November 2019
An answer booklet is provided inside the question paper. You should follow the instructions on the front cover
of the answer booklet. If you need additional answer paper ask the invigilator for a continuation booklet.
11_2251_12_2019_1.2
© UCLES 2019 [Turn over
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2
Answer Question 1
1 Source A
In the study ‘Learning to Labour’ Paul Willis conducted a longitudinal study of twelve male
working-class students to gain in-depth data. He wanted to find out why working-class students
usually work in manual or low-skilled jobs when they leave school. The study used triangulation as
several methods were used including both participant and non-participant observations. It was
important that Willis gained the trust of the male students, so they were more likely to show natural
behaviour and give detailed answers.
Willis studied the students over a period of time as they moved from school into work. At the end
of his research Willis compared the results from each method to produce his final conclusions. He
found that due to factors such as the males creating anti-school sub-cultures they failed to gain
many academic qualifications. He concluded that the students’ social class position never changed
as the only jobs they could get were low-skilled.
(a) From Source A, identify two reasons why the researcher needed to gain the trust of the male
students in the study. [2]
(b) Identify two methods that might be used to research the behaviour and attitudes of students,
apart from observation. [2]
(c) Using information from Source A, describe two reasons for conducting longitudinal
research. [4]
(d) Describe two strengths of using a stratified sample in sociological research. [4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using unstructured interviews in sociological
research. [8]
(f) Explain how participant observation is a useful method of sociological research. [10]
(g) To what extent can the interpretivist approach to sociological research be criticised? [15]
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3
2 Some sociologists argue that gender identities are now beginning to change. However the hidden
curriculum within schools still has a major impact on both male and female gender identity. This
has the potential to impact on their education and later employment opportunities.
(b) Describe two ways the hidden curriculum is taught in schools. [4]
(c) Explain how primary socialisation affects an individual’s gender identity. [6]
(e) To what extent are gender identities changing in modern industrial societies? [15]
3 In many societies legislation exists to end discrimination based on gender. Despite this, statistics
show that the glass ceiling still affects women. Some sociologists also argue that social class and
ethnicity are as important as gender in explaining the inequalities in women’s lives.
(d) Explain why some women find it difficult to achieve high status jobs. [8]
(e) To what extent is ethnicity the most important factor in determining a person’s life chances?
[15]
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Question Answer Marks
1(a) From Source A identify two reasons why the researcher needed to gain the trust of the male students in the 2
study.
Acceptable responses:
One mark for each method correctly identified from Source A (up to a maximum of two).
1(b) Identify two methods that might be used to research the behaviour and attitudes of students, apart from 2
observation.
Possible answers:
• questionnaire
• experiment
• case study
• content analysis
• surveys
• longitudinal study
One mark for each method correctly identified (up to maximum of two).
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Question Answer Marks
1(c) Using information from Source A describe two reasons for conducting longitudinal research. 4
Possible answers:
• it gives an in-depth picture because it yields a lot of data over a period of time
• it is useful when studying transitions/comparing one phase of life and another, e.g. between school and work or from
childhood through adulthood
• it is useful in investigating change – the social class position never changed so it allows the researcher to get a
picture of the different factors that either do or don’t bring about change in people’s lives, e.g. experience at school,
class background
• if trust is established the sample will be more likely to continue to give valid data and both are more likely over a
period of time
• it allows for triangulation – longitudinal research allows for several methods to be used
• other approaches (e.g. a survey) only give a snapshot in time which does not allow for a holistic picture
One mark for each point that appropriately references the source (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that
is correctly developed. (Up to a maximum of two).
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Question Answer Marks
Possible answers:
• it is a better choice than random sampling which may leave out certain groups
• it is more representative of the target population as it allows the sample to be subdivided into the relevant social
characteristics e.g. age and gender
• a stratified sample is more likely to produce data will be generalisible to the wider target population
• positivists want to establish correlations and cause and effect relationships and so stratifying the sample will allow
them to compare results for different groups
One mark for each strength correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each strength that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
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Question Answer Marks
1(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using unstructured interviews in sociological research. 8
Possible answers:
Strengths –
• it is a flexible method so the interviewer can adjust the questions in light of what the respondent is saying, probing to
get valuable qualitative data
• allowing an individual to discuss freely, without pre-set questions, may bring out valuable data not anticipated by the
researcher thus making the research more valid
• the researcher is much more likely to develop a rapport with the respondent, resulting in greater openness which
should lead to depth and detail
• the use of empathy on the part of the interviewer may allow for greater sensitivity, perception and understanding of
the topic from the subject’s point of view
• interpretivists and feminists use this method as it allows the respondents to exert more control over the discussion
because the questions are not standardised but arise naturally out of the conversation
• the interviewer can clarify or re-phrase questions asked to ensure that the respondent understands, thus enhancing
the accuracy of answers
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Question Answer Marks
1(e) Limitations –
• There is a lack of standardised pre-set questions – this will mean that no two interviews are quite the same thus
inhibiting comparability and reliability
• unstructured interviews can be time-consuming – it may take a long time to conduct and transcribe the interviews
• if a team is used this could be costly – researchers will need to be trained if interviews are to be effective
• because of the issues of time and cost – this limits the number that can be carried out so they often have a small
sample size which makes them less representative
• with inexperienced interviewers there is a risk of the discussion going off on a tangent and hence irrelevant data may
be collected
• the researcher needs to be highly skilled, e.g. how to cope with silences and reluctant speakers as well as those who
may have an agenda to promote
• the responses may be affected by the interviewer effect or interviewer bias, thus reducing validity
• if substantial probing takes place there may be ethical issues of sensitivity or harm that arise with controversial or
delicate topics
• the qualitative data cannot be expressed numerically and converted into statistics and charts, etc. for easy analysis
One mark for each strength correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each strength that is correctly developed (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each limitation correctly
identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each limitation correctly developed (up to a maximum of two).
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Question Answer Marks
Possible answers:
• it may provide a real insight into groups that may otherwise never be heard from, e.g. gangs
• it provides an overview of what that group feels about certain issues as well as providing a valuable insight into how
they behave
• research takes place in a naturalistic setting encouraging participants to behave as they normally do, producing good
quality valid data
• the researcher is open to new insights as they are immersed in the action/situation
• it’s a good way to study social interaction between group members and this can add a further dimension to the
research
• it allows the researcher to see things from the viewpoint of the participants, thus making verstehen a possibility
• if it is covert it is likely to give a full picture as it allows access to participant viewpoint and other social actors are not
aware they are being observed, increasing the possibility of verstehen
• if the participant observation is overt it has the advantages of not breaking ethics
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Question Answer Marks
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Question Answer Marks
1(g) To what extent can the interpretivist approach to sociological research be criticised? 15
Arguments for:
• interpretivist methods that involve the deep involvement of the researcher – such as participant observation – are
prone to bias
• structuralists argue that an interpretative micro approach cannot understand the impact of the big social forces such
as class, socialisation, etc.
• interpretivist research tends to be small scale, due to the cost and time-consuming nature of its methods, and this has
the effect of making the data unrepresentative and not generalisible
• the interpretivist view leads them to believe that individuals understand the motivations behind their own actions,
which they may not
• positivists argue that quantitative data is more reliable than qualitative research and is thus is more ‘scientific’ and
trustworthy than qualitative research
• positivists argue that, because of its methodology, interpretivism is unable to uncover the ‘laws’ that govern society in
the same way that scientists can uncover the ‘laws’ that govern the natural world
• qualitative data can often be purely subjective, by contrast quantitative data provides objective information that
researchers can use to make scientific conclusions
• interpretivists may become too involved in their subjects and ‘go native’ thus negatively affecting the validity of their
findings
• an interpretative approach by itself is not enough – a triangulated approach is more effective as it yields both
qualitative and quantitative data
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Question Answer Marks
• they take a micro approach that sees the individual as having agency, not simply a recipient of external social forces –
people are not just puppets of society
• using positivist methods that minimise subjectivity and bias (e.g. experiments) is not always possible or appropriate
• interpretivists argue that in order to understand human action we need to achieve ‘verstehen‘, or empathetic
understanding – we need to see the world through the eyes of the actors doing the acting
• methods linked to an interpretivist approach, such as unstructured interviews and participant interviews, are more
likely to yield valid data and thus gain an accurate picture of social reality
• interpretivists seek to understand different aspects of a social situation to get a holistic view, often using multiple
methods to achieve this qualitative picture
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Question Answer Marks
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Question Answer Marks
One mark for partial definition, e.g. punctuality and obedience to the teacher.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. the unwritten, unofficial and often unintended lessons, norms and values students
learn in school’.
Possible answers:
• teachers transmitting expectations of, for example, traditional gender roles through their interactions with students
• the physical organisation of the classroom with the teacher at the front teaches students about the authority of the
teacher and his/her control
• gender and ethnic stereotypes may occur in textbooks and other resources thus propagating and reinforcing social
prejudices
• the use of competition to convey the message that some are better than others
• the importance given to punctuality (enforced through sanctions) sets this norm up for later in the workplace and also
bolsters the idea that students’ time is not their own
• school rules and expectations regarding hard work and effort reflect a meritocratic view of education and social
success which may not be accurate
• sanctions – both positive and negative encourage students to conform to expected norms and values
• national anthems – these are often used to reinforce patriotic messages and love for country, etc.
One mark for each way correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each way that is developed (up to a
maximum of two).
© UCLES 2019 Page 14 of 30
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Question Answer Marks
Possible responses:
• parents act as role-models to their children, encouraging them to imitate/copy their gendered behaviour and attitudes
so that they become part of their gender identity
• Oakley argued that canalisation or channelling children towards toys and activities that are considered appropriate for
their gender affects gender identity, e.g. footballs/sports equipment for boys to encourage physical toughness and
competition
• manipulation or how parents encourage some behaviours and discourage others based on a child’s gender, e.g. boys
being discouraged from ballet and encouraged to play rugby to conform to traditional masculine stereotypes of
toughness
• the use of verbal appellations, e.g. my little soldier or my beautiful princess to reinforce messages about the relative
importance of courage and appearance to boys and girls
• the use of media products by parents as part of primary socialisation, e.g. Disney films which promote traditional
gender stereotypes of boys as heroes who brave all to save the girl often cast as helpless ‘victim’
• differential social control reinforces gender expectations, e.g. girls are punished more harshly when they stray from
the gender norms
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Question Answer Marks
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Question Answer Marks
Possible answers:
• informal social control in the family is powerful as it is part of primary socialisation, life-long and there is an emotional
attachment to parents/caregivers
• informal social controls in schools such as detentions and positive sanctions are effective in keeping students
behaviour in order and conforming to social norms and values
• we live in a media-saturated society and young people are influenced to conform by the praise and/or censure they
see both in the traditional and new media, e.g. accounts of the punishments offenders receive, Facebook ‘likes’ and
Twitter ‘followers’
• religion can be a powerful force for social conformity via the rewards and punishments it endorses, e.g. inclusion-
exclusion from the community and the belief in heaven and hell as consequences for behaviour
• the workplace teaches social conformity via both formal and informal sanctions such as praise, warnings and
ultimately losing one’s job and all the consequences that follow from that sanction
• peers are influential in making individuals conform via both positive sanctions like acceptance and compliments and
negative sanctions like isolation and bullying as most people have a desire to ‘fit in’
• the police have the power of arrest and limited powers to issue formal sanctions like fines and this ensures that
individuals conform as they don’t wish to have a criminal record or face more serious sanctions
• the courts have the power to sentence individuals to a range of punishments such as prison, community service, etc.
Most people fear losing their liberty and the labelling that will result from a court judgement, hence promoting
conformity
• prisoners are socially controlled whilst in prison via a system of rewards and privileges such as segregation and TV
and/or work and this leads most to conform to prison norms and values
• the government set laws and corresponding tariffs of punishment which deter individuals from non-conformity
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Question Answer Marks
2(e) To what extent are gender identities changing in modern industrial societies? 15
Possible answers:
Arguments For –
• in business, politics and culture more women have broken through to senior positions providing role models and other
ways to be a woman
• postmodernists argue that gender identity is now more fluid due to individual choice and freedom, e.g. gender
convergence is now becoming more of a reality
• the advent of the ‘New Man’ shows that males can embrace their ‘feminine side’ without compromising on aspects of
their traditional masculine identity
• the rise of the ‘ladette’ (Jackson) shows that femininity is changing by absorbing and asserting aspects of traditional
male behaviour and identity such as drinking, swearing and fighting
• it has now become much more acceptable for men to behave in ways that may once have been seen as more
indicative of feminine identity, e.g. showing emotion and crying, talking about relationships
• it is now more the norm for fathers to be involved in the care-taking of children, including the expectation that close
personal and emotional bonds will be formed, thus changing the traditional ‘father’ identity
• more men are taking care of their appearance via cosmetics, plastic surgery, waxing, etc. and are thus displaying
norms and values once ascribed to feminine identity
• the fact that women are now more career-orientated has impacted on their traditional identity as housewife and
mother
• the rise in the number of women choosing not to be a mother impacts upon their traditional gender identity and social
role
• stay-at-home fathers are now more frequently seen, challenging traditional notions of both female and male gender
identity
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Question Answer Marks
Arguments Against –
• females remain far from equal in the workplace and so it is still the norm for females to aspire to more caring
occupations as more appropriate to their gender identity
• the social control of women’s sexuality via name-calling, cyberbullying and sexting all promote older stereotypes
about what is deemed acceptable for women to be
• hegemonic masculinity is still the most prized form of masculinity in our culture e.g. the rise of ‘superhero’ films re-
assert the old stereotypes
• advertising still promotes gender stereotypes in cleaning ads, car ads, etc.
• both men and women still view culture through the ‘male gaze’, e.g. women are still frequently represented as sexual
objects and this is deemed acceptable
• women who now work in previously male-dominated areas (e.g. construction) may still be thought of as unfeminine
• Oakley’s findings that in the family we are canalised and manipulated into our gender identities, often in stereotypical
ways, remains true
• the dual burden and triple shift illustrate that things are not changing very much for women, traditional expectations
remain
• females are still subject to gender stereotyping in education via the hidden curriculum and teacher labelling
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Question Answer Marks
One mark for partial definition, e.g. women not doing very well.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. the unseen barriers that seem to prevent women from achieving the highest positions
at work.
Possible answers:
• social class inequalities in education, e.g. private schools offers better facilities and students at these schools often
benefit from social capital via the old boy network; also working class students suffer material or cultural deprivation
leading to poor educational outcomes
• social class inequalities in wealth, e.g. the wealthiest 10 per cent of adults in the UK own 40 per cent of the wealth via
land, stocks and shares, houses and valuable items such as art, jewellery
• social class inequalities in income, e.g. pay differentials between the highest earners and those on low incomes or the
unemployed
• poverty is an issue that affects many lower class people and this can occur in both absolute and relative forms, the
former where individuals suffer a lack of basic necessities and the latter where individuals are poor in relation to
others in the same society
• social exclusion or inequalities, based on class, which mean that people are unable to take part in the society in the
same way as most people as they are excluded from most social goods, e.g. in housing, employment, health care and
transport
• social inequalities in housing, e.g. many lower class people in modern industrial societies struggle to find good quality
accommodation whereas the rich live in spacious, clean and safe housing; homelessness is also an issue in many
societies and is directly linked to social class inequality
One mark for each feature correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each description (up to a maximum
of two).
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Question Answer Marks
Possible answers:
• liberal feminists have fought hard to gain equal rights and to overcome discrimination via legislation, e.g. the
Suffragettes achieving votes for women, Equal Pay Act, the Sex Discrimination Act
• in education – the right to go to school, compensatory education and various initiatives, e.g. to promote science
amongst girls
• some feminists have highlighted the physical abuse and violence, including sexual violence, that women are
subjected to both in the family and in wider society and have fought to provide women-only spaces (e.g. refuges) and
better laws
• feminists have highlighted and fought to change previously accepted representations of women in the media, e.g.
women as page 3 in the Sun, sex objects
• socialist and Marxist feminists have shown how women have been used and exploited as a reserve army of labour
within capitalism, wherein male workers try to exclude women from skilled jobs and husbands benefit from the unpaid
domestic labour of their wives
• black feminists have challenged the assumption that women are basically all the same and have highlighted the
importance of racism and ethnicity as crucial to understanding gender inequalities
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Question Answer Marks
3(d) Explain why some women find it difficult to achieve high status jobs. 8
Candidates here will need to show not only an awareness of the facts that women suffer gender discrimination in terms of
their ability to attain high status jobs but also the social reasons why that is the case.
Possible answers:
• gender discrimination - the barriers to females getting promotion in some areas of the workplace, this results in
relatively low numbers of women in ‘top’ jobs such as CEOs, managing directors etc;
• gender prejudice - appointments are often made by men who may have sexist attitudes and this may act as a bar to
women who wish to enter a high status male-dominated profession;
• the glass ceiling - because women have not taken traditionally masculine positions before employers may see
appointing a women as a risk (she may need a career break for children for example) and this may act as an obstacle
to women’s progression in terms of gaining a higher status job;
• a woman may be seen as a threat as she may do a better job than a man so perhaps unconsciously males effectively
discourage and exclude women from achieving higher status positions within the workplace;
• socialisation - women may have internalised stereotypes which make them believe that they are not capable or suited
to more challenging and higher status jobs;
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Question Answer Marks
3(e) To what extent is ethnicity the most important factor in determining a person’s life chances? 15
Possible answers:
Arguments For:
• high rates of unemployment amongst Afro-Caribbean or black youth mean income is low and this can lead to social
inequalities in other areas like housing, etc.
• in employment some ethnic groups face discrimination so that they fail to get jobs they are qualified for or do not get
the same opportunities for promotion into higher status jobs – for some this may operate as a ‘concrete ceiling’
• social mobility amongst Pakistani and Bangladeshi people is the lowest in the UK and this puts them at a
disadvantage in comparison to other ethnic groups in terms of their income and social status
• the ‘ethnic penalty’ refers to factors which explain ethnic discrimination within the labour market, and within society
generally and this can severely impact on life chances
• some ethnic groups suffer inequalities in education, e.g. different ethnic outcomes may be directly related to ethnic
stereotyping or labelling and an ethnocentric curriculum
• media stereotyping of ethnic minorities can form the basis of prejudice and discrimination, e.g. Islamophobia caused
partly by biased media coverage and representations
• ethnic groups based on religion can also affect social mobility as evidence suggests that Jews and Hindus are more
likely to end up in higher social class than their Christian counterparts, whilst Muslims and Sikhs tend to experience
fewer opportunities to enhance their life chances
• the effects of institutional racism are likely to impact a person’s life chances in the criminal justice system via police
stereotyping, labelling and targeting of some minority groups and unjust sentences imposed by the courts, etc.
• minority ethnic groups generally have poorer health than the general population and this may be linked to either
material deprivation and/or cultural deprivation, e.g. in accessing proper health care services;
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3(e) • many ethnic minorities face barriers in terms of their access to good quality housing, e.g. the effective ‘segregation’ of
some ethnic groups in slum or low quality housing areas
• to redress institutional racism some organisations will positively discriminate in favour of certain ethnic groups so as to
give them greater access to social mobility, e.g. accelerated promotion schemes, quotas in recruitment
• schools may take positive action to improve the educational outcomes of certain ethnic groups, e.g. by ensuring the
curriculum reflects and respects all relevant cultures, by ensuring ethnic minority teachers are recruited to act as
positive role models
Arguments against:
• not all ethnic minority groups suffer high levels of unemployment and gender can be a greater barrier in certain male-
dominated fields such as engineering or ICT
• Black Caribbean, Black African, Chinese, Indian and White migrant groups all have a higher level of upward mobility
compared to their White counterparts which may suggest ethnicity is not the most important factor affecting life
chances
• different social inequalities interact to affect life chances so it’s not possible to isolate ethnicity, e.g. the work of black
feminists illustrates that an understanding of racial or ethnic inequality alone is not sufficient to fully get to grips with
the complexities of how inequality operates in modern industrial societies
• age may affect life chances rather more than ethnicity at certain key points in individuals’ lives due to ageism, e.g. the
young suffer higher rates of unemployment and the elderly are often discriminated against both in the workplace and
in other social areas
• children of parents in higher social classes are more likely to end up in higher social classes themselves regardless of
ethnic background – this suggests that class may be a more important determinant
• there are geographical health inequalities among minority ethnic groups suggesting ethnicity alone is not the biggest
factor
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3(e) • research suggests that socioeconomic inequality is the key factor in the health disparities experienced by minority
ethnic groups
• there have been strict laws put in place to prevent racism and ethnic inequality in the UK, e.g. Equality Act 2010, and
therefore prejudice and discrimination is far less likely to occur across the various social areas resulting in more equal
life chances for ethnic minorities
• functionalist arguments that society is meritocratic and we all have equality of opportunity therefore all ethnic groups
can experience social mobility if they work hard and possess the right norms and values
• feminists argue that gender is equally if not more important in determining a person’s life chances as women in all
ethnic groups suffer sexism and structural inequalities in both the personal and the public sphere
• Marxists argue that social class is the matrix from which all other inequalities emerge – thus white working class
workers are encouraged to be hostile to minority ethnic groups by the media which promotes stereotypes and
ideologies such as the ‘Muslim terrorist’ or the ‘immigrant scrounger’
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Cambridge O Level
SOCIOLOGY 2251/12
Paper 1 May/June 2020
2 hours
INSTRUCTIONS
• Answer two questions in total:
Section A: answer Question 1.
Answer either Question 2 from Section B or Question 3 from Section C.
• Follow the instructions on the front cover of the answer booklet. If you need additional answer paper,
ask the invigilator for a continuation booklet.
INFORMATION
• The total mark for this paper is 80.
• The number of marks for each question or part question is shown in brackets [ ].
06_2251_12_2020_1.4
© UCLES 2020 [Turn over
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2
Answer Question 1
The comparative study is a scientific approach to sociological research and is often used by
positivists. Sociologists can compare data between social groups and identify differences between
them, such as educational achievement.
Sociologists may compare data such as the different female literacy rates around the world (Fig.
1.1). Female literacy rates refer to the percentage of women over 15 years of age that can read
and write in a country. Another example of a comparative study is the UK census. Every ten years
in the UK all households have to complete a detailed survey. Many of the questions are standardised
and remain the same over time. Like many sources of official statistics the UK census gathers a
large amount of quantitative data taking a macro approach.
Fig. 1.1
1 (a) From Source A, identify the two countries with the lowest female literacy rates. [2]
(c) Using information from Source A, describe two reasons why researchers use official
statistics. [4]
(d) Describe two limitations of using case studies in sociological research. [4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using unstructured interviews in
sociological research. [8]
(f) Explain why objectivity is difficult to maintain when carrying out sociological research. [10]
(g) To what extent are macro structuralist approaches the most useful for understanding
society? [15]
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3
2 Functionalists believe for society to work well people need to agree on a common set of values,
this is known as value consensus. Sanctions and socialisation are ways to ensure that members
of a society share the same values. However, socialisation and sanctions differ depending on the
age and gender of the individual.
(d) Explain why some sociologists argue that childhood is a social construction. [8]
(e) To what extent does functionalism offer the best explanation of why individuals join
youth sub-cultures? [15]
3 Karl Marx argued that society was divided into two main social classes: the bourgeoisie (the upper
class) and the proletariat (the working class). Class stratification and status in modern industrial
societies are changing and new classes have been formed, such as the underclass. Some
sociologists argue there is now a growing middle class while others suggest proletarianisation is
leading to a growing working class.
(c) Explain how the underclass is different from other social classes. [6]
(d) Explain why some sociologists believe that proletarianisation has occurred in modern
industrial societies. [8]
(e) To what extent are Marxist explanations of social inequality the most useful? [15]
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1(a) From Source A, identify the two countries with the lowest female 2
literacy rates.
Acceptable responses:
• Afghanistan
• Nigeria
One mark for each country correctly identified from Source A (up to a
maximum of two).
Possible answers:
• experiment
• questionnaire
• survey
• structured interview
• content analysis
• comparative studies
• Any other reasonable response.
One mark for each method correctly identified (up to maximum of two).
Possible answers:
• many of the questions are standardised – this means the data that
makes up official statistics will be reliably collected;
• official statistical data from the UK census is taken every ten years this
allows for comparisons to be made over time e.g. longitudinal studies;
• quantitative data is useful for the comparative method, it enables
researchers to spot trends and patterns in official statistics;
• all households have to complete a detailed survey – official statistics
often have large samples which are representative samples;
• many sources of official statistics the UK census gathers a large amount
of quantitative data which improves the chances of generalisability;
• any other reasonable response
One mark for each reason correctly identified from Source A (up to a
maximum of two).
One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
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Possible answers:
• the findings may only apply to the case – so generalisations cannot be
made;
• the study cannot be replicated as it is unique – and this limits reliability;
• the deep involvement of the researchers may lead them to being influenced
by their own feelings – thus decreasing the validity of the findings;
• case studies can be very time consuming – the data collection process
can be very intensive;
• when conducting a case study, it is very possible for the author to form a
bias/subjective view – thus affecting the validity of results;
• case study method may have errors of memory or judgment – recorded
data may not be accurate;
• with small studies, there is always the question of ethics – at what point
do detailed and in depth studies become intrusive;
• any other reasonable response
One mark for each limitation correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
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Strengths:
• unstructured interviews provide detailed and valid data on the point of view
of the respondents – they are able to say what they really think;
• the flexibility of the unstructured interview – allows the interviewer to
probe more deeply;
• the flexibility of the unstructured interview – may allow the researcher to
open up new avenues of enquiry;
• being an unstructured interview the interviewer can clarify any
misunderstandings by the respondent – and reformulate questions
accordingly;
• the interviewer can develop a rapport with the respondent – allowing for
deeper and more valid responses;
• unstructured interviews gain qualitative data through their conversational
style – which is preferred by interpretivists;
• unstructured interviews helps with ethics – as rapport can lessen
chances of emotional harm;
• feminists argue unstructured interviews are egalitarian – the interviewer
and the interviewee have equal power in the process;
• any other reasonable response
limitations:
• unstructured interviews are time consuming – both to carry out and
analyse the data;
• positivists argue they are less reliable than structured interviews – as
there are no set questions which makes it difficult to compare data
across respondents;
• it can be difficult to make generalisations – from non-standardised
questions;
• interviewers need to be highly skilled – so very few researchers can
carry out unstructured interviews;
• in unstructured interviews the responses may be affected by interviewer
bias – because the interviewer chooses what responses to
record/analyse;
• in unstructured interviews the interviewer effect may cause the respondent
to give answers that are not true;
• respondent may give socially desirable answers – this will impact the
validity of the study;
• sample size in case studies is often small – this can lead to problems of
representativeness;
• ethical issues – with all in-depth studies there is a danger of intruding to
far into an individual’s privacy;
• any other reasonable response
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Possible responses:
• sociological is not a pure science and so it is difficult to eradicate human
factors from research – sociological research does not take place in a test
tube;
• with case studies the researcher can become too close to the subject
matter and lose a sense of objectivity;
• questionnaires often suffer from the imposition problem – there may be
inherent bias in the questions;
• observations may lead to the researcher ‘going native’ – hence the
researcher becomes too involved and loses objectivity;
• focus groups may affect individuals differently – some may become
dominated by one respondent and so lose objectivity;
• official statistics used as secondary data may have been recorded to
support the government’s position;
• interviewees may give socially desirable answers and hence the data
gathered may be biased;
• when designing content analyses researchers construct categories
according to their own preconceived ideas;
• when using historical documents the body of material may only
represent a small portion of the views apparent at the time;
• when using diaries as secondary data it can be difficult to verify the truth
of what was written, individuals may have lied or exaggerated;
• any other reasonable response
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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1(g) To what extent are macro structuralist approaches the most useful for 15
understanding society?
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Possible response:
• honesty – being truthful to others at all times;
• democracy – the right of citizens to elect their leaders;
• human rights – a right which is believed to belong to every person;
• the importance of education – most MIS value education and believe all
children should be able to get access;
• respect for the elderly – is seen as very important in some cultures;
• any other reasonable response;
One mark for each value correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One
mark for each value developed (up to a maximum of two).
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Possible responses:
• men are now more likely to show their emotions publicly than in previous
times;
• taking care over their appearance, following fashions and using
cosmetics occurs more frequently in today’s society e.g. metrosexual
man;
• talking about their relationships and feelings e.g. new man is now
considered a strength whereas before it might have been taken as a
weakness;
• emotional attachment to children used to be the preserve of mothers only
but nowadays fathers are developing close emotional bonds with their
babies and infants – intimate fathering;
• traditionally men would have been breadwinners but now men are more
likely to be stay at home fathers – househusbands;
• men particularly working class used to work in manual labour but now are
more likely to be in working in the service sector;
• nowadays men may demonstrate hyper-masculinity as a response to the
recently perceived crisis of masculinity;
• a diversity of masculinities are now apparent, as can be seen through
the acceptance of homosexuality;
• any other reasonable response
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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Social construction – the idea that social situations and events are
constructed – made – by societies: they do not exist in nature as
independent things.
Possible answers:
• the way childhood was considered in the past has changed compared to
the present e.g. child centredness is evidence of social construction;
• the way childhood is considered differs from country to country e.g. child
soldiers, this suggest childhood is socially constructed;
• according to Aries children used to wear the same clothes as adults but
nowadays they don’t;
• children used to be punished by law in the same way an adult was but
now they are not e.g. age of criminal responsibility;
• in MIS children are required to go to school whereas in other societies
they may be required to go to work and not have a formal education;
• Postman argues childhood is changing in the era of modern
technologies and that they are no longer seen as innocent and
protected from adult issues e.g. the sexualisation of children;
• children’s rights have changed hugely over time e.g. employment laws;
• any other reasonable response
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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2(e) To what extent does functionalism offer the best explanation of why 15
individuals join youth sub-cultures?
Arguments for:
• functionalists argue joining a youth sub-culture can be explained as a
way of managing the transition from childhood to adulthood;
• functionalists argue youth sub-culture helps detach the individual from
their family so they can achieve their own status as an adult developing
autonomy and independence;
• functionalists argue youth sub-cultures act as a ‘safety valve’ and people
join to help them manage going through adolescence;
• functionalists claim that youth sub-cultures offer members an alternative
opportunity structure where they can gain status and respect;
• functionalists argue that young people join sub-cultures to gain status,
moving from an ascribed status to an achieved status;
• functionalists argue that youth sub-cultures are a way of dealing with
stress caused by the transition from childhood to adulthood;
• joining a youth sub-culture can be a way of gaining success and status
for those young people who find other routes to success (such as
education) blocked;
• functionalists argue (Eisenstadt) that young people need to find a way to
distinguish themselves from their parents and youth sub-cultures are a
vehicle for this;
• any other reasonable response
Arguments against:
• Marxists argue that youth sub-cultures are a form of resistance against
capitalism e.g. skinheads;
• Marxists argue working class youth sub-cultures are formed as other routes
to resistance are blocked for such groups who lack power and status;
• Marxists argue (P Cohen) the skinhead sub-culture formed as a reaction
to the decline of manufacturing and as a means of protecting working-class
identity;
• other Marxists (Brake) argue working class youth sub-cultures are ‘magical’
they provide each new generation with a chance to prove they are unique;
• teddy boys took their style from the upper class Edwardians to show their
new affluence;
• Marxists see working-class youth sub-cultures as linked to the decline of
working-class inner-city communities;
• postmodernists argue youth sub-cultures no longer have a clear purpose,
young people join for thrills and leave, sub-cultures are transient;
• feminists such as McRobbie argued girls created a bedroom sub-culture
to create a space away not just away from adults but also from boys;
• labelling theory suggests that pupil subcultures are a response to in-school
processes such as teacher labelling;
• Paul Willis argued counter school sub-cultures were formed because
the lads saw school and academic learning as pointless to their future
lives as factory workers;
• ethnicity and anti-school sub-cultures Sewell claimed that Black
Caribbean boys may experience pressure by their peers to adopt the
norms of an ‘urban’ or ‘street’ sub-culture;
• any other reasonable response
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Question Answer Marks
One mark for each example of ascribed status identified (up to maximum of
two).
One mark for each description (up to a maximum of two).
3(c) Explain how the underclass is different from other social classes. 6
Possible answers:
• cultural differences – the underclass have a way of life characterised by
a dependency culture;
• different lifestyle choices – these can lead to social exclusion resulting in
unemployment;
• different attitudes to work and achievement – underclass are characterised
by fatalism and despair;
• higher crime rates – the underclass may turn to crime as they have
more blocked opportunities than the middle class;
• different attitude to education – leads to limited life chances in laterlife;
• higher proportion of teen pregnancies and single parent households –
these positions are often associated with a dependency on state benefits;
• material deprivation – the underclass have less money and access to
goods than the middle class;
• poverty trap – the underclass are more likely to be stuck in the poverty
trap because of their attitudes to work and education;
• ethnic differences – in the USA the underclass are associated with
ethnic minority groups;
• any other reasonable response.
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Proletarianisation – the theory that the lower levels of the middle class are
becoming working class.
Possible responses:
• many of the tasks done by middle-class workers were being de-skilled
(Braverman) due to mechanisation and automation;
• conditions of employment have changed in many jobs that were middle-
class – there is now less job security and benefits such as sick leave;
• wages and bonuses have decreased in jobs that were middle-class so
incomes have fallen to proletariat levels
• less autonomy in middle-class jobs as power has moved to
management so the old middle class have a similar status at work to
the traditional working class;
• workers in proletarianised jobs are starting to think of themselves as
working class, for example, by joining a trade union;
• according to Marx as wealth is concentrated in fewer hands an increasing
number of the middle class are reduced to dependence on wage labour
for income;
• changes in the occupational structure have led to more people being
reclassified as the new working class;
• the distinctions between manual labour and non-manual labour are
breaking down leading to a growing working class;
• the introduction of new technologies into the service sector have meant
less skills are needed for this type of employment – hence wages fall and
what was once considered middle class employment is now seen as
working class;
• education levels have generally increased meaning more people are now
skilled enough for clerical/service sector work so this has dropped in
status;
• any other reasonable response
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3(e) To what extent are Marxist explanations of social inequality the most 15
useful?
Arguments for:
• Marxists argue inequality is the inevitable outcome of capitalism, this is
useful for economic explanations of inequality in most MIS;
• Marxism offers a clear distinction of the conflict between two classes in
society – the bourgeoisie exploit the labour of the proletariat to increase
their profits;
• Marxist explanations of the relationship between the proletariat who own
nothing but their labour which they sell to the bourgeoisie for wages is true
for many individuals in society;
• Marxists offer useful explanations of the barriers to resistance faced by
the proletariat who are oppressed in that they can’t exercise their
dissatisfaction with their bosses for fear of being sacked;
• Althusser theories of ideology help explain why the working class fail to
gain equality, this is useful as it explains how the key institutions in society
(ISAs) work together to prevent the working classes from rising up;
• Marxism offers explanations of the ways in which the state tries to control
our thoughts and legitimises the capitalist system, (the myth of meritocracy)
through various ISAs such as religion, education , mass media and criminal
justice
• Marxist theories of education help explain the inequalities faced by the
working class in terms of educational outcomes and class differences in
educational attainment are clearly evident today;
• Marxists refer to ‘the old boy’s network’ which see privileged elites helping
people of their own class thus denying meritocratic opportunity, this
theory is rooted in reality as examples of nepotism can be seen in most
societies;
• Marxist theories of material deprivation are useful for explaining the
formation of sub-cultures, crime rates and differences in educational
attainment;
• any other reasonable response.
Arguments against:
• Marxism is one dimensional – tries to explain all inequality in terms of
economic differences;
• interactionist critique of structural approaches, such as Marxism, as
being too deterministic, people are not just puppets but actors in their
own lives;
• functionalists argue society is meritocratic and that inequality is not a
bad thing;
• others argue capitalism has raised living standards for many so
challenge Marxist’s critique of capitalism;
• Marxist predictions of revolution have not materialised and so the theory
is flawed;
• feminists are likely to argue that gender is a more important explanation
of inequality than class;
• other sociologists argue ethnicity is a more important explanation of
inequality than class;
• any other reasonable response
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SOCIOLOGY 2251/12
Paper 1 October/November 2020
2 hours
INSTRUCTIONS
• Answer two questions in total:
Section A: answer Question 1.
Answer either Question 2 in Section B or Question 3 in Section C.
• Follow the instructions on the front cover of the answer booklet. If you need additional answer paper,
ask the invigilator for a continuation booklet.
INFORMATION
• The total mark for this paper is 80.
• The number of marks for each question or part question is shown in brackets [ ].
11_2251_12_2020_1.5
© UCLES 2020 [Turn over
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2
Answer Question 1
1 Source A
Using the method of content analysis McCabe et al looked at the representation of male and female
characters in children’s books in the United States. The study ‘Gender in Twentieth-Century
Children’s Books’ examined more than 5000 books published from 1900 to 2000.
• males were the main characters in 57% of children’s books published each year, while only
31% had female main characters;
• male animals were the main characters in more than 23% of children’s books per year, while
female animals were the main characters in only 7.5%;
• on average, 36.5% of children’s books in each year included a male in the title, compared to
only 17.5% that included a female;
• in children’s books published in the 1990s there was more equality between male and female
human characters, but there were still twice the number of male animal characters compared
to female.
McCabe et al concluded that overall the representation of females did not change throughout the
twentieth century.
(a) From the evidence in Source A, identify two results about the representation of females
in children’s books. [2]
(b) Identify two primary methods sociologists could use to investigate gender inequality,
apart from content analysis. [2]
(c) Using information from Source A, describe two problems with the validity of the data
in the content analysis. [4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of non-participant observation. [8]
(f) Explain why case studies may be useful in sociological research. [10]
(g) To what extent are interviews the best method for achieving validity in research? [15]
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3
2 Cultures have different norms and values which affect roles and identities such as gender, ethnicity
and age. Despite this there are aspects of all societies that are similar such as the institution of the
family and the processes of socialisation and social control. Some argue that in modern industrial
societies education is the most effective agent of social control whereas other sociologists disagree.
(c) Explain how individuals are socialised into an ethnic identity. [6]
(e) To what extent is education the most effective agent of social control? [15]
3 In all modern societies relative poverty still exists. Equal opportunities legislation is often used to
argue that society is becoming more fair today, with individuals able to improve their income, wealth
and status. But poverty is difficult to measure accurately and sociologists disagree about the exact
causes of social and economic inequality.
(c) Explain how traditional male roles have changed in modern industrial societies. [6]
(e) To what extent have government measures failed to reduce social inequality? [15]
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1(a) From the evidence in Source A, identify two results about the representation of females in 2
children’s books.
Acceptable responses:
• in children’s book published each year only 31% had female characters;
• female animals were the main characters in only 7.5% in children’s books per year;
• 17.5% of the titles of children’s books each year included a female;
• in children’s books published in the 1990s there were still half the number of female animal
characters compared to male;
• in children’s books published in the 1990s there was more equality between male and female
human characters;
• overall the representation of females did not change throughout the twentieth century.
One mark for each result correctly identified from Source A (up to a maximum of two).
1(b) Identify two primary methods sociologists could use to investigate gender inequality, apart 2 Credit can be given
from content analysis. if candidates
mention two different
Possible answers: types of primary
method, e.g.
• questionnaire; structured interview
• social survey; and unstructured
• interviews: unstructured, semi-structured, unstructured, group interviews or focus groups; interview.
• observation: covert or overt, participant or non-participant;
• experiments;
• case studies;
• longitudinal;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each primary method correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
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1(c) Using information from Source A, describe two problems with the validity of the data in the 4
content analysis.
Possible answers:
• McCabe et al. may have been biased in the books chosen for the sample and this may have
meant that the results weren’t fully valid;
• the study only goes up to 2000, it is now 2020 and thus the findings may not be valid
regarding gender representation in children’s books today;
• in the first result males are the main characters in 57% of children’s books published each
year, while only 31% have female main characters – the situation with regard to the
remaining 12% is unclear and thus this result may not be wholly valid;
• the data that is gained from McCabe’s content analysis is purely quantitative and unable to
interpret the qualitative messages given out about gender – it is thus only a partial picture and
thus not wholly valid;
• the source is adapted therefore it may have been changed, shortened etc., from the original
and hence not be wholly valid;
• in content analysis the key categories need to be defined or operationalised so that the team of
researchers (McCabe et al) have the same understanding of the categories, if this is not done
the conclusions will not be fully valid;
• any other reasonable answer.
One mark for each point correctly identified from the source (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each point that is correctly developed (up to a maximum of two).
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One mark for each strength correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each strength that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
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1(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of non-participant observation. 8 Non-participant
observation = when
Strengths: a researcher
observes a group,
• it eliminates the possibility that the research subjects may be affected by the participation of the but does not
researcher in their social group; participate in what
• it can be useful for researching some groups, like gangs, who may be difficult to infiltrate – thus it’s doing.
a non-participant covert approach may work;
• if a researcher is not participating then it is much easier to record results as you along rather
than relying on memory;
• it may be more reliable – it is useful in producing quantitative data where the researcher is not
involved in the action and is thus able to more easily tally the number of times something
happens in pre-coded categories;
• there may be less danger to the researcher as they are not participating or may not even be
physically present in the situation being studied;
• sociologists can observe subjects in their natural environment without researcher interference
which may enhance the accuracy of the findings;
• by not participating a researcher is less likely to break key ethical guidelines, e.g. breaking the
law or engaging in immoral activities;
• as a type of observation, it involves seeing with one’s own eyes instead of relying on what
respondents say.
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1(e) Limitations:
• if the observer is physically present, even if they are not participating, there is still the possibility
that they will affect the behaviour of the research subjects;
• it does not allow the researcher to explore the meanings people attach to the behaviour being
studied thus producing only a partial and possibly inaccurate picture;
• there is limited opportunity for rapport to be gained/or questions to be asked which may
negatively affect the accuracy of the data;
• observations can be time-consuming and costly and therefore are unlikely to be used on large
samples, negatively affecting representativeness and generalisability;
• non-participant observation may sometimes lack reliability if the research is qualitative and
couldn’t easily be repeated;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each strength correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each strength that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each limitation correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each limitation that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
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1(f) Explain why case studies may be useful in sociological research. 10 Case studies = a
detailed
Possible responses: in-depth study on
one group or event.
• interpretivists are in favour of case studies because they may be high in validity and may give
in-depth and detailed information on the group or event being studied;
• case studies allow different aspects of the case being studied to be explored using appropriate
methods, thus giving the possibility of verstehen;
• case studies can involve any method or combination of methods, and a combination of
qualitative and quantitative data, and so offer flexibility to researchers from both a positivist and
an interpretivist perspective;
• in case studies participants are often based in a naturalistic environment thus giving an
opportunity for more honest and valid data;
• a case study can provide the basis for a hypothesis and its findings can then be tested by other
research elsewhere;
• if a case is carefully chosen it may be possible to draw wider conclusions, e.g. Goldthorpe and
Lockwood’s study of affluent car workers;
• any other reasonable response.
1(f) Band 2 [4–7 marks]
Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use
sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use
sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may
only be partially developed/explained.
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1(g) To what extent are interviews the best method for achieving validity in research? 15 Candidates are likely
to address the
Possible arguments for: arguments for in
relation to
• unstructured interviews are respondent led as the researcher listens to what the respondent unstructured, semi-
says and asks further questions based on that – this allows respondents to express themselves structured and
and explain their views more fully thus enhancing validity and introducing the possibility of group/focus group
verstehen; interviews.
• interviews are usually face-to-face and therefore it is easier for the researcher to read body
language and see whether the interviewee is telling the truth, thus aiding validity;
• unstructured interviews are flexible in terms of the questions – respondents are less constrained
than questionnaires in which the questions are written in advance by the researcher – so more
accurate and detailed data can be obtained;
• in group interviews interactions between respondents can spark conversations and yield data
that the interviewer had not thought of in advance, thus enhancing the overall validity;
• unstructured interviews encourage a good rapport between interviewee and interviewer, so
respondents feel more at ease than with the more formal setting of a questionnaire or
experiment – this should encourage openness, trust and empathy which improves validity;
• interpretivists argue that both unstructured and semi-structured interviews allow the interviewer
to check understanding, so if an interviewee does not understand a question, the interviewer is
free to rephrase it, or to ask follow-up questions to clarify aspects of answers that were not clear
in the first instance;
• feminist researchers believe that the unstructured interview can empower women to express
themselves in an open and accurate way that enhances validity – in the feminist (unstructured)
interview method the woman would recount her experiences in her own words with the
interviewer serving only as a guide to the account;
• any other reasonable response.
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• interviews may not yield validity if there are issues with how the data is recorded, e.g. if the
interview is too long some information may not take all relevant data into account or if notes are
taken data may not be faithfully recorded etc.;
• interviewer bias may take place in which the researcher imposes their own values and
perspectives on to the research data, thus affecting the validity;
• the researcher effect may occur – the respondent may be intimidated or adversely affected by
the social characteristics or manner of the researcher and be less likely to be honest and open;
• if care is not taken to establish rapport before the interview takes place the researcher may fail
to achieve a full and honest picture of the respondent’s views, feelings etc.;
• longitudinal studies, using several methods rather than just solely interviews, will give more than
just a snapshot picture and will allow researchers to study attitudes and feelings etc., as they
develop over time, thus adding an extra dimension to validity;
• participant observation can be used to develop an understanding of the world from the point of
view of the research subjects, to get inside people’s heads and see the world from their point of
view, thus greatly enhancing depth and validity;
• covert participant observation allows the researcher to both see and hear the views, feelings
and interactions of subjects without the danger of the Hawthorne Effect – this offers all of the
advantages of interviews, but also allows the researcher to see for themselves the natural
behaviour of the individuals concerned in their natural setting over a period of time;
• case studies offer the possibility to study one group, organisation or event in depth – often
these use multiple methods thus allowing different aspects of the case under study to be
explored appropriately;
• triangulating several methods can provide a more holistic and valid picture as it can be used to
cross-reference the researcher’s interpretations to other data collected to check for accuracy;
• structured interviews use mainly closed and pre-coded questions and thus will not produce data
which is high in validity;
• an ethnographic approach is in-depth study of the way of life of a group of people in their
natural setting, so they are typically very detailed and long-term and aim for a full, multi-layered
account of the culture of a group of people which goes beyond interviews alone;
• any other reasonable response.
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Two marks for clear definition, e.g. ‘the patterns of behaviour expected of someone because of their
status in society’.
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2(b) • in Uganda, John Ssesubunya, a 3 year old boy fled to the jungle after witnessing the murder of
his mother. There he was allegedly befriended by monkeys who fed him and kept him alive.
Several years later, villagers rescued the boy whose body was covered with scars and wounds
and who was unable to walk upright;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each example correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each example developed (up to a maximum of two).
2(c) Explain how individuals are socialised into an ethnic identity. 6 Ethnic identity: the
characteristics of
Possible responses: religion, language
and cultural tradition
• children imitating parents and significant others during primary socialisation, e.g. in speech that are shared by a
patterns, clothing, norms and values will teach them their ethnic identity; group of people with
• role-modelling – parents socialise children into a pattern of duty, obligation and, in many common ancestry.
societies, loyalty to the extended family community as well as religious commitment. This
begins to socialise the individual into the norms and values associated with their ethnic identity;
• hidden curriculum – in secondary socialisation agents like schools can promote an ethnocentric
curriculum which socialise children into their own ethnicity, including language, literature and
history, to the exclusion of other ethnic groups in the society;
• media representations – can offer both positive and negative images and stereotypes of ethnic
groups and their identity. Sometimes this can be used to create a stigma (negative label)
attached to an ethnic minority or it can be used to create a sense of belonging and patriotic
pride in one’s ethnic group;
• manipulation – parents can encourage behaviours linked to their own ethnic group and
discourage behaviours which are linked with other groups, e.g. relationship norms, clothing,
food and drink etc.;
• peer group pressure – for example amongst black boys there may be a pressure to conform to
accepted signs of ethnicity, peers act as role models which individuals look up to and attempt to
copy. The individual imitates the behaviour of their friends in order to feel accepted by the
group. This, in turn, socialises the individual into norms and values associated with their ethnic
identity;
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2(c) • religion socialises individuals into their ethnic minorities through the teachings of holy books and
the promulgation of cultural norms, for example the centrality of religion in Asian communities –
and therefore in shaping their ethnic identity – can be illustrated in the fact that very few Asians
marry across religious or caste lines, and that most of their children will be socialised into a
religious value system;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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2(e) To what extent is education the most effective agent of social control? 15 Social control =
ways in which
Arguments for: members of society
are made to conform
• education uses rewards and sanctions effectively to ensure that young people learn the to the norms and
acceptable boundaries of social behaviour beyond the family – they will need this in the values of society.
workplace and in wider society and therefore in this sense education is the most effective agent
of control;
• schools use a mixture of both formal (such as detentions or exclusion) and informal sanctions
(such as warnings and disapproving looks) to control individuals at a time when they are still
being ‘shaped’ by society and this makes it a particularly effective agent;
• the hidden curriculum in education serves to brainwash young people into acceptance of
authority, acceptance of boredom and the naturalness of competition and hierarchy;
• education as an example of Althusser’s ideological state apparatus – to explain the ways that
make people conform to ruling class norms and values, e.g. consumerism and materialism as
the routes to happiness and fulfilment;
• Marxists believe that education controls the level of aspiration of working class children
promoting false consciousness – e.g. Willis’ working class lads’ and their fatalism;
• Bourdieu believes that schools ensure middle class dominance from one generation to the next
– as the working class don’t possess the cultural and social capital which is required for private
schools, so the education system maintains the current status quo;
• feminists argue that schools limit the aspirations of girls via the gendered curriculum, teacher
expectations and educational resources;
• any other reasonable response.
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• education is not very effective as a form of social control as some young people deviate into
anti-school subcultures whatever sanctions schools put in place;
• functionalists argue that the family is a particularly important agent of social control and the
basic building block for society in that it socialises the young. The social control techniques
used by parents within the family – both positive and negative – are crucial in that without this
base education would not be able to continue its socialising work;
• the effectiveness of education as a form of social control is limited in some cultures due to the
fact that many children may not attend school for one reason or another;
• some would argue that peers are more effective than education, particularly for the young,
through the various techniques of peer pressure such as ostracism;
• education alone is not the most effective method of control – functionalists argue that all of the
agents of informal social control are needed in order to regulate behaviour and reinforce the
collective conscience – this is essential to the continuance of society, e.g. the organic analogy;
• the media can be a more effective agent of control via often sensationalised accounts of
criminal or deviant acts – they are broadcasting the boundaries of acceptable behaviour,
warning others not to breach the rules of the law (and therefore society) in a way that education
struggles to do;
• postmodernists argue that the media is now the most effective agent of social control due to the
‘media-saturated’ nature of our society etc.;
• some feminists argue that the family, rather than education, most effectively socially controls
women and their bodies and labour via domestic violence, and the free work that women do in
the home which helps to maintain capitalism;
• the workplace is more effective than education for adults as it links to the economic well-being
and future life chances of individuals and their families – the threat of sanctions like dismissal or
the promise of rewards like promotion and higher pay and status are powerful tools in ensuring
people obey social norms and values;
• formal agents such as the police have the power to arrest and the threat of this is more effective
than any informal sanctions given in the education system;
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2(e) • formal agents, such as courts, give out sentences that include imprisonment, which takes away
your liberty and will likely limit your life chances after release due to the fact that individuals
have a criminal record – the effects are far more serious than educational sanction;
• in certain situations the armed forces may be used as a way of coercing people into obedience,
for example under martial law and the penalties for not conforming may be very serious and
could include imprisonment or even death;
• the ideology of religion can be more effective than education for controlling the masses in some
societies – via rewards and sanctions, especially the ideas of heaven and hell – into conformity
with an oppressive social system;
• any other reasonable response.
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One mark for partial definition, e.g. ‘not being able to buy things like good quality shoes’.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. ‘not able to afford what the majority in a society see as an
acceptable lifestyle’ or ‘… being poor in relation to others in a society’.
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3(c) Explain how traditional male roles have changed in modern industrial societies. 6
Possible answers:
• gendered horizontal segregation is breaking down as more males now find work in traditionally
female occupations such as nursing and more women enter formerly male only occupations
such as engineering and construction;
• there is a ‘crisis of masculinity’ (Mac an Ghaill) following the decline in working class manual
jobs wherein the working class male role of the provider is receding;
• the advent of the New Man means that men are now starting to share in domestic work with
their partners or wives;
• some males are now taking on a more active role in parenthood;
• the traditional heroic and protective role of men is now questioned by feminists when they
highlight the prevalence of rape and sexual abuse of women and children;
• men can now be seen as sex objects in a similar way to women in the media;
• the dominance of heterosexual white men is now being challenged in modern industrial
societies by feminists and black and gay activism;
• expectations linked to male gender roles have changed, e.g. it’s now more acceptable for men
to show their feelings, be focused on their appearance etc.;
• the value of men’s role in the family is being questioned as more women choose to bring up
children on their own;
• the appearance of ‘Retributive’ man – where men today reassert traditional masculinity trying to
turn the clock back to a time that has passed;
• any other reasonable response.
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Possible answers:
• living standards are higher in modern industrial societies than in developing societies yet there
are poor in both types of society, so it is difficult to reach a standard definition;
• it is difficult to define poverty as there are different types: absolute and relative;
• relative poverty takes the social context into account so an individual who is relatively poor in
one society may not be relatively poor in another – this makes international definitions and
comparisons difficult;
• there are different ways of defining the poverty level in society, e.g. less than 60% of median
income is one measure, but why 60% – this seems arbitrary;
• some try to define poverty on the basis of the total cost of ‘necessities’ (e.g. Townsend’s study
of poverty in the UK), but this may be problematic in terms of who classifies what items as
‘necessities’;
• defining poverty can be difficult because poverty can involve many factors such as education,
health, housing etc., and so any attempts to define poverty will need to take these into account;
• Mack and Lansley’s Breadline Britain stipulated that individuals were in poverty if they lacked 3
or more items on a pre-defined list of items, but there is little justification of ‘3’ as the crucial
number for poverty;
• where is the ‘poverty line’ set? Researchers and governments may differ in their views on this
and thus there is no consensus;
• any other reasonable response.
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3(e) To what extent have government measures failed to reduce social inequality? 15 Candidates may
also discuss why
Arguments for: other agencies (e.g.
media) have been
• equal opportunities legislation has failed to reduce gender discrimination which remains a more successful
significant issue in the workplace via vertical and horizontal segregation; than the government
• women are still subject to domestic violence and sexual violence disproportionately to men thus in reducing
legislation and tougher sentences have only had minimal impact; inequality. These
• the education system maintains social inequality despite government measures – so, for could be credited
example, Marxists argue that social class divisions are reproduced via the hidden curriculum; depending on the
• government measures like the welfare state have not tackled social class inequality – right wing context.
thinkers such as Charles Murray argue that the poor themselves, in the form of the underclass,
are to blame for their poverty and low social status via the culture of poverty and the culture of
dependency;
• despite legislation to tackle ethnic and racial discrimination it persists in many areas such as the
workplace, housing and education as well as negative stereotyping in the media;
• equal opportunities legislation has failed to reduce ageism with both young and old suffering
discrimination and unequal treatment in the workplace and in terms of their power and status in
society;
• Marxists argue that the welfare state ultimately fails to reduce social inequality – it simply
promotes the false consciousness that the system is less unjust than it really is, effectively
‘bribing’ the lower classes and making radical change less likely;
• government measures are likely to fail to reduce social inequality because, as functionalists like
Davis and Moore argue, social inequality is inevitable in any complex modern society – roles
need to be allocated and rewards assigned to these roles and some roles are more socially
valued and attract more rewards;
• any other reasonable response.
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• legislation to tackle discrimination such as the Sex Discrimination Act and the Equality Act have
made it harder for minorities and women to be openly discriminated against;
• measures such as the welfare state mean that society is now more meritocratic and individuals
can achieve social mobility if they work hard;
• governments measure to redistribute wealth such as new tax laws and improved welfare
benefits (such as the old age pension) have reduced poverty and narrowed the gap between
rich and poor;
• the introduction of free education has improved the life chances of the poorest who can now
achieve qualifications and access higher status jobs;
• gender discrimination legislation has improved the lives of women in many social areas such as
in education and the workplace where women are now competing successfully with men;
• the introduction of free health care systems, such as the NHS, enable all social groups to
access good quality care and thus improve their health and longevity;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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PUBLISHED
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Cambridge O Level
SOCIOLOGY 2251/12
Paper 1 May/June 2021
2 hours
INSTRUCTIONS
• Answer two questions in total:
Section A: answer Question 1.
Answer either Question 2 in Section B or Question 3 in Section C.
• Follow the instructions on the front cover of the answer booklet. If you need additional answer paper,
ask the invigilator for a continuation booklet.
INFORMATION
• The total mark for this paper is 80.
• The number of marks for each question or part question is shown in brackets [ ].
06_2251_12_2021_1.2
© UCLES 2021 [Turn over
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2
Answer Question 1
1 In the Islington Crime Survey (1986) Jones, Lea and Young researched crime in an area of London
called Islington. The survey’s aims were to find out the types and the frequency of crime in the area.
The researchers hoped that this would provide more accurate data about crime in Islington than
the official police records.
The survey involved a random sample of over 2000 households from all parts of Islington. The
response rate was approximately 75%. The researchers conducted structured interviews asking
people about crimes they or their family had been a victim of during the last year. Respondents
were asked about those who committed offences against them and whether they thought police
were effective in tackling crime.
• the burglary rate in Islington was five times higher than the national average
• a third of all households had experienced serious crime in the last twelve months (e.g. robbery,
racist attacks and domestic violence)
• over half of women avoided going out after dark due to fear of crime
• more than 60% of respondents thought police were ineffective in dealing with serious crimes
• only half of the crimes experienced by respondents were reported to the police, and only 3.8%
of the crimes were detected by the police.
Source A
(a) From Source A identify two aims of the Islington Crime Survey. [2]
(b) Identify two sampling methods, apart from random sampling. [2]
(c) Using information from Source A, describe two problems with the validity of the data in the
Islington Crime Survey. [4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of random sampling. [8]
(f) Explain why sociologists might use covert participant observation in sociological research.
[10]
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2 Most sociologists agree values are a social construction. They also believe that people acquire
their gender, class, ethnic and age identity through the agencies of socialisation and social control.
But sociologists disagree on which agency is most effective. Some sociologists claim that the media
successfully socialises individuals. Other sociologists claim that the peer group socially controls
people effectively, particularly during adolescence.
(e) To what extent is the peer group the most effective agent of social control? [15]
3 Functionalists argue that in most societies there is a meritocracy and that social mobility is possible.
Other sociologists argue that barriers such as the dependency culture and racism can negatively
affect the life chances of people in poverty and minority ethnic groups. However many sociologists
agree that the roles of women have changed in modern industrial societies.
(c) Explain how the roles of women have changed in modern industrial societies. [6]
(d) Explain why racism can affect the life chances of some minority ethnic groups. [8]
(e) To what extent is there social mobility between social classes? [15]
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1(a) From Source A, identify two aims of the Islington Crime Survey. 2
Acceptable responses:
• to find out the types of crime committed;
• to find out the frequency of crime in the area;
• to check the accuracy of the picture given in the official statistics.
One mark for each aim correctly identified from Source A (up to a maximum of
two).
1(b) Identify two sampling methods, apart from random sampling. Possible 2
answers:
• stratified sampling;
• snowball sampling;
• quota sampling;
• systematic sampling;
• cluster sampling;
• opportunity/convenience sampling;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each sampling method correctly identified (up to maximum of
two).
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1(c) Using information from Source A, describe two problems with the 4
validity of the data in the Islington Crime Survey.
Possible answers:
• the source is adapted and therefore there may have been changes
made, data may have been missed out etc. which may mean it is not
fully accurate, hence lowering the validity;
• the interviews were structured, meaning that many closed questions are
likely to be used. This means that little qualitative data would be gained
about, for example, what people really thought and felt about crime in
their area;
• respondents were asked about crimes during the last year, they may
not remember accurately affecting the validity of the data;
• the survey is asking about people’s experiences of crime – some
exaggerate, thus lowering validity;
• this is a sensitive topic and so some people may not want to tell the
truth, so lie and lowering validity;
• the survey was taken in 1986 and thus may not be a true reflection of
victimization in Islington today;
• because a researcher is present some may respond with social
desirability and only tell the researcher what they think the researcher
wants to hear, thus not allowing the research to get an accurate picture;
• there may be researcher bias in terms of the questions asked or the way
in which the data is interpreted which will lower the validity of the data
overall;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each problem correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two)
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Possible answers:
• they are more than likely the only way we can gain insights into past
events;
• they allow comparisons over time for example birth, death and marriage
rates;
• historical documents are secondary data and therefore saves the
researcher time as they don’t have to do primary research first;
• many historical documents are readily available and so are useful from a
practical point of view;
• some historical data comes in large data sets e.g. the census and this
can provide valuable insights for positivist researchers;
• qualitative historical documents such as diaries can offer useful insights
into the thoughts and feelings of those involved in key historical events
or eras;
• they are useful when assessing the outcomes of various social policies
such as raising the school leaving age;
• for some topics there may be multiple documents – as a result
information can be cross-checked with others for greater reliability;
• any other reasonable response.
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Possible strengths:
• it is fair in the sense that there is no researcher selection so everyone in
the sample has a fair chance of being picked;
• it is practical way to create a sample randomly, for example by drawing
names out of hat or using a computer package to generate names from
a sampling frame;
• it saves time because the researcher doesn’t have to go through the
process of stratifying the sample;
• it prevents researcher bias so the researcher cannot pick those who will
support the hypothesis of the research;
• it is often the sampling type that is used to select a large sample and
therefore findings are more likely to be generalisable;
• any other reasonable response. Possible limitations:
• they are not always representative so by chance a researcher may get a
sample which is dominated by one sex, age, ethnicity etc.;
• a sampling frame is needed and this may not be available for some
groups e.g. deviant groups;
• because a sampling frame is required researchers may have to pay to
access or apply for access – both practical disadvantages;
• because people are asked randomly they may choose not to take part
in the research, as opposed to being recruited through snowballing or
because they wish to take part as a volunteer sampling;
• any other reasonable response.
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Possible answers:
• it is useful when researching deviant or criminal groups as going
undercover will enable ‘secret’ behaviours to be uncovered and
recorded;
• ethics – in the study of dangerous groups going covert whilst
participating should protect the researcher from possible harm;
• the covert nature of the research also means that the researcher is
much more likely to gain a true picture of the group’s behaviour and
views because the researcher is taking part secretly;
• it avoids the Hawthorne Effect so the behaviour of the group will not
change due to the researcher’s presence;
• covert participant research usually takes place in a naturalistic setting and
so the normal behaviour of the group can be studied often over a period
of time;
• interpretivists would like it because the participant nature of the
research means that a deep understanding of the group can be
achieved due to the covert nature thus enhancing validity;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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Possible answers:
Arguments for:
• positivists like to use them because they are quantitative data and
hence tend to be more reliable;
statistics are often large scale and therefore more likely to be representative
and generalisable;
• positivists believe that quantitative data such as statistics can be used to
generate social ‘facts’ or ‘laws’ which can then be used to predict
human social behaviour;
• statistics are often free and widely available on the internet and
therefore they are cheap and easy to use;
• statistics can be used to make comparisons between different types of
data or different social groups such as men and women or different age
groups;
• statistics can be used to identify trends so they are useful as part of
longitudinal studies because they can show changes over time in key
social areas such as crime, education, marriage etc.
• statistics as secondary data may provide a useful overview or context for
primary research in ‘setting the scene’;
• statistics often go back a long way and can therefore be used to make
historical comparisons e.g. changing population trends as documented in
the census;
• any other reasonable response.
Arguments against:
• interpretivists may be suspicious of statistics because they are a form of
quantitative data and this cannot give meanings, motives and
individuals interpretations thus lowering the overall validity of the
research;
• even though statistics are often free to use they are not always cheap to
collect e.g. a large team is required to capture and analyse the census
data;
• official statistics are collected for administrative purposes rather than for
research purposes, thus the data which exists and the categories and
indicators used might not fit a researcher’s specific research purposes;
• some statistics lack validity e.g. the official crime statistics miss a large
hidden figure and hence are only of limited use in studying crime;
• statistics – both official and non-official can be biased to make the
company/government look good thus lowering their validity;
• the way that trends are measured over time can change and this can
make historical comparisons difficult and unreliable e.g. changes to the
way unemployment or crimes are measured;
• because they are secondary data the researcher cannot check the
validity of the initial research and so may be relying on data which is not
accurate;
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Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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Acceptable answer:
• the period of growing up between childhood and adulthood
Possible answers:
• the behaviour and appearance of role-models in the media are imitated by
many, especially the young;
• individuals are manipulated by techniques used in the media such as
advertising which may create ‘false needs’;
• representations of women and other groups in popular media are
influential in establishing social expectations for various forms of social
identity such as gender, age etc;
• the worldview reflected in global media is often a westernised or
Americanised one which some may believe is leading to a global culture
where individuals share common norms and values;
• the media socially controls individuals by showing the negative
consequences of not conforming to social norms and values e.g.
labelling, ‘naming and shaming’ etc.;
• the media uses praise and positive comments to show approval and
reward conformity to social norms and values;
• social media ‘likes’ can be seen as a reward for and expression of social
approval for conformity;
• cyberbullying and negative emojis online can be seen as expressions of
disapproval and an attempt to negatively sanction an individual in order
to bring them back to conformity with expected norms;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each way correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One
mark for each way developed (up to a maximum of two).
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Possible responses:
• values vary from society to society e.g. the acquisition of money brings
status in some cultures whereas in others physical bravery or helping
others may been seen as more important;
• values are created in and by society rather than being naturally
occurring e.g. we are taught values by parents in primary socialisation;
• values vary between age groups e.g. the young may value appearance,
popularity and peer approval more than older age groups;
• values differ according to social class e.g. the working classes may
place more importance on immediate gratification whereas the middle
classes may think deferred gratification is crucial to future success;
• values differ according to ethnicity and religion e.g. in many Asian and
African cultures the extended family is still highly valued whereas it is not
seen as important in more secularised western cultures;
• values differ across time e.g. marriages in medieval England were often
arranged for the purposes of social mobility and the maintenance of
privilege whereas now love and physical attraction are valued more highly
as a basis for marriage;
• values are relative to time, place and culture, rather than being
universal, and this shows that they are social constructions;
• values may differ according to gender e.g. women stereotypically may
put more importance on appearance and relationships than men who
may value success, competition and strength;
• laws in every society reflect the dominant values e.g. the law-change on
homosexual marriage in the UK reflects changing values and hence the
values are socially constructed;
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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2(e) To what extent is the peer group the most effective agent of social 15
control?
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Acceptable answer:
• a society in which individuals achieve the level that their talents and
abilities deserve.
One mark for a partial definition e.g. move up the social ladder.
Two marks for clear definition e.g. a society in which most individuals earn or
achieve their status and rewards.
Possible responses:
• it arises when poor people live solely on benefits and become so used
to them that they have no desire to work;
• dependency culture is linked with fatalism and the idea that an individual
is destined or has no power to lift themselves out of poverty;
• a dependency culture is sometimes linked with negative social values like
laziness and indolence which keeps people needing the help of the
state or others for their welfare;
• New Right thinkers argue that the welfare state is linked to a
dependency culture as overgenerous welfare benefits encourage people
to stay on them rather than find employment;
• some might link dependency culture with life expectancy and the idea that
old people become totally reliant on the younger generation within their
family for help and support;
• some argue that a dependency culture inevitably links to the cycle of
poverty in which the values of dependency are passed down to
succeeding generations who similarly cannot escape the poverty of
their parents;
• any other reasonable answer.
One mark for each aspect correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One
mark for each aspect developed (up to a maximum of two).
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3(c) Explain how the roles of women have changed in modern industrial 6
societies.
Possible responses:
• due to changes in norms and laws women’s role in the home has
changed dramatically with many women moving away from the
traditional housewife role and into the workplace sometimes as
breadwinners for their families;
• in terms of their gender role women used to be considered weak and
passive but now women have become more confident and empowered
due to feminism;
• feminists may argue that due to paid work many women now have a
dual or triple burden and so their role within the home has now become
more onerous;
• changing divorce laws have now freed women from bad marriages and
allowed them to enter the workplace and become independent/
breadwinners;
• in the workplace there are now many successful role models for women
to break through the glass ceiling e.g. Theresa May and Hilary Clinton in
politics;
• some, like Wilmott and Young, argue that the traditional gendered
division of labour has now receded to be replaced by a more equal and
shared division of household chores;
• laws such as the Equal pay Act (1970) and the Sex Discrimination Act
(1975) increased equality at work and paved the way for women to
achieve higher pay and status in the workplace;
• the roles of women in the media have changed – there is now a range of
representations rather than just the old sexist stereotypes;
• maternity leave and maternity pay reduced the loss of income women
experienced when they had children and ensured that after having
children women were able to return at the same level of pay as before;
• to any other reasonable answer
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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3(d) Explain why racism can affect the life chances of some minority ethnic 8
groups.
Possible answers:
• in education racism can result in an ethnocentric curriculum and teacher
labelling which stereotypes and discriminates against ethnic minority
pupils – this means that they are less likely to succeed in education
which is arguably the key to other life chances;
• in employment ethnic minority applicants may face discrimination when
applying for jobs or fail to get promotion due to racism thus inhibiting the
chances of achieving higher pay, status and rewards;
• in housing ethnic minorities may find that the rules about who has
priority mean that they find it difficult to get access to affordable
housing;
• negative media coverage of ethnic minorities, refugees and asylum
seekers means that their life chances generally are fewer due to
entrenched stereotypes of ‘scroungers’ and ‘terrorists’ etc.;
• institutional racism – some ethnic minority groups may be targeted by
the police and are this more likely to be stopped, searched, arrested and
imprisoned by police than the majority ethnic group;
• Marxists argue that racist scapegoating is used on immigrant and ethnic
minority groups which keeps them in poverty and socially excluded and
also divides the working class;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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Cambridge O Level
SOCIOLOGY 2251/14
Paper 1 May/June 2021
2 hours
INSTRUCTIONS
• Answer two questions in total:
Section A: answer Question 1.
Answer either Question 2 in Section B or Question 3 in Section C.
• Follow the instructions on the front cover of the answer booklet. If you need additional answer paper,
ask the invigilator for a continuation booklet.
INFORMATION
• The total mark for this paper is 80.
• The number of marks for each question or part question is shown in brackets [ ].
06_2251_14_2021_1.2
© UCLES 2021 [Turn over
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Answer Question 1
1 Source A
A researcher’s non-participant observation study focused on how four different institutions cared
for elderly patients. The patients suffered from a range of problems including memory loss and
confused thinking. Over several months the researcher visited the institutions at different times of
day and night, during weekdays as well as weekends. This enabled the researcher to gather in-depth
data on the life of elderly patients.
The researcher stated that the success of the study depended on building personal and trusting
relationships with the respondents. This made the elderly patients more willing to open up to the
researcher. However the researcher did recognise, by developing close relationships with
respondents, that “it can be hard not to become too emotionally involved”.
The researcher stated that she had better relationships with some respondents than others and
observations were influenced by what she felt: “I might have seen and heard things differently
because of positive or negative feelings”.
Adapted from a study by Declercq (2000): Observation in Nursing Home Wards for People Suffering
from Dementia
(a) From Source A, identify two problems suffered by the elderly patients. [2]
(b) Identify two research methods that gather qualitative data. [2]
(c) Using information from Source A, describe two reasons why the data gathered might not be
accurate. [4]
(d) Describe two strengths of using interpretivist approaches in sociological research. [4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using laboratory experiments in sociological
research. [8]
(g) To what extent is observation the most effective method for gathering sociological data? [15]
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2 As a result of globalisation some societies have become multicultural but in other societies ethnic
minorities have not been accepted. Ethnicity like other forms of social identity, such as gender or
class, may impact on the roles of the individual.
(b) Describe two examples of cultural diversity between different societies. [4]
(c) Explain how a multicultural society can benefit its members. [6]
(e) To what extent does gender determine the roles individuals have in society? [15]
3 During the 1950s and 1960s Martin Luther King was a leader of the Civil Rights Movement in the
USA. Campaigns for equality still occur today in different parts of the world. In 2016 two Vietnamese
civil rights campaigners were jailed following peaceful protests.
(b) Describe two ways disabled people may experience inequality. [4]
(c) Explain how some ethnic groups are discriminated against. [6]
(d) Explain why some sociologists believe social class is less important today. [8]
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1(a) From Source A identify two problems suffered by the elderly patients. 2
Acceptable responses:
• memory loss
• confused thinking
• dementia
• any other reasonable answer.
One mark for each result correctly identified from Source A (up to a maximum
of two).
Possible answers:
• unstructured interview;
• semi structured interview;
• observation;
• field experiment;
• case study;
• focus groups/group interviews;
• open ended questionnaire
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each primary method correctly identified (up to maximum of
two).
1(c) Using information from Source A, describe two reasons why the data 4
gathered might not be accurate.
Possible answers:
• the elderly patients may know that they are being studied and hence may
change their behaviour (Hawthorne Effect) so will effect accuracy;
• going native/becoming too involved may impact the judgement of the
researcher when recording data – ‘But it can be hard not to become too
emotionally involved’;
• researcher bias/loss of objectivity – her observations were influenced by
what she felt ‘might have seen and heard things differently because of
positive or negative feelings’;
• respondents may have given false information because of their state of
mind: ‘The ageing patients suffered a range of problems including
memory loss and confused thinking’;
• ‘Adapted from a study by Declercq (2000)’ – the data may not pertain to
‘now’ as the study is over 20 years old.
• problems of accuracy associated with recording and writing up large
amounts of data – ‘over several months’;
• any other reasonable answer.
One mark for each point correctly identified from the source (up to a maximum
of two).
One mark for each point that is correctly developed (up to a maximum of
two).
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Possible answers:
One mark for each strength correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each strength that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
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1(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using laboratory experiments 8
in sociological research. [8]
Strengths:
Limitations:
One mark for each strength correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each strength that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each limitation correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each limitation that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
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Possible responses:
• quantitative data can be expressed in numerical form and presented in
charts and tables which enable positivists to determine patterns and
trends;
• positivists prefer a scientific approach to research and this is best served
by quantitative data as it measures social phenomena;
• positivists emphasise the need for reliability and so use structured and
standardised research methods that provide quantitative data;
• quantitative data gathered systematically enables hypotheses to be re-
tested;
• positivists emphasise the importance of representativeness because they
wish to discover general patterns and trends. Representativeness is best
achieved by using methods that gather large scale quantitative data such
as surveys or postal questionnaires;
• quantitative data allows positivists to draw cause and effect conclusions;
• in positivist research sociologists tend to look for correlations between
two or more variables. This is known as the comparative method which is
best served by using quantitative data;
• quantitative data is often less demanding for the respondent and
therefore quantitative methods like closed questionnaires are more
convenient to use;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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1(g) To what extent is observation the most effective method for gaining 15
sociological data?
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One mark for partial definition, e.g. a group that is smaller than the main
group
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. a smaller group whose race, culture,
religion are different from the majority in society.
Possible responses:
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Possible responses:
• out of this cultural diversity comes a greater respect for each other’s
culture as people live and work next to others with different norms and
values;
• positive hybrid identities may emerge as a result of different cultures
encountering each other, e.g. subcultural styles, fusion in clothing or
foods;
• greater tolerance for different cultures and thus a more harmonious
society;
• a far more interesting and diverse society in terms of languages and
cultural products like clothing and cuisine;
• individuals are able to practise whatever religion they choose and this is
seen by some as a basic right;
• individuals can engage in other cultural practices, e.g. eating curry in the
UK and this is an enriching experience;
• individuals are able to wear what they want, to eat what they want and
thus muticulturalism offers greater liberty for individuals in their chosen
lifestyles;
• multiculturalism enables different beliefs and value systems to co-exist,
difference is not only tolerated but celebrated;
• multiculturalism makes a society more open to change as diverse
influences are brought to bear on culture and its norms and values;
• young people grow up accepting that diversity is normal, that everyone is
entitled to live life the way they want;
• any other reasonable response
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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Possible answers:
• school provides a place where children from all different cultural
backgrounds can come together, enabling greater understanding and
tolerance to develop amongst the young;
• formal curriculum – all children have access to the same learning
opportunities and are encouraged to develop skills freely, thus providing
opportunities for social advancement and mobility;
• the hidden curriculum – all children learn common norms and
values/social expectations which leads to a consensus in wider society;
• through enrichment subjects like PSHE children are taught to respect
everybody regardless of their background and this aids social cohesion;
• education, the media, etc. develops the work of primary socialisation in
terms of morality – teaching us right from wrong;
• the media reinforces accepted norms and values by showing
representations of acceptable and non-acceptable behaviour;
• religion is based upon strong moral codes that show individuals how to
behave and this can shape or even transform an individual’s attitudes and
conduct;
• in the workplace sanctions and rewards may be offered to make us
conform to acceptable behaviours;
• any other reasonable response
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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2(e) To what extent does gender determine the roles individuals have in 15
society?
Possible answers:
For:
Against:
Postmodernists would argue that gender no longer shapes future roles, e.g.
modern-day families are more diverse and so role models are shifting with an
increasing number of dual income families and stay-at-home dads;
• the patriarchal society has been challenged through laws (Sex
Discrimination Act, Equal Pay Act) which leads to less constraint of
gender over roles;
• Marxists argue that social class is more important in determining your role
in society as children suffering poverty or material deprivation are at a
serious disadvantage in terms of their education and hence any future
roles they play in the workplace;
• ethnic background is more important in determining your role in society,
so racism can impact negatively upon a child’s educational achievement
and this their future life chances and job roles;
• notions of hegemonic masculinity are shifting so men are less
constrained by traditional gender roles and can now, for example, do
stereotypically female roles such as nursing or become house husbands
supporting their working partner;
• change in workplace from industrial to service sector has shifted gender
segregation in the workplace allowing both women and men to have
different roles at work;
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2(e) • the national curriculum teaches girls and boys the same things so they
acquire the same skills for future roles, thus minimising any gender effect;
• new female leaders offering aspirational role models (Theresa May,
Angela Merkel, Hillary Clinton) contribute to a wider range of roles for
women in society’;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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Two marks for clear definition, e.g. Rights that protect the freedoms of
individuals.
Possible answers:
• disabled people are less likely to be in paid employment and this is an
equality in itself and will also lead to other income-related inequalities
such as poverty;
• the income of disabled people is on average less than half that of non-
disabled people, limiting life chances;
• disabled people are more likely than non-disabled people to have no
educational qualifications and this then impacts upon their subsequent
opportunities;
• disabled people say they have experienced hate crime simply for the way
that they look and this can have a profound psychological effect;
• much of the social housing stock is unsuitable for disabled people and so
they may be living in sub-standard accommodation;
• disabled people are still often stereotyped in the media as helpless and
dependent, reinforcing pre-existing negative labels;
• disabled people have less physical access to public transport and this
minimises both their social opportunities and also their ability to travel to
work;
• any other reasonable response
One mark for each way identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each
description (up to a maximum of two).
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Possible answers:
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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3(d) Explain why some sociologists believe social class is less important 8
today.
Possible answers:
• Weberian sociologists argue that market situation is more important than
social class in and of itself – for example income, degree of security and
chances of advancement in a particular job or career;
• feminists argue that gender is more important than class as sexism cuts
across all classes, moreover they argue that traditional views of social
class are gender blind;
• the notion that ‘we are all middle class now’ suggests that class does not
matter, so as traditional working class jobs have disappeared
embourgeoisement has occurred effectively neutralising class issues;
• postmodernists argue that Identities are shaped by consumption not
class, e.g. owning the latest iPhone or similar status symbols says more
about us than our job or income;
• functionalists argue that society is meritocratic – everyone reaches the
level their ability and level of effort allows, e.g. because there is free
education if you work hard you can get to the top regardless of your
background thus class does not determine your life chances;
• some sociologists argue that other inequalities are more important, e.g.
ethnicity and age can more important to your life chances than your social
class;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak
point.
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Arguments For:
• people in modern industrial societies are born equal with the same basic
civil and legal rights – so are not legally discriminated against, so the
framework is there for them to achieve;
• many people have access to free health care – which enables equality of
opportunity for those with health issues;
• those who work hard and have talent do succeed and this is functional for
society – Davis and Moore role allocation theory;
• intrageneration mobility: there is much evidence of the success of self-
made men/women that illustrates that social mobility is possible –
examples such Alan Sugar or Theresa May;
• the embourgoisement thesis suggests that the old working class are now
accessing good wages and adopting more middle class lifestyles and
values, this is evidence of upward social mobility;
• measures of success in education are applied evenly to all – for example
the national curriculum and standardised testing in the UK – thus allowing
for minority groups to succeed;
• any other reasonable response.
Against:
• the operation of social capital (Bordieu) via ‘the old boy’s network’ shows
that rewards and social status are not always the result of talent and
effort but social connections;
• in some societies wealth and status determine access to education/jobs –
wealth and status may be ascribed not achieved, e.g access to top
private schools and universities;
• prejudice and discrimination still exist in all areas of life – these
disadvantage certain groups in society and prevent them from achieving
social mobility;
• poverty trap/dependency culture – if the poor find themselves trapped in
poverty this is a barrier to climbing the social ladder and hence works
against meritocracy;
• welfare state provides money for all regardless of talent – this is not a
system based on meritocracy;
• patriarchy as a structural force – feminist theories related to the
unfairness of a society that operates for the benefit of men and which
effectively hampers women from becoming all that they can be;
• evidence of the glass ceiling in the workplace – this prevents women and
ethnic minorities from realising their potential and attaining higher pay
and status as they suffer discrimination in gaining promotion;
• institutional racism – e.g. in the police force, the unequal application of
the law prevents some groups from rising in society as they continue to
face negative labelling and targeting;
• in some ‘traditional’ societies jobs, power and status are bequeathed –
meaning that positions in society are more related to ascribed features
not achieved features;
• Marxists argue for ‘the myth of meritocracy’, i.e. class inequalities are so
ingrained and pervasive that true meritocracy is impossible;
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3(e) • feminists argue that women face barriers and discrimination in many
areas of society, e.g. the family they are socialised into stereotypical
gender roles which immediately limit their future roles and aspirations,
e.g. expectations about being a housewife and mother;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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Cambridge O Level
SOCIOLOGY 2251/12
Paper 1 October/November 2021
2 hours
INSTRUCTIONS
• Answer two questions in total:
Section A: answer Question 1.
Answer either Question 2 from Section B or Question 3 in Section C.
• Follow the instructions on the front cover of the answer booklet. If you need additional answer paper,
ask the invigilator for a continuation booklet.
INFORMATION
• The total mark for this paper is 80.
• The number of marks for each question or part question is shown in brackets [ ].
11_2251_12_2021_1.2
© UCLES 2021 [Turn over
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2
Answer Question 1
1 Laboratory experiments are a type of methodology used in sociology. Positivists argue laboratory
experiments are the only method where causation can be proved. However, the method is rarely
used because of practical issues such as cost and ethical issues such as informed consent and
harm. One example of a laboratory experiment was controversial because it experimented on
children and how they learn aggressive behaviour.
In this experiment a sample of 36 boys and 36 girls aged between 3 and 6 were selected. The
children were observed before the experiment began so researchers could rate how aggressive
each child was. Four groups of children were compared in the experiment in order to measure the
effects of watching violent behaviour. The three groups who were shown violence went on to imitate
the violent behaviour. The fourth group was not shown any violence and did not behave aggressively
in the experiment.
The experiment was highly standardised and able to be repeated. In the laboratory researchers
were able to control variables to make comparisons and gather objective data. The conclusion of
the study was that children who see violence are more likely to behave violently.
Source A
(a) From Source A identify two ethical issues with laboratory experiments. [2]
(b) Identify two methods that could be used to gain quantitative data, apart from laboratory
experiments. [2]
(c) Using information from Source A, describe two reasons why the laboratory experiment was
a useful method. [4]
(d) Describe two strengths of using longitudinal studies in sociological research. [4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using triangulation in sociological research. [8]
(f) Explain why some sociologists criticise the data gathered from unstructured interviews. [10]
(g) To what extent is the consensus view more useful than the conflict view for understanding
society? [15]
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3
2 Sociologists debate whether primary or secondary socialisation is more influential. However, all
societies use sanctions to control individuals. Some sociologists believe sanctions are used differently
depending on the class, ethnicity, age or gender of the individual. It has also been argued that
globalisation is changing cultures and affecting people’s lifestyles.
(c) Explain how negative sanctions are used to control individuals. [6]
(e) To what extent is secondary socialisation more influential than primary socialisation for an
individual? [15]
3 Sociologists argue that as countries become modern and industrial they change from being closed
societies to open societies. One of the reasons for this change is the rise of equal opportunities
legislation. Despite changes in legislation, inequality still exists for women, minority ethnic groups
and lower social classes.
(d) Explain why racial discrimination may be negative for an individual. [8]
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1(a) From Source A identify two ethical issues with laboratory experiments. 2
Possible responses:
• informed consent
• harm
• encouraging violence in children
One mark for each ethical issue correctly identified from Source A (up to a
maximum of two).
1(b) Identify two methods that could be used to gain quantitative data, 2
apart from laboratory experiments.
Possible responses:
• questionnaire
• survey
• semi-/structured interview
• content analysis
• comparative studies
• field experiment
• non-participant observation
• any other reasonable response
One mark for each method correctly identified (up to maximum of two).
1(c) Using information from Source A, describe two reasons why the 4
laboratory experiment was a useful method.
Possible responses:
• experiments are the only method where causation can be proved – this
is because variables can be controlled to determine their impact upon
one another;
• researchers were able to gather objective data -objective data is seen
as more scientific and is valued by positivists because the findings are
less likely to be biased;
• the children were observed before the experiment began so
researchers could rate how aggressive each child was, by
predetermining the children’s level of aggressiveness in the natural
environment they could tell if respondents had been unduly affected by
the experimental environment;
• the experiment was highly standardised and able to be repeated this
means the data is likely to be reliable and findings could be tested in
subsequent experiments;
• laboratory researchers were able to control variables and so they would
be able to determine cause and effect relationships or correlations in
their data;
• four groups of children were compared/to make comparisons
experiments enable different groups/controlled variables to be
compared to one another;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each reason correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One
mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
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Possible responses:
• longitudinal studies offer more than just a snapshot of society, they can
show us how people’s lives change over time;
• it becomes possible to see what factors may have brought about
change over time;
• they give the opportunity for researchers to study various factors over
time, hence they are often said to be in depth;
• because the respondents have to be committed to the research there is
a good chance they will provide valid data;
• they are effective for discovering patterns and trends over time and can
therefore be used to inform government policy;
• they are a flexible method that allows for a change of focus as the
research progresses;
• they are a flexible method that can obtain both qualitative and
quantitative data;
• researchers may develop relationships/rapport with the respondents so
data may be more valid as trust has been built up;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each strength correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
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Strengths:
• allows the researcher to support quantitative data with qualitative
data/examples;
• it can be used to check the validity of the research using either two or
more qualitative methods or supplementing quantitative with qualitative
methods;
• it can be used to check the reliability of the research using different
sources to cross-check information;
• it can provide balance between methods, where one may be weaker
than the another in that particular area of research;
• triangulation expands the research in a way that a single approach can’t
– offering more data and a more holistic picture;
• any other reasonable response.
Limitations:
• using several methods is more time consuming than only using one
method;
• using more than one method is more expensive as it takes up more
researcher time/resources;
• the researcher needs to be skilled in several research methods;
• positivist and interpretivist approaches are based on very different
ideas, so it may be difficult to combine them in one piece of research;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each strength correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each strength that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each limitation correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each limitation that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
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1(f) Explain why some sociologists criticise the data gathered from 10
unstructured interviews.
Possible responses:
• the data might be impacted by interviewer bias because the interviewer
may misinterpret the respondent’s answer (intentionally or not) and
therefore data will lack validity;
• the data might be impacted by the interviewer effect because the social
characteristics of the interviewer may have unforeseen effects on the
respondent and influence the data gained;
• because respondents may give socially desirable answers or lie, this
will affect the validity of the data gathered;
• because leading questions can pressure respondents to give untruthful
responses which affects the validity of the data;
• positivists would be critical of data gathered from unstructured
interviews because it would lack reliability;
• positivists would be critical of in-depth data gathered from unstructured
interviews because it doesn’t help to identify trends and patterns;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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1(g) To what extent is the consensus view more useful than the conflict
view for understanding society?
Arguments for:
• in general societies operate smoothly and this is evidence of the
importance of value consensus amongst people;
• agencies of secondary socialisation operate across all areas of society
socialising individuals into shared norms and values;
• schools inculcate values into pupils via the hidden curriculum and this
encourages individuals to conform to the norms of society;
• law and order is enforced equally so all share a consensus about what
is right and wrong;
• functionalists suggest if people did not share a value consensus then
we would be in a state of anomie – we see this in riots etc.;
• families socialise individuals into norms and values and although there
may be variations at one level there is a general consensus about what
is right and wrong between the majority;
• some societies have a single dominant religion and so the individuals
are faced with a consensus view of morals and values and they also
share in the same religious festivals e.g. Christmas and Easter;
• functionalists argue that society is meritocratic and because of this
individuals accept stratification in society as fair and just;
• any other reasonable response.
Arguments against:
• Marxists argue that the relationship between the classes is not
consensual but exploitative and that the working class are working to
provide profit for the wealthy;
• feminists argue that there is a fundamental conflict at the heart of
society between men and women;
• feminists argue that the relationship between the sexes is not based on
consensus but rather that women are controlled by men in a patriarchal
society;
• schools do not instil consensus into children via the hidden curriculum
but rather they operate ideologically to get the working classes to
accept the status quo;
• law and order is not enforced equally with white collar crime largely
ignored whist the police target the working classes;
• many institutions are inherently sexist and operate to maintain unequal
relations between the sexes;
• many institutions are inherently racist and operate to maintain unequal
relations between different ethnicities;
• Marxists argue that there is a fundamental conflict at the heart of
society between the upper class and the working class
(bourgeoisie/proletariat);
• any other reasonable response.
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Possible responses:
• social media platforms – allow people to feel connected all around the
globe;
• fashion – market leading brands are worn and advertised in all parts of
the world;
• food – transnational corporations are able to offer similar food in outlets
across the globe, similarly Indian or Chinese food is being eaten around
the world;
• Bollywood/Hollywood – people around the world are exposed to the
same films and recognise the same movie stars;
• UN Human Rights – we all are entitled to the same rights; for example
gender based equal rights;
• any other reasonable response.
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Possible responses:
• police arrest – this can send a signal to the members of society to abide
by the law or face consequences;
• imprisonment – takes away the liberty of individuals who have broken
the law and ensures they can’t cause any more harm to society;
• punishments may be used to deter deviance or control future behaviour
by instilling fear of consequences;
• religion – fear of damnation in the next life controls individuals in the
present;
• education – the use of exclusions and detentions can control the
behaviour of disruptive individuals;
• workplace – the fear of being sacked and losing one’s income can
control the behaviour of people when at work;
• family – being grounded or having a favourite toy taken away are
sanctions that may be used to control children;
• peer group – members may ostracise individuals who don’t conform to
the group’s norms;
• media – groups may be negatively labelled;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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Possible responses:
• because Aries argued that childhood did not exist in medieval times in
the way it does today;
• because in medieval times children weren’t treated differently from
adults whereas nowadays children are treated differently;
• society imposes categories of age which makes people treat individuals
differently e.g. old people may be ‘viewed’ as fragile when they are not;
• because in the past children were exposed to ideas of death and
violence whereas today they are more likely to be protected (e.g. media
watershed);
• because in the industrial revolution children worked in factories whereas
in modern industrial societies they have to go to school and not work in
dangerous jobs;
• because in different cultures childhood is experienced very differently,
in some parts of the world a child might be a soldier or a bride but in
modern industrial societies this wouldn’t happen;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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Arguments for:
• the media is omnipresent and evidence shows that people spend
increasing amounts of time consuming media and many argue it has a
direct and long-lasting effect;
• religion in many societies is extremely powerful and so is able to dictate
the norms and values that should be upheld;
• secondary socialisation equips young people for the world beyond the
family e.g. school teaches skills and knowledge needed for the
workplace;
• due to our complex and ever-changing society people have to adapt to
new roles and hence often require re-socialisation e.g. joining the army;
• education has a huge effect on individuals in many different ways and
many people in modern industrial societies spend many years in
educational institutions;
• peer groups can exert pressure on individuals which can shape their
behaviours;
• the workplace often has its own norms and values and in order to get
on at work employees must adopt the appropriate behaviours and ways
of being;
• the agencies of law and order are able to control individuals and
influence their behaviour, ensuring people follow the law and legal
behaviour patterns;
• any other reasonable response.
Arguments against:
• primary socialisation is where we first learn norms and values and learn
to follow rules;
• the family is a key institution in shaping our identities, particularly our
gender identities;
• without a successful primary socialisation it would be unlikely that the
institutions of secondary socialisation would be effective;
• in modern industrial society children may receive primary socialisation
in nurseries/playgroups, it might be argued that some boundaries
between primary and secondary socialisation are breaking down;
• Parsons argues one of the two essential or irreducible functions of the
family is the primary socialisation of children and its importance can’t be
understated;
• strong emotional bonds in the family makes it effective in transmitting
norms and values;
• primary socialisation is the first form of socialisation and it is where we
learn to be human;
• any other reasonable response.
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Possible responses:
• Equal Pay Act – requires employers to pay men and women equal pay
for equal work;
• civil partnerships and single sex marriage – affords the opportunity for
same sex relationships to have the same legal status as heterosexual
relationships;
• access to maternity/paternity leave – affords the opportunity for both
mothers and fathers to take time off work;
• Disability Discrimination Act – promotes equality of opportunity for
people with disabilities by banning disability discrimination;
• Race Relations Act – banned racial discrimination in public places and
made the promotion of hatred on the grounds of colour, race, ethnic or
national origins an offence;
• age discrimination legislation – prevents discrimination on the basis of
age;
• the Equality Act 2010 – legally protects people from discrimination in
the workplace and in wider society;
• any other reasonable response.
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Possible responses:
• glass ceiling – women often face barriers to promotion which prevent
them from climbing the career ladder;
• concrete ceiling – the concrete ceiling is the barrier associated with
minority women that prevents them from making it far in the office work
place;
• dual burden/triple shift – women are often restricted to low paid or part
time jobs because of other conflicting roles such as wife and mother;
• gender pay discrimination – despite the Equal Pay Act in general
women earn less than men;
• patriarchal institutions – many women lack power and face sexist
attitudes as many workplaces remain patriarchal;
• gendered division of labour – this refers to the way work is divided
between men and women according to their gender roles;
• horizontal segregation – men and women find themselves in different
occupations such as men in construction and women in care work;
• vertical segregation – refers to the situation where men and women
work in the same occupation but men hold higher positions compared to
women;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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Possible responses:
• scapegoating is negative for an ethnic minority individual because they
come to be blamed and held responsible for problems in society;
• racial discrimination in the workplace is negative for the individual
because it denies them access to employment or promotion and can
leave the individual in poverty;
• ethnocentric curriculums may have a negative effect because they
make ethnic minority people feel disenfranchised from the education
process and hence they will have lower levels of attainment affecting
their future life chances;
• negative stereotyping in the media may be negative for the individual
because s/he will be negatively labelled on the basis of exaggerated
media representations;
• institutional racism in the police force may have a negative effect on an
individual because s/he is more likely to be arrested which can damage
future employment opportunities;
• apartheid is negative for an individual because s/he is kept separate
from the ethnic majority and forced to live in less affluent circumstances
and denied opportunities;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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Arguments for:
• many societies offer free education for all and so skills and training are
a route out of poverty;
• functionalists would argue society is meritocratic and so with hard work
and effort individuals can make their way out of poverty;
• government programmes such as welfare support aim to assist the poor
when they are unemployed helping the individual back to work and out
of poverty;
• there are many ways to climb the social ladder e.g. through marriage or
a lottery win;
• relative poverty is socially constructed and definitions may change over
time meaning an individual may no longer be judged as living in poverty
despite no real material change in their life;
• most modern industrial societies are open societies and therefore
social mobility is possible;
• any other reasonable response.
Arguments against:
• the poverty trap refers to a situation where the individual is stuck in
poverty and is unable to escape, because it is expensive to be poor;
• the poor are said to have a culture of poverty, this is where their values,
such as fatalism and immediate gratification, keep them in poverty;
• Marx would argue that the rich exploit the poor and because the poor
lack power they are unable to change the situation;
• Marx would argue the poor live in a state of false class consciousness
and are brainwashed to accept their status in society;
• feminists might argue that women are more likely to be in poverty than
men and are held back through sexist actions and patriarchal
institutions;
• despite education being available to all, those schools that provide
education to the poor lack the resources to affect change;
• poor children in schools might be labelled as failures and consequently
have low attainment levels and limited future life chances;
• cycle of poverty, the factors causing families poverty over generations
do not change and instead perpetuate it;
• any other reasonable response.
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SOCIOLOGY 2251/12
Paper 1 May/June 2022
2 hours
INSTRUCTIONS
• Answer two questions in total:
Section A: answer Question 1.
Answer either Question 2 in Section B or Question 3 in Section C.
• Follow the instructions on the front cover of the answer booklet. If you need additional answer paper,
ask the invigilator for a continuation booklet.
INFORMATION
• The total mark for this paper is 80.
• The number of marks for each question or part question is shown in brackets [ ].
06_2251_12_2022_1.1
© UCLES 2022 [Turn over
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2
Answer Question 1.
Source A
1 The table shows self-reported data on health in Great Britain from 2005 to 2011.
The data was gained from people aged 16 and over who filled in a questionnaire.
Table 1.1
Percentage who 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
reported their
general health was: % % % % % % %
Very Good 34 33 34 35 40 39 34
Good 41 43 43 40 39 40 43
Fair 18 17 17 16 15 15 18
Bad 6 5 5 4 5 5 5
Very Bad 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Adapted from source: General Lifestyle Survey, Office for National Statistics.
(a) From Source A identify the two years in which the highest number of people reported their
health as ‘very good’. [2]
(b) Identify two primary research methods useful for studying people’s health, apart from
questionnaires. [2]
(c) Using information from Source A, describe two problems with the data gathered on health.[4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of stratified sampling in research. [8]
(g) To what extent are ethical issues the most important factor when planning sociological research?
[15]
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3
2 Many sociologists investigate globalisation and its impact on the world. This leads to a debate about
whether increased multiculturalism is a strength or a weakness of modern industrial societies.
Despite these changes all societies still need to have agents of social control and agents of
socialisation.
3 Sociologists often research inequalities such as vertical segregation and scapegoating. Many
sociologists research ascribed status and how it affects life chances. Some sociologists consider
gender to be the most influential factor in social inequality. However, in many societies a welfare
state has been created to help individuals affected by some of these issues.
(b) Describe two ways the welfare state helps individuals in modern industrial societies. [4]
(c) Explain how some ethnic minority groups are scapegoated in society. [6]
(d) Explain why ascribed status can affect a person’s life chances. [8]
(e) To what extent is gender the most influential factor in social inequality? [15]
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1(a) From Source A identify the two years in which the highest number of 2
people reported their health as ‘very good’.
Acceptable answers:
• 2005 and 2006.
One mark for each correct year identified (up to a maximum of two).
1(b) Identify two primary research methods useful for studying people’s 2
health, apart from questionnaires.
Possible answers:
• interviews (any type);
• observations (any type);
• experiments;
• case studies;
• surveys;
• longitudinal studies;
• triangulation;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each method correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
1(c) Using information from Source A, describe two problems with the data 4
gathered on health.
Possible answers:
• surveys like the one in source A are based on self-reported data – this
may be highly inaccurate as participants may be unaware of underlying
health conditions or conversely exaggerate their level of ill-health;
• in source A the data has been taken only from people aged 16 and over
– this is unrepresentative of the whole population as it ignores children
and some teenagers;
• the information in source A is from 2005–11 so it is more than ten years
out of date, the situation could be very different today;
• the categories by which people are asked to rate their health (‘very
good’, ‘fair’ etc.) are subjective and open to differing interpretations thus
the data may be unreliable;
• the data is quantitative – we do not get detailed information on why
people rate their health as they do;
• the percentages in each year do not add up to one hundred suggesting
that some people may have given more than one answer which gives a
confusing answer;
• the sample sizes get smaller each year so there may be an increasing
issue with the representativeness of the sample and thus any ability to
generalise or the sample size is too small to represent the whole nation;
• the data is adapted from national statistics and hence it may have been
changed/modified and thus be inaccurate;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each problem that correctly references the source (up to a
maximum of two).
One mark for each problem that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
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Possible strengths:
• stratified sampling overcomes the problem that random samples are not
always representative in that the researcher is able to divide the
sampling frame into relevant categories such as age, gender etc.;
• stratified sampling may allow for more generalisability of findings given
the sample is likely to represent the target population in terms of its
subdivisions;
• a stratified approach allows correlations and comparisons to be made
between sub-sets of the population;
• it is still possible to maintain a randomised approach as random
samples can be taken once the sampling frame is divided, thus
reducing researcher bias in the sample selection;
• any other reasonable answer.
Possible limitations:
• a sampling frame may not be available for certain research populations
who are hard to reach (e.g. drug users) and so another form of
sampling, such as snowball, may be needed;
• it can be hard to stratify as accurate up-to-date population data may not
be available and it may be hard to identify people’s age or social
background effectively;
• it can be complex to do if several social characteristics are needed e.g.
age, gender, ethnicity, social class etc. and therefore requires some
skill;
• it is more complex to do than simple random sampling and hence takes
up more researcher time and money;
• stratified samples are prone to become skewed in cases of participant
drop out e.g. if many women dropped out of a study stratified by gender
this would make the sample uneven;
• any other reasonable answer.
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Possible answers:
• a large-scale study offers scope for multiple methods/triangulation and
thus can generate a huge amount of data leading to a more holistic
picture of social reality;
• positivists believe that we can only generalise from findings based on a
large sample otherwise it would be unsafe to extend any conclusions
from the sample to the wider research population;
• representativeness can only be achieved with a large sample,
particularly when studying different social groups, and an
unrepresentative sample would render any conclusions useless;
• positivists are interested in uncovering scientific, law-like social facts
which are generalisations based on large samples or many cases;
• positivists are interested in identifying patterns and trends in data in
order to make comparisons and large-scale quantitative methods, such
as surveys, are most likely to yield these;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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1(g) To what extent are ethical issues the most important factor when 15
planning sociological research?
Possible answers:
Arguments for:
• in qualitative research ethical issues are more prominent as there is
more face-to-face contact and probing of participants, so in this type of
interpretivist research ethics are far more important in planning than
with a purely quantitative positivist approach;
• it is often crucial to anticipate ethical issues to ensure funding from
outside bodies who may not wish to support an unethical study;
• it is wrong to harm participants either psychologically or physically and
this moral consideration must override all other considerations when
planning research;
• information must be kept private and confidential – this ethical issue is
core to the research process, as without it not only would researchers
be acting unethically but participants are less likely to take part or give
valid answers;
• deceiving people in the name of research is never justifiable on moral
grounds and may result in danger for the researcher should the
deception be uncovered, it is thus crucial to find a way to avoid this at
the planning stage;
• getting informed consent is a crucial right – people are more likely to
join a research project if they are clear about why it is important, how
data will be used etc.;
• ethical guidelines are particularly important when dealing with
vulnerable adults or young children as they may be more susceptible to
researcher effect and they may have special legal rights;
• any other reasonable response.
Arguments against:
• funding is a more important factor than ethical issues as without funding
the research project may not be able to take place at all;
• practical issues such as time, access to participants, researcher training
etc. are all more important than ethical issues as they are more
fundamental to the viability of the research project;
• sampling decisions are just as or more important than ethical issues as
without appropriate sampling techniques and proper access to samples
any results would be untenable because of a lack of representativeness
and thus generalisability;
• the choice of method is just as or more fundamental than ethical issues
as this will largely determine the quality of the data gathered and a
considered choice of methodology will avoid or minimise ethical issues
anyway;
• getting informed consent is not always possible or desirable – not
always possible if a researcher is observing a large number of people
and not always desirable as some important research may have to be
done covertly in order to maximise validity;
• deception may need to be employed in order to get people to act more
naturally e.g. in researching pupil behaviour a researcher may take on
the role of a teacher’s assistant in order to minimise the Hawthorne
Effect;
• the BSA gives ethical guidelines rather than rules and this is because
there are disagreements over what is and is not ethically acceptable so
whilst it is important to factor ethical issues in to planning it is not the
most important factor;
• any other reasonable response.
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Question Answer Marks
Possible answers:
• playing with gender stereotyped toys can channel boys and girls into
traditional gender identities e.g. boys playing with guns encourages
combative masculinity;
• parents channel their children into traditional gender identities through
their choice of books and videos e.g. Disney films in which the prince
saves the day and the world and the girl;
• children are encouraged into playing gender specific sports which
encourage traditional gender identities e.g. girls playing safer and
‘cleaner’ non-contact sports such as netball whilst boys do contact
sports such as rugby where they may get dirty and have contact with
other boys;
• physical activities seen as appropriate to the gender identity of females
such as dance or ballet class foster the idea that girls should be
graceful;
• ‘girly’ activities such as being encouraged to learn how to apply make-
up encourages girls to take pride in their appearance and achieve a
flawless look;
• canalisation is used in primary socialisation when children internalize
the gendered messages about their expected gender roles;
• any other reasonable response.
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Possible answers:
• schools perform a social control function through their system of
rewards and sanctions, reinforcing and extending the informal controls
established in primary socialisation and preparing children to integrate
into wider society;
• schools socialise children into social norms and values through the
hidden curriculum e.g. teaching them to be punctual, to dress
appropriately and to have a good work attitude and work ethic;
• mixing in peer groups at school helps children to see the importance of
fitting in and gives them a sense of belonging which aids their
integration into wider society;
• aspects of the formal curriculum give young people a sense of national
identity through, for example, learning their history, culture and national
literature as well as citizenship;
• schools prepare young people to enter the workplace by teaching them
the appropriate norms and values e.g. Bowles and Gintis
correspondence theory;
• schools socialise children into their gender identity through teacher
expectations, textbooks, dress codes, gender subject choices etc.;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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Possible answers:
Arguments for:
• multiculturalism allows smaller cultures to maintain their language and
cultural norms;
• a multicultural society encourages greater tolerance and understanding
of difference because culture is seen as something to be protected and
celebrated;
• multiculturalism brings diversification in cultural products – so there is
greater cultural diversity in foods, drink, dress, music etc. and this
enriches society as a whole;
• multiculturalism has historically brought a variety of skills and
knowledge into one country which may lead to increased
entrepreneurialism and trading opportunities;
• cities that are culturally diverse are often popular tourist destinations
e.g. London – many find the diversity enriching;
• any other reasonable response.
Arguments against:
• multiculturalism may lead to language barriers – if ethnic minorities
continue to speak their own language it may hold back their chances for
social mobility or their children’s chances of doing well in education
which means that inequalities continue from one generation to another;
• in some countries multiculturalism has led to increased nationalism,
often based on asserting the primacy of one culture – sometimes
leading to struggles for independence and the fracturing of nation
states;
• forced multiculturalism e.g. due to colonisation has often led to
conflict/racism between different ethnic communities;
• diversity of culture can lead to conflict as some argue that minority
cultures are given too many rights e.g. if they have the right to have
their children educated in their native language this may be expensive
to provide;
• some minority cultures may stay too separate from the host community
so there is too little integration resulting in a defensive mindset and
possibly to extremism;
• multiculturalism is too idealistic – it is unlikely that very different cultures
can co-exist harmoniously if they have radically different norms and
values;
• many countries in the West which have experienced high levels of
immigration are now using citizenship tests to ensure that people
understand the core culture, laws and history;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for a partial definition e.g. women not getting top jobs.
Two marks for a clear definition e.g. the idea that some social groups (e.g.
men or ethnic majorities) are more likely to achieve higher positions in a
social hierarchy.
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3(b) Describe two ways the welfare state helps individuals in modern 4
industrial societies.
Possible answers:
• welfare states redistribute wealth via taxation, taking more money from
the richer members of society and using this to fund initiatives and
benefits for the poorer members;
• old age pensions are a feature of welfare states and these give financial
support to individuals when they retire from work and their income is
thereby diminished;
• many welfare states provide unemployment benefit which gives some
financial protection to workers if they lose their jobs in an economic
downturn;
• many welfare states provide a health service which may be free at the
point of delivery – this ensures that all citizens have access to medicine
and treatment if they need it;
• free education is a feature of welfare states which enables those who
would otherwise be unable to educate their children to send them to
school and this enhances life chances;
• some welfare systems provide affordable social housing when
otherwise poorer people would struggle to pay for good quality housing;
• some welfare states provide support to disabled people to allow them to
maintain a basic standard of living e.g. medical aids, benefits or job
opportunities etc.;
• any other reasonable response.
3(c) Explain how some ethnic minority groups are scapegoated in society. 6
Possible answers:
• Marxists argue that the ruling class use the power of the media to
persuade the working class that immigrants and ethnic minorities are
the cause of unemployment whereas this is due to the workings of the
capitalist system;
• racist stereotypes depict some ethnic minorities as more liable to
engage in deviant and criminal behaviour, thus they may be seen as a
threat to society and become targeted by the agencies of formal social
control;
• in multicultural societies some ethnic groups are scapegoated as
‘terrorists’ and may suffer prejudice and discrimination because of this,
or are blamed for taking the jobs of the ethnic majority in times of
recession;
• New Right sociologists link some poorer ethnic minorities with an
underclass mentality, blaming their culture and values for poverty
instead of unjust social policies which lead to social exclusion;
• some ethnic minorities may be subject to scapegoating in employment
e.g. immigrants’ ethnic minorities;
some ethnic minorities may be subjected to an ethnocentric curriculum
which effectively scapegoats them as a minority;
• any other reasonable response.
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3(d) Explain why ascribed status can affect a person’s life chances. 8
Possible answers:
• royalty – being born into a ruling or royal family means that you
automatically have high status and invariably have more money and
power in comparison to those who have not been born into that
position;
• gender – being born a woman can mean less chance of being educated
to the same level as men, discrimination in the workplace etc. all of
which affects female life chances;
• being born into certain ethnic groups may mean that you face prejudice
and discrimination in the media e.g. labelled as ‘criminal’ which can
then lead to police targeting;
• age – young people and the elderly may face discrimination in the
workplace where they may not be employed (elderly) or face differential
wage rates (the young);
• in some closed societies individuals born into a low caste will tend to be
denied social mobility and face prejudice, whereas being born into a
high caste means a life of privilege and high status;
• in many societies social class is ascribed at birth and this can impact on
life chances both for the under/working class and also for the upper
class in terms of their access to things like education, social and
economic capital etc.;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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Possible answers:
Arguments for:
• sexism and prejudice against women – some argue that patriarchy is a
universal system of oppression that differs only in degree between
cultures;
• many women face a triple burden (Walby) of paid work, childcare and
emotional work supporting family members and this limits their life
chances;
• women suffer vertical segregation through the operation of the glass
ceiling and this operates across different social classes;
• women are subject to horizontal segregation by being channeled into
lower status, lower paid occupations such as caring, cleaning and
cooking;
• there are still educational gender inequalities in some countries with
women being discouraged from schooling and this limits their freedom
and ability to be independent;
• domestic violence blights the lives of many women and this cuts across
different social classes and cultures;
• Marxist feminists argue that women act as a reserve army of labour, so
many women often work part-time or on zero hours contracts which
means that they can be fired easily in times of economic recession;
• any other reasonable response.
Arguments against:
Marxists argue that social class is a more fundamental barrier to social
mobility than gender – the oppression of women is part of the deeper
problem of capitalism e.g. women’s support role within the family is
designed to support capitalist processes;
• structural barriers such as the cycle of poverty are more important as
obstacles to better life chances than simply gender e.g. rich women are
not subject to the grinding poverty of the underclass;
• disability is just as big a barrier to social mobility as gender with
disabled people suffering from stereotypes and social discrimination in
terms of access to services and the proper support and equipment to
function successfully in the workplace;
• ethnicity is just as important a factor in social inequality as gender –
Marxists argue that ethnic minorities are sometimes scapegoated in
times of economic crisis and this can lead to prejudice and
discrimination in the spheres of education and work, making it harder
for ethnic minorities to move upwards in society;
• equal opportunities legislation – functionalists argue that we live in a
meritocratic society e.g. women can get to the top of the social ladder
e.g. Teresa May, Christine Lagarde etc.;
• in a postmodern world gender identity is now no longer a constraint on
identity e.g. people identifying as non-binary, gender neutral/fluid etc.;
• any other reasonable response.
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Cambridge O Level
SOCIOLOGY 2251/12
Paper 1 October/November 2022
2 hours
INSTRUCTIONS
• Answer two questions in total:
Section A: answer Question 1.
Answer either Question 2 in Section B or Question 3 in Section C.
• Follow the instructions on the front cover of the answer booklet. If you need additional answer paper,
ask the invigilator for a continuation booklet.
INFORMATION
• The total mark for this paper is 80.
• The number of marks for each question or part question is shown in brackets [ ].
11_2251_12_2022_1.5
© UCLES 2022 [Turn over
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2
Answer Question 1
1 Source A
Some sociologists prefer to look at society as a whole and take a macro approach while others
prefer a micro approach where they can record the thoughts and feelings of individuals.
Taking a micro approach, a researcher began to investigate why young people smoke. After
discovering a younger relative had become a smoker, the researcher was interested to learn why
young people start to smoke and how it affects their identity. The researcher’s first task was to gain
access to a sample.
Finding a sample is not always easy if there is not a sampling frame. As young people are unlikely
to want to speak to a professional researcher with very different social characteristics, a snowball
sample was used. Once a sample was gained an overt participant observation was conducted.
(c) Using information from Source A, describe two reasons why the researcher chose to use
snowball sampling. [4]
(d) Describe two strengths of using focus groups in sociological research. [4]
(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using field experiments in sociological
research. [8]
(f) Explain why longitudinal studies can be useful for sociological research. [10]
(g) To what extent are official statistics useful for sociological research? [15]
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3
2 Children and young people have to learn how to behave in society. Negative sanctions are often
used to teach children right from wrong and help to create value consensus in society. Sanctions
have an important influence on lifestyles. However, societies are becoming more culturally diverse
and definitions of masculinity and femininity continue to change.
(e) To what extent does value consensus exist in modern industrial societies? [15]
3 Some sociologists claim that the poor are caught in a poverty trap. Other sociologists argue that
intergenerational social mobility is possible. Many governments try to help people in poverty by
redistributing wealth. However, even with policies to make society more equal, some people still
experience discrimination in the workplace, such as institutional racism.
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2251/12 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme October/November
PUBLISHED 2022
Acceptable responses:
• macro approach
• micro approach
Possible responses:
• diaries;
• census;
• letters;
• (auto)biographies;
• photographs;
• films;
• newspapers;
• magazines;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each historical document correctly identified (up to maximum
of two).
1(c) Using information from Source A, describe two reasons why the 4
researcher chose to use snowball sampling.
Possible responses:
• there wasn’t a sampling frame – finding a sample is not always easy
therefore a snowball sample was the only way to build a sample;
• young people are unlikely to want to speak to a professional researcher
– so a snowball sample allows new respondents to accept the
researcher because they are introduced via peers;
• a researcher with very different social characteristics to the sample may
find it difficult to recruit respondents and hence a snowball sample is
appropriate;
• discovering a younger relative had become a smoker – knowing only
one person in the survey population a snowball sample was the only
way to grow the sample;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for identifying an appropriate reason from the source (up to a
maximum of two).
One mark for developing an appropriate reason (up to a maximum of two).
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Possible responses:
• respondents are likely to feel more comfortable in a group and may
open up, talk more freely and in depth;
• a focus group is a group interview and is therefore less time-consuming
than one-on-one interviews;
• the interviewer can probe and ask further questions as appropriate;
• in focus groups researchers can interview a group for the same cost as
one and are thus a relatively cheap way to collect data;
• focus groups allow researchers to observe body language; this can tell
us something about their feelings about the conversation and may also
reveal whether they are telling the truth or not;
• focus groups allow researchers to observe interaction between multiple
participants and this may yield interesting data which may not have
arisen in a one-to-one situation;
• focus groups may be particularly useful for gaining information from
children, as they may feel reassured in the company of their peers and
hence be more open and honest;
• interpretivists/feminists use this method because it gives detailed
qualitative data, leading to higher validity;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each strength correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each strength correctly developed (up to a maximum of two).
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1(e) Describe two strengths and two limitations of using field experiments 8
in sociological research.
Possible responses:
Strengths:
• takes place in a real social setting so it offers a chance to see real-life
interaction leading to higher validity than artificial lab experiments such
as Milgram or Bandura;
• shows us how people behave in their natural surroundings offering
detail and in-depth data;
• it is possible to do field experiments in large institutions – in schools or
workplaces in which thousands of people interact for example, which
isn’t possible in laboratory experiments;
• researchers can manipulate the variables in the experiment to test and
measure a hypothesis;
• it may have fewer ethical problems than laboratory experiments e.g.
there may be less likelihood to experience harm;
• any other reasonable response.
Limitations:
• some forms of field experiment may have ethical issues if covert
research is done (e.g. Rosenthal and Jacobson);
• variables cannot be controlled as closely as in lab experiments,
resulting in lower reliability;
• it may create observer/Hawthorne effect – the group may change their
behaviour if they are aware they are being studied;
• it may not be representative if only one organisation/group is studied,
therefore difficult to make generalisations;
• it may be difficult to replicate all the variables and therefore field
experiments are low in reliability;
• practical issues – a field experiment may involve more cost than some
other methods due to the necessity for example for a skilled researcher;
• some field experiments may be longitudinal (e.g. Rosenthal and
Jacobson) and hence are time-consuming;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each strength correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each strength correctly developed (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each limitation correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each limitation correctly developed (up to a maximum of two).
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Possible responses:
• because it shows change over time, this allows researchers to spot
trends and patterns;
• because it is possible to identify social factors which have caused
change, this in turn enables research to inform social policy;
• because the participants have had to show commitment to the research
over a time, so it is more likely to be valid;
• researchers are committed to the project and hence are more likely to
develop a rapport with participants, enhancing validity;
• it allows greater insight over time, which may lead to verstehen/high
validity;
• because it allows a researcher to use qualitative and quantitative
methods it can glean all the benefits of triangulation e.g. more holistic
picture;
• because subjects act naturally, as they are used to being studied, this
can increase the validity;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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1(g) To what extent are official statistics useful for sociological research? 15
Possible responses:
Arguments for:
• they are often large scale and take account of most of the research
population therefore generalisations are possible;
• because they are readily available, often free of charge and on the
internet and therefore cheap and easy to use;
• governments spend much time and money collecting official statistics
e.g. the census, so the statistics are beyond the means of most primary
research budgets;
• as they are usually produced by research that is well planned and
organised, using large samples – they are likely to be valid, reliable and
representative;
• they are often part of longitudinal research so they show changes over
time, this makes it possible to identify trends;
• they are useful because they allow comparisons to be made, such as
between men and women or between different areas of a country;
• positivists recommend using official statistics arguing they are objective
and help us identify social facts;
• they are generally gathered by methods deemed to be reliable so
therefore data collection is repeatable for useful comparison;
• any other reasonable response.
Arguments against:
• the ‘Iceberg theory’, data that goes unreported/unrecorded (e.g. illegal
immigration) may mean that population data is inaccurate;
• political interference/government funding, i.e. findings are presented in
a way that is acceptable to the body funding the research;
• definitions of key terms used, e.g. unemployment can change over time
making comparisons less accurate;
• statistics take a long time to compile therefore may become quickly out
of date;
• interpretivists are likely to criticise their lack of validity, arguing that OS
might tell us ‘what’ but not ‘why’;
• any other reasonable response.
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PUBLISHED 2022
One mark for a partial definition, e.g. doing a physical job like construction.
Two marks for a clear definition, e.g. expected attitudes and behaviour
associated with being a man in a particular culture.
Possible responses:
• detentions in school;
• young offenders may be tagged, given a curfew or be given a custodial
sentence for juvenile crimes;
• exclusion from school;
• ostracism from peer groups;
• being told off by parents;
• being grounded/curfew;
• positive sanctions such as rewards and praise are used in the family
and schools;
• negative sanctions such as punishments given for breaking rules and
regulations in school or in the home;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each correctly identified point (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each point that is appropriately developed (up to a maximum
of two).
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Possible responses:
• language, the language spoken may vary between different cultural
groups;
• norms of dress and appearance can be very different between groups
for example in northern Paris many people can be seen wearing the
dashiki clothing of West Africa;
• food and drink, clearly signifies cultural diversity – this can be seen in
how people eat (e.g. chopsticks) or what people eat (e.g. halal);
• traditions such as rituals and festivals, these can differ across religious
groups e.g. Ramadan and Christmas;
• some societies have a variety of sub-cultures who may follow distinct
norms and values e.g. youth sub-cultures such as goths and punks;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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2251/12 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme October/November
PUBLISHED 2022
Possible responses:
• because girls are now encouraged to study the same subjects as boys
in school and are no longer doing traditional ‘feminine’ subjects such as
home economics which prepared them for future roles as housewives
and mothers;
• because the old divisions between expressive and instrumental roles
are breaking down so the traditional family roles for women are
changing;
• because patriarchal structures are breaking down with many societies
having strong and assertive female leaders e.g. New Zealand;
• because anti-discrimination laws have given women and girls the same
rights as men enabling them to break free from traditional roles;
• because positive role models e.g. in the media are inspiring women and
girls to take up new roles and deviate from traditional representations of
femininity;
• because gender identity is now contested, post-modernists argue the
boundaries between femininity and masculinity are breaking down;
• social stereotypes of women are now being challenged and are
breaking down, hence women are not just being defined as mothers
and carers for example;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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2251/12 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme October/November
PUBLISHED 2022
Possible responses:
Arguments for:
• functionalist theory argues the institutions in society work together to
instil shared values and social harmony;
• Marxist theories of ideological apparatus argue that the media create a
false class consciousness and in that sense there are still shared
capitalist values into society;
• different parts of a country share the same values, whether you live in
an urban or rural setting there are some shared values;
• processes of secondary socialisation see individuals learning common
norms and values;
• hidden curriculum in schools teaches all children the values of hierarchy
and respect for authority;
• a key role of the media is to reinforce shared values and norms of
behaviour;
• globalisation has led to a shared global cultural that disseminates
western values throughout the world;
• the formal agencies of social control ensure people observe the law and
thus demonstrate value consensus;
• equal opportunities and meritocracy in the workplace ensure that
people accept the values of achieved status;
• religion remains a powerful agency in society and religious morality is
seen in shared values in society;
• any other reasonable response.
Arguments against:
• particularistic values learned via primary socialisation are likely to be
different between families;
• Marxist and feminist theories argue society is based on conflict which
would suggest there isn’t value consensus;
• official crime statistics demonstrate that many people break the law and
thus don’t have value consensus;
• sub-cultures emerge which often have different values to the
mainstream society;
• societies are now multicultural and that cultural diversity brings with it a
diversity of values;
• values are constantly changing, things that weren’t acceptable in the
past e.g. same sex marriage are now viewed differently by different
members of society;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 4 [13–15 marks]
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of
the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as
accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will
be well-developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide
range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on
each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a
specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer
an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a
focused conclusion.
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2251/12 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme October/November
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One mark for a partial definition, e.g. doing better than your parents.
Two marks for a clear definition, e.g. movement between classes in society
from one generation to the next.
Possible responses:
• in healthcare women are more likely to be nurses whist men are more
likely to be consultants or doctors;
• in education more women are likely to be teachers compared to male
senior leaders;
• in retail more women are likely to work on the shop floor whilst men
work in management positions;
• in an organisation, such as the police, people from a particular ethnic
group or age cannot hold positions beyond a certain level in the
hierarchy;
• any other reasonable response.
One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each point appropriately developed (up to a maximum of two).
Possible responses:
• ethnic minorities are more likely to be arrested/targeted by the police;
• ethnic minorities are discriminated against in education e.g.
ethnocentric curriculum or teacher labelling;
• ethnic minorities may find it difficult to get jobs or promotion at work;
• ethnic minorities may be stereotyped negatively in the media;
• ethnic minorities may be denied access to social services such as
healthcare and housing;
• any other reasonable response.
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2251/12 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme October/November
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Possible responses:
• because morally it is seen as wrong to let some live in poor conditions
while others live in luxury;
• because welfare is a useful political tool that, according to Marxists,
prevents the working class from rising up;
• because governments can use redistribution promises to win votes at
election time;
• governments see welfare and wealth redistribution as necessary for
maintaining a society’s value system, according to functionalists;
• because some countries value reducing inequality (e.g. Scandinavian
countries) and wealth redistribution is an important part of fulfilling this;
• because the elderly may find it hard to generate money – governments
tax workers to support those who cannot work;
• any other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response.
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Question Answer Marks
Arguments against:
• the poor may find themselves becoming dependent on welfare and as
such sink into the underclass;
• a cycle of poverty exists where poverty tends to be inherited so the new
generation can’t escape the poverty of their parents;
• the poor cannot afford to travel to cheap supermarkets so they must
shop at expensive local shops;
• welfare benefits in some cases are more generous than low paid work
so many poor people choose to remain on benefits rather than entering
the job market;
• the poor cannot afford to buy in bulk which is cheaper so shopping is
more expensive keeping people in poverty;
• the poor cannot afford to insulate their homes so they pay more
proportionally in heating costs leaving them in poverty;
• the poor cannot afford to buy new things they purchase second-hand
goods which are likely to break down and need replacing which ends up
costing more money in the long run;
• the poor can’t always afford things like childcare so their opportunities
for paid employment are reduced so they can’t escape poverty;
• the poor can’t borrow money from a bank they have to borrow from
other lenders who charge more interest causing them to remain in
poverty;
• the poor must focus on work and this may reduce academic
opportunities for escaping poverty;
• the poor are often in employment that is low paid/skilled and has few
opportunities for promotion and hence limiting their chances for
escaping poverty;
• any other reasonable response.
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