Lecture 1

OUTLINE
• Important Quantities
• Semiconductor Fundamentals
– General material properties
– Crystal structure
– Crystallographic notation
– Electrons and holes
 Important Quantities
• Electronic charge, q = 1.610-19 C
• Permittivity of free space, eo = 8.85410-14 F/cm
• Boltzmann constant, k = 8.6210-5 eV/K
• Planck constant, h = 4.1410-15 eVs
• Free electron mass, mo = 9.110-31 kg

• Thermal voltage kT/q = 26 mV at room temperature

• kT = 0.026 eV = 26 meV at room temperature
• kTln(10) = 60 meV at room temperature
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 Joules
Lecture 1, Slide 2
 What is a Semiconductor?
• Low resistivity => “conductor”
• High resistivity => “insulator”
• Intermediate resistivity => “semiconductor”
– conductivity lies between that of conductors and insulators
– generally crystalline in structure for IC devices
• In recent years, however, non-crystalline semiconductors have
become commercially very important

polycrystalline amorphous crystalline

Lecture 1, Slide 3
 Semiconductor Materials
Elemental:

Compound:

Alloy:

Lecture 1, Slide 4
 From Hydrogen to Silicon
R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals, Figure 2.2 # of Electrons
1 2 3
Z Name 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d Notation
1
1H 1 1s
2 He 2 1s 2
3 Li 2 1 1s 2 2s 1
4 Be 2 2 1s 2 2s 2
5B 2 2 1 1s 2 2s 2 2p1
6C 2 2 2 1s 2 2s 2 2p2
7N 2 2 3 1s 2 2s 2 2p3
8O 2 2 4 1s 2 2s 2 2p4
9F 2 2 5 1s 2 2s 2 2p5
10 Ne 2 2 6 1s 2 2s 2 2p6
11 Na 2 2 6 1 1s 2 2s 2 2p6 3s 1
12 Mg 2 2 6 2 1s 2 2s 2 2p6 3s 2
13 Al 2 2 6 2 1 1s 2 2s 2 2p6 3s 2 3p1
14 Si 2 2 6 2 2 1s 2 2s 2 2p6 3s 2 3p2
15 P 2 2 6 2 3 1s 2 2s 2 2p6 3s 2 3p3
16 S 2 2 6 2 4 1s 2 2s 2 2p6 3s 2 3p4
17 Cl 2 2 6 2 5 1s 2 2s 2 2p6 3s 2 3p5
18 Ar 2 2 6 2 6 1s 2 2s 2 2p6 3s 2 3p6

Lecture 1, Slide 5
 The Silicon Atom
• 14 electrons occupying the first 3 energy levels:
– 1s, 2s, 2p orbitals filled by 10 electrons
– 3s, 3p orbitals filled by 4 electrons
To minimize the overall energy, the 3s and 3p orbitals
hybridize to form 4 tetrahedral 3sp orbitals
Each has one electron and
is capable of forming a bond
with a neighboring atom

http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/semiconductors_01.php
Lecture 1, Slide 6
 The Si Crystal
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/S/AE_silicon.html

• Each Si atom has 4

nearest neighbors
– “diamond cubic”
lattice
– lattice constant
= 5.431Å

Lecture 1, Slide 7
How Many Silicon Atoms per cm3?
• Total number of atoms within a unit cell:
Number of atoms completely inside cell:
Number of corner atoms (1/8 inside cell):
Number of atoms on the faces (1/2 inside cell):

• Cell volume: (0.543 nm)3

• Density of silicon atoms:

Lecture 1, Slide 8
 Electronic Properties of Si
• Silicon is a semiconductor material.
– Pure Si has relatively high electrical resistivity at room temp.

• There are 2 types of mobile charge-carriers in Si:

– Conduction electrons are negatively charged
– Holes are positively charged

• The concentration (#/cm3) of conduction electrons &

holes in a semiconductor can be changed:
1. by changing the temperature
2. by adding special impurity atoms ( dopants )
3. by applying an electric field
4. by irradiation
Lecture 1, Slide 9
 Electrons and Holes (Bond Model)
Si Si Si

2-D representation of Si lattice: Si Si Si

Si Si Si

C. C. Hu, Modern Semiconductor Devices for ICs, Figure 1-4

When an electron breaks loose Si Si Si

and becomes a conduction electron,
Si Si Si
a hole is also created.
Si Si Si
C. C. Hu, Modern Semiconductor Devices for ICs, Figure 1-5a

Lecture 1, Slide 10
The Hole as a Positive Mobile Charge
• Positive charge is associated with a half-filled covalent bond
– Moves when an electron from a neighboring covalent bond fills it

Si Si Si

Si Si Si

Si Si Si

Lecture 1, Slide 11
 Intrinsic Carrier Concentration, ni

conduction

• At temperatures > 0 K,
some electrons will be
freed from covalent
bonds, resulting in
electron-hole pairs.
For Si: ni  1010 cm-3 at room temperature
Lecture 1, Slide 12
 Definition of Terms
n ≡ number of electrons/cm3
p ≡ number of holes/cm3
ni ≡ intrinsic carrier concentration

In a pure semiconductor,
n = p = ni

Lecture 1, Slide 13
 Summary
• Crystalline Si:
– 4 valence electrons per atom
– diamond lattice (each atom has 4 nearest neighbors)
– atomic density = 5 x 1022 atoms/cm3
– intrinsic carrier concentration ni = 1010 cm-3
– Miller indices are used to designate planes and directions
within a crystalline lattice

• In a pure Si crystal, conduction electrons and holes are

formed in pairs.
– Holes can be considered as positively charged mobile particles.
– Both holes and electrons can conduct current.
Lecture 1, Slide 14
 Lecture 2

OUTLINE
• Semiconductor Fundamentals (cont’d)
– Energy band model
– Band gap energy
– Density of states
– Doping
 Potential Energy Profiles
1 atom 2 atoms

Discrete allowed
energy levels

V(r)1/r is mostly a coulombic potential btwn When two atoms are in close proximity, the upper energy
the positive nucleus & negative electrons. levels are shifted to bonding and anti-bonding levels.

N atoms

many bonding/anti-bonding levels

 Si: From Atom to Crystal
R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals, Figure 2.5

Energy states in Si atom → energy bands in Si crystal

• The highest nearly-filled band is the valence band
• The lowest nearly-empty band is the conduction band
 Energy Band Diagram
Ec
electron energy

Ev

distance

• Simplified version of energy band model, showing

only the bottom edge of the conduction band (Ec)
and the top edge of the valence band (Ev)
• Ec and Ev are separated by the band gap energy EG
Lecture 2, Slide 4
Electrons and Holes (Band Model)
• Conduction electron = occupied state in the conduction band
• Hole = empty state in the valence band
• Electrons & holes tend to seek lowest-energy positions
→ Electrons tend to fall and holes tend to float up (like bubbles in water)
Increasing electron energy
Increasing hole energy

electron kinetic energy

Ec Ec represents the
electron potential
energy.

Ev P.E. = Ec − Ereference
hole kinetic energy

Lecture 2, Slide 5
Electrostatic Potential, V
and Electric Field, E
• The potential energy of a
particle with charge -q is
related to the electrostatic
potential V(x):
P.E. = −qV
1
 V = ( Ereference − Ec )
q

 =−
dV 1 dEc
=
dx q dx
0.7 eV • Variation of Ec with position is
called “band bending.”
Lecture 2, Slide 6
 Measuring the Band Gap Energy
• EG can be determined from the minimum energy of
photons that are absorbed by the semiconductor

Ec

photon
hn > EG
Ev

Band gap energies of selected semiconductors

Semiconductor Ge Si GaAs
Band gap energy (eV) 0.67 1.12 1.42

Lecture 2, Slide 7
 Density of States
E

dE
Ec Ec
density of states, g(E)
Ev Ev

g(E)dE = number of states per cm3 in the energy range between E and E+dE

Near the band edges: Electron and hole

density-of-states effective masses
8 2 *
gc (E) =
h3
(
mn, DOS ) (E − E )
3/ 2
c for E  Ec Si Ge GaAs
mn,DOS*/mo 1.08 0.56 0.067
8 2 *
gv (E) =
h 3
(
m p , DOS ) (E
3/ 2
v − E ) for E  Ev mp,DOS*/mo 0.81 0.29 0.47

Lecture 2, Slide 8
 Effective Mass, m*
• When an electron is moving inside a solid material, the potential
field will affect its movement.
Schrödinger equation:

2 2
E = −   + V
2m0
E : total energy
Y : wave function
ħ : reduced Planck constant

p2
• For low kinetic energy E  where p is the crystal momentum
2m *
i.e. a conduction electron behaves as a particle but with an
effective mass m*

Lecture 2, Slide 9
 EG and Material Classification
silicon dioxide silicon metal
Ec
Ec
EG = 1.12 eV Ev
EG = ~ 9 eV Ev Ec

Ev

• Neither filled bands nor empty bands allow current flow

• Insulators have large EG
• Semiconductors have small EG
• Metals have no band gap (conduction band is partially filled)
Lecture 2, Slide 10
 Doping
• By substituting a Si atom with a special impurity atom (Column V
or Column III element), a conduction electron or hole is created.

Donors: P, As, Sb Acceptors: B, Al, Ga, In

ND ≡ ionized donor concentration (cm-3) NA ≡ ionized acceptor concentration (cm-3)

http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blsolar5.htm
Lecture 2, Slide 11
 Doping Silicon with a Donor
Example: Add arsenic (As) atom to the Si crystal

Si Si Si

Si As Si

Si Si Si

The loosely bound 5th valence electron of the As atom “breaks free” and
becomes a mobile electron for current conduction.

Lecture 2, Slide 12
 Doping Silicon with an Acceptor
Example: Add boron (B) atom to the Si crystal

Si Si Si

Si B Si

Si Si Si

The B atom accepts an electron from a neighboring Si atom, resulting in a

missing bonding electron, or “hole”. The hole is free to roam around the Si
lattice, carrying current as a positive charge.
Lecture 2, Slide 13
Solid Solubility of Dopants in Si
F. A. Trumbore, Bell Systems Technical Journal, 1960

Lecture 2, Slide 14 ATOMS PER CUBIC CENTIMETER

 Doping (Band Model)
Donor ionization energy
Ec
ED

EA
Ev
Acceptor ionization energy

Ionization energy of selected donors and acceptors in silicon

Donors Acceptors
Dopant Sb P As B Al In
Ionization energy (meV)
39 45 54 45 67 160
Ec-ED or EA-Ev
Lecture 2, Slide 15
Dopant Ionization
R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals, Figure 2.13

Lecture 2, Slide 16
 Charge-Carrier Concentrations
Charge neutrality condition: N D + p = NA + n

At thermal equilibrium, np = ni2 (“Law of Mass Action”)

Note: Carrier concentrations depend on net dopant concentration!

Lecture 2, Slide 17
 n-type Material (n > p)
ND > NA (more specifically, ND – NA >> ni):

Lecture 2, Slide 18
 p-type Material (p > n)
NA > ND (more specifically, NA – ND >> ni):

Lecture 2, Slide 19
Carrier Concentration vs. Temperature
R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals, Figure 2.22

Lecture 2, Slide 20
 Terminology
donor: impurity atom that increases n
acceptor: impurity atom that increases p
n-type material: contains more electrons than holes
p-type material: contains more holes than electrons
majority carrier: the most abundant carrier
minority carrier: the least abundant carrier
intrinsic semiconductor: n = p = ni
extrinsic semiconductor: doped semiconductor
such that majority carrier concentration = net dopant concentration

Lecture 2, Slide 21
 Summary
• Allowed electron energy levels in an atom give rise to
bands of allowed electron energy levels in a crystal.
– The valence band is the highest nearly-filled band.
– The conduction band is the lowest nearly-empty band.

• The band gap energy is the energy required to free an

electron from a covalent bond.
– EG for Si at 300 K = 1.12 eV
– Insulators have large EG; semiconductors have small EG

Lecture 2, Slide 22
 Summary (cont’d)
• Ec represents the electron potential energy
Variation in Ec(x) → variation in electric potential V

Electric field  =
dEc dEv
dx
=
dx
• E - Ec represents the electron kinetic energy

Lecture 2, Slide 23
 Summary (cont’d)
• Dopants in silicon:
– Reside on lattice sites (substituting for Si)
– Have relatively low ionization energies (<50 meV)
→ ionized at room temperature
– Group-V elements contribute conduction electrons, and are
called donors
– Group-III elements contribute holes, and are called acceptors

Dopant concentrations typically range from 1015 cm-3 to 1020 cm-3

Lecture 2, Slide 24
 Lecture 3

OUTLINE
• Semiconductor Fundamentals (cont’d)
– Thermal equilibrium
– Fermi-Dirac distribution
• Boltzmann approximation
– Relationship between EF and n, p
– Degenerately doped semiconductor
 Fluid Analogy

Conduction
Band

Valence
Band

Lecture 3, Slide 2
 Thermal Equilibrium
• No external forces are applied:
– electric field = 0, magnetic field = 0
– mechanical stress = 0
– no light

• Dynamic situation in which every process is balanced by

its inverse process
Electron-hole pair (EHP) generation rate = EHP recombination rate

• Thermal agitation → electrons and holes exchange

energy with the crystal lattice and each other
→ Every energy state in the conduction band and valence band
has a certain probability of being occupied by an electron
Lecture 3, Slide 3
 Analogy for Thermal Equilibrium

Sand particles

C. C. Hu, Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits, Figure 1-17

• There is a certain probability for the electrons in the

conduction band to occupy high-energy states under
the agitation of thermal energy (vibrating atoms).

Lecture 3, Slide 4
 Fermi Function
• Probability that an available state at energy E is occupied:
1
f (E) = ( E − E F ) / kT
1+ e
• EF is called the Fermi energy or the Fermi level

There is only one Fermi level in a system at equilibrium.

If E >> EF :
If E << EF :
If E = EF :
Lecture 3, Slide 5
Effect of Temperature on f(E)
R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, p. 46

Lecture 3, Slide 6
 Boltzmann Approximation
− ( E − EF ) / kT
If E − EF  3kT , f ( E)  e

( E − EF ) / kT
If EF − E  3kT , f ( E )  1 − e

Probability that a state is empty (i.e. occupied by a hole):

( E − EF ) / kT − ( EF − E ) / kT
1 − f (E)  e =e

Lecture 3, Slide 7
 Equilibrium Distribution of Carriers
• Obtain n(E) by multiplying gc(E) and f(E)
cnx.org/content/m13458/latest

Density of Probability of
Energy band
diagram States, gc(E) × occupancy, f(E) = Carrier
distribution, n(E)

R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Figure 2.16

Lecture 3, Slide 8
 cnx.org/content/m13458/latest

• Obtain p(E) by multiplying gv(E) and 1-f(E)

Density of Probability of
Energy band
diagram States, gv(E) × occupancy, 1-f(E) = Carrier
distribution, p(E)

R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Figure 2.16

Lecture 3, Slide 9
Equilibrium Carrier Concentrations
• Integrate n(E) over all the energies in the conduction
band to obtain n:
top of conduction band
n= g c(E)f(E)dE
Ec

• By using the Boltzmann approximation, and

extending the integration limit to , we obtain
3/ 2
 2mn , DOS kT 
*

n = Nce − ( Ec − E F ) / kT
where N c = 2 2


 h 

Lecture 3, Slide 10
• Integrate p(E) over all the energies in the valence
band to obtain p:
p= g v(E)1 − f(E)dE
Ev

bottom of valence band

• By using the Boltzmann approximation, and

extending the integration limit to -, we obtain
3/ 2
 2m *
kT 
p = Nve −( EF − Ev ) / kT
where N v = 2 
p , DOS
 h 2 
 

Lecture 3, Slide 11
 Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

(
np = N c e − ( Ec − EF ) / kT
)(N e v
− ( E F − Ev ) / kT
)
−( Ec − Ev ) / kT − EG / kT
= Nc Nve = Nc Nve =n
2
i

− EG / 2 kT
ni = N c N v e
Effective Densities of States at the Band Edges (@ 300K)
Si Ge GaAs
Nc (cm-3) 2.82 × 1019 1.05 × 1019 4.37 × 1017
Nv (cm-3) 1.83 × 1019 3.92 × 1018 8.12 × 1018
Lecture 3, Slide 12
 n(ni, Ei) and p(ni, Ei)
• In an intrinsic semiconductor, n = p = ni and EF = Ei
− ( Ec − Ei ) / kT − ( Ei − Ev ) / kT
n = ni = N c e p = ni = N v e
 N c = ni e( Ec − Ei ) / kT  N v = ni e( Ei − Ev ) / kT

( E F − Ei ) / kT ( Ei − EF ) / kT
n = ni e p = ni e
Lecture 3, Slide 13
 Intrinsic Fermi Level, Ei
• To find EF for an intrinsic semiconductor, use the fact that n = p:
− ( Ec − E F ) / kT − ( E F − Ev ) / kT
Nce = Nve

Ec + Ev kT  N v 
EF = + ln    Ei
2 2  Nc 
Ec + Ev 3kT  p , DOS  Ec + Ev
 *
m
Ei = + ln * 
2 4  mn, DOS  2

Lecture 3, Slide 14
 n-type Material
R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Figure 2.16

Energy band Density of Probability Carrier

diagram States of occupancy distributions

Lecture 3, Slide 15
 Example: Energy-band diagram
Question: Where is EF for n = 1017 cm-3 (at 300 K) ?

Lecture 3, Slide 16
 Example: Dopant Ionization
Consider a phosphorus-doped Si sample at 300K with ND = 1017 cm-3.
What fraction of the donors are not ionized?

Hint: Suppose at first that all of the donor atoms are ionized.
 Nc 
EF = Ec − kT ln   = Ec − 147 meV
 n 

1
Probability of non-ionization 
1 + e ( ED − EF ) / kT
1
= (147 meV − 45 meV ) / 26 meV
= 0.02
1+ e

Lecture 3, Slide 17
 p-type Material
R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Figure 2.16

Energy band Density of Probability Carrier

diagram States of occupancy distributions

Lecture 3, Slide 18
Non-degenerately Doped Semiconductor
• Recall that the expressions for n and p were derived using
the Boltzmann approximation, i.e. we assumed

Ev + 3kT  EF  Ec − 3kT

3kT Ec

EF in this range
3kT
Ev

The semiconductor is said to be non-degenerately doped in this case.

Lecture 3, Slide 19
Degenerately Doped Semiconductor
• If a semiconductor is very heavily doped, the Boltzmann
approximation is not valid.

In Si at T=300K: Ec-EF < 3kBT if ND > 1.6x1018 cm-3

EF-Ev < 3kBT if NA > 9.1x1017 cm-3

The semiconductor is said to be degenerately doped in this case.

• Terminology:
“n+” → degenerately n-type doped. EF  Ec
“p+” → degenerately p-type doped. EF  Ev
Lecture 3, Slide 20
Dependence of EF on Temperature
C. C. Hu, Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits, Figure 1-21

− ( Ec − EF ) / kT
n = Nce
 EF = Ec − kT ln(Nc n)

Net Dopant Concentration (cm-3)

Lecture 3, Slide 21
 Summary
• Thermal equilibrium:
– Balance between internal processes with no external
stimulus (no electric field, no light, etc.)

1
– Fermi function f (E) =
1 + e ( E − EF ) / kT
• Probability that a state at energy E is filled with an
electron, under equilibrium conditions.
• Boltzmann approximation:
For high E, i.e. E – EF > 3kT: f ( E )  e − ( E − EF ) / kT

For low E, i.e. EF – E > 3kT: 1 − f ( E )  e−( EF − E ) / kT

Lecture 3, Slide 22
 Summary (cont’d)
• Relationship between EF and n, p :
− ( Ec − EF ) / kT ( EF − Ei ) / kT
n = Nce = ni e
− ( EF − Ev ) / kT ( Ei − EF ) / kT
p = Nve = ni e
• Intrinsic carrier concentration :
− EG / 2 kT
ni = N c N v e
• The intrinsic Fermi level, Ei, is located near midgap.

Lecture 3, Slide 23
 Summary (cont’d)
• If the dopant concentration exceeds 1018 cm-3,
silicon is said to be degenerately doped.
– The simple formulas relating n and p exponentially to EF
are not valid in this case.
For degenerately doped n-type (n+) Si: EF  Ec
For degenerately doped p-type (p+) Si: EF  Ev

Lecture 3, Slide 24
 Lecture 4

OUTLINE
• Semiconductor Fundamentals (cont’d)
– Properties of carriers in semiconductors
– Carrier drift
• Scattering mechanisms
• Drift current
– Conductivity and resistivity
Mobile Charge Carriers in Semiconductors
• Three primary types of carrier action occur inside a
semiconductor:

– Drift: charged particle motion under the influence

of an electric field.

– Diffusion: particle motion due to concentration

gradient or temperature gradient.

– Recombination-generation (R-G)

Lecture 4, Slide 2
 Electrons as Moving Particles
R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals, Figure 2.9

In vacuum In semiconductor

F = (-q)E = moa F = (-q)E = mn*a

where mn* is the
conductivity effective mass

Lecture 4, Slide 3
 Conductivity Effective Mass, m*
Under the influence of an electric field (E-field), an electron or a
hole is accelerated:
a= *
−q  electrons
mn
q
a= * holes
mp

Electron and hole conductivity effective masses

Si Ge GaAs
mn*/mo 0.26 0.12 0.068
mp*/mo 0.39 0.30 0.50
mo = 9.110-31 kg
Lecture 4, Slide 4
 Carrier Scattering
• Mobile electrons and atoms in the Si lattice are always in
random thermal motion.
– Electrons make frequent collisions with the vibrating atoms
“lattice scattering” or “phonon scattering” – increases with increasing T

• Other scattering mechanisms:

– deflection by ionized impurity atoms
– deflection due to Coulombic force between carriers
“carrier-carrier scattering” – only significant at high carrier concentrations

• The net current in any direction is zero, if no E-field is

applied. 2 3
1
electron
4
Lecture 4, Slide 5 5
 Thermal Velocity, vth
3 1 * 2
Average electron kinetic energy = kT = mn vth
2 2

3kT 3  0.026eV  (1.6  10 −19 J/eV)

vth = =
*
mn 0.26  9.1 10 −31 kg
= 2.3  105 m/s = 2.3  10 7 cm/s

Lecture 4, Slide 6
 Carrier Drift
• When an electric field (e.g. due to an externally applied voltage)
exists within a semiconductor, mobile charge-carriers will be
accelerated by the electrostatic force:
2
3 1
4 electron
5

E
Electrons drift in the direction opposite to the E-field → net current
Because of scattering, electrons in a semiconductor do not undergo
constant acceleration. However, they can be viewed as quasi-
classical particles moving at a constant average drift velocity vdn

Lecture 4, Slide 7
Carrier Drift (Band Model)

Ec

Ev

Lecture 4, Slide 8
 Electron Momentum
• With every collision, the electron loses momentum
*
mv n dn

• Between collisions, the electron gains momentum

–qEtmn

tmn ≡ average time between electron scattering events

Conservation of momentum → |mn*vdn | = | qEtmn|

Lecture 4, Slide 9
 Carrier Mobility, m
For electrons: |vdn| = qEtmn / mn* ≡ mnE
mn  [qtmn / mn*] is the electron mobility

Similarly, for holes: |vdp|= qEtmp / mp*  mpE

mp  [qtmp / mp*] is the hole mobility
Electron and hole mobilities for intrinsic semiconductors @ 300K
Si Ge GaAs InAs
mn (cm2/Vs) 1400 3900 8500 30,000
mp (cm2/Vs) 470 1900 400 500
Lecture 4, Slide 10
 Example: Drift Velocity Calculation
a) Find the hole drift velocity in an intrinsic Si sample for E = 103 V/cm.
b) What is the average hole scattering time?

Solution:
a) vdp = mpE

qt mp m*p m p
b) mp = *
 t mp =
m p q

Lecture 4, Slide 11
 Mean Free Path
• Average distance traveled between collisions
l = vtht mp

Lecture 4, Slide 12
 Mechanisms of Carrier Scattering
Dominant scattering mechanisms:
1. Phonon scattering (lattice scattering)
2. Impurity (dopant) ion scattering

Phonon scattering limited mobility decreases with increasing T:

1 1
m phonon  t phonon    T −3 / 2

phonon density carrier thermal velocity T  T 1/ 2

m = qt / m vth  T

Lecture 4, Slide 13
 Impurity Ion Scattering

There is less change in the electron’s direction if the electron

travels by the ion at a higher speed.
Ion scattering limited mobility increases with increasing T:
vth3 T 3/ 2
mimpurity  
N A + ND N A + ND

Lecture 4, Slide 14
 Matthiessen's Rule
• The probability that a carrier will be scattered by mechanism i
dt
within a time period dt is ti
ti ≡ mean time between scattering events due to mechanism i

→ Probability that a carrier will be scattered by any mechanism

within a time period dt is  dt t
i i

1 1 1 1 1 1
= +  = +
t t phonon t impurity m m phonon mimpurity

Lecture 4, Slide 15
Mobility Dependence on Doping
Carrier mobilities in Si at 300K

Lecture 4, Slide 16
Mobility Dependence on Temperature
1 1 1
= +
m m phonon mimpurity

Lecture 4, Slide 17
 Velocity Saturation
• At high electric field, carrier drift velocity saturates:

J. Bean, in High-Speed Semiconductor

Devices, S.M. Sze (ed.), 1990

The saturation velocity, vsat , is the maximum drift velocity

8 106 cm/s for electrons in Si
vsat =
 6  106
cm/s for holes in Si
Lecture 4, Slide 18
 Hole Drift Current Density, Jp,drift

R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals, Figure 3.3

vdp Dt A = volume from which all holes cross plane in time Dt

p vdp Dt A = number of holes crossing plane in time Dt
q p vdp Dt A = hole charge crossing plane in time Dt
q p vdp A = hole charge crossing plane per unit time = hole current
→ Hole drift current per unit area Jp,drift = q p vdp
Lecture 4, Slide 19
 Conductivity and Resistivity
• In a semiconductor, both electrons and holes conduct current:
J p ,drift = qpm p  
J n,drift = −qn(−mn )
J drift = J p ,drift +J = qpm  + qnm 
n , drift p n

J drift = (qpm p + qnm )  

n

• The conductivity of a semiconductor is   qpm p + qnmn

– Unit: mho/cm

1
• The resistivity of a semiconductor is  
– Unit: ohm-cm 

Lecture 4, Slide 20
Resistivity Dependence on Doping
R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals, Figure 3.8

For n-type material:

1

qnm n

For p-type material:

1

qpm p

Note: This plot (for Si) does

not apply to compensated
material (doped with both
acceptors and donors).

Lecture 4, Slide 21
 Electrical Resistance
I V
+ _

W
t
uniformly doped semiconductor

V L
Resistance R = [Unit: ohms]
I Wt
where  is the resistivity
Lecture 4, Slide 22
 Example: Resistivity Calculation
What is the resistivity of a Si sample doped with 1016/cm3 Boron?
Answer:

1 1
= 
qnm n + qpm p qpm p

= (1.6 10 −19 16
)(10 )(450)  −1
= 1.4  − cm

Lecture 4, Slide 23
 Example: Compensated Doping
Consider the same Si sample doped with 1016/cm3 Boron, and
additionally doped with 1017/cm3 Arsenic. What is its resistivity?
Answer:

1 1
= 
qnm n + qpm p qnm n

= (1.6 10 −19
)(9 10 )(750)
16

−1
= 0.93  − cm

Lecture 4, Slide 24
 Example: T Dependence of 
Consider a Si sample doped with 1017 As atoms/cm3. How will its
resistivity change when T is increased from 300K to 400K?
Answer:
The temperature dependent factor in  (and therefore ) is mn.
From the mobility vs. temperature curve for 1017 cm-3, we find that
mn decreases from 770 at 300K to 400 at 400K.

770
Thus,  increases by = 1.93
400

Lecture 4, Slide 25
 Summary
• Electrons and holes can be considered as quasi-classical
particles with effective mass m*
• In the presence of an electric field E, carriers move with
average drift velocity vd = mE , m is the carrier mobility
– Mobility decreases w/ increasing total concentration of ionized dopants
– Mobility is dependent on temperature
• decreases w/ increasing T if lattice scattering is dominant
• decreases w/ decreasing T if impurity scattering is dominant

• The conductivity () hence the resistivity () of a

semiconductor is dependent on its mobile charge carrier
concentrations and mobilities
  qpm p + qnmn   1
Lecture 4, Slide 26
 Lecture 5

OUTLINE
• Semiconductor Fundamentals (cont’d)
– Carrier diffusion
• Diffusion current
• Einstein relationship
– Generation and recombination
• Excess carrier concentrations
• Minority carrier recombination lifetime
 Diffusion
Particles diffuse from regions of higher concentration to regions
of lower concentration region, due to random thermal motion.

C. C. Hu, Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits, Figure 2-9

Lecture 5, Slide 2
 Diffusion Current
dn dp
J n, diff = qDn J p, diff = −qD p
dx dx

D is the diffusion constant, or diffusivity.

Lecture 5, Slide 3
 Total Current

J = Jn + J p

dn
J n = J n ,drift + J n ,diff = qn n ε + qDn
dx

= qp p ε − qD p
dp
J p = J p ,drift + J p ,diff
dx

Lecture 5, Slide 4
Non-Uniformly-Doped Semiconductor
• The position of EF relative to the band edges is determined by
the carrier concentrations, which is determined by the net
dopant concentration.
• In equilibrium EF is constant; therefore, the band-edge energies
vary with position in a non-uniformly doped semiconductor:

Ec(x)

EF

Ev(x)

Lecture 5, Slide 5
Potential Difference due to n(x), p(x)
• The ratio of carrier densities at two points depends exponentially
on the potential difference between these points:
 n1   n1 
EF − Ei1 = kT ln   = Ei1 = EF − kT ln  
 ni   ni 
 n2 
Similarly, Ei2 = EF − kT ln  
 ni 
  n2   n1   n2 
Therefore Ei1 − Ei2 = kT ln   − ln   = kT ln  
  ni   ni   n1 
kT  n2 
V2 − V1 = (Ei1 − Ei2 ) =
1
ln  
q q  n1 
Lecture 5, Slide 6
 Ev(x)

Built-In Electric Field due to n(x), p(x) Ef

Ec(x)
Consider a piece of a non-uniformly doped semiconductor:
− ( Ec − EF ) / kT
n = Nce
n-type semiconductor
dn N dE
= − c e −( Ec − EF ) / kT c
Decreasing donor concentration dx kT dx
Ec(x) n dEc
=−
EF kT dx
n
=− qε
Ev(x) kT

Lecture 5, Slide 7
 Einstein Relationship between D, 
• In equilibrium there is no net flow of electrons or holes
Jn = 0 and Jp = 0
➔ The drift and diffusion current components must balance
each other exactly. (A built-in electric field exists, such that
the drift current exactly cancels out the diffusion current due
to the concentration gradient.)
dn dp
J n = qn n ε + qDn =0 J p = qp p ε − qD p =0
dx dx

The Einstein relationship is valid for a non-degenerate semiconductor, even under non-equilibrium conditions.

Lecture 5, Slide 8
 Example: Diffusion Constant
What is the hole diffusion constant in a sample of silicon with
p = 410 cm2 / V s ?

Answer:

Remember: kT/q = 26 mV at room temperature.

Lecture 5, Slide 9
 Quasi-Neutrality Approximation
• If the dopant concentration profile varies gradually with position,
then the majority-carrier concentration distribution does not
differ much from the dopant concentration distribution.
N D ( x ) + p ( x ) = N A ( x ) + n( x )

– n-type material: n( x)  N D ( x) − N A ( x)
– p-type material: p ( x)  N A ( x) − N D ( x)

kT  1  dND
→  =−
kT  1  dn
 
q  n  dx
=−  
q  N D  dx
in n-type material

Lecture 5, Slide 10
 Generation and Recombination
• Generation:
– A process by which
electrons & holes are
created in pairs.
• Recombination:
– A process by which
electrons and holes
are annihilated in pairs.

• Generation and recombination processes act to change the

carrier concentrations, and thereby indirectly affect current flow

Lecture 5, Slide 11
 Generation Processes
R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals, Figure 3.15

Band-to-Band R-G Center Impact Ionization

Lecture 5, Slide 12
 Recombination Processes
R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals, Figure 3.15

Direct R-G Center Auger

Recombination in Si is primarily via R-G centers

Lecture 5, Slide 13
Direct vs. Indirect Band Gap Materials
Energy (E) vs. momentum (p=ħk) Diagrams
Direct: Indirect:

Little change in momentum Large change in momentum

is required for recombination is required for recombination
→ momentum is conserved by → momentum is conserved by
photon emission phonon + photon emission

Lecture 5, Slide 14
 Excess Carrier Concentrations
equilibrium values

n  n − n0
p  p − p0

Charge neutrality condition:

n = p

Lecture 5, Slide 15
 “Low-Level Injection”
• Often the disturbance from equilibrium is small, such that the
majority-carrier concentration is not affected significantly:

– For an n-type material:

| n |=| p | n0 so n  n0
– For a p-type material:
| n |=| p | p0 so p  p0

However, the minority carrier concentration can be

significantly affected.

Lecture 5, Slide 16
Minority Carrier (Recombination) Lifetime

 p  c 1N
p T
 n  c 1N
n T

The minority carrier lifetime  is the average time an excess

minority carrier “survives” in a sea of majority carriers
 ranges from 1 ns to 1 ms in Si and depends on the density of
metallic impurities (contaminants) such as Au and Pt, and the
density of crystalline defects. These impurities/defects give rise
to localized energy states deep within the band gap. Such deep
traps capture electrons or holes to facilitate recombination and
are called recombination-generation centers.

EE130/230A Fall 2013 Lecture 5, Slide 17

 Relaxation to Equilibrium State
Consider a semiconductor with no current flow in which
thermal equilibrium is disturbed by the sudden creation of
excess holes and electrons. The system will relax back to the
equilibrium state via the R-G mechanism:

n n
=− for electrons in p-type material
t n

p p
=− for holes in n-type material
t p

EE130/230A Fall 2013 Lecture 5, Slide 18

 Summary
• Electron/hole concentration gradient → diffusion
dn dp
J n, diff = qDn J p, diff = −qD p
dx dx
• Current flowing in a semiconductor is comprised of drift and
diffusion components for electrons and holes
J = Jn,drift + Jn,diff + Jp,drift + Jp,diff
In equilibrium Jn = Jn,drift + Jn,diff = 0 and Jp = Jp,drift + Jp,diff = 0

• The characteristic constants of drift and diffusion are related:

D kT
=
 q
Lecture 5, Slide 19
 Summary (cont’d)
• Generation and recombination (R-G) processes affect carrier
concentrations as a function of time, and thereby current flow
– Generation rate is enhanced by deep (near midgap) states
due to defects or impurities, and also by high electric field
– Recombination in Si is primarily via R-G centers

• The characteristic constant for (indirect) R-G is the minority

carrier lifetime:
 p  c 1N
p T
(n - type material)  n  c 1N
n T
(p - type material)

• Generally, the net recombination rate is proportional to np − ni2

Lecture 5, Slide 20
 Lecture 6

OUTLINE
• Semiconductor Fundamentals (cont’d)
– Continuity equations
– Minority carrier diffusion equations
– Minority carrier diffusion length
– Quasi-Fermi levels
– Poisson’s Equation
Derivation of Continuity Equation
• Consider carrier-flux into/out-of an infinitesimal volume:

Area A, volume Adx

Jn(x) Jn(x+dx)
dx

 n  n
Adx  = − J n ( x) A − J n ( x + dx) A −
1
Adx
 t  q n

Lecture 6, Slide 2
 J n ( x)
J n ( x + dx) = J n ( x) + dx
x
n 1 J n ( x) n
= = −
t q x n

n 1 J n ( x) n
= − + GL
Continuity t q x n
Equations:
p 1 J p ( x) p
=− − + GL
t q x p

Lecture 6, Slide 3
 Derivation of
Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation
• The minority carrier diffusion equations are derived from
the general continuity equations, and are applicable only for
minority carriers.
• Simplifying assumptions:
1. The electric field is small, such that
n n
J n = q n n + qDn  qDn in p-type material
x x
p p
J p = q p p − qD p  −qD p in n-type material
x x
2. n0 and p0 are independent of x (i.e. uniform doping)
3. low-level injection conditions prevail
Lecture 6, Slide 4
• Starting with the continuity equation for electrons:

n 1 J n ( x) n
= − + GL
t q x n
 (n0 + n ) 1    (n0 + n ) n
=  qDn  − + GL
t q x  x  n
n  n n
2
= Dn − + GL
t x 2
n

Lecture 6, Slide 5
 Carrier Concentration Notation
• The subscript “n” or “p” is used to explicitly denote n-type or
p-type material, e.g.
pn is the hole (minority-carrier) concentration in n-type mat’l
np is the electron (minority-carrier) concentration in n-type mat’l

• Thus the minority carrier diffusion equations are

n p  n p
2
n p
= Dn − + GL
t x 2
n
pn  pn pn2
= Dp − + GL
t x 2
p
Lecture 6, Slide 6
 Simplifications (Special Cases)
n p pn
• Steady state: =0 =0
t t
 2 n p  2 pn
• No diffusion current: Dn = 0 Dp =0
x 2
x 2

• No R-G:
n p pn
=0 =0
n p

• No light: GL = 0

Lecture 6, Slide 7
 Example
• Consider an n-type Si sample illuminated at one end:
– constant minority-carrier injection at x = 0 pn (0) = pn 0
– steady state; no light absorption for x > 0

Lp is the hole diffusion length: L p  D p p

Lecture 6, Slide 8
  pn pn
2
The general solution to the equation = 2
x 2
Lp
− x / Lp
pn ( x) = Ae + Be
x / Lp
is

where A, B are constants determined by boundary conditions:

pn () = 0
pn (0) = pn0
Therefore, the solution is
− x / Lp
pn ( x) = pn 0e
Lecture 6, Slide 9
 Minority Carrier Diffusion Length
• Physically, Lp and Ln represent the average distance that
minority carriers can diffuse into a sea of majority carriers
before being annihilated.

• Example: ND = 1016 cm-3; p = 10-6 s

Lecture 6, Slide 10
 Summary: Continuity Equations
• The continuity equations are established based on
conservation of carriers, and therefore hold generally:
n 1 J n ( x) n p 1 J n ( x) p
= − + GL =− − + GL
t q x n t q x p
• The minority carrier diffusion equations are derived from
the continuity equations, specifically for minority carriers
under certain conditions (small E-field, low-level injection,
uniform doping profile):
n p  2 n p n p pn  2 pn pn
= DN − + GL = DP − + GL
t x 2
n t x 2
p

Lecture 6, Slide 11
 Quasi-Fermi Levels
• Whenever n = p  0, np  ni2. However, we would like to
preserve and use the relations:
( E F − Ei ) / kT ( Ei − EF ) / kT
n = ni e p = ni e

• These equations imply np = ni2, however. The solution is to

introduce two quasi-Fermi levels FN and FP such that

( FN − Ei ) / kT ( Ei − FP ) / kT
n = ni e p = ni e

Lecture 6, Slide 12
 Example: Quasi-Fermi Levels
Consider a Si sample with ND = 1017 cm-3 and n = p = 1014 cm-3.
What are p and n ?

What is the np product ?

Lecture 6, Slide 13
• Find FN and FP :
n
FN  Ei + kT ln 
 ni 

 p
FP  Ei − kT ln 
 ni 

Lecture 6, Slide 14
 Poisson’s Equation
area A
Gauss’ Law:
 s ( x + x) A −  s ( x) A = xA
E(x) E(x+x)
x

 ( x + x) −  ( x) =  s : permittivity (F/cm)

x s  : charge density (C/cm3)

d =

dx s

Lecture 6, Slide 15
Charge Density in a Semiconductor
• Assuming the dopants are completely ionized:

 = q (p – n + ND – NA)

Lecture 6, Slide 16
 Lecture 7

OUTLINE
• pn Junction Diodes
– Electrostatics (step junction)
 pn Junctions
• A pn junction is typically fabricated by implanting or diffusing
donor atoms into a p-type substrate to form an n-type layer:

C. C. Hu, Modern Semiconductor Devices for ICs, Figure 4-1

• A pn junction has a rectifying current-vs.-voltage characteristic:

C. C. Hu, Modern Semiconductor Devices for ICs, Figure 4-2

Lecture 9, Slide 2
Terminology
Net Doping Profile:

R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals, Figure 5.1

Lecture 9, Slide 3
 Idealized pn Junctions
R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals, Figure 5.2

• In the analysis going forward, we will consider only the net

dopant concentration on each side of the pn junction:
NA  net acceptor doping on the p side: (NA-ND)p-side
ND  net donor doping on the n side: (ND-NA)n-side
Lecture 9, Slide 4
Electrostatics (Step Junction)
Band diagram:

Electrostatic potential:

Electric field:

Charge density:

R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals, Figure 5.4

Lecture 9, Slide 5
“Game Plan” to obtain r(x), E(x), V(x)
1. Find the built-in potential Vbi
2. Use the depletion approximation → r (x)
(depletion widths xp, xn unknown)

3. Integrate r (x) to find E(x)

Apply boundary conditions E(-xp)=0, E(xn)=0

4. Integrate E(x) to obtain V(x)

Apply boundary conditions V(-xp)=0, V(xn)=Vbi

5. For E(x) to be continuous at x=0, NAxp = NDxn

Solve for xp, xn
Lecture 9, Slide 6
 Built-In Potential Vbi
qVbi = S p−side − S n −side = ( Ei − EF ) p−side + ( EF − Ei ) n −side

R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals, Figure 5.4a

For non-degenerately doped material:

 p n
( Ei − EF ) p − side = kT ln   ( EF − Ei ) n − side = kT ln  
 ni   ni 
 NA   ND 
= kT ln   = kT ln  
 ni   ni 

Lecture 9, Slide 7
What if one side is degenerately doped?
qVbi = ( Ei − EF ) p−side + ( EF − Ei )n−side

p+n junction n+p junction

Lecture 9, Slide 8
 The Depletion Approximation
R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals, Figure 5.6

In the depletion region

on the p side, r = –qNA

 ( x) = − qN A
x + C1 = −
qN A
(x + x )
s
p
s

In the depletion region

on the n side, r = qND

 ( x) = qN D
s
x + C1 =
qN A
s
(xn − x )
Lecture 9, Slide 9
Electric Field Distribution
E(x)
-xp xn
x

The electric field is continuous at x = 0

→ NAxp = NDxn

Lecture 9, Slide 10
Electrostatic Potential Distribution
On the p side:
qN A
V ( x) = ( x + x p ) 2 + D1
2 s

Choose V(-xp) to be 0
 V(xn) = Vbi

On the n side:
qN D qN D
V ( x) = − ( xn − x ) + D2 = Vbi −
2
( xn − x )2
2 s 2 s
Lecture 9, Slide 11
 Derivation of Depletion Width
• At x = 0, expressions for p side and n side must be equal:

• We also know that NAxp = NDxn

Lecture 9, Slide 12
 Depletion Width
• Eliminating xp, we have:
2 sVbi  NA 
xn =  
q  ND (N A + ND ) 

• Eliminating xn, we have:

2 sVbi  ND 
xp =  
q  N A(N A + ND ) 

• Summing, we have:
2 sVbi  1 1 
xn + x p = W =  + 
q  N A ND 

Lecture 9, Slide 13
Depletion Width in a One-Sided Junction
If NA >> ND as in a p+n junction:

2 sVbi
W=  xn
qN D

x p = xn N D N A  0

What about a n+p junction?

1 1 1 1
W = 2 s Vbi qN where = + 
N N D N A lighter dopant density

Lecture 9, Slide 14
Peak E-Field in a One-Sided Junction

 dx =  (0) W = Vbi
1
2

2 s
W Vbi
qN

 (0) =
2Vbi
W

2qNVbi
s

Lecture 9, Slide 15
 V(x) in a One-Sided Junction
p side n side
qN A qN D
V ( x) = ( x + x p )2 V ( x) = Vbi − ( xn − x) 2
2 s 2 s
ND
V (0) = Vbi
N A + ND

Lecture 9, Slide 16
 Example: One-Sided pn Junction
A p+n junction has NA=1020 cm-3 and ND =1017cm-3.
Find (a) Vbi (b) W (c) xn and (d) xp .

EG kT N D
Vbi = + ln
2q q ni

2 sVbi
W
qN D

xn  W

x p = xn N D N A

Lecture 9, Slide 17
 Voltage Drop across a pn Junction
R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals, Figure 5.10

Note that VA should be significantly smaller than Vbi in order for

low-level injection conditions to prevail in the quasi-neutral regions.
Lecture 9, Slide 18
Effect of Applied Voltage

2 s  1 1 
W= (Vbi − VA ) + 
q  N A ND 

R.F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals, Figure 5.11

Lecture 9, Slide 19
 Summary
• For a non-degenerately-doped pn junction:
kT N D N A
Built-in potential Vbi = ln
q ni2
2 s (Vbi − VA )  1 1 
Depletion width W = xn + x p =  + 
q  N A ND 
NA ND
xn = W xp = W
N A + ND N A + ND

• For a one-sided junction:

EG kT N
Built-in potential Vbi = + ln
2 q ni
2 s (Vbi − VA )
Depletion width W=
qN
Lecture 9, Slide 20
Linearly Graded pn Junction

Lecture 9, Slide 21
 Lecture 10

OUTLINE
• pn Junction Diodes (cont’d)
– Derivation of the Ideal Diode
Equation (for a step junction)

Reading: Pierret 6.1; Hu 4.3, 4.6, 4.8-4.9

 Current Flow (Qualitative View)
Equilibrium (VA = 0) Forward Bias (VA > 0) Reverse Bias (VA < 0)

R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, pp. 236-237

Lecture 10, Slide 2
Carrier Action under Forward Bias
• When a forward bias (VA>0) is applied, the potential
barrier to diffusion across the junction is reduced
– Minority carriers are “injected”
into the quasi-neutral regions
=> Dnp > 0, Dpn > 0

• Minority carriers diffuse in the quasi-neutral regions,

recombining with majority carriers

Lecture 10, Slide 3

Ideal Diode Analysis: Assumptions
• Non-degenerately doped step junction
• Steady-state conditions
• Low-level injection conditions in quasi-neutral regions

• Recombination-generation negligible in depletion region

dJ n dJ p
 = 0, =0
dx dx
i.e. Jn & Jp are constant inside the depletion region

Lecture 10, Slide 4

 Components of Current Flow
• Current density J = Jn(x) + Jp(x)
d ( Dn )
J n ( x ) = qn n + qDn = qn n + qDn
dn
dx dx
d ( Dp )
J p ( x ) = q p p − qD p = q p p − qD p
dp
dx dx
• J is constant throughout the diode, but Jn(x) and Jp(x)
vary with position:
Example: J
p+n junction under forward bias:
JN JP
x
-xp xn
Lecture 10, Slide 5
 “Game Plan” for Obtaining Diode I-V
1. Solve minority-carrier diffusion equations in quasi-neutral
regions to obtain excess carrier distributions Dnp(x,VA),Dpn(x,VA)
– boundary conditions:
• p side: Dnp(-xp), Dnp(-)
• n side: Dpn(xn), Dpn()
2. Find minority-carrier current densities in quasi-neutral regions
d ( Dn p ) d ( Dpn )
J n ( x,VA ) = qDn J p ( x,VA ) = − qD p
dx dx
3. Evaluate Jn at x=-xp & Jp at x=xn to obtain total current density J:
J (VA ) = J n (− x p ,VA ) + J p ( xn ,VA )
Lecture 10, Slide 6
 Carrier Concentrations at –xp, xn
Consider the equilibrium (VA = 0) carrier concentrations:
p side n side

p p 0 (− x p ) = N A nn 0 ( xn ) = N D
2 2
n n
n p 0 (− x p ) = i
p n 0 ( xn ) = i
NA ND
If low-level injection conditions hold in the quasi-neutral regions
when VA  0, then

p p (− x p ) = N A nn ( xn ) = N D

Lecture 10, Slide 7

 “Law of the Junction”
The voltage applied to a pn junction falls mostly across the depletion
region (assuming low-level injection in the quasi-neutral regions).
We can draw 2 quasi-Fermi levels in the depletion region:

p = ni e( Ei − FP ) / kT
n = ni e( FN − Ei ) / kT
2 ( FN − FP ) / kT
pn = n e i

pn = ni2eqVA / kT

Lecture 10, Slide 8

Excess Carrier Concentrations at –xp, xn
p side n side

p p (− x p ) = N A nn ( xn ) = N D
ni2 e qVA / kT ni2 e qVA / kT
n p (− x p ) = p n ( xn ) =
NA ND
= n p 0 e qVA / kT = pn 0 e qVA / kT

( ) (
ni2 qVA / kT
)
2
n Dpn ( xn ) = −1
Dn p (− x p ) = e qVA / kT
i
−1 e
NA ND

Lecture 10, Slide 9

Carrier Concentration Profiles
under Forward Bias

R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Fig. 6.8a

Lecture 10, Slide 10
 Example
Consider a pn junction with NA=1018 cm-3 and ND=1016 cm-3,
under a forward bias of 0.6 V.
(a) What are the minority carrier concentrations at the edges
of the depletion region?

(b) What are the excess minority carrier concentrations at

the edges of the depletion region?

Lecture 10, Slide 11

Excess Carrier Distribution (n side)
d 2 Dpn Dpn Dpn
• From the minority carrier diffusion equation: = =
dx2 Dp p Lp 2

• We have the following boundary conditions:

Dpn ( xn ) = pno (eqVA / kT − 1) Dpn () → 0

• For simplicity, use a new coordinate system:

x’’ 0 0 x’
NEW:

− x '/ L p
• Then, the solution is of the form: Dpn ( x' ) = A1e + A2e
x '/ L p

Lecture 10, Slide 12

 For Refrences
• The subscript “n” or “p” is used to explicitly denote n-type or
p-type material, e.g.
pn is the hole (minority-carrier) concentration in n-type mat’l
np is the electron (minority-carrier) concentration in n-type mat’l

• Thus the minority carrier diffusion equations are

Dn p  Dn p
2
Dn p
= Dn − + GL
t x 2
n
Dpn  Dpn Dpn
2
= Dp − + GL
t x 2
p
 − x '/ Lp
Dpn ( x' ) = A1e + A2e
x '/ Lp

From the x =  boundary condition:

From the x = xn boundary condition:

− x '/ Lp
Therefore Dpn ( x' ) = pno (e qVA / kT − 1)e , x'  0

Similarly, we can derive

− x ''/ Ln
Dn p ( x' ' ) = n po (e qVA / kT
− 1)e , x' '  0

Lecture 10, Slide 14

 Total Current Density
dDn p ( x' ' ) Dn
p side: J n = −qDn =q n p 0 (e qVA kT
− 1)e − x '' Ln
dx' ' Ln
dDpn ( x' ) Dp − x' Lp
n side: J p = − qD p =q pn 0 (e qVA kT
− 1)e
dx' Lp

J = J n x =− x + J p = J n x=0 + J p
p x = xn x = 0

 Dn D p  qVA
J = qn 2
i + ( e
kT
− 1)
 Ln N A Lp N D 

Lecture 10, Slide 15

OR
 At Forward Bias
Band diagram (VA > 0)
• The barrier height is reduced ECP
P+ VA
to VBi - VA N
• Depletion width becomes
1

2 s (Vbi − VA )  1 1 
W = xn + x p = 
 + 
q  N A ND 
• What happens when VA ≥ VBi?
• That means the depletion region becomes very narrow with
very low resistance compared with the neutral regions and all
the voltages will drop across the neutral regions
• The effective VA across the depletion region can be at most VBi
 At Forward Bias
Carrier motion diffusion
•The number of carriers that can
overcome the junction barriers ECP
P+ VA
increases exponentially with N
applied voltage leading to a large
forward current
• The sudden increase in number of electrons at the
P+ side near the depletion region leads to strong
carrier diffusion and hence a high current
• Following the same approach as in reverse bias,
we count carrier motion near the edge of the
depletion region
• The current is also diffusion
 At Forward Bias
Carrier statistics electron diffusion
•The minority carrier distribution concentration
in the neutral regions is given in ECP
the figures P+ VA
N
•Similar to the reverse bias case,
the electron diffusion current is
given by
P+ N
pp0
𝑛 − 𝑛𝑝0
nn0
𝑑𝑛 npd
𝑖𝑁𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = 𝑞𝐷𝑛 = 𝑞𝐷𝑛 𝑝𝑑 i pnd
𝑑𝑥 𝐿𝑛 np pn
pn0
np0
• All quantities are known besides npd Ln Lp
 At Forward Bias
neutral N
Simplified assumptions region
• Assume the carrier statistics at
the neutral N region is not np0 ECP0
affected by the bias voltage VA ECP
•Assume the depletion region is P+ VA
very narrow that the carriers N
above ECP are the same at the
two sides
• npd just equal to the carrier concentration
at the N side above ECP
• Recall that at thermal equilibrium, npd=np0
• Now EF is shifted by |VA|, the new 𝑞 𝑉𝐴
concentration above ECP is given by 𝑛 𝑝𝑑 = 𝑛𝑝0exp
𝑘𝑇
 At Forward Bias
Substitute into the diffusion equation
𝑑𝑛 𝑛𝑝𝑑 − 𝑛𝑝0 𝑞 𝑉𝐴
𝑖𝑁𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = 𝑞𝐷𝑛 = 𝑞𝐷𝑛 and 𝑛 𝑝𝑑 = 𝑛𝑝0exp
𝑑𝑥 𝐿𝑛 𝑘𝑇

P+ N
pp0
nn0
• Similarly for holes, we have i npd
np pnd
pn
np0 pn0
Ln Lp
• Combining both, the reverse current is given by
 Current Voltage Characteristics
Combining all the pieces
• the forward are reverse currents have the I
same expression and is given by

or

electron current hole current V

•The term before the exponential term is fixed once a

diode is fabricated and can be combined to a single
constant I0
•And you have just derived the famous diode equation
 Ideal Diode Equation

I = I 0 (eqVA kT − 1)

 Dp D 
I 0 = Aqni  + 
2 n
L N L N 
 p D n A

C. C. Hu, Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits, Figure 4-22

Lecture 10, Slide 23

 Diode Saturation Current I0
• I0 can vary by orders of magnitude, depending on the
semiconductor material and dopant concentrations:
 Dp D 
I 0 = Aqni  + 
2 n
L N L N 
 p D n A 
• In an asymmetrically doped (one-sided) pn junction, the term
associated with the more heavily doped side is negligible:
 Dp 
– If the p side is much more heavily doped, I 0  Aqni  
2
L N 
 p D
 Dn 
– If the n side is much more heavily doped, I 0  Aqni 
 L N 
2

 n A
Lecture 10, Slide 24
 Carrier Concentration Profiles
under Reverse Bias
R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Fig. 6.8b

• Depletion of minority carriers at edges of depletion region

• The only current which flows is due to drift of minority carriers
across the junction. This current is fed by diffusion of minority
carriers toward junction (supplied by thermal generation).
Lecture 10, Slide 25
 Summary
• Under forward bias (VA > 0), the potential barrier to carrier
diffusion is reduced → minority carriers are “injected” into the
quasi-neutral regions.
– The minority-carrier concentrations at the edges of the depletion region
change with the applied bias VA, by the factor e qVA / kT
– The excess carrier concentrations in the quasi-neutral regions decay to
zero away from the depletion region, due to recombination.

 Dn D p  qVA
pn junction diode current I = qAn  +  (e − 1)
2 kT
i
 Ln N A L p N D 
• I0 can be viewed as the drift current due to minority carriers
generated within a diffusion length of the depletion region

Lecture 10, Slide 26

 Lecture 11

OUTLINE
• pn Junction Diodes (cont’d)
– Junction breakdown
 pn Junction Breakdown
C. C. Hu, Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits, Figure 4-10

Breakdown
voltage, VBR
VA

A Zener diode is designed

to operate in the
breakdown mode:
EE130/230A Fall 2013 Lecture 11, Slide 2
 Review: Peak E-Field in a pn Junction
E(x)

 =
 Si
dx
-xp xn
x

2q(Vbi − VA ) N A N D
 (0) = qN A x p
 Si
=
qN D xn
 Si
=
 Si N A + ND E(0)

For a one-sided junction,

2q(Vbi − VA )N
 (0)   Si
where N is the dopant concentration on the lightly doped side
EE130/230A Fall 2013 Lecture 11, Slide 3
 Breakdown Voltage, VBR
• If the reverse bias voltage (-VA) is so large that the peak electric
field exceeds a critical value ECR, then the junction will “break
down” (i.e. large reverse current will flow)

2qN (Vbi + VBR )

 CR =
s
• Thus, the reverse bias at which breakdown occurs is

 s CR
2

VBR = − Vbi
2qN

EE130/230A Fall 2013 Lecture 11, Slide 4

Avalanche Breakdown Mechanism
 s CR
R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Figure 6.12
2
High E-field: VBR  if VBR >> Vbi
2qN

ECR increases slightly with N:

Low E-field:
For 1014 cm-3 < N < 1018 cm-3,
105 V/cm < ECR < 106 V/cm

EE130/230A Fall 2013 Lecture 11, Slide 5

Tunneling (Zener) Breakdown Mechanism
Dominant breakdown mechanism when both sides of a junction
are very heavily doped.
VA = 0 VA < 0

Ec

Ev

 s CR
2

VBR = − Vbi
2qN
 CR  106 V/cm
Typically, VBR < 5 V for Zener breakdown
C. C. Hu, Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits, Figure 4-12
EE130/230A Fall 2013 Lecture 11, Slide 6
 Empirical Observations of VBR
R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Figure 6.11

• VBR decreases with

increasing N

• VBR decreases with

decreasing EG

EE130/230A Fall 2013 Lecture 11, Slide 7

 VBR Temperature Dependence
• For the avalanche mechanism:
– VBR increases with increasing T, because the mean free
path decreases

• For the tunneling mechanism:

– VBR decreases with increasing T, because the flux of
valence-band electrons available for tunneling increases

EE130/230A Fall 2013 Lecture 11, Slide 8

 Summary: Junction Breakdown
• If the peak electric field in the depletion region exceeds a
critical value ECR, then large reverse current will flow.
This occurs at a negative bias voltage called the breakdown
voltage, VBR:
 s CR
2

VBR = − Vbi
2qN
where N is the dopant concentration on the more lightly doped side

• The dominant breakdown mechanism is

avalanche, if N < ~1018/cm3
tunneling, if N > ~1018/cm3

EE130/230A Fall 2013 Lecture 11, Slide 9

 Lecture 11

OUTLINE
• pn Junction Diodes (cont’d)
– Junction breakdown
 pn Junction Breakdown
C. C. Hu, Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits, Figure 4-10

Breakdown
voltage, VBR
VA

A Zener diode is designed

to operate in the
breakdown mode:
EE130/230A Fall 2013 Lecture 11, Slide 2
 Review: Peak E-Field in a pn Junction
E(x)

 =
 Si
dx
-xp xn
x

2q(Vbi − VA ) N A N D
 (0) = qN A x p
 Si
=
qN D xn
 Si
=
 Si N A + ND E(0)

For a one-sided junction,

2q(Vbi − VA )N
 (0)   Si
where N is the dopant concentration on the lightly doped side
EE130/230A Fall 2013 Lecture 11, Slide 3
 Breakdown Voltage, VBR
• If the reverse bias voltage (-VA) is so large that the peak electric
field exceeds a critical value ECR, then the junction will “break
down” (i.e. large reverse current will flow)

2qN (Vbi + VBR )

 CR =
s
• Thus, the reverse bias at which breakdown occurs is

 s CR
2

VBR = − Vbi
2qN

EE130/230A Fall 2013 Lecture 11, Slide 4

Avalanche Breakdown Mechanism
 s CR
R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Figure 6.12
2
High E-field: VBR  if VBR >> Vbi
2qN

ECR increases slightly with N:

Low E-field:
For 1014 cm-3 < N < 1018 cm-3,
105 V/cm < ECR < 106 V/cm

EE130/230A Fall 2013 Lecture 11, Slide 5

Tunneling (Zener) Breakdown Mechanism
Dominant breakdown mechanism when both sides of a junction
are very heavily doped.
VA = 0 VA < 0

Ec

Ev

 s CR
2

VBR = − Vbi
2qN
 CR  106 V/cm
Typically, VBR < 5 V for Zener breakdown
C. C. Hu, Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits, Figure 4-12
EE130/230A Fall 2013 Lecture 11, Slide 6
 Empirical Observations of VBR
R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Figure 6.11

• VBR decreases with

increasing N

• VBR decreases with

decreasing EG

EE130/230A Fall 2013 Lecture 11, Slide 7

 VBR Temperature Dependence
• For the avalanche mechanism:
– VBR increases with increasing T, because the mean free
path decreases

• For the tunneling mechanism:

– VBR decreases with increasing T, because the flux of
valence-band electrons available for tunneling increases

EE130/230A Fall 2013 Lecture 11, Slide 8

 Summary: Junction Breakdown
• If the peak electric field in the depletion region exceeds a
critical value ECR, then large reverse current will flow.
This occurs at a negative bias voltage called the breakdown
voltage, VBR:
 s CR
2

VBR = − Vbi
2qN
where N is the dopant concentration on the more lightly doped side

• The dominant breakdown mechanism is

avalanche, if N < ~1018/cm3
tunneling, if N > ~1018/cm3

EE130/230A Fall 2013 Lecture 11, Slide 9

 Lecture 12
OUTLINE
• pn Junction Diodes (cont’d)
– Deviations from the ideal I-V
• R-G current
• series resistance
• high-level injection

Reading: Pierret 6.2

 Deviations from the Ideal I-V
R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Figure 6.10

Reverse-Bias Current Forward-Bias Current

(linear scale) (log scale)

Ideally, I  − I 0 = constant Ideally,

(
log( I )  log( I 0 ) + log e qVA / kT )
 qVA 
 
 qV 
= const. +  A  log( e) = const. +  kT 
 kT  ln(10)
 Non Ideal PN Junction
Log plot of ideal diode characteristics
log(|I|) • kT/q has a unit of voltage
and it is called the thermal
voltage (Vth) and equal to
I
25mV at room temperature
• slope in the log plot
linear plot
= (q/kT)ln10
VA • This is an important value
VA as it governs how fast a PN
ideal characteristics
junction can turn on

• In practice, people refer to 1/slope (which also referred as

the swing) to characterize a diode
• ideal value of 1/slope =60mV/decade at room temperature
 Effect of R-G in Depletion Region
• The net generation rate is given by
p n ni − np
2
= =
t t τ p (n + n1 ) + τ n ( p + p1 )
where n1  ni e ( ET − Ei ) / kT and p1  ni e ( Ei − ET ) / kT
ET = trap - state energy level
• R-G in the depletion region contributes an additional
component of diode current IR-G:

p
= −qA
xn
I R −G dx
− x p t
R −G
 Net Generation in Reverse Bias
R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Figure 6.15(a)

• For reverse bias greater than several kT/q,

qAniW 1  n1 p1 
I R −G =− where τ 0   τ p + τ n 
2τ 0 2  ni ni 
Net Recombination in Forward Bias
R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Figure 6.15(b)

• For forward bias:

I R −G  qAniWe qVA / 2 kT
 Non Ideal PN Junction
Recombination in Depletion Region
•so far we assume no generation/recombination in the
depletion region
•depletion region recombination gives extra current which
become observable at small forward current at low bias
• such current is small compared itotal
to the on current of a PN
p n-type
junction

log(I) without recombination current

ideal current itotal
recombination current p n-type
at depletion

VD with recombination current

 High-Level Injection (HLI) Effect
• As VA increases, the side of the junction which is
more lightly doped will eventually reach HLI:
nn > nno for a p+n junction
or
pp > ppo for a pn+ junction

 significant gradient in majority-carrier profile

Majority-carrier diffusion current reduces the diode
current from the ideal case.
R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Figure 6.17(a)
 Non Ideal PN Junction
Carrier accumulation
extra injected electron
•When electrons are injected
-
from the N-side to the P-side,
they bring along a negative ECP
charge to the P-side P+
N
•To neutralize the effect of the
negative charge, extra holes
will accumulate near the extra holes to
balance the charges
electrons to neutralize the
charge pp
nn
•If the injected amount of np pn
carrier is small, it does not pn0
np0
affect the majority carrier
distribution without high-level injection
 Non Ideal PN Junction
High Level Injection
•previous assumption: amount of minority carriers is small
and would not disturb the majority carrier concentration
•at high forward bias, carriers injected can be comparable
to the majority carriers,
pp
• The accumulation of nn majority carrier
motion of majority np pn
carriers induce a pn0 minority carrier
diffusion force to the np0
majority carriers with high-level injection

• The motion of the majority carriers offset the minority carrier

motion and thus leading to smaller current then the ideal
case
 Non Ideal PN Junction
Characteristics with high level injection
ideal
I ideal log(I)

high level
injection
high level
injection

V VD

• High level injection usually take place at the lightly dope

side where majority carrier concentration is low
• High level injection can be delayed with heavier doping
Effect of Series Resistance
R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Figure 6.16
 Non Ideal PN Junction
Resistive region
• diode representation P+ N

• at high bias, the diode disappears and the device

becomes a resistor
ideal
I resistor log(I) resistor

high level
injection

V VD
 Summary: Deviations from Ideal I-V
B: Excess current under reverse bias
is due to net generation in the
depletion region.
I R −G  W
A: At large reverse biases (high E-field),
large reverse current flows due to
avalanching and/or tunneling
• At large forward biases
(high current densities)
D: high-level injection
→ I  e qVA / 2 kT
E: series resistance
limit increases in current
with increasing forward
bias voltage.
C: Excess current under small forward
bias is due to net recombination in
the depletion region.
I R−G  We qVA / 2kT
R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Figure E6-9
 Non Ideal PN Junction
Accounting for Current Deviation
• An ideality factor n is log(I)
introduced and the
diode equation
becomes:

• for ideal case, n=1 and

1/slope is 60mV/dec at ideal region
room temperature VD

• for non-ideal characteristics, n>1 (can approach 2), and

1/slope becomes larger than 60mV/dec
 Non Ideal PN Junction
At High Temperature
• Generation rate increases leading to more carriers
• Both p- and n- sides of the junction become more intrinsic like
• Less band bending leading to smaller built-in potential
• Higher reverse current due to increases in minority carriers

I  qVA 
N I = I 0 e kT −1
EC room  
EF temp

V
P high
EV temp
note: I0 increases
 Lecture 13

OUTLINE
• pn Junction Diodes (cont’d)
– Charge control model
– Small-signal model
– Transient response: turn-off

Reading: Pierret 6.3.1, 7, 8.1; Hu 4.4, 4.10-4.11

 PN Junction Admittance
Reverse bias junction capacitance
•It is common to use reverse biased PN junction as a
capacitor
•important for circuit design
•similar to a parallel plate capacitor with depletion
region as insulator

W
capacitance/unit area
given by:
p n
 Si
xp xn Cj =
W
 PN Junction Admittance
Determining reverse bias capacitance
 PN Junction Admittance
Forward Bias Junction Capacitance
•At forward bias, the quasi-neutral regions store charge and
more significant than the depletion region
•Charge stored equal to
npd pnd

injected
minority pn0
np0
carrier
Ln Lp

qVA
= q (npe − n0 )  qn pe = q n p0 e kT
Ln Ln Ln 2 qVA
Qdiff Cdiff = dQ = q Ln np0e nkT = Qdiff
2 2 2 dV 2kT Vthm
pn Junction Small-Signal Capacitance
2 types of capacitance associated with a pn junction:
dQdep
depletion capacitance CJ 
− due to variation of depletion charge dVA
dQ
diffusion capacitance CD 
dVA
–due to variation of stored
minority charge in the quasi-neutral regions

For a one-sided p+n junction Q = QP + QN  QP so

dQP dI τ p I DC
CD = = τp = τ pG =
dVA dVA kT / q
 Depletion Capacitance

C. C. Hu, Modern Semiconductor Devices for ICs, Figure 4-8

dQdep s
CJ  =A
dVA W

What are three ways to reduce CJ?

 Total pn-Junction Capacitance
C = CD + CJ
s
CD =
τI DC
kT / q
( )
 e qVA / kT − 1 CJ = A
W

•CD dominates at moderate to high forward biases

•CJ dominates at low forward biases, reverse biases
 PN Junction Admittance
Capacitance characteristics

ideal C • at forward bias, the two

ends of a diode are shorted
real Cj0 and the diode is no longer
an insulator
VA • Capacitance disappears
VBi

•To allow better fitting of the data, another parameter m is

introduced and the equation becomes
−m
 V  1 1
C j = C j 0  1− A  and  m  abrupt
 V bi  3 2 junction
linear junction
Using C-V Data to Determine Doping
1 W2 2(Vbi − VA )
= 2 2  2
CJ
2
A s A q S N

Lecture 13, Slide 9

 Example
If the slope of the (1/C)2 vs. VA characteristic is -2x1023 F-2 V-1,
the intercept is 0.84V, and A is 1 mm2, find the dopant
concentration Nl on the more lightly doped side and the
dopant concentration Nh on the more heavily doped side.

Solution: N l = 2 /( slope  q s A2 )
= 2 /( 2 10 1.6 10
23 −19
10 −12
(
 10 ))
−8 2

= 6 1015 cm −3
2 qV 0.84
kT N h N l ni kTbi 10 20 0.026 −3
Vbi = ln  N = e = e = 1. 8  1018
cm
6 1015
2 h
q ni Nl
 Example
If the slope of the (1/C)2 vs. VA characteristic is -2x1023 F-2 V-1,
the intercept is 0.84V, and A is 1 mm2, find the dopant
concentration Nl on the more lightly doped side and the
dopant concentration Nh on the more heavily doped side.

Solution:
 PN Junction Admittance
Junction Conductance
•A diode can be regarded as a non-linear resistor
•The small signal resistance can be found from the slope of
the I-V characteristic curve

I gd=slope at a given bias

qV A
dI q
gd = = I0e kT
dVA kT
V
q I
or gd = (I + I 0 ) 
kT Vthm

• After a biasing point is defined, the conductance (resistance)

can be calculated
 PN Junction Admittance
Circuit Model
• a way to communicate with circuit designers
• physical effects are not emphasized
RS

large signal
Cj Cdiff

or
RS

I
small signal gd = Cj Cdiff
Vthm
Speed of Diode
 Small-Signal Model Summary
C = C J + CD

I DC = I 0 (e qVA / kT − 1)

A s
Depletion capacitance CJ =
W I DC
Conductance G 
τI DC kT / q
Diffusion capacitance CD =
kT / q
R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, p. 302
 Extracting PN Junction Parameters
Typical electrical parameters in a data sheet

• These data is not obtained from theoretical calculations, but

physical measurements
• The process is call electrical parameter extraction
Extracting PN Junction Parameters
The parameter extraction process
•You first measure the diode characteristics in both log and
linear scale
•Then based on a model, find out all corresponding values of
the elements
I log(I)

RS given  qVD  
by 1/slope enkT  −1
I = I0 

VBD  

V V
VF find I0 and n to make
the equation fit the
data
 Transient Response of pn Diode
• Suppose a pn-diode is forward biased, then suddenly turned
off at time t = 0. Because of CD, the voltage across the pn
junction depletion region cannot be changed instantaneously.

The time delay in switching between

the FORWARD-bias and REVERSE-bias
states is due to the time required to
change the amount of excess minority
carriers stored in the quasi-neutral regions.

R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Fig. 8.2

 Lecture 15

OUTLINE
The Bipolar Junction Transistor
• Introduction
• BJT Fundamentals

Reading: Pierret 10; Hu 8.1

 Introduction
• In recent decades, the higher layout density and low-power
advantage of CMOS technology has eroded the BJT’s
dominance in integrated-circuit products.
(higher circuit density → better system performance)

• BJTs are still preferred in some integrated circuit applications

because of their high speed and superior intrinsic gain.
✓ faster circuit speed
 larger power dissipation
→ limits device density (~104 transistors/chip)
 BJT Types and Definitions
• The BJT is a 3-terminal device, with two types: PNP and NPN

VEB = VE – VB VBE = VB – VE
VCB = VC – VB VBC = VB – VC
VEC = VE – VC VCE = VC – VE
= VEB - VCB = VCB - VEB

Note: The current flow sign convention used in the Pierret textbook does not
follow IEEE convention (currents defined as positive flowing into a terminal);
nevertheless, we will use it.
R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, p. 372
 Review: Current Flow in a
Reverse-Biased pn Junction
• In a reverse-biased pn junction, there is negligible diffusion
of majority carriers across the junction. The reverse
saturation current is due to drift of minority carriers across
the junction and depends on the rate of minority-carrier
generation close to the junction (within ~one diffusion
length of the depletion region).
 We can increase this reverse current by increasing the
rate of minority-carrier generation, e.g. by
➢optical excitation of carriers (e.g. photodiode)

➢electrical injection of minority carriers into the vicinity of

the junction…
 PNP BJT Operation (Qualitative)
A forward-biased “emitter” pn junction is used to inject minority
carriers into the vicinity of a reverse-biased “collector” pn junction.
→ The collector current is controlled via the base-emitter junction.

“Active mode”: ICn

•VEB > 0
“Emitter” “Collector”
•VCB < 0
“Base”

ICp

IC
current gain  dc 
IB
 BJT Design
• To achieve high current gain:
– The injected minority carriers should not recombine within
the quasi-neutral base region

– The emitter junction current is comprised almost entirely

of carriers injected into the base (rather than carriers
injected into the emitter)
 Base Current Components
(Active Mode of Operation)
The base current consists of majority carriers supplied for
1. Recombination of injected minority carriers in the base
2. Injection of carriers into the emitter
3. Reverse saturation current in collector junction
• Reduces | IB |
4. Recombination in the base-emitter depletion region

EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR

p-type n-type p-type

 BJT Circuit Configurations
R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Fig. 10.3

Output Characteristics for Common-Emitter Configuration

R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Fig. 10.4

 BJT Modes of Operation
R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Fig. 10.5

Common-emitter output characteristics

(IC vs. VCE)

Mode Emitter Junction Collector Junction

CUTOFF reverse bias reverse bias
Forward ACTIVE forward bias reverse bias*
Reverse ACTIVE reverse bias* forward bias
SATURATION forward bias forward bias
*more precisely: not strongly forward biased
 BJT Electrostatics
• Under normal operating conditions, the BJT may be viewed
electrostatically as two independent pn junctions

R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Fig. 10.7

Electrostatic potential, V(x)

e
Electric field, (x)

Charge density, r(x)

R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Fig. 10.7

 BJT Performance Parameters (PNP)

Emitter Efficiency: Base Transport Factor:

I Ep I Cp
 T 
I Ep + I En I Ep
Decrease (5) relative to (1+2) Decrease (1) relative to (2)
to increase efficiency to increase transport factor
Common-Base d.c. Current Gain:  dc  T
 Collector Current (PNP)
The collector current is comprised of
•Holes injected from emitter, which do not recombine in the base  (2)
•Reverse saturation current of collector junction  (3)
I C = α dc I E + I CB0
where ICB0 is the collector current
which flows when IE = 0

I C = α dc (I C + I B ) + I CB 0
α dc I CB 0
IC = IB +
1 − α dc 1 − α dc • Common-Emitter d.c.
= βI B + I CE 0 Current Gain:
IC  dc
 dc  
Lecture 25, Slide 13 I B 1 −  dc
 Summary: BJT Fundamentals
• Notation & conventions: IE = IB + IC
pnp BJT npn BJT

• Electrostatics:
– Under normal operating conditions, the BJT may be
viewed electrostatically as two independent pn junctions
 BJT Performance Parameters
I Ep
• Emitter efficiency 
I Ep + I En
I Cp
• Base transport factor T 
I Ep
I Cp
• Common base d.c. current gain  dc  T =
IE

IC  dc
• Common emitter d.c. current gain  dc  
I B 1 −  dc
 Lecture 16

OUTLINE
The BJT (cont’d)
• Ideal transistor analysis
• Narrow base and narrow emitter
• Ebers-Moll model
• Base-width modulation

Reading: Pierret 11.1-11.2; Hu 8.2-8.6

 Notation (PNP BJT)

NE  NAE NB  NDB NC  NAC

DE  DN DB  DP DC  DN
tE  tn tB  tp tC  tn
LE  LN L B  LP L C  LN
nE0  np0 = ni2/NE pB0  pn0  ni2/NB nC0  np0  ni2/NC

R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Fig. 11.1

 “Game Plan” for I-V Derivation
• Solve the minority-carrier diffusion equation in each quasi-
neutral region to obtain excess minority-carrier profiles
– different set of boundary conditions for each region

• Find minority-carrier diffusion currents at depletion region edges

dnE dp B
I En = −qAD E dx" I Ep = −qAD B dx
x"=0 x =0

dnC dp B
I Cn = qAD C dx ' I Cp = −qAD B dx
x '= 0 x =W
• Add hole & electron components together → terminal currents
BJT Performance Parameters
1
= ni E 2 D N W
Assumptions:
1+ E B
ni B 2 DB N E LE
• emitter junction forward
biased, collector junction
1 reverse biased
T =
1+ ( )
1 W 2
2 LB
• W << LB
Replace LE with WE’ if WE’ << LE
1
 dc =
1+
ni E 2 DE N B W
ni B 2 DB N E LE
+ ( )
1 W 2
2 LB

1
 dc = ni E 2 DE N B W
ni B 2 DB N E LE
+ ( )
1 W 2
2 LB
 Ebers-Moll Model

increasing

(npn) or VEC (pnp)

C. C. Hu, Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits, Figure 8-2

The Ebers-Moll model is a large-signal equivalent circuit which

describes both the active and saturation regions of BJT operation.
• Use this model to calculate IB and IC given VBE and VBC
 In the general case, both VEB and VCB are non-zero:

I C =  F I F 0 (e qVEB / kT
− 1) − I R 0 (e qVCB / kT
− 1)
IC: C-B diode current + fraction of E-B diode current that makes it to the C-B junction

I E = I F 0 (eqVEB / kT − 1) −  R I R 0 (eqVCB / kT − 1)
IE: E-B diode current + fraction of C-B diode current that makes it to the E-B junction

Large-signal equivalent circuit for a pnp BJT

R. F. Pierret, Semiconductor Device Fundamentals, Fig. 11.3

 Base-Width Modulation
Common Emitter Configuration, Active Mode Operation
W
IE P N P IC
IC 1
=  dc =
( )
+
niE 2 DE N B W
IB
n 2 DB N E LE
+ 12 W 2
LB
iB

2
niB DB N E LE
+
VEB
−  2
niE DE N BW
pB(x) IC

( )
pB 0 e qVEB / kT − 1
(VCB=0)

x VEC
0 W(VBC)
EE130/230A Fall 2013 Lecture 26, Slide 7
Ways to Reduce Base-Width Modulation
1. Increase the base width, W

2. Increase the base dopant concentration NB

3. Decrease the collector dopant concentration NC

Which of the above is the most acceptable action?

 Early Voltage, VA
−1
 I C  VA
Output resistance: r0    
 VEC  IC

A large VA (i.e. a large ro ) is desirable

IC
IB3

IB2

IB1

0 VEC
VA
 Derivation of Formula for VA
dI C I IC
Output conductance: g 0  = C
dVEC VA
 VA =
g0

dI C dI C
VEC = VEB + VBC so g o = = for fixed VEB
dVEC dVBC

dIC dW dIC  dxnC  where xnC is the width of the

go = • = •  −  collector-junction depletion region
dW dVBC dW  dVBC  on the base side
xnC

P+ N P
Summary: BJT Performance Requirements
• High gain (dc >> 1)
→ One-sided emitter junction, so emitter efficiency   1
• Emitter doped much more heavily than base (NE >> NB)
→ Narrow base, so base transport factor T  1
• Quasi-neutral base width << minority-carrier diffusion length (W << LB)

• IC determined only by IB (IC  function of VCE,VCB)

→ One-sided collector junction, so quasi-neutral base width W does
not change drastically with changes in VCE (VCB)
• Based doped more heavily than collector (NB > NC)
(W = WB – xnEB – xnCB for PNP BJT)
Q1. The energy band diagrams in Figure below characterise the Silicon sample maintained at 300 K.
Answer the questions below

(a) Do equilibrium conditions prevail? How do you know?

(b) Sketch the electrostatic potential (V) inside the semiconductor as a function of x.
(c) Sketch the Electric field inside the semiconductor as a function of x.
(d) Roughly sketch n and p versus x.

Q2. Using the energy band diagram. indicate how one visualizes
(a) The existence of an electric field inside a semiconductor.
(b) An electron with a K.E. = 0.
(c) A hole with a K.E. = Eg/4.
(d) Photogeneration.
(e) Direct thermal generation.
(f) Band-to-band recombination.
(g) Recombination via R-G centres.
(h) Generation via R-G centres.