Introduction Section 5.

1 • Newton formulated his Universal Law of Gravitation

• Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation: in 1666! He didn’t publish until 1687! Principia
Every mass particle attracts every other particle in – See http://members.tripod.com/~gravitee/
the universe with a force that varies as the product – Delay? Needed to invent calculus to justify calculations for
of the masses and inversely as the square of the extended bodies! Also, was reluctant to publish in general.
distance between them. F = - [G(mM)/r2] er (point masses only!)
F = - [G(mM)/r2] er G (Universal Gravitation Constant)
er : Points from m to M – G was first measured by Cavendish in 1798, using a torsion
balance (see text).
r = distance between m & M
– Modern measurements give:
Point masses are assumed
G = 6.6726 ± 0.0008 X 10-11 N·m2/kg2
- sign F is Attractive!
G is the oldest fundamental constant but the least precisely
known. Some others are: e, c, ħ, kB, me, mp, ,,,

4 Fundamental Forces of Nature Universal Law of Gravitation

Sources of forces: In order of decreasing strength F = - [G(mM)/r2] er
– Strictly valid only for point particles!
– If one or both masses are extended, we must make an
additional assumption: That the Gravitational field is linear
Then, we can use the Principle of Superposition to
compute the gravitational force on a particle due to many
← ⎜ 36 other particles by adding the vector sum of each force.
⎜orders of – The mathematics of this & of much of this chapter
← ⎜ magnitude! should remind you of electrostatic field calculations from
E&M! - Identical math!
• If you understand E&M (especially field & potential
Gravity is, BY FAR, the weakest of the four! calculations) you should have no trouble with this
chapter!
NOTE: 10-36 = (10-6)6
 F = - [G(mM)/r2] er (Point particles!) (1) F = - Gm∫[ρ(r’)dv’/r2]er (I)
– Consider a body with a continuous distribution of matter The integral is
with mass density ρ(r’) over the volume
– Divide the distribution up into small masses dm’ (at r’) of
V! er & r2 both
volume element dv’ dm’ = ρ(r’)dv’
– The force between a (“test”) point mass m & dm’ a
depend on r’!
distance r away is (from (1)): • In general, (I)
dF = - G[m(dm’)/r2] er = - G[m ρ(r’)dv’/r2] er (2) isn’t an easy Arbitrary
Origin →
– The total force between m & an extended body with integral! It should
volume V & mass M = ∫ρ(r’)dv’ Integrate (2)! remind you of the electrostatic force between a point
F = - Gm∫[ρ(r’)dv’/r2]er (3) charge & a continuous charge distribution!
The integral is over volume V! Note: The direction of the unit vector er • If both masses are extended, we need also to integrate
varies with r’ & needs to be integrated over also! Also, r2 depends on r’ over the volume of the 2nd mass!

Gravitational Field Gravitational Potential Section 5.2

F = - Gm∫[ρ(r’)dv’/r2]er Integral over volume V

• Start with the Gravitational Field
– Point mass: g ≡ - [GM/r2] er
• Gravitational Field ≡ Force per unit mass exerted on a
test particle in the field of mass M = ∫ρ(r’)dv’. g ≡ (F/m) – Extended body: g ≡ - G ∫[ρ(r’)dv’/r2]er
Analogous to E = (F/q)
• For a point mass: g ≡ - [GM/r2] er in Electrostatics! Integral over volume V
• These should remind you of expressions for the electric
• For an extended body: g ≡ - G∫[ρ(r’)dv’/r2]er
field (E) due to a point charge & due to an extended
Integral over volume V
charge distribution. Identical math, different physics!
Note: The direction of the unit vector er varies with r’ & needs to be integrated over
also! Also, r2 depends on r’! • Define: Gravitational Potential Φ: g ≡ -∇Φ
• g: Units = force per unit mass = acceleration! Near – Analogous to the definition of the electrostatic
the earth’s surface, |g| ≡ “Gravitational Acceleration potential from the electrostatic field E ≡ - ∇Φe
Constant” (|g| ≈ 9.8 m/s2 = 9.8 N/kg)
 Potential of a Point Mass: Φ = -G(M/r)
Gravitational Potential Φ: g ≡ - ∇Φ (1)
• Note:
Dimensions of Φ : (force/unit mass) x (distance) or – Usually, we choose the 0 of Φ by requiring Φ → 0 as r → ∞
energy/unit mass.
• Volume Distribution of mass (M = ∫ρ(r’)dv’):
Φ = -G ∫[ρ(r’)dv’/r] Integral over volume V
For a point mass: g ≡ - [GM/r2] er (2)
Surface Distribution: (thin shell; M = ∫ρs(r’)da’)
⇒ Φ = Φ(r) (no angular dependence!)
Φ = -G ∫[ρs(r’)da’/r] Integral over surface S
⇒ ∇ = (d/dr) er or ∇ Φ = (dΦ/dr) er
Line Distribution: (one d; M = ∫ρ!(r’)ds’)
Comparing with (2) gives:
Φ = - G ∫[ρ!(r’)ds’/r] Integral over line Γ
Potential of a Point Mass: Φ = -G(M/r)

Physical significance of the gravitational potential Φ?

– It is the [work/unit mass (dW’) which must be done by an • Work/unit mass to move a body from position r1 to
outside agent on a body in a gravitational field to displace position r2 in a g field:
it a distance dr] = [force x displacement]:
W’ = ∫dW’ = ∫dΦ ≡ Φ(r2) - Φ(r1)
dW’ = -g•dr ≡ (∇Φ)•dr = ∑i(∂Φ/∂xi)dxi ≡ dΦ

• For a point mass m in a gravitational field

⇒ The work/unit mass to move a body from with a potential Φ, define:
position r1 to position r2 in a gravitational field =
the potential difference between the 2 points: Gravitational Potential Energy: U ≡ mΦ
W’= ∫dW’ = ∫dΦ ≡ Φ(r2) - Φ(r1)
 Potential Energy Example 5.1
• Find the gravitational potential Φ inside & outside a spherical shell, of
• For a point mass m in a gravitational potential Φ mass M, mass density ρ, inner radius b, outer radius a. (Like a similar
electrostatic potential problem!)
Gravitational Potential Energy: U ≡ mΦ • This is an important & fundamental problem in gravitational theory!
• As usual, the force is the negative gradient of the
Spherical Coordinates
potential energy the force on m is F ≡ - ∇U
– Of course, using the expression for Φ for a point
mass, Φ = -G(M/r), leads EXACTLY to the force
given by the Universal Law of Gravitation (as it
should)! That is, we should get the expression:
F = - [G(mM)/r2] er Integral over volume V!

Φ = -G∫[ρ(r’)dv’/r]. Integrate over V. The difficulty, of course, is

properly setting up the integral! If properly set up, doing it is easy!

Summary of Results M ≡ (4π)ρ(a3 - b3) • These results are very important, especially
outside the shell those for R > a, Φ = -(GM)/R
R > a, Φ = -(GM)/R (1) This says: The potential at any point outside
The same as if M were a point mass at the origin! a spherically symmetric distribution of
completely inside the shell matter is independent of the size of the
R < b, Φ = -2πρG(a2 - b2) (2) distribution & is the same as that for a
Φ = constant, independent of position. point mass at the origin.
within the shell To calculate the potential for such a distribution we
b ≤ R ≤ a, Φ = -4πρG[a2- (b3/R) - R2] (3) can consider all mass to be concentrated at the center.
• Also, Φ is continuous!
If R → a, (1) & (3) are the same! If R → b, (2) & (3) are the same!
• Also, the results are very important for
R < b, Φ = -2πρG(a2 - b2)
The potential is constant anywhere
inside a spherical shell.
The force on a test mass m
inside the shell is 0!
• Given the results for the potential Φ, we can compute
the GRAVITATIONAL FIELD g inside, outside &
within the spherical shell: g ≡ - ∇Φ
• Φ depends on R only g is radially directed
g = g er = - (dΦ/dR)er [M ≡ (4π)ρ(a3 - b3)]
outside the shell R > a, g = - (GM)/R2
The same as if M were a point mass at the origin!
completely inside the shell R < b, g = 0
Since Φ = constant, independent of position.
within the shell
b ≤ R ≤ a, g = (4π)ρG[(b3/R2) - R]

Example 5.2
• Plots of the
potential • Astronomical
measurements
Φ & the field g show that the
inside, outside & ← Φ = constant
orbital speed of
masses in spiral
within a Φ = -(GM)/R galaxies rotating
spherical shell. ↓ about their centers
is approximately
g ≡ - ∇Φ constant as a
g = - (dΦ/dR) g = - (GM)/R2 function of distance R from the galaxy center, as in the figure (for
↓ the Andromeda Galaxy). Show that this is inconsistent with the
galaxy having its mass concentrated at its center & can be explained
↑
if the galaxy mass increases with distance R from the center.
g=0
• Solution: Assume that the galaxy mass M has a spherically Example 5.3
symmetric distribution ρ. We can solve the problem, despite the fact that • Consider a thin, uniform circular ring of radius a & mass M.
the radius R might be hundreds of light years! The orbital speed v of a A small mass m is placed in the plane of the ring.
small mass m in orbit at R about the galaxy center is found (Phys. I!) by
Q: Find a position of equilibrium & determine if it is stable.
setting the gravitational force = (mass) x (centripetal acceleration)
or: [(GMm)/R2] = [m(v2)/R]
v = (GM/R)½ (1)
or: v R-½ (2)
If (2) is true, v vs. R would
be like the dashed curve! For the
solid (expt.) curve to be consistent
with (1) requires M = M(R) R CONCLUSION: There
must be more matter in a galaxy than is observed (“dark matter” =
~90% of mass in the universe). At the forefront of research.

• Use the result for a Line Distribution:

Φ = - ρG∫dφ[1 + (r’/a)2 – 2(r’/a)cosφ]-½ (1)
(M = ∫ρ!(r’)ds’, Φ = - G∫[ρ!(r’)ds’/r]
• Consider positions close to the center
• Here, ρ! = const. = ρ M = 2πaρ
point (near r’ = 0): Expand (1) for
• The potential at the position of a
r’ << a & integrate term by term:
point mass m a distance r’ from
the ring center & a distance b from Φ(r’) -ρG∫dφ[1 + (r’/a)cosφ
the differential mass dM: + (r’/a)2(3cos2φ -1)+….]
Φ(r’) = -ρaG∫(dφ/b) (For those who know & care, the
integrand in this form is a series of Legendre Polynomials!)
φ = angle shown in the figure, limits: (0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π)
From the figure, b2 = a2 + (r’)2 – 2ar’cosφ Φ(r’) -(MG/a)[1 + (r’/a)2 +…]

Φ = - ρaG∫dφ[a2 + (r’)2 – 2ar’cosφ]-½ • The potential energy of mass m at r¢

is:
= - ρG∫dφ[1 + (r’/a)2 – 2(r’/a)cosφ]-½ U(r’) = mΦ(r’) -m(MG/a)[1 + (r’/a)2 +…]
 U(r’) = mΦ(r’) -m(MG/a)[1 + (r’/a)2 +…]
Poisson’s Equation Section 5.2

• The equilibrium position is given by
(dU/dr’) = 0 = -m(MGr’)/(2a3)
r’ = 0 is an equilibrium position!
This should be obvious by symmetry!
• Stability (or not) is obtained from the
2nd derivative: (d2U/dr’2)
Þ r’ = 0 is a position of unstable
equilibrium!
(“Not obvious”!)
• Comparison of properties of gravitational fields with similar
properties of electrostatic fields (Maxwell’s equations!)
• Consider an arbitrary surface
S, as in the figure. A point
mass m is placed inside.
• Define:
0 = -m(MG)/(2a3) <0 Gravitational Flux
through S: Φm ≡ ∫S n•g da
= “amount of g passing
through surface S”
n ≡ Unit vector normal to S at differential area da.
g: gravitational field vector

• We’ve just shown that the Gravitational Flux

Φm ≡ ∫S n•g da
passing through an ARBITRARY SURFACE S
use g = -G(m/r2) er surrounding a mass m (anywhere inside!) is:
n•er = cosθ Φm = ∫S n•g da = - 4πGm (1)
n•g = -Gm(r-2cosθ)
Q: (1) should remind you of something?
so: Φm = -Gm ∫S (r-2cosθ)da
Yes, (1) should remind you of Gauss’s Law
da = r2sinθdθdφ ∫S (r-2cosθ)da = 4π for the electric flux passing though an
The integral is over the solid angle of the arbitrary surface and arbitrary surface surrounding a charge
has the value 4π steradians. q (the mathematics is identical!).

Φm= -4πGm (ARBITRARY S!) (1) = Gauss’s Law for Gravitation

(Gauss’s Law, Integral form!)
 Φm = ∫S n•g da = - 4πGm
Gauss’s Law for Gravitation
• Generalizations: Many masses in S:
– Discrete, point masses: m = ∑i mi
Φm = - 4πG ∑i mi = - 4πG Menclosed
where Menclosed ≡ Total Mass enclosed by S.
– A continuous mass distribution of density ρ:
m = ∫V ρdv (V = volume enclosed by S)
Φm = - 4πG∫V ρdv = - 4πG Menclosed (1)
Note!! where Menclosed ≡ ∫V ρdv ≡ Total Mass enclosed by S.
This is → → → If S is highly symmetric, we can use (1) to
important!! calculate the gravitational field g! Examples next!
Poisson’s Equation!
• Start with Gauss’s Law for gravitation, differential form:
•g = -4πGρ
• Use the definition of the gravitational potential: g ≡ -
• Combine: •( Φ) = 4πGρ
2Ф = 4πGρ Poisson’s Equation!
Poisson’s Equation is useful for finding the potential Φ (in
boundary value problems similar to those in electrostatics!)
• If ρ = 0 in the region where we want Φ, =02Ф
Laplace’s Equation!
• For a continuous mass distribution:
Φm = - 4πG∫V ρdv (1)
– But, also Φm = ∫S n•g da = - 4πG Menclosed (2)
– The Divergence Theorem from vector
calculus (Ch. 1, p. 42): (Physicists correctly
call it Gauss’s Theorem!): ∫S n•g da ≡ ∫V ( •g)dv (3)
(1), (2), (3) together: -4πG∫V ρ dv = ∫V ( •g)dv
surface S & volume V are arbitrary integrands are equal!
•g = -4πGρ
(Gauss’s Law for Gravitation, differential form!)
Should remind you of Gauss’s Law of electrostatics: •E = (ρc/ε)
Lines of Force & Equipotential Surfaces Sect. 5.3
• Lines of Force (analogous to lines of force in electrostatics!)
– A mass M produces a gravitational field g. Draw lines
Φ outward from M such that their direction at every point is the
same as that of g. These lines extend from the surface of M
to ∞ ≡ Lines of Force
• Draw similar lines from every small part of the surface area of
M: These give the direction of the field g at any arbitrary point.
• Also, by convention, the density of the lines of force (the # of
lines passing through a unit area to the lines) is proportional
to the magnitude of the force F (the field g) at that point.
A lines of force picture is a convenient means to visualize the
vector property of the g field.
 Equipotential Surfaces
• The gravitational potential Φ is defined at every point
in space (except at the position of a point mass!).
An equation Φ = Φ(x1,x2,x3) = constant
defines a surface in 3d on which
Φ = constant
Equipotential Surface:
Any surface on which Φ = constant
• The gravitational field is defined as g ≡ -
If Φ = constant, g (obviously!) = 0
g has no component along an equipotential surface!
• Consider 2 equal point masses, M, separated, as in the figure.
Consider the potential at point P, a distances r1 & r2 from 2 masses.
Equipotential surface is: Φ = -GM[(r1)-1 + (r2)-1] = constant
• Equipotential
surfaces look
like this →
• Gravitational Field g ≡ - Φ
g has no component along an equipotential surface.
The force F has no component along an equipotential surface.
Every line of force must be normal (⊥) to every
equipotential surface.
The field g does no work on a mass m moving
along an equipotential surface.
• The gravitational potential Φ is a single valued function.
Φ
No 2 equipotential surfaces can touch or intersect.
• Equipotential surfaces for a single, point mass or for any mass with
a spherically symmetric distribution are obviously spherical.
When is the Potential Concept Useful? Sect. 5.4
• A discussion which (again!) borders on philosophy!
• As in E&M, the potential Ф in gravitation is a useful &
powerful concept / technique!
• Its use in some sense is really a mathematical convenience
to calculate the force on a body or the energy of a body.
• The main advantage of the potential method is that Ф is a
scalar (easier to deal with than a vector!).
• We make a decision about whether to use the force (field) method or
or the potential method in a calculation on case by case basis.
 Example 5.4
• Consider a thin,
uniform disk, mass
M, radius a.
Density ρ =M/(πa2).
Worked on the board! Sect. 5.5: A Simple Model of the Ocean Tides
• Tides are caused by the gravitational attraction of the ocean to
both the Moon & the Sun. This is a Complicated Problem!
– The physics of ocean tides was first discussed by Newton!
– Instead of the full, complicated problem, we’ll look at a simple model!
– This model gets the Qualitative Physics correct.

• Find the force on a • A Major Complication!! The surface of the Earth is not an
point mass m on the axis.
inertial system! (& Newton’s 2nd Law is valid in inertial systems only!)
Motion in non-inertial systems in general is discussed in Ch. 10!
• Related Complications:
– Earth & Moon rotate about their center of mass + also orbit the Sun.
– The Earth is rotating + the Moon is orbiting the Earth.
– Assume: The water nearest the Moon is is ~ “pulled away” from the
Earth & the water farthest away is ~ “pushed towards” the Earth.
• Results, both by the potential method & by direct force calculation:
• Before discussing even the simple model in Sect. 5.5, we’ll first
Fz = 2πρG[z(a2 + z2)-½ - 1] (<0 ) discuss the general Qualitative Physics of the Tides.

Effect of the Moon’s Gravitational Attraction This Effect is Superimposed on the Earth’s Rotation
on the Earth’s Oceans
Viewed from a
perspective
outside the
Moon-Earth
system:

Viewed from a
perspective at
the center of
the Earth:
 Spring Tides & Neap Tides
• The Sun also contributes to Earth’s
tides.
– When the Sun & Moon line up to produce
higher tides, this is called Spring Tides.
Spring Tide
Tidal Friction
• This “sloshing” back & forth of Earth’s oceans
twice a day, due to the tides, actually slows down the
rotation speed of the Earth!
• Due to this effect, the day is lengthening by about
0.002 seconds per century!
Spring Tides & Neap Tides
• The Sun also contributes to Earth’s
tides.
– Neap Tides occur when the gravitational forces
due to the Moon & the Sun partially cancel each
other.
Neap Tide
Question: During what phases of the Moon do
Comment
It is known that tidal forces also affect galaxies
Sect. 5.5: A Simple (Crude) Model of the Tides
• First: Consider the effect of the Moon only.
Later: Add in the effect of the Sun.
• Make some VERY simple (!) model assumptions:
– The Earth’s surface is completely covered with water(!)
– The Earth rotates, but neglect this at first; add it in later.
• Combine Newton’s 2nd Law with Newton’s
Universal Law of Gravitation to model tides.
– To apply Newton’s 2nd Law, we need an inertial reference frame!
– Set up an inertial reference frame in the “background” space,
as in the figure on the next page.
• Newton’s 2nd Law (in the inertial
frame) for mass m:
m(d2rm′/dt2) = (Ftotal )m
= (FG)m-E + (FG)m-M (1)
(FG)m-E = Gravitational force between the mass m & Earth.
(FG)m-M = Gravitational force between the mass m & Moon.
(Ftotal )m = - G(mMEr-2)er - G(mMmR-2)eR (2)
• Newton’s 2nd Law (in the inertial frame) for the Earth ME
(attraction to the Moon):
ME(d2rE′/dt2) = (Ftotal)E (3)
(Ftotal)E = Gravitational force between the Moon & the Earth.
(Ftotal)E = - G(MEMmD-2)eD (4)
All F’s & r’s are vectors. All e’s are unit vectors! (arrows, hats left off!)
• Inertial reference frame: x’, y’, z’
Mm = Moon mass
ME = Earth mass
D = Distance from the Moon’s
center to the Earth’s center.
• Calculate:
The gravitational effect of the Earth + the Moon on a
small (test) mass m on the Earth’s surface.
R = Position vector of m from the Moon. r = Position vector of m
from the Earth’s center. The radius of the spherical Earth = r.
rm‘= Position vector of m from the inertial system origin.
rE‘= Position vector from the inertial system origin to Earth’s center
• Goal: Find the vector
acceleration (d2r/dt2) as
measured in the non-inertial
system with origin at the
Earth’s center.
From the figure:
r = rm′- rE′ (d2r/dt2) = (d2rm′/dt2) – (d2rE′/dt2) (5)
• Combining Eqs. (1) - (5) & doing some algebra gives:
(d2r/dt2) = -(GMEr-2)er -(GMm)[(eRR-2) - (eDD-2)] (6)
1st term ≡ acceleration of m due to Earth’s gravitational force
2nd 2 terms ≡ acceleration from the Tidal Force (responsible
for tides) = difference between the gravitational acceleration
due to the Moon, felt at Earth’s center & that due to the Moon,
felt on Earth’s surface. These are what we are interested in!
• The effect of the tidal force at various points on the
Earth: The figure shows a polar view, with polar axis = z-axis
& looks at the force at different points (a,b,c,d) on the Earth.
←--------------------- D ----------------------→
• The tidal force on a mass m on the Earth’s surface (using
only the 2nd 2 terms from Newton’s 2nd Law, Eq. (6)):
(d2r/dt2) = -(GMEr-2)er -(GMm)[(eRR-2) - (eDD-2)]
FT = m (d2r/dt2) = - GmMm[(eRR-2) - (eDD-2)]
• The Tidal Force on a mass m on the Earth’s surface:
FT = -GmMm[(eRR-2) - (eDD-2)] (7)
←------------- D -------------------→
←------------ R --------------→
• At point b: The nearest point on Earth from the Moon:
At b, eR, eD are in (approximately) in the same direction,
along the x-axis. R < D The 1st term dominates & FT is
along the + x-axis, as in the diagram. Also, r << D
FT has approximately the same magnitude as at a, but it
is in the opposite direction.
• The Tidal Force on a mass m on the Earth’s surface:
FT = -GmMm[(eRR-2) - (eDD-2)] (7)
• Look at various points on the Earth’s surface:
←------------ D -------------------→
←------------------ R --------------------→
• At point a: The farthest point on Earth from the Moon:
At a, eR, eD are (approximately) in the same direction,
along the x-axis. R > D The 2nd term dominates & FT is
along the + x-axis, as in the diagram.
(7)
• The magnitude of the tidal force on the x-axis:
FTx ≅ - GmMm[(R-2) - (D-2)]
• On the x-axis @ a: ←----------- D -----------→
R = D +r
FTx -GmMm[(D+r)-2 - D-2)] ←------------ R --------------→
= -G(mMmD-2)[(1+{rD-1})-2 - 1]
Note that: |rD-1| ≈ 0.02 <<1
Expand (1+{rD-1})-2 in a Taylor’s series for small |rD-1|
FTx -G(mMmD-2) [1- 2(r/D)+ 3(r/D)2 -....-1]
or FTx + 2GmMmrD-3 (8)
• On the x-axis @ b: By the reasoning we just had, the force there
is (approx.) the same magnitude as in (8), but opposite in direction.
• The Tidal Force on a mass m on the Earth’s surface: • Summary of the (approximate) directions of
FT = -GmMm[(eRR-2) - (eDD-2)] (7) the tidal forces at points a, b, c, & d
←------------- D -------------------→

←-------------- R -------------------→
• At point c: eR is approximately parallel to eD x-components
of the 2 terms in FT approximately cancel because R D & the
x-components of eR & eD are approximately the same.
The y component of (7) at c, using eRy ≈ (rD-1) j is
FTy -G(mMm)rD-3 (Along the + y-axis, towards Earth’s center)
At point d: FTy has approximately the same magnitude as at d, but
it is along the negative y-axis, away from Earth’s center.

• The Tidal Force on a mass m on the Earth’s surface:

• The tidal force at an arbitrary point e for
FT = -GmMm[(eRR-2) - (eDD-2)] (7) arbitrary angle θ, using x = r cosθ, y = r sinθ

• At an arbitrary point e: The x & y components of (7) are

obtained by the replacements r → x in FTx (for points a & b) FTx 2G(mMm)(xD-3) = 2G(mMm)(r cosθ)D-3
& r → y in FTy (for points c & d):
FTy -G(mMm)(yD-3) = -G(mMm)(r sinθ)D-3
FTx 2G(mMm)(xD-3)
FTy -G(mMm)(yD-3)
 Schematic Representation of Tidal Forces • This simple model of tidal forces predicts that
Is it obvious that the the water along the y-axis is shallower than along the
“bulges” are HIGHLY x-axis. Of course, the figure is greatly exaggerated!
exaggerated? • The Earth rotates about its axis once per day
2 high tides per day.

Example 5.5
• Calculate the maximum height change in the tides caused by
• This simple model of tidal forces has neglected
the Moon. Use the same simple model along with a solution
the effect of the Sun’s gravitational attraction! proposed by Newton himself! Imagine 2 wells; 1 in the direction
• A simple calculation shows: of the high tide (x-axis) & 1 in the direction of the low tide (y-axis).

– The Sun’s gravitational attraction is approximately 175

times stronger than the Moon’s at Earth’s surface.
– However, a calculation similar to our calculation with
the Moon shows that the Tidal Force due to the Sun is
approximately 0.46 that due to the Moon. (Prob. 5.18)
– The Sun gives a stronger total force, but a weaker tidal
force. Also, the gradient of the Sun’s tidal force over the
Earth’s surface is smaller than for the moon because of the
larger distance to the Sun.

• h ≡ height change wanted.
ΔPE for mass m = mgh.
(Move m from c to a, in the
figure). Work: W = ΔPE
mgh = W = I1 + I2
I1 = ∫ (FTy)dy (r < y < 0)
FTy = -G(mMm)(yD-3)
I2 = ∫ (FTx)dx (0 < x < r)
FTx = 2G(mMm)(xD-3)
mgh = (3/2)G(mMm)(r2D-3)
h = (3/2)(G/g)Mm(r2D-3)
• Putting in numbers: h 0.54m
Real Tides
r = Earth • Real tides are affected by both the Moon & the Sun!
radius • The highest tides (“Spring Tides”) occur when the
Earth, Moon & Sun are lined up (at new & full Moons).
• The lowest tides (“Neap Tides”) occur in the 1st & 3rd
quarters of the Moon (when the Sun & Moon are at right
angles to each other, partially canceling out their effects).
• The maximum tide (every 2 weeks) should have a
height (including the effect of the Sun = 0.46 the
effect of the Moon) of
1.46 h 0.83m

• Actual tides are higher! Because of neglected effects, our • Actual tides are higher! Because of neglected effects, our
simple model is much too simple! simple model is much too simple!
For example: For example:
• 1. Earth is not covered with water! • 8. The plane of the Moon orbit around the Earth is not to
• 2. Land masses play role. the rotation axis One high tide per day is higher than the
• 3. Local effects can increase high tide levels to several other!
meters! • 9. Tidal friction results in the Earth “dragging” the ocean
• 4. Tidal friction between the water & the Earth causes energy with it as it rotates. This results in high tides not being
loss by Earth. along the Earth-Moon axis, but several degrees apart, as in
the figure on the next page.
• 5. Earth land masses aren’t rigid & are distorted by tidal
forces.
• 6. The Earth rotates.
• 7. The Moon orbits the Earth. All of these together mean that
there are not exactly 2 tides per day. (Time between them: 12
hr. 26 min.)
Cartoon of “Actual” Tides

Is it obvious that the “bulges”

are HIGHLY exaggerated?