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AgriculturAl
MechAnics
Fundamentals and Applications
7th edition
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Agricultural
Mechanics
Fundamentals and Applications
7th Edition
Ray V. Herren, Ed.D.
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed.
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ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
Ray V. Herren
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2018
tAble oF
contents
At A glAnce
Preface xiv
About the Author xxi
section 1 exploring careers in Agricultural Mechanics

unit 1 Mechanics in the World of Agriculture 2
unit 2 Career Options in Agricultural Mechanics 11
section 2 using the Agricultural Mechanics shop

unit 3 Shop Orientation and Procedures 26
unit 4 Personal Safety in Agricultural Mechanics 37
unit 5 Reducing Hazards in Agricultural Mechanics 50
unit 6 Shop Cleanup and Organization 61
section 3 hand Woodworking and Metalworking

unit 7 Hand Tools, Fasteners, and Hardware 72
unit 8 Layout Tools and Procedures 97
unit 9 Selecting, Cutting, and Shaping Wood 119
unit 10 Fastening Wood 138
unit 11 Finishing Wood 153
unit 12 Identifying, Marking, Cutting, and Bending Metal 165
unit 13 Fastening Metal 183
section 4 Power tools in the Agricultural Mechanics shop

unit 14 Portable Power Tools 202
unit 15 Woodworking with Power Machines 224
unit 16 Adjusting and Maintaining Power Woodworking
Equipment 247
unit 17 Metalworking with Power Machines 259
section 5 Project Planning

unit 18 Sketching and Drawing Projects 272
unit 19 Figuring a Bill of Materials 289
unit 20 Selecting, Planning, and Building a Project 300
section 6 tool Fitting

unit 21 Repairing and Reconditioning Tools 314
unit 22 Sharpening Tools 327
v
vi Table of Contents at a Glance
Section 7 Gas Heating, Cutting, Brazing, and Welding

Unit 23 Using Gas Welding Equipment 342
Unit 24 Cutting with Oxyfuels and Other Gases 352
Unit 25 Brazing and Welding with Oxyacetylene 364
Section 8 Arc Welding

Unit 26 Selecting and Using Arc Welding Equipment 382
Unit 27 Arc Welding Mild Steel and GMAW/GTAW Welding 394
Section 9 Painting
Unit 28 Preparing Wood and Metal for Painting 424
Unit 29 Selecting and Applying Painting Materials 436
Section 10 Power Mechanics

Unit 30 Fundamentals of Small Engines 454
Unit 31 Small Engine Maintenance and Repair 468
Unit 32 Diesel Engines and Tractor Maintenance 491
Section 11 Electricity and Electronics

Unit 33 Electrical Principles and Wiring Materials 504
Unit 34 Installing Branch Circuits 522
Unit 35 Electronics in Agriculture 534
Unit 36 Electric Motors, Drives, and Controls 551
Section 12 Plumbing, Hydraulic, and Pneumatic Systems

Unit 37 Plumbing 574
Unit 38 Irrigation Technology 594
Unit 39 Hydraulic, Pneumatic, and Robotic Power 608
Section 13 Concrete and Masonry

Unit 40 Concrete and Masonry 624
Section 14 Agricultural Structures

Unit 41 Planning and Constructing Agricultural Structures 646
Unit 42 Aquaculture, Greenhouse, and Hydroponics Structures 670
Unit 43 Fence Design and Construction 684
Appendix A Projects 700

Appendix B Data Tables 763
Appendix C Supervised Agricultural Experience 787
Appendix D National FFA Career Development Events
and Leadership Events 799
Glossary/Glosario 801
Index 848
Contents
Preface xiv
About the Author xxi
Section 1 Exploring Careers in Agricultural Mechanics

Unit 1 Mechanics in the World of Agriculture 2
The Role of Agricultural Mechanics 5
The Influence of Mechanization 5
Summary 8
Unit 2 Career Options in Agricultural Mechanics 11
Agriculture Is Number One 13
Agricultural Divisions 14
Career Selection 16
Agricultural Education Programs 18
Meeting the Challenge 20
Summary 22
Section 2 Using the Agricultural Mechanics Shop

Unit 3 Shop Orientation and Procedures 26
The Shop as a Place to Learn 27
Policies for Safe Procedures in the Shop 32
Summary 34
Unit 4 Personal Safety in Agricultural Mechanics 37
Safety in the Workplace 38
Safety Colors 40
Focal Colors 42
Protective Clothing and Devices 42
Summary 47
Unit 5 Reducing Hazards in Agricultural Mechanics 50
Reducing Fire Hazards 51
Extinguishing Fires 52
Signs of Danger 55
Emergencies or Accidents 57
Summary 58
Unit 6 Shop Cleanup and Organization 61
A Clean and Orderly Shop 62
Reasons for Keeping the Shop Clean 62
Equipment and Containers Useful for Shop Cleanup 63
Techniques for Effective Cleaning 64
Shop Cleanup Systems 65
Summary 68
vii
viii Contents
Section 3 Hand Woodworking and Metalworking

Unit 7 Hand Tools, Fasteners, and Hardware 72
Tool Classifications 73
Fasteners 81
Hardware 90
Summary 92
Unit 8 Layout Tools and Procedures 97
Materials Used for Layout Tools 99
Systems of Measurement 100
Measuring Tools 101
Squares and Their Uses 105
Squaring Large Areas 109
Dividers and Scribers 110
Levels 110
Lines 110
Using Patterns 111
Summary 115
Unit 9 Selecting, Cutting, and Shaping Wood 119
Characteristics of Wood and Lumber 121
Cutting and Shaping Wood with Saws 129
Cutting and Shaping Wood with Boring and Drilling Tools 131
Cutting a Board to Width 132
Cutting Dados and Rabbets 134
Summary 135
Unit 10 Fastening Wood 138
Types of Joints 139
Fastening with Nails 140
Fastening with Screws 143
Fastening with Bolts 147
Fastening with Glue 147
Using Dowel Pins 148
Summary 150
Unit 11 Finishing Wood 153
Preparing Wood for Finishes 154
Applying Clear Finishes 157
Wood Stains 159
Solvents and Thinners 160
Use and Care of Brushes 161
Summary 163
Unit 12 Identifying, Marking, Cutting, and Bending Metal 165
Identifying Metals 167
Marking Metal 171
Cutting Metal 172
Bending Metal 177
Summary 180
Unit 13 Fastening Metal 183
Making Holes in Metal 184
Threading Metal 187
Fastening Metal Using Bolts and Screws 191
Contents ix
Fastening with Rivets 192

Fastening Metals with Solder 193
Summary 197
Section 4 Power Tools in the Agricultural Mechanics Shop

Unit 14 Portable Power Tools 202
Safety Precautions 203
Power Cords 204
Air-Driven Tools 205
Portable Drills 208
Portable Sanders 210
Portable Saws 214
Power Routers 218
Summary 220
Unit 15 Woodworking with Power Machines 224
Safety with Power Machines 225
Band Saw 226
Jigsaw 228
Table Saw 230
Radial-Arm Saw 234
Miter Saws 236
Jointer 237
Planers 239
Sanders 241
Summary 242
Unit 16 Adjusting and Maintaining Power Woodworking 247
Equipment
Adjusting the Table Saw 249
Adjusting the Band Saw 251
Adjusting the Jointer 253
Adjusting the Planer 255
Summary 257
Unit 17 Metalworking with Power Machines 259
The Drill Press 260
Grinder 261
Metal-Cutting Power Saws 264
Power Shears 266
Metal Benders 267
Summary 267
Section 5 Project Planning

Unit 18 Sketching and Drawing Projects 272
Representing by Sketching and Drawing 273
Elements of a Plan 275
Scale Drawing 277
Making a Three-View Drawing 279
Summary 286
Unit 19 Figuring a Bill of Materials 289
Components of a Bill of Materials 290
Units of Measure 291
x Contents
Calculating Board Feet 292

Pricing Materials 295
Summary 297
Unit 20 Selecting, Planning, and Building a Project 300
Purposes of Projects 301
Scope of Projects 301
Selecting a Project 303
Preparing a Plan 304
Design 304
Summary 310
Section 6 Tool Fitting

Unit 21 Repairing and Reconditioning Tools 314
Protecting Tool Surfaces 316
Repairing Damaged Tools 318
Summary 325
Unit 22 Sharpening Tools 327
Tools Used for Sharpening 328
Cutting Edges 329
Testing for Sharpness 330
Sharpening Tools 330
Summary 337
Section 7 Gas Heating, Cutting, Brazing, and Welding

Unit 23 Using Gas Welding Equipment 342
General Safety with Compressed Gases 343
Summary 350
Unit 24 Cutting with Oxyfuels and Other Gases 352
Oxyfuel Processes 353
Characteristics of Oxyfuels 353
Cutting Steel with Oxyfuels 355
Plasma Arc Cutting 361
Summary 362
Unit 25 Brazing and Welding with Oxyacetylene 364
Basics of Soldering, Brazing, and Fusion Welding 365
Brazing and Braze-Welding Procedures 369
Fusion Welding with Oxyacetylene 373
Summary 377
Section 8 Arc Welding

Unit 26 Selecting and Using Arc Welding Equipment 382
Arc Welding Process and Principles 383
Welding Equipment 385
Electrodes 389
Summary 392
Unit 27 Arc Welding Mild Steel and GMAW/GTAW Welding 394
Safety Procedures 395
Setting Up 397
Striking the Arc 398
Running Beads 400
Welding Joints 402
Contents xi
Welding in Various Positions 406

Welding Pipe 408
Piercing, Cutting, and Spot Welding 409
GMAW Welding 410
Automated and Robotic Welding 418
Summary 418
Section 9 Painting
Unit 28 Preparing Wood and Metal for Painting 424
Preservatives 426
Preparing Wood for Painting 426
Steam Cleaning Machinery 428
Preparing Machines for Painting 430
Masking for Spray Painting 432
Estimating Paint Jobs 432
Summary 433
Unit 29 Selecting and Applying Painting Materials 436
Selecting Paint 437
Using Brushes 439
Using Rollers 441
Using Aerosols 443
Spray-Painting Equipment 444
Spray-Painting Procedures 446
Summary 450
Section 10 Power Mechanics

Unit 30 Fundamentals of Small Engines 454
Types of Combustion Engines 455
Engine Systems 459
Summary 465
Unit 31 Small Engine Maintenance and Repair 468
Tools for Engine Repair 469
Maintenance of Small Engine Systems 469
Troubleshooting and Repair 476
Summary 483
Unit 32 Diesel Engines and Tractor Maintenance 491
How a Diesel Engine Operates 492
Maintaining Diesel Engines and Farm Tractors 494
Summary 501
Section 11 Electricity and Electronics

Unit 33 Electrical Principles and Wiring Materials 504
Principles of Electricity 505
Electrical Safety 509
Electrical Wiring 510
Summary 519
Unit 34 Installing Branch Circuits 522
The Entrance Panel 524
Wiring Boxes 524
xii Contents
Wiring a Switch and Light 526

Testing a Circuit 528
Wiring Lights with Three-Way Switches 529
Summary 532
Unit 35 Electronics in Agriculture 534
Development of Electronics 536
Principles of Electronics 537
Agricultural Applications 545
Food Distribution 547
Strategies for Maintaining Electronics Equipment 548
Summary 548
Unit 36 Electric Motors, Drives, and Controls 551
Selecting Electric Motors 552
Interpreting Nameplate Information 555
Motor Drives 555
Electric Motor Controls 558
Maintaining Motors, Drives, and Controls 569
Summary 569
Section 12 Plumbing, Hydraulic, and Pneumatic Systems

Unit 37 Plumbing 574
Tools for Plumbing 575
Identifying, Selecting, and Connecting Pipe 577
Identifying Pipe Fittings 582
Maintaining Water Systems 582
Summary 591
Unit 38 Irrigation Technology 594
Irrigation Planning 595
Water Requirements 595
Irrigation Systems 596
Managing Irrigation 602
Summary 605
Unit 39 Hydraulic, Pneumatic, and Robotic Power 608
Principles of Fluid Dynamics 609
Hydraulic Systems 614
Filtering Systems 617
Pneumatic Systems 618
Robotics 618
Summary 620
Section 13 Concrete and Masonry

Unit 40 Concrete and Masonry 624
Masonry Construction 625
Concrete Construction 625
Mixing Concrete 628
Estimating Materials for a Job 630
Preparing Forms for Concrete 630
Insulating Concrete Floors 631
Making Joints 632
Reinforcing Concrete 632
Contents xiii
Pouring, Finishing, and Curing Concrete 633

Laying Masonry Units 635
Summary 642
Section 14 Agricultural Structures

Unit 41 Planning and Constructing Agricultural Structures 646
Planning Agricultural Buildings 647
Constructing Agricultural Buildings 649
Building Materials 649
Laying out Stairs and Rafters 657
Insulating Agriculture Structures 658
Rope Work in Agricultural Settings 663
Summary 666
Unit 42 Aquaculture, Greenhouse, and Hydroponics Structures 670
Environmental Structures Used in Aquaculture 671
Greenhouses 675
Hydroponics 680
Summary 681
Unit 43 Fence Design and Construction 684
Early Uses of Fences 685
Modern Fences 686
Constructing Fences 691
Summary 693
Appendix A Projects 700

Appendix B Data Tables 763
Appendix C Supervised Agricultural Experience 787
Appendix D National FFA Career Development Events
and Leadership Events 799
Glossary/Glosario 801
Index 848
Preface
Agricultural mechanics is one of the most widely substitute teachers. It also provides easy methods to
taught courses in agricultural education programs. It assess student progress. Each unit is part of a sec-
is taught in all 50 states and is considered to be among tion, and each includes (1) a statement of objective,
the most useful courses taught. Like any applied sci- (2) competencies to be developed, (3) a list of new
ence, this discipline is constantly changing as new terms, (4) a materials list, (5) highly illustrated text
advances are made and new techniques and equipment material, (6) student activities, and (7) self-evalua-
are put into use. Agricultural Mechanics: Fundamentals tion. This edition contains updated relevant websites
and Applications has for many years been a standard that provide more information on the unit topics. All
text for students studying agricultural mechanics. new terms are carefully defined in the text as well as
It grew out of the need for an easy-to-read, easy-to- in the glossary.
understand, and highly illustrated text on modern agri- The appendices include 40 project plans with bills
cultural mechanics for high school and post-secondary of materials and construction procedures. The projects
programs. This edition addresses the specific needs of were carefully selected to match the skills covered in
students enrolled in agriscience, production agricul- the text. Plans include some projects that have become
ture, ornamental horticulture, agribusiness, agricul- classics in the field, some that cover targeted enter-
tural mechanics, and natural resources programs. All prises, and some that are new and innovative. The
of these areas require basic knowledge and skills in projects were also chosen because they are used in high
mechanics to succeed in a career path. The text starts school agriculture/agribusiness, agriscience, or related
with very basic and general information, such as career programs.
opportunities, and then provides instruction on basic The appendices also include 36 tables contain-
mechanical skills and applications. ing information for estimating, planning, selecting,
This seventh edition focuses on additional tech- purchasing, and building in agricultural mechanics.
nical information, as needed, throughout. The text The project plans, tables, glossary, and index provide
is consistent in format, easy to use for individual- unique reference materials that, for many users, are
ized instruction, easy to teach from, and simple for alone worth the price of the text.
xiv
Agricultural
Mechanics
New and
Enhanced Content
for Seventh Edition
The Precision Exam

Edition of Agricultural
Unit Specific Updates
Mechanics: Fundamen Units 1 through 3
tals and Applications, 7E combines current top-notch • Many of the photos in these units have been
content with new information aligned to Precision replaced with updated images that depict modern
Exams’ Agricultural Systems Technology I exam, part equipment, practices, and professionals in the
of the Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources Career field of agricultural mechanics.
Cluster. The Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources
pathway connects industry with skills taught in the
classroom to help students successfully transition from Unit 4: Personal Safety in
high school to college and/or career. For more infor- Agricultural Mechanics
mation on how to administer the Agricultural Systems
Technology I exam or any of the 170+ exams available • New photographs related to workplace safety,
to your students, contact your local NGL/Cengage including guards or shields on moving parts, safety
Sales Consultant. switches, first aid stations, radiation hazards, wear-
Features that remain in this enhanced text, and ing eye protection, coveralls, and work boots
continue to engage and educate students, include the
following: Unit 5: Reducing Hazards in
• Updated statistics dealing with agricultural Agricultural Mechanics
mechanics. • New images related to electrical fires, fire extin-
• Expanded coverage of safety using power hand guisher safety, and fire classification
tools, stationary power equipment, and other areas.
• Updated Relevant Websites at the end of each unit
provide clearer search information in the event Unit 6: Shop Cleanup and
web links change or become out of date. Organization
• Integrates agricultural mechanization with plant,
• New photos of a clean work shop and a dust col-
animal, and environmental sciences to provide
lector/dust collection ducts
students with a broad view of the world of
agriculture.
• Every unit combines theory with practice. Unit 7: Hand Tools, Fasteners,
• Mathematical skill development is emphasized
throughout.
and Hardware
• Each unit has been updated to include the latest • No changes aside from Relevant Websites
information on agricultural mechanics.
• Over 350 new and modernized illustrations and Unit 8: Layout Tools and
photographs offer improved detail and modern
equipment related to small engines and power Procedures
mechanics, plumbing, planning and constructing • New images of layout tools, stainless steel tools,
agricultural structures, and more. New photos aluminum tools, plastic tools
depict actual high school students working in the • New image showing how patterns can be made
agricultural mechanics workshop. from fiber board or card stock
xv
xvi Agricultural Mechanics
• New images illustrating CAD (computer-aided device; blades with carbide tips; using a radial-
design) and 3-dimensional designs arm saw, a miter saw, a sliding compound miter
saw, proper standing position when feeding a
board into a planer, etc.
Unit 9: Selecting, Cutting, and • New information related to a newer type of locking
Shaping Wood table saw that protects against finger/hand injuries
• New images of green lumber, rough lumber, a • Updated safety information related to sawing and
kerf, and files cross cutting
• New images of drying lumber (stacking to air dry • New paragraph and photo illustrating careless use
and drying in kilns) of a table saw
Unit 10: Fastening Wood Unit 16: Adjusting and

• Expanded discussion of using biscuit joints Maintaining Power
• New photo of deck screws
• New photo and information on lag screws Woodworking Equipment
• No changes aside from Relevant Websites
Unit 11: Finishing Wood
• Updates related to types of fillers and wood-fin- Unit 17: Metalworking with
ishing products Power Machines
• New photos of proper sanding technique, apply-
• New photos of a grinding wheel, wire wheels, a
ing clear finishes, applying an oil finish, applying
tool rest, and an abrasive cutoff saw
polyurethane, applying lacquer, and applying
• New safety information and photo related to
penetrating wood stains
grinders
Unit 12: Identifying, Marking,

Unit 18: Sketching and
Cutting, and Bending Metal
Drawing Projects
• New images of structural steel, iron, cast iron,
wrought iron, and the carbon content of steel, • New images providing updated examples of
stainless steel, aluminum, copper, and lead sketching and drawing projects
Unit 13: Fastening Metal Units 19 and 20

• New image and information on taps and dies • No changes aside from Relevant Websites
• Updated images of soldering
Unit 21: Repairing and
Unit 14: Portable Power Tools Reconditioning Tools
• New photos of portable power tools (cordless • New images of various tools, including types of
drill, handsaw, belt sander, finishing sander, saber farm and household tools, metal tools, a mush-
saw, reciprocating saw) and a ground-fault circuit roomed head, a wedge, an improperly installed
handle, and a split handle
Unit 15: Woodworking with
Power Machines Unit 22: Sharpening Tools
• New photos related to safe operation of machin- • New images of a hand stone, bench stones, sharp-
ery using safety guards, eye and hearing protec- ening a rotary mower blade
tion; using a bandsaw, jigsaw blades, a contractor’s • New information and an image of an overheated
saw, table saw blade guard, and anti-kickback tool with damaged temper
Agricultural Mechanics xvii
• New information and images related to various Unit 29: Selecting and
types of knife sharpeners
• New image depicting the last step in sharpening a Applying Painting Materials
wood chisel (lay the blade on its back and remove • Updated information about enamels including inte-
the wire edge) rior and exterior enamels along with a new photo
• New information and images depicting the • Updated information about paint color and color
differences between a dull drill bit and a sharp matching, including a new photo
drill bit • Expanded information about different types of
paintbrushes and when to use each kind, includ-
ing a new photo
Unit 23: Using Gas Welding • Updated photos depicting painting with brushes,
Equipment applying paint with a roller, and an HVLP spray gun
• New information about acetylene gas including
precautions when using Unit 30: Fundamentals of Small
Engines
Unit 24: Cutting with Oxyfuels • New photos of early engines powered by steam;
and Other Gases use of eye and ear protection and proper shoes
• New images related to cutting torches and the when using small engine equipment
brazing process • New images of a modern two-cycle engine, piston
• Updated photo of plasma arc cutting rings, and a type of governor
• New information about gasoline additives
• New information and images related to setting
Unit 25: Brazing and Welding the gap using a spark plug gauge when replacing
with Oxyacetylene spark plugs
• No changes aside from Relevant Websites
Unit 31: Small Engine
Unit 26: Selecting and Using Maintenance and Repair
Arc Welding Equipment • Minor updates related to additives and gasoline
volatility
• New photos of a welding machine • New photos of spark plugs—one in good condi-
• New information about proper storage of electrodes tion and one in need of replacement; setting the
along with images of corroded electrodes gap using a spark plug gauge
• New photo and reference to lubricating
Unit 27: Arc Welding Mild Steel linkages
• Updated illustrations throughout this unit better
and GMAW/GTAW Welding depicting changing oil, the flywheel key, pulling a
• New photo related to proper positioning of an flywheel, checking valve stem clearance, and other
electrode tasks related to small engine maintenance and
• Updated photos and images related to welding repair
equipment and personal protective equipment • New photo and information related to OHC
• New photos of plasma arc welding and auto- (overhead cam)
mated/robotic welding
Unit 32: Diesel Engines and
Unit 28: Preparing Wood and Tractor Maintenance
Metal for Painting • New photos of a diesel engine; inventor Rudolf
• New photo related to primer Diesel; modern diesel engines; checking oil;
• Updated photos of using wood preservatives and a hydrometer; a dirty radiator/grill to illus-
removing loose paint trate importance of regular cleaning; proper
xviii Agricultural Mechanics
maintenance of tires (tire gauge); cleaning grease Unit 37: Plumbing

fittings; and batteries
• Most illustrations in this unit updated to modern-
• New illustration of an injector pump
ize the fixtures and equipment shown, including
• Updated illustrations of oil flow through an
the steps for soldering or sweating copper tubing,
oil filter; the function of the radiator; properly
the steps involved in cementing plastic pipe, plas-
adjusting tension on drive belt
tic vent and drain systems, common pipe fittings
• New information about air filtering systems in
and valves, parts of a washer-type faucet, and
the fuel system including a new series of photos
parts of float valve and flush valve assemblies
related to cleaning a modern dry filter
• New and updated photos depicting a pipe wrench
• New photos related to hydraulic system mainte-
and pipe vise; a tube cutter; using a flaring tool;
nance including use of a dipstick to monitor fluid
and tools used for cutting plastic pipe
levels; servicing fluid filters; and disconnecting
quick couplings
Unit 38: Irrigation Technology
Unit 33: Electrical Principles • Several new illustrations including updated depic-
and Wiring Materials tions of irrigation wells and plant rooting pattern
and moisture sensor placement
• Expanded information and a new photo related to
fluorescent lighting
• Updated images illustrating magnetism, including Unit 39: Hydraulic, Pneumatic,
a new photo of a strong magnet
• New photos of the commutator and the armature, and Robotic Power
and a modern electric motor • Updated illustrations of automotive braking sys-
• New photos or nonmetallic sheathed cable, tems and hydraulic systems
armored cable, and conduit
Unit 40: Concrete and Masonry
Unit 34: Installing Branch • New photos related to the history of masonry;
Circuits sizes of aggregates; slag; recycling concrete; sand
being flushed with water to remove clay and silt;
• New photos related to new work installations; and a broom finish
wiring boxes; wire nuts; using a wire stripper; • Updated illustrations related to proper form con-
connecting wire to a fixture struction and pouring and floating concrete
Unit 35: Electronics in Unit 41: Planning and

Agriculture Constructing Agricultural
• Updated photos of modern electronic devices; Structures
resistors; analog and digital meters; an oscillo-
scope; integrated circuit packages; water analysis • No changes aside from updates to Relevant Websites
equipment; diode packages; and microcomputers
Unit 42: Aquaculture,
Unit 36: Electric Motors, Drives, Greenhouse, and Hydroponics
and Controls Structures
• New image of a modern electric motor • Updated photos of net pens; mechanical aerators;
• Updated illustrations depicting a power genera- fish feeders; maintenance of dissolved oxygen
tion and distribution system and the movement of levels; greenhouse production; types of green-
electrical current from the local transformer to a houses; fans; cooling pad; hydroponic crops; and
building’s distribution panel trickle irrigation
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seven days to take me up the river to Youri. I said I was much
obliged to the sultan of Youri, but that I did not intend going that way,
as the war with the Fellatas had shut up the communication between
Bornou and Youri; that with his permission I would go by the way of
Koolfu and Nyffé, where there was no war. He said I was right, and
that it was good for me that I had come to see him; that I should take
what path I chose.
We then parted, he ordering his head man to take me to a house.
He would have come with me himself, but the midaki pulled him
back; she had acted, during the time I was there, as prompter. The
sultan is a fine looking young man, about twenty-five or twenty-six
years of age, five feet ten inches high, with a high forehead, large
eyes, Roman nose, decent lips, good teeth, short chin covered with
about an inch and a half of beard, more of a spare than robust make.
He was dressed in a white tobe, striped Moorish kaftan, with a red
Moorish cap on his head. The midaki appears somewhat older,
below the middle size, with nothing remarkable about her but her
voice, and a winning womanish way, sitting on his left side, a little
behind him, with her arm half around his neck. His house does not
differ from those of other people, except the huts being a little larger,
and surmounted by ostrich eggs. I found my house a very good one,
with three rooms or huts, and a shade for the heat of the day; and
the sultan and midaki sent me a sheep, yams, fish, milk, honey, and
eggs.
Friday, 31st.—This morning I waited on the sultan with my
present, which consisted of eight yards of red cloth, eight yards of
blue, eight yards of silk, a blue silk umbrella, an African sword, three
pair of white cotton stockings, three pair of gloves, two phosphorus
boxes, three clasp-knives, and three pair of scissars, a mock-gold
chain, beads, and coral; for the midaki, pictures of the king, and royal
family, &c. I displayed my present to the best advantage, and
explained the uses of the different articles. The sword he was
delighted with, and the chain, I saw, had won the midaki’s heart. She
first put it around her own neck, then taking it off, and putting it
around the sultan’s, looked up in his face with as sweet an
expression of countenance as ever I saw. Upon the whole, my
present appeared to have the effect I wished. After giving me a great
many thanks, and the presents were taken away, he began again
about Youri: said, that Yarro of Kiama had informed him that I was
going there. I said, I meant to have gone there, but that I should now
defer my visit until my return; that the rains were now at hand; that
by the way of Youri there was war, and I could not get to Bornou
before the rains; that remaining in Youri or Houssa during that
season would kill me, and they had better put a sword through me at
once than detain me. He said there was no sultan between Koolfu
and Guari. I told him the taja had engaged to find me bullocks to
carry my baggage to Kano. He then asked me when I wished to go
away. I replied, “To-morrow.” “Well,” says he, “you shall go in the
afternoon.” I said I would prefer daybreak, as I wished to make
observations at the river side, and see my baggage safely over. I had
some apprehension that the king of Youri, should he hear that I am
going by the way of Koolfu, might outwit me; on which account I
mentioned my preferring to travel in the morning. “Well,” says he,
“you shall go when you please.”
This point being settled, I asked him to lend me a horse and
saddle, which he promised to do. I next inquired of him after some
white men who were lost in the river near this place twenty years
ago. He seemed rather uneasy at this question, and I observed that
he stammered in his speech. He assured me he had nothing
belonging to them; that he was a little boy when the event happened.
I said, I wanted nothing but the books and papers, and to learn from
him a correct account of the manner of their death; and that with his
permission, I would go and visit the spot where they were lost. He
said no, I must not go; it was a very bad place. Having heard that
part of the boat still remained, I asked him if it was so: he replied,
that such a report was untrue; that she did remain on the rocks for
some time after, but had gone to pieces and floated down the river
long ago. I said if he would give me the books and papers it would
be the greatest favour he could possibly confer on me. He again
assured me that nothing remained with him, every thing of that kind
had gone into the hands of the learned men; but that if any were now
in existence he would procure them and give them to me. I then
asked him if he would allow me to inquire of the old people in the
town the particulars of the affair, as some of them must have seen it.
He appeared very uneasy, gave me no answer, and I did not press
him further. In the afternoon the sultan came galloping up in front of
my house, a man running after him, holding the umbrella I had given
him; but the bearer could not keep up with the horse, or hold it over
his head.
In the evening I was visited by the sultan and midaki, and the king
of Youri’s messenger with them. The messenger said his master had
sent provisions and every thing for my voyage up the river to Youri. I
told him I could not but feel much obliged to the king of Youri for his
kindness; but that the rains were close at hand, and the road
between Youri and Bornou shut up by the war; that on my return,
after the rains, I should certainly visit the king, for his kindness on
this occasion. The sultan of Boussa said I should be making an
enemy of the king of Youri if I went away without seeing him or
sending him a present. I said I really had nothing here to give; that if
the messenger of the king of Youri would accompany me to the ferry
where my baggage was, I would give him as good a present as I was
able; but that I had now very little to give. The Youri messenger was
very anxious that I should go with him; but the midaki, whose heart
the gold chain has won, fairly beat him off the field, and it was
decided that I am not to go to Youri. The sultan made a great many
inquiries about England, and asked me two or three times if I had not
come to buy slaves. I laughed in his face, and told him there was
nothing we so much abhorred in England as slavery; that the king of
England did every thing to prevent other nations buying slaves; that
the slave trade was the ruin of Africa; that Yourriba presented
nothing but ruined towns and deserted villages, and all caused by
the slave-trade; that it was very bad to buy and sell men like bullocks
and sheep. It was now nearly dinner-time, and he said he would
come and see me at night.
At eight in the evening the sultan came, accompanied by the
midaki, and one male slave. He began again about Youri; but I
repeated what I had said before. He then asked me if the king of
England was a great man. “Yes,” I said, “the greatest of all the white
kings.” “But,” says he, “you live on the water?” “Oh no,” I said, “we
have more land than there is between Boussa and Badag (as they
call Badagry), and more than five thousand towns.” “Well,” says he,
“I thought, and always have heard, that you lived on the water. How
many wives has the king?” “Only one wife,” I said. “What!” says he,
“only one wife?” “Yes,” says I; “no man is allowed more than one
wife, and they hang a man if he has two at one time.” “That is all very
good for other men,” says he; “but the king having only one wife is
not good.” When I told him, if the king had a daughter and no son,
she would rule the kingdom at her father’s death, he laughed
immoderately, as did the midaki, who was apparently well pleased
with the idea of only one wife, and a woman ruling. I asked him who
were the first people who inhabited this part of the country. He said
the Cambrie; that his ancestors were from Bornou; that the sultan of
Niki was descended from a younger branch of his family; that his
ancestors and people had come into this country a long time ago;
that his family were descended from the sultans of Bornou; and that
they had paid the latter tribute until, of late years, the road had been
shut up; but that he would pay it all up whenever the road was open;
that the sultans of Youriba, Niki, Kiama, Wawa, and Youri, paid
tribute to Bornou. I then asked him at what place the river entered
the sea. He replied he did not know: but he had heard people say it
went to Bini, which is the name they give to Bornou. I asked if he had
ever seen any of the Bini people, or if they come up as far as this by
the river. He said, no, he had never seen any of them; that he
understood they never came higher up the river than Nyffe or Tappa
(as they call Nyffe). He remained with me until near morning, and
when he was gone, finding I could not sleep, and hearing the sound
of sweet-toned instruments, I sent for the musician, and made him
play and sing to me. On sending him away, I desired him to call in
the morning and I would pay him, and to bring his instrument with
him.
Saturday, 1st April.—Morning cool and cloudy, with a little rain.
The Houssa musician came to his appointment, and I made him play
and sing. I made a sketch of his instrument, which I asked him to sell
to me; but he said he had played on it to his father and mother, and
they were pleased with it; they were now dead, and he would not
part with it. My servant Ali was cooking a fowl for my breakfast, and
having occasion to call him, he came with a knife in his hand; on
seeing which, the musician started, and ran as if he had been going
to be put to death instantly. The women in the house, when they saw
him run, rolled on the ground, and laughed at the poor man’s fright.
After breakfast I visited the sultan, and asked him to be allowed to
depart, as my baggage was to have been at the river-side yesterday.
He said I must not leave him to-day, and that when I came back I
must stay forty days with him. I was visited by a great number of
people, amongst which were many Fellatas, the chief of whom sent
me a sheep, honey, and milk. The sultan, when I inquired of him
again to-day about the papers of my unfortunate countrymen, said
that the late imam, a Fellata, had had possession of all the books
and papers, and that he had fled from Boussa some time since. This
was a death-blow to all future inquiries here; and the whole of the
information concerning the affair of the boat, her crew, and cargo,
which I was likely to gain here, I have already stated. Every one in
fact appeared uneasy when I asked for information, and said it had
happened before their remembrance, or that they did not see it. They
pointed out the place where the boat struck, and the unfortunate
crew perished. Even this was done with caution, and as if by stealth;
though, in every thing unconnected with that affair, they were most
ready to give me what information I asked; and never in my life have
I been treated with more hospitality or kindness.
The place pointed out to me, where the boat and crew were lost,
is in the eastern channel: the river being divided into three branches
at this place, not one of which is more than a good pistol-shot
across. A low flat island, of about a quarter of a mile in breadth, lies
between the town of Boussa and the fatal spot, which is in a line,
from the sultan’s house, with a double-trunked tree with white bark,
standing singly on the low flat island. The bank is not particularly
high at present, being only about ten feet above the level of this
branch, which here breaks over a gray slate rock, extending quite
across to the eastern shore: this shore rises into gentle hills,
composed of gray slate, thinly scattered with trees; and the grass at
this season gives it a dry and withered appearance.
The city of Boussa is situated on an island in the river Quorra, and
is in latitude 10° 14′ north, longitude 6° 11′ east. The course of the
Quorra here is from north-north-west to south-south-east by
compass; and, as they informed me, is full of islands and rocks as
far up the river as they were acquainted with it, and the same below.
Boussa stands nearest the westernmost branch, which is called by
the natives the river Menai; the other two branches have no other
name than the Quorra. The Menai’s stream is slow and sluggish;
those of the other two strong, with eddies and whirlpools breaking
over rocks, which in some places appear above water. Boussa
island, as I shall call it, is about three miles in length from north to
south, and a mile and a half in breadth at the broadest part. A ridge
of rock, composed of gray slate, runs from one end of the island to
the other, forming a precipice from twenty to thirty feet high on the
eastern side, and shelving gently down on the west: below this
precipice extends a beautiful holm or meadow, nearly the whole
length of the island, and about three hundred yards broad, to the
banks of the river, where there are several rocky mounds, on which
villages to the number of four are built. The wall of Boussa is about a
quarter of a mile from the banks of the Menai, and unites with the
two extremities of the rocky precipice, where they fall in with the
banks of the river; and may be about three quarters of a mile or a
mile in length. The houses are built in clusters, or forming small
villages, inside the wall, not occupying above one-tenth of the
ground enclosed. Outside the walls, on the same island, are several
villages, with plantations of corn, yams, and cotton. The language of
the people of Boussa is the same as the other states of Borgoo, and
appears to be a dialect of the Yourriba: but the Houssa language is
understood by all classes, even by the Cambrie. I should not think
that the whole of the inhabitants living between the wall and the river
amounted to more than ten or twelve thousand; but I was informed
that the state of Boussa was more populous than all the other
provinces of Borgoo; and that, next to Houssa, the sultan of Boussa,
from that state alone, could raise more horse than any other prince
between Houssa and the sea. The inhabitants, with a very few
exceptions, are pagans, as is the sultan, though his name is
Mohamed. Milk is his fetish, and which he, therefore, does not taste.
This I learnt when he drank tea with me. They eat monkeys, dogs,
cats, rats, fish, beef, and mutton; the latter only on great occasions,
or when they sacrifice. This morning when I was with the sultan, his
breakfast was brought in, which I was asked to partake of. It
consisted of a large grilled water-rat with the skin on, some very fine
boiled rice, with dried fish stewed in palm oil, and fried or stewed
alligators’ eggs, and fresh Quorra water. I eat some of the stewed
fish and rice, and they were much amused at my not eating the rat
and the eggs. Their arms are, the bow, sword, spear, and a heavy
club of about two feet and a half in length, bent at the end and
loaded with iron: their defensive armour is a tanned leather shield, of
a circular form, and the tobe or large shirt gathered in folds round the
body, and made fast round the waist with a belt.
From the front of the Sultan’s house they pointed out to me a high
table-topped mountain, bearing by compass north-north-east, distant
from twenty-five to thirty miles. On the south-west side of this
mountain they say Youri lies; and the Quorra runs past the west end
of the mountain.
When I went to take leave of the sultan and midaki, the latter
made me a present of a fine young native horse; his brother, a fine
young man, accompanied me; the head man, or, as he is called, the
avoikin sirka and the principal people of Boussa, also accompanied
me to the banks of the Menai, when I crossed and took leave of
them; the messenger of the sultan of Boussa, and a messenger of
the king of Youri, to whom I had promised to deliver a present for his
master when I got to the ferry, attending me. Thus ended my visit to
Boussa.
CHAPTER IV.
JOURNEY FROM BOUSSA, ACROSS THE FERRY OF THE QUORRA,

BY GUARRI AND ZEGZEG, TO THE CITY OF KANO.
Leaving the banks of that branch of the Quorra called Menai at

10.30 in the morning of the 2d of April, I travelled on the Wawa road
as far as the Cambrie villages mentioned on my way to Boussa.
Here we turned off south-south-west ½ west., sometimes near the
banks of the river; the road winding, woody, and rocky, and cut up
into deep ravines, in which there were pools of water, and near
which were the traces of numerous wild beasts, but few were seen,
and those were of the large species of antelope. At 2 P.M. halted at
one of the rocky ravines to water the horses. I heard the Quorra
roaring as if there was a waterfall close at hand. I ascended the high
rocky bank of the ravine, and the rocky ridge which here formed the
banks of the river, where I saw the stream rushing around two low
rocky and wooded islands and among several islets and rocks, when
taking a sudden short bend to the westward, the waters dashed with
great violence against the foot of the rock on which I sat, and which
might form a precipice of about fifty feet high above the river. Just
below the islands, and nearly half way across, the river had a fall at
this time of from three to four feet; the rest of the channel was
studded with rocks, some of which were above water. It occurred to
me that even if Park and Martin had passed Boussa in safety, they
would have been in imminent danger of perishing here, most likely
unheard of and unseen. When I attempted to get up and mount my
horse, after finishing a rough sketch of the scene, I was taken with a
giddiness, and lost the use of my limbs and sight. They carried me
under the shade of a tree, where I broke into a profuse perspiration;
and at 3.30 being much relieved, I mounted and rode half an hour,
when I halted at a village of the Cambrie, called Songa, the
inhabitants of which gave me the best hut in the village: but bad was
the best; it was infested with rats, scorpions, and centipedes, and the
furniture consisted of old nets, rotten wood, and broken gourds: I
therefore left it, and remained on a mat in the open air all night. The
head man of the village gave me a sheep and some yams, and at
my request sent one of his young men to the ferry, to see if my
baggage and servants had arrived. I gave the sheep and yams to the
two messengers and their attendants. The young Cambrie man
returned about midnight with an answer from the taya, saying that
Richard would be up with the baggage at the ferry in the morning.
Monday, 3d.—Morning clear and cool. These Cambrie appear to
be a lazy, harmless race of negroes; and, as I was informed, inhabit
the villages in the woods near the Quorra, in the states of Boussa,
Wawa, and Youri. They plant a little corn and yams, and keep a few
sheep and goats. The men employ their time in hunting, fishing, and
sleeping; the most laborious work falling on the women. They are
apparently a mild people; in general tall; more stupid-looking than
wild; go with very little clothing, seldom any thing more than a skin
round the waist. The young people of both sexes go entirely naked
until they have cohabited, when they put on a skin, or tobe, as their
circumstances will afford. They are, from their unwarlike and mild
dispositions, often very ill used and imposed upon. When any of their
rulers has a sudden demand for slaves or sheep, they send and take
away from the poor people their children or their flocks; and any of
the slaves of the sultans passing through their villages live at free
quarters. They are pagans; and their temple here was a platform
raised about five feet from the ground, on which were piled the
heads of the hippopotamus and the alligator. The upper and under
jaws of the alligators appeared in all to be of an equal length. I took
some of the teeth from one that was last offered. Their language
differs from that of the surrounding inhabitants.
The Quorra at this village was in one whole stream, and not
above three-fourths the breadth of the Thames at Somerset House
at high water, with a current from about two to two and a half or three
knots: the colour of the water red and muddy: the banks on each
side the river rising to the height of forty-five or fifty feet; in some
places rocky: about a quarter of a mile below, it divided into three
rocky streams.
At 7.30 A.M. left Songa: the road through a woody country, cut up
by deep ravines with very rocky beds: the rocks mostly of red and
gray granite. At 9 A.M. passed between the east end of a rocky hill,
composed of porphyry, and the river; the hills on the east side
appearing of the same: the river running with great force through this
natural gap, which appeared as if cut on purpose to let the waters
through. The river between Songa and this is full of rocky islets and
rapids. After having passed the hill about a mile, the western bank
shelved away from the river, leaving a high ridge by the river side,
composed of sand and clay, with occasionally ridges of clay-slate,
between which and the high ground it appeared as if it had formerly
been the bed of the river, and is now a swamp. The ridge close to
the river was studded with villages; the river full of small rocky
islands, and occasionally rapids. At 10.30 arrived at the village of
Comie, or, as it is more commonly called, Wonjerque, or the king’s
ferry. Here the river is all in one stream; and this place is the great
ferry of the caravans to and from Houssa, Nyffé, &c. The village is
built on the high ground, the bank shelving gradually down to the
river side, where there is a second temporary town composed of the
huts of the merchants: here and in the village all was bustle and
confusion. A caravan going to Gonja was halted on the eastern
bank; on the western, the goffle from Gonja, with kolla nuts, &c. The
village was filled with horses and men dressed out in their gayest
trappings: here merchants were offering horses for sale; there their
slaves, with gay glass beads, cords of silk, unwrought silk, and tobes
and turkadoes for sale; some dancing and drumming; while others,
more wicked, were drinking and rioting. I was provided with a good
house, and received presents of milk, honey, eggs, ducks, sheep,
and goats, as soon as it was known I had arrived; but I returned the
whole of them, and said I would accept of nothing until my servants
and baggage arrived. Several people came and said they had left
Wawa early in the morning, and that my baggage was on the road.
The widow Zuma, who is at a neighbouring village, sent me boiled
rice and a fowl, and also an invitation to go and stop at her house
until my things came, and I should cross the river; but my anxiety for
my baggage, and my being rather unwell, prevented me accepting
her invitation. I had a visit from the taya, who declares the baggage
will be here in the course of a short time. He has now changed his
tone: he says I must buy bullocks and pay for them at once, as he
will not carry my baggage: he will buy the bullocks for me, and find
men to drive them; that he will sell me those which he has bought
from the widow; and that he will trust to my generosity for a present
when I arrive at Kano; that my baggage, he said, would be here
directly, and advised me to go and stop at the widow’s until it came.
Towards evening my anxiety was very great on account of my
baggage, as no appearance of it, or any tidings that I could depend
upon was to be learnt. The governor’s son of Wawa, who is here,
offered to go to Wawa and see what was the reason they had not
come.
Tuesday, 4th.—I found on his return from Wawa, to my great
surprise, that my baggage would not be allowed to come until the
widow Zuma went back to Wawa. “What have I to do with the
widow?” I asked him. “Yes, you have,” says he, “and you must come
back with me and fetch her.” “Not I,” I answered; “what have I to do
with her? If I were governor of Wawa I would bring her back if I
wanted her, but I am a stranger.” “Then,” says he, “I will go if you will
send a token and a message, to say I come from you.” I gave him
my umbrella, but no message, declaring I would not send any. The
governor’s son went to the widow, and I went to Wawa, where I
arrived at noon. My trusty servant Richard arrived at the same
instant from Boussa, where he had been to seek me, and acquaint
me of the detention of my property: his only guide, a boy whose
language he did not understand, or any other but his own native
English. He had seen the sultan and midaki, who understood from
the little boy who accompanied him what he had come for. They
treated him with great kindness, making him remain all night; and in
the morning sent him with two armed men to protect him and to find
me, and to desire the governor of Wawa to allow my things to go
instantly: a convincing fact that the minds of men here must be much
changed for the better since the days of Park and Martin. He had left
Wawa yesterday, to come and inform me of the detention of my
baggage, and the cause why; which was the widow Zuma’s having
left Wawa about half an hour after I did, with drums beating before
her, and a train after her, first calling at my house before she waited
on the governor; giving Pascoe a female slave for a wife, without the
governor’s permission, which I had allowed him to accept; and the
widow’s declaration before she went away, that she intended
following me to Kano, and come back and make war on the
governor, as she had done once before.
I was glad to find all my things safe; and was more amused than
vexed to think that I had been so oddly let into the politics of Wawa,
and that the old governor meant me no harm, but just to let me see
his consequence before I left Wawa. I certainly never would have
thought that the widow Zuma would have been at the head of the
malcontents in Wawa. I was now let into their politics with a
vengeance; and it was believed I was taking a very great share in
them. It would have been a fine end to my journey indeed, if I had
deposed old Mohamed, and set up for myself, with a walking tun-butt
for a queen.
I sent to the governor the instant of my arrival at Wawa, to say I
was ready to wait on him. I had tea to refresh me and clear up my
ideas; and went, accompanied by his head man. My servant Ali
brought the rifle, which was loaded; but I ordered him back with a
severe reproof, as I always make a point of going unarmed; as the
least show of fear or distrust would most likely cause me to pay
dearly for my unnecessary caution. The head man said, “Ah! dua,
dua,” or that I had taken medicine to keep me from harm. I found the
governor just roused from his noon-day nap, which was done by
sound of horn. I put on as many smiles as I was master of, shook
hands with him, and asked how he did, and how he had been since I
last was blessed with the sight of him. I told him that I had seen the
sultan of Boussa, and said what a good and generous man he was;
and how well he and the midaki, his wife, and the governor’s sister,
had behaved to me. I then said, I was surprised that my things had
not come to the water side, according to his promise. He asked if the
widow was not going to take them, as he thought she was. I said, I
had nothing to do with the widow; I was a servant of the king of
England, and it was to him I looked; that I did not know the widow
before I came here. “Is she not going to Houssa with you? if she is
greater than me, let her take them.” I said, no; it was he, and not the
widow: I had nothing to say to her; and I would thank him to send me
and my things off as soon as possible. “As soon as the widow comes
back,” says he, “you shall go, not until then: send for her.” I said, I
would not send for her; I had nothing to do with her. “You allowed
your servant to take a female slave from her; send her back; and if
the widow comes back to-night you shall go to-morrow.” I said, as to
the widow’s coming or going, it was nothing to me: with respect to
Pascoe’s returning the girl, that was his affair; and that no offence
had been meant to the governor in allowing him to accept her. He
said, return her, and he would give him another; and if the widow
came to-night I should go in the morning: she was his enemy, and
was gone to stir up war against him, as she had done once before. I
said, he might blame his head man for my acquaintance with the
widow: he was present when she first came to my house; and, as
she was an enemy of the governor, he ought to have told me then,
and I, as a stranger, and the governor’s guest, would not have
allowed her to come to my house. We parted after this, and in the
evening he sent me a present of one fowl, yams, milk, and honey.
Wednesday, 5th.—This morning the widow arrived in town, with a
drummer beating before her, whose cap was bedecked with ostrich
feathers; a bow-man walking on foot at the head of her horse; a train
behind, armed with bows, swords, and spears. She rode a-straddle
on a fine horse, whose trappings were of the first order for this
country. The head of the horse was ornamented with brass plates,
the neck with brass bells, and charms sewed in various coloured
leather, such as red, green, and yellow; a scarlet breast-piece, with a
bright brass plate in the centre; scarlet saddle-cloth, trimmed with
lace. She was dressed in red silk trowsers, and red morocco boots;
on her head a white turban, and over her shoulders a mantle of silk
and gold. Had she been somewhat younger and less corpulent,
there might have been great temptation to head her party, for she
has certainly been a very handsome woman, and such as would
have been thought a beauty in any country in Europe.
After the heat of the day was over, I went to the governor, Pascoe
having previously sent back his wife to the widow. They parted
without reluctance, though he declared that she had fallen in love
with him at first sight. She was the second wife the old fellow has
had since we left Badagry: the first he got at Jannah; she turned out
to be a thief, a jade, and used to get drunk with the king’s wives at
Katunga, for which I was obliged to order her out of the house; but
Pascoe, with tears in his eyes, begged me to forgive her, as she
really loved him, and he loved her. I was not sorry when I heard, the
day we left Katunga, that she had walked off with all the coral and
other little trinkets which Mrs. Belzoni had given him before he left
England, as I trusted it would be a lesson to him in future. I told the
governor that the widow was now arrived, and I wished he would
send me off according to his promise. He said, he did not know that
she had arrived, but would send for her. He again repeated what he
had said yesterday, and so did I; to which I added that I should be
sorry if such a foolish affair should have any effect on the good
understanding that existed between him and me before I went to
Boussa. The widow arrived, having stripped off her finery, and put on
only a common country cloth around her, and one female slave in
attendance. She saluted the governor according to the custom of the
country; that is, by kneeling down on the ground on her knees and
elbows, with the palms of her hands before her face. It was some
time before the governor spoke: he then began, and gave her a
lecture on disobedience and vanity, and asked her where she was
going: she said, after some slaves of hers who had run away and
gone to Nyffé: with which excuse, after his telling her she did not
speak the truth, she was dismissed; and when she got outside the
coozie, or hut, she shook the dust from her cloth with the greatest
contempt. “That,” says he, “is a bad woman; none of the sultans like
her; she will not pay duty on any thing: but you shall go to-morrow.” I
went home, determined never to be caught in such a foolish affair in
future, as my last journey ought to have taught me never to make
friends of the opposition party in any place, for they were always
sure to lead to trouble, if not mischief.
As the governor said I should go to-morrow, I took him at his
word, and accordingly left Wawa the second time, determined that
politics should never bring me back to the place again. We halted at
a village of the Cambrie, remained here an hour, then proceeded an
hour, and halted at another, where the gentlemen seized a sheep, as
they had done at the former place. I gave them a severe lecture,
which they listened to very quietly, but killed the sheep, lighted a fire,
and roasted it with the skin on, before the poor Cambrie its owner. In
the evening I arrived at the ferry, where I had an excellent house,
and plenty of presents of sheep, eggs, and honey, sent to me and
my friends: the carriers arriving at sunset with the baggage, and
living at free quarters on the inhabitants, as they had done on the
Cambrie.
Being unwell, I remained at the ferry three days; and on the 10th,
about noon, having got all my baggage over, I crossed the Quorra,
which at this time was about a quarter of a mile in width, running at
the rate of two miles an hour, and in the middle ten or twelve feet
deep. The ferry is crossed by canoes of about twenty feet long and
two broad. Cattle are occasionally made to swim over.
The four rogues of slaves wanted to cheat me out of my horse,
and urgently invited me to pass over first. I told them, when I saw the
horses fairly over I would go, but not until then: at which they were
evidently much disappointed; and as it was, they succeeded in
cheating me out of one which the governor had lent me.
The master of the house in which I lived in Comie, a very
respectable man, and formerly head man to the king of Nyffé, but
who had fled to escape the civil war, told me that the river was full of
rocks and islands nearly the whole way to the sea, which it entered
at the town of Fundah; that the people of that country visited the
southern parts of Nyffé; that the people of Benin came up by land,
and had the river to cross, as they never travelled by water if they
could avoid it, it being against their fetish; that the river farther down
ran more to the eastward, until joined by the river Kadania, flowing
from the east, when it turned to the west, and fell into the sea.
I now proceeded on my journey towards Kano, and having
travelled about six miles, came to a walled village called Dallu; and
beyond that five miles to El Wata, which appeared to be inhabited by
blacksmiths. Though the village was small, I counted, on the way to
where I was to lodge, four large blacksmiths’ shops with five forges
in each. The blacksmiths were very civil to me; they gave me their
best house, some corn for my horses, and a goat and some yams.
The natives of Borgoo, of whom I have now taken leave, and to
whom the Arabs and their neighbouring nations give such a bad
character for theft and robbery, always behaved honestly to me. I
never lost the smallest article while amongst them. I have travelled
and hunted alone with them, and myself, servants, and baggage,
have been at their mercy. I ever found them cheerful, obliging, good-
natured, and communicative; and the plundering of the sheep, goats,
&c. from the villages, by the slaves of Yarro and Mohamed of Wawa,
was not the act of natives of Borgoo, but of Houssa; as were the four
messengers of Wawa, who had also formed a design to plunder me.
These persons are nearly half-starved, and possessed with the idea
that it is only right their masters’ subjects should feed them when on
a journey, as they have no other provision but what they can catch in
this manner; and therefore all they can lay their hands on is
considered by them as good and lawful prize. They are more warlike
than any of their neighbours; more bold and independent also: and
parties of two or three will infest the roads of the neighbouring
kingdoms, and carry off passengers whom they may meet, and sell
them as slaves.
The kingdom, as I have already said, is divided into the petty
states of Niki, Kiama, Wawa, and Boussa, of which Boussa is
considered the head, Niki the next. The governors are all hereditary
as long as they can keep their place. These states sometimes make
war upon one another, when the sultan of Boussa interferes, and
makes both parties pay. The kingdom is bounded on the east by the
Quorra; on the south by Yourriba; on the west by Dahomey; and on
the north by a large country called Gourma, which they assert to be
inhabited by naked savages, but the Mahomedans say by a civilized
people, and governed by a powerful sultan. The country is eleven
days’ journey from north to south, and thirty from east to west: its
rivers are the Quorra, Moussa, and Oli: its mountains are the range
which passes through Yourriba, Youri, Zamfra, Guari, and Zegzeg.
The face of the country is partly plain and partly mountainous,
abounding in game of all the kinds common to Africa; and the
inhabitants are said to be great hunters. Through Borgoo the
caravans from Houssa and Bornou pass to Gonja and Yourriba.
They have few cattle, but plenty of corn, yams, plantains, and limes.
Their religion is paganism, but they offer no human sacrifices.
Tuesday, 11th.—Left El Wata, the country around which is well
cultivated. The ant-hills here are the highest I have ever seen, being
from fifteen to twenty feet high, resembling so many Gothic
cathedrals in miniature. Halted at another walled village to change
carriers, which, like El Wata, was also full of blacksmiths. In all the
villages I passed through to-day there is a fetish-house, or pagan
house of worship, in good repair; showing that the head people and
the majority of the inhabitants, though pagans, have a regard for
religion. Figures of human beings are painted on these houses, as
are also the boa, the alligator, and the tortoise. The country is well
cultivated, and planted with corn, and yams, and cotton. They have
plenty of sheep and goats, a few small horses, but no cows; and
large plantations of bananas and plantains are seen by the river
side. The blacksmiths are still in great numbers. They get their iron
ore from the hills, which they smelt where they dig it, and which is
done without mining. The taya paid me a visit, wishing me to remain
at this place to-morrow, as an army of the Fellatas were in Koolfu, on
their return to Sockatoo. He still shuffles off his bargain, and begged
hard that I would remain here until the day after to-morrow, as the
Fellatas would then be gone. I said I had nothing to do with the
Fellatas; they would not hurt me: that he had put me off from day to
day, always making a fresh bargain, different from the one he had
made before. I offered him half the money here, on his giving me
proper security; but he began haggling again, and went off without
coming to any certain agreement, as he has always done. I however
determined to get to Koolfu to-morrow if possible, as these Fellatas
are the very people I want to meet, more particularly if they are from
Sockatoo.
Wednesday, 12th.—In the afternoon of this day we halted at a
village, after crossing a wooden bridge over a stream called the May-
yarrow. It was rudely constructed of rough branches covered with
earth; long, and so narrow that two horses could not pass at one
time. It is the first I have seen in Africa. I remained here only a few
minutes, when I went to another village, where the carriers, after
setting the baggage down, ran off. As soon as myself and servants
arrived we were instantly surrounded by the whole male population
of the village, all armed with bows and arrows, their knives in their
hands, and bow-rings on their thumbs, perfectly ready for war. I
could not help being much amused at their uncalled for alarm; and to
prove to them how tranquil I felt, I dismounted from my horse, and
sat quietly down on the baggage, ordering my servants to do the
same. They pretended not to understand a word of the Houssa
language; for that they did not understand it was next to impossible,
as not a town or village between this and Badagry occurred in which
we did not find one or more that could speak that language; and the
Boussa messenger not having come up, we could not talk to them in
the Nyffé tongue. For a little time silence prevailed, when all at once
they seized on the baggage, each man taking something, until the
whole was gone. I now re-mounted, with my servants, and followed.
They ran along as fast as it was possible for them, and we rode after
them; at length we came to another village, where the people
understood Houssa, and asked what I wanted. I said, to stop all
night. These voluntary carriers however took up the baggage again,
and crossing the May-yarrow by a wooden bridge, entered the town
of Tabra, which is in fact the same town I had reached, the river
dividing it into two parts. Having also crossed, I was taken with my
things in front of the head man’s house; where they questioned and
cross-questioned me as to whether I was going to their king or not;
but to none of their questions did I think fit to give a direct answer.
When they found I was not disposed to commit myself they carried
my things to a house for the night. Here for the first time I had to buy
wood, grass, and corn: they always asking, “Where is the money?”
before they would give me any thing. I sent Ali off to the chief of the
Fellatas, with a letter addressed to Bello, as I find they leave Koolfu
at day-break. I therefore missed them by being detained and
humbugged on the road, through the manœuvres of the taya, who
was very anxious I should not see the Fellatas.
Thursday, 13th.—The whole of this day was spent in expectation
of my paying a visit to the queen of Nyffé, who is at present residing
here; but in the evening I was informed she could not receive me, as
the king her husband is absent, at a town called Raba, two days’
journey distant; but that I may see the king’s mother in the morning,
who will inform me when and how I am to proceed to Kano. During
the night thunder, lightning, and rain.
Friday, 14th.—After breakfast I went and visited the queen-
mother, according to last night’s arrangement; I took with me as a
present a Chinese crape shawl, part of a string of coral, and a mock
gold chain, and some silk. In the outer coozie of her house I found
mats spread for me, and a sheep-skin for her majesty. Her male
attendants were mostly all old men, without teeth. In this company I
remained for near a quarter of an hour. Then came in a number of
women past their teens, and seated themselves on the mats
opposite to me. They were decently dressed, in short check bed-
gowns, the manufacture of the country, with a stuffing in the breast,
which made them appear full-breasted. Around their loins they wore
striped cotton cloths, which reached down to their ankles. Their
woolly hair was dressed in the crest fashion; over which they wore a
cap flowered and ornamented with red and white silk; around which
there was tied a piece of check, flowered with white silk and fringed
at each end, the ends hanging down: this was about the breadth of a
broad riband. After sitting in profound silence for some time, they
looking at me and I at them; at last her majesty made her
appearance, dressed in a large white tobe or shirt. On her head she
wore a coarse green cloth cap with two flaps, and trimmed with red
tape. She was old, walked with a staff, and had only one eye. I rose
to receive her, and shook her by the hand. She sat down on the
sheep-skin, and I on the mat beside her. After asking after her
health, and she doing the same, and how I had fared on my journey,
I began to display my present before her, told her who I was, and
where I wished to go. She appeared much gratified with the present,
particularly the chain; said I ought to go and see her son the king,
who was only two or three days distant, and he would forward me to
where I wished, and be glad to see me. I said I would go with
pleasure, but the rains had now set in; and that I wished to proceed
on my journey with the taya; that I had a great number of books for
Bello, and the Sheik of Bornou, and they would all be spoiled if they
got wet; that this country was very sickly in the rains; and that three
white men who accompanied me had died already. She said she had
sent a messenger to her son the night of my arrival; that he would
return to-night or to-morrow morning, and he would bring orders to
say whether I was to go to Raba, or not; that if I went, they would
detain the taya until my return. I said, “Very well; but I must have a
horse, as both mine have sore backs.” I then took leave of her
majesty, as she is called. A native of Moorzuk, named Mohamed
Ben Ahmet, who has long resided in this country, served as my
interpreter. He is married to one of the king’s daughters; he is styled
in Nyffe El Magia. I had the following account from Ben Ahmet: that
this woman was the late king of Nyffe’s relation; that her son
Mohamed El Magia, who is a Mahometan, is fighting with the other,
who is called Edrisi and a pagan, for the kingdom; that Mohamed is
assisted by the Fellatas, and the other, who has the best right, by the
people of Nyffe; that Mohamed has gained every battle this summer,
and that there is no doubt of his gaining the day; that there is a
cessation of hostilities during the rains; that next summer will decide
the fate of Edrisi; that Mohamed can read and write Arabic; is a great
drunkard, but very generous.
Tabra is on the north bank of the river May-yarrow, over which is a
narrow wooden bridge, which will not bear a man and horse. This
bridge connects it to a part of the town on the other side the river,
which is also surrounded on the three sides by a wall. The two parts
may contain from eighteen to twenty thousand inhabitants; they are
the occasional residence of the Magia, who has a house here; and it
is also the place of his birth. His mother during his absence is
considered as governor assisted by the sirtain fada, or master of the
ceremonies. There appears to be plenty of sheep and goats, and
plantations of yams, plantains, calavances, millet, and limes. The
river is always full of water, and may be about twenty yards broad,
shaded with large trees; the banks rise with a gentle ascent from the
river, and are planted with yams, millet, &c. There are only a few
blacksmiths, but a great number of weavers. The inhabitants, with a
few exceptions, are pagans, and they all, men and women, have the

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Agricultural mechanics : fundamentals

and applications 7th Edition Ray V.

Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications – Ebook

Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering: Fundamentals

Fracture Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications,

Fluid Mechanics : fundamentals and applications 4 in SI

Quantum Mechanics 3rd Edition Nouredine Zettili

Mechanics Of Materials 7th Edition Beer

Imides : medicinal, agricultural, synthetic

Munson, Young and Okiishi's Fundamentals of Fluid

Ray V. Herren, Ed.D.

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

Digital Delivery Lead: Jim Gilbert

Cengage products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd.

Printed in the United States of America

section 1 exploring careers in Agricultural Mechanics

section 2 using the Agricultural Mechanics shop

section 3 hand Woodworking and Metalworking

section 4 Power tools in the Agricultural Mechanics shop

section 5 Project Planning

section 6 tool Fitting

Section 7 Gas Heating, Cutting, Brazing, and Welding

Section 8 Arc Welding

Section 10 Power Mechanics

Section 11 Electricity and Electronics

Section 12 Plumbing, Hydraulic, and Pneumatic Systems

Section 13 Concrete and Masonry

Section 14 Agricultural Structures

Appendix A Projects 700

Section 1 Exploring Careers in Agricultural Mechanics

Section 2 Using the Agricultural Mechanics Shop

Section 3 Hand Woodworking and Metalworking

Fastening with Rivets 192

Section 4 Power Tools in the Agricultural Mechanics Shop

Section 5 Project Planning

Calculating Board Feet 292

Section 6 Tool Fitting

Section 7 Gas Heating, Cutting, Brazing, and Welding

Section 8 Arc Welding

Welding in Various Positions 406

Section 10 Power Mechanics

Section 11 Electricity and Electronics

Wiring a Switch and Light 526

Section 12 Plumbing, Hydraulic, and Pneumatic Systems

Section 13 Concrete and Masonry

Pouring, Finishing, and Curing Concrete 633

Section 14 Agricultural Structures

Appendix A Projects 700

The Precision Exam

Unit 10: Fastening Wood Unit 16: Adjusting and

Unit 12: Identifying, Marking,

Unit 13: Fastening Metal Units 19 and 20

maintenance of tires (tire gauge); cleaning grease Unit 37: Plumbing

Unit 35: Electronics in Unit 41: Planning and

JOURNEY FROM BOUSSA, ACROSS THE FERRY OF THE QUORRA,

Leaving the banks of that branch of the Quorra called Menai at

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