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 Mike Meyers’

CompTIA A+® Guide

to Managing and
Troubleshooting PCs

Fifth Edition
(Exams 220 -901 & 220 -902)
■■ About the Authors
Michael Meyers is the industry’s leading authority on CompTIA A+ and
Network+ certification. He is the president and founder of Total Seminars,
LLC, a major provider of PC and network repair seminars for thousands of
organizations throughout the world, and a member of CompTIA.
Mike has written numerous popular textbooks, including the best-
selling CompTIA A+® Certification All-in-One Exam Guide, the CompTIA
Network+® Certification All-in-One Exam Guide, and the Mike Meyers’ CompTIA
Security+® Certification Guide.

About the Contributor

Scott Jernigan wields a mighty red pen as Editor in Chief for Total Seminars.
With a Master of Arts degree in Medieval History, Scott feels as much at
home in the musty archives of London as he does in the crisp IPS glow of
Total Seminars’ Houston HQ. After fleeing a purely academic life, he dove
headfirst into IT, working as an instructor, editor, and writer.
Scott has written, edited, and contributed to dozens of books on com-
puter literacy, hardware, operating systems, networking, and certification,
including Computer Literacy—Your Ticket to IC3 Certification, and co-authoring
with Mike Meyers the All-in-One CompTIA Strata® IT Fundamentals Exam
Guide.
Scott has taught computer classes all over the United States, including
stints at the United Nations in New York and the FBI Academy in Quantico.
Practicing what he preaches, Scott is a CompTIA A+ and CompTIA Net-
work+ certified technician, a Microsoft Certified Professional, a Microsoft
Office User Specialist, and Certiport Internet and Computing Core Certified.

About the Technical Editor

Chris Crayton (CompTIA A+, CompTIA Network+, MCSE) is an author,
editor, technical consultant, and trainer. Chris has worked as a computer
technology and networking instructor, information security director,
network administrator, network engineer, and PC specialist. Chris has
authored several print and online books on PC Repair, CompTIA A+,
CompTIA Security+, and Microsoft Windows. Chris has served as technical
editor on numerous professional technical titles for leading publishing
companies, including the CompTIA A+ All-in-One Exam Guide, the CompTIA
A+ Certification Study Guide, and the Mike Meyers’ CompTIA A+ Certification
Passport.
 Mike Meyers’

CompTIA A+® Guide

to Managing and
Troubleshooting PCs

Fifth Edition
(Exams 220 -901 & 220 -902)

Mike Meyers

New York Chicago San Francisco

Athens London Madrid Mexico City
Milan New Delhi Singapore Sydney Toronto
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McGraw-Hill Education is an independent entity from CompTIA®. This publication and CD-ROM
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■■ Acknowledgments
I’d like to acknowledge the many people who contributed their talents to
make this book possible:
To my in-house Editor in Chief, Scott Jernigan: I couldn’t have done it
without you, amigo. Truthfully, has there ever been a better combo than a
wizard and a paladin?
To Christopher Crayton, technical editor: Another great project with
you, Chris. Thanks for keeping my toes to the fire and your relentless push
to update, update, update! This is a much better product than it could have
been without your help.
To Bobby Rogers, mobile devices expert: Thank you for the outstanding
contributions to this book!
To Bill McManus, copy editor: Astonishingly good work in a fast-paced
timeframe. You rock!
To Michael Smyer, Total Seminars’ resident tech guru and photographer:
Your contributions continue to shine, from superb photographs to excellent
illustrations and, in this edition, some nicely styled writing. Well done!
To Dave Rush, crack technologist and ridiculously talented person:
How can I list the many contributions you’ve made to make this book—and
all the crazy products that go with it—so awesome? Researching, writing,
arguing, filming, arguing, researching some more...and the final product.
All fun!
To Travis Everett, Internet guru and writer: Such a wonderful addition
to the team this go-round, not just as a top-notch editor, but as a contributor
as well. Your understanding of the Internet and the cloud added excellent
additions to the book. Looking forward to the next one to see what other
talents you bring to the table!
To Ford Pierson, graphics maven and editor: I know you have a new
prime directive with little Oliver, but thanks for pinch-hitting on some
graphics and editing for the book. Much appreciated. And I’m really glad
we do everything electronically nowadays. Diapers, yikes!
To Sam Huntley and Maggie Jernigan: Thank you for the 11th-hour
assist with proofing. We promise you’ll have more time next time.
To Dudley Lehmer, my partner at Total Seminars: As always, thanks
for keeping the ship afloat while I got to play on this book!
To Amy Stonebraker, acquisitions coordinator at McGraw-Hill:
Thanks for keeping track of everything and (gently) smacking Scott when
he forgot things.
To Claire Yee, acquisitions coordinator at McGraw-Hill: Yay! You arrived
late in the game, but clearly came to play. Thanks for keeping Scott in line
and making the chapters flow. Looking forward to many more with you.
To Richard Camp, proofreader: Thank you, Richard, for catching those
silly typos. Your eagle eyes made the book much better!
To Howie Severson and Jody McKenzie, project editors: It was a joy to
work with you both again. I couldn’t have asked for a better team. In fact,
I asked for the best team and got exactly what I wanted!
ABOUT THIS BOOK
■■ Important Technology Skills

Information technology (IT) offers many career paths, need certain basic computer skills. Mike Meyers’
leading to occupations in such fields as PC repair, CompTIA A+ Guide to Managing and Troubleshooting
network administration, telecommunications, Web PCs builds a foundation for success in the IT field by
development, graphic design, and desktop support. introducing you to fundamental technology concepts
To become competent in any IT field, however, you and giving you essential computer skills.

BaseTech//Mike
BaseTech MikeMeyers’
Meyers’CompTIA
CompTIAA+A+Guide
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and Troubleshooting
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Meyers’CompTIA
CompTIAA+
A+Guide
GuidetotoManaging
Managingand
andTroubleshooting PCs/ /Meyers
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BaseTech

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particular in mother-
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I’ve got a great Chapter
between
board. Good thetechs
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chipsets! Figure
Figure 5.14).
component chips are relatively centrally located on the 55 Challenge!
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Chapter 6,chips
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important vocabulary
component are relatively located on the
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two primary(see
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Figure 7.12). As you’ll and the Southbridge.
recall from
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chipsets were originally
chip
and the Southbridge.
handledcomposedRAM, while of the Table
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RAM, while the
and the Southbridge.
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7.12 Northbridge and Southbridge
Figure 7.12 Northbridge and Southbridge
Clock
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storage drives, such as hard drives. Some motherboard
and mass • Figure 7.12 Northbridge and Southbridge 100 MHz
MHz DDR-200
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you need to know.
Southbridge
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drives, some
such expansion
as(orhard devices
manufacturers added stilldrives.
add) aSome
third motherboard
chip called the Super I/O chip to 133
storage drives, such as hard drives. Some motherboard
manufacturers added (or still add) a third chip called the Super I/O chip to 133 MHz
MHz DDR-266
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PC-2100
manufacturers added (or still add) a third chip called the Super I/O chip to 166
166 MHz
MHz DDR-333
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PC-3500
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Cross Check Although
Current
Current State
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of the the Northbridge and Southbridge
and Southbridge
Current State of the Northbridge and Southbridge
AlthoughCompTIA
CompTIA continues
continues to discuss
to discuss the Northbridge
the Northbridge and South-and South-
233 MHz
233 MHz
250 MHz
DDR-466
DDR-466
DDR-500
PC-3700
PC-3700
PC-4000

questions develop Although CompTIA continues to Chapter

discuss 250 MHz DDR-500 PC-4000
bridge
bridge asas discrete
discrete chips,
chips, you you know
know from 6 the
that Northbridge
from Chapter 6 that
their theirand
functions South-
functions 275 MHz DDR-550 PC-4400
bridge
have
have asabsorbed
been
been discrete
absorbed chips,
into otheryou
into know
devices.
other So,from
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devices. Chapter
check
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300 MHz DDR-600 PC-4800
reasoning skills: haveWhere
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beenisabsorbed
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the discrete Southbridge? How do its functions appear now?
cross
Intel
now?
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Intel call
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do Intel and AMD call
300 MHz DDR-600 PC-4800

ask, compare, contrast, the discrete Southbridge? How do its functions appear now?
197

and explain.
Chapter 7: Motherboards
197 130
Chapter 7: Motherboards
197 130 Mike Meyers’ CompTIA A+ Guide to Managing and Troubleshooting PCs
Chapter 7: Motherboards Mike Meyers’ CompTIA A+ Guide to Managing and Troubleshooting PCs

07-ch07.indd 197 14/01/16 6:02 pm

07-ch07.indd 197 14/01/16 6:02 pm

05-ch05.indd 130 13/01/16 5:57 pm
07-ch07.indd 197 14/01/16 6:02 pm 05-ch05.indd 130 13/01/16 5:57 pm

Engaging and Motivational— Makes Learning Fun!—

Using a conversational style and Rich colorful text, and enhanced
proven instructional approach, illustrations bring technical subjects
the author explains technical concepts to life.
in a clear, interesting way using
real-world examples.

Proven Learning Method Keeps You on Track

Mike Meyers’ CompTIA A+ Guide to Managing and Troubleshooting PCs is structured to give you
comprehensive knowledge of computer skills and technologies. The textbook’s active learning methodology
guides you beyond mere recall and, through thought-provoking activities, labs, and sidebars, helps you
develop critical-thinking, diagnostic, and communication skills.
■■ Effective Learning Tools

This pedagogically rich book is designed to make troubleshoot problems. Mike Meyers’ proven ability
learning easy and enjoyable and to help you develop to explain concepts in a clear, direct, even humorous
the skills and critical-thinking abilities that will way makes this book interesting, motivational,
enable you to adapt to different job situations and and fun.

BaseTech / Mike Meyers’ CompTIA A+ Guide to Managing and Troubleshooting PCs / Meyers / 954-4 / Ch 12
BaseTech / Mike Meyers’ CompTIA A+ Guide to Managing and Troubleshooting PCs / Meyers / 954-4 / Ch 12
BaseTech / Mike
BaseTech Meyers’
/ Mike CompTIA
Meyers’ A+A+
CompTIA Guide to toManaging
Guide Managingand
andTroubleshooting
Troubleshooting PCs / Meyers
PCs / Meyers//954-4
954-4//Ch
Ch7 7
BaseTech / Mike Meyers’ CompTIA A+ Guide to Managing and Troubleshooting PCs / Meyers / 954-4 / Ch 7

Notes, Tips, and

Warnings create a
Veryold oldmotherboards
motherboards
■ Key Terms
■ road map for success
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usedto
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concept summaries, key
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CompTIA aA+ 66-MHz
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CompTIA A+ kinds
exams
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graphics workstation (397) thin client (396)
refertotothese
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manual hardware abstraction layer (HAL) (422) unattended installation (409)
refer to these
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terms lists, and lots of
home server PC (399) Upgrade Assistant (408)
adjustments
installation. needed for
installation. home server PC (399) Upgrade Assistant (408)
installation.
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video State Migration Tool(398)
workstation (USMT) (424) questions and projects.
behavior. if you setCPUs the log files (422) video editingworkstation
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(398)
wouldn’t
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even try
try totopower
powerup. up. migration (424) virtualization
bus speed too high, many CPUs
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youset setthe thespeed
speed too
too low,you
low, you migration
multiboot (424)
installation (408) virtualization
Windows workstation
Easy Transfer (424) (397)
wouldn’t even try to power up.
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• Figure 7.46 Sample
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Finally, install the motherboard

motherboard into into thethecase
casefully
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the
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■ Term
the Key TermsQuiz
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autodetect
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errors only andhappen
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appropriate screws. Once you
Finally, install the
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motherboard intoinstalled,
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the motherboard
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properly installed, it’s
mountedin
and secure
it’s time to to insert
inthethecase,
it with
insert the
thepower
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power
settings
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or
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these
and
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adjust accordingly,
intentionally
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__________________.
choose
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drive a(n)nothing
with
on it, you will likely choose to do a(n)
identify and recognize
appropriate screws. andOncetest it.you get the motherboard mounted insystem
the case,
connections
with the CPUyou
because and RAM
won’t have
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POST
properly
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card
card
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can
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to insert
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and
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when
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setup utility.
intentionally
utility.
or underclock a CPU through the
overclock
to handle only very basic applications with an
1. A(n) __________________ is a system designed
absolute minimum amount of hardware required
6. A(n) __________________ is a fix for a
__________________.
single problem with the OS, while a(n)
6. A(n) __________________ is a fix for a
key PC components.
connections
board to
board toand
verify
verifytestthat
it. the
that A POST
the systemcard
system is can beIfIfhelpful
is booting.
booting. you
youhave
have with
aaPOSTthecard,
POST system
card, test
start
startthe
the CMOS setup utility. to handle only very basic applications with an __________________ is a combination of fixes.
by the operating system. single problem with the OS, while a(n)
because you won’t
system,
system, and watch
and haveto
watch totosee
add
see if thePOST
if the
the speaker,
POST takes
takes a place—you
video
place—you card,shouldmonitor,
should seeand
see key-
aanumber
number absolute minimum amount of hardware required 7. If you wish to have only one OS and keep
boardofof POST
toPOST codes
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the the
system POST
is stops.
booting. If
Ifyou
you don’t
have have
a
before the POST stops. If you don’t have a POST card, installPOSTa POST
card,card, install
start the 2. A(n) __________________ is a box that you __________________ is a combination of fixes.
by the operating system. the applications and configuration of the
system,a keyboard, speaker,
and watchspeaker, video
to see ifvideothe POSTcard, and
card,takes monitor.
place—you Boot
Bootshouldthe system and
see a and see
numberseeifif hook up to your PC with inputs that enable
a keyboard, and monitor. the system If you system,
7. current wish to you
haveshould
only one OS and
choose to dokeep
a(n)
thecodes
BIOS information
information shows up 2. A(n)
you to__________________
connect professionalismicrophones
a box that you
and
of POSTthe BIOS before the POST shows up on
stops. onIf the
the screen.
you screen. IfIf itit does,
don’t have a POST
does, you’re
card,
you’re probably
install
probably the applications and
__________________ ofconfiguration
the new OS. of the
hook up to your PC with inputs that enable
instruments.
Sims mirror the style
okay. If
okay.
a keyboard, Ifspeaker,
it doesn’t,
it doesn’t,videoit’s
it’s time
time
card,to refer
to and to
to the
the motherboard
refermonitor. motherboard
Boot the system book
bookto to see
andseewhere
where
see if current system, you should choose to do a(n)
3. you to connect professional microphones and
you made
made aa mistake.
mistake. 8. During the Windows installation, you will
you
the BIOS information shows up on the screen. If it does, you’re probably __________________ cases are used to make your __________________
If you
you get get no instruments. need to agree to a legalof the new called
document OS. the
no power at all,
all, check to make
make suresure you plugged in all
allthe
of performance-based
okay. If itIfdoesn’t, it’s power
time toatrefer check
to thetomotherboard you plugged
book to seeinwhere the Check
Checkout outthe
theChapter
Chapter computer blend in with the rest of your home
necessary power power connectors. If you get power to fans but get nothing on 77Challenge!
Challenge!sim,
sim,“Label theater equipment. cases are used to make your 8. __________________.
During the Windows installation, you will
necessary
you made a mistake. connectors. If you get power to fans but get nothing on “Label 3. __________________
the screen,
screen, you you could have several problems. The CPU, RAM, or video Motherboard,
Motherboard, ” ”over
overatathttp://
http:// need to agree
9. Windows tracksto a legal
the document
installation called
progress the
with
If the
questions you’ll see on
you might
get nonot powercould havecheck
at all, severalto problems.
make sureThe youCPU, pluggedRAM, in orallvideo
the 4. computer blend
If you want in with
to share filesthe
andrest of your
printers home
over
totalsem.com/90x.
Check out the It’ll
It’llhelp
helpyou
Chapter
card might
card not be
be connected
connected to
to the
the motherboard properly. The only
onlyway to totalsem.com/90x. you a __________________.
set of text files called __________________.
necessary powerthe
determine connectors. If you getmotherboard
power to properly.
fans but get Thenothing way onto remember
7remember all
Challenge! the
allsim, motherboard
“Label
the motherboard
theater equipment.
your home network, you can set up a(n)
determine the problems
problems is is to
to test.
test. Check
Check the the easy
easy connections
connectionsfirst first(RAM
(RAM Windows
9. Windows tracks
the the installation progress
tool with
the CompTIA A+ exam
the screen, you before
could have several problems. The CPU, RAM, or video components
Motherboard, in”case
components in over you http://
case at
get a
you get a __________________.
4. If you want to share files and printers over 10. uses __________________ for
and video)
and video) before removing
removing and and reseating
reseating the theCPU.
CPU.Also, Also,seeseeChapter
Chapter88for for performance-based challenge on
card might notpowerbe connected to the motherboard properly. The only way to totalsem.com/90x. It’ll
performance-based challenge help you on a set of text
migrating userfiles
filescalled __________________.
and settings.
more on on your home network, you can set up a(n)
more power issues.
issues. the CompTIA A+ 901 exam.
remember
the CompTIAall A+
the901motherboard
exam.
determine the problems is to test. Check the easy connections first (RAM
and video) before removing and reseating the CPU. Also, see Chapter 8 for
components in case you get a
performance-based challenge on
__________________. 10. Windows uses the __________________ tool for
migrating user files and settings. so you’ll be ready
■ Multiple-Choice Quiz
more on power issues.
Troubleshooting Motherboards
■■■ Troubleshooting
■ Motherboards
the CompTIA A+ 901 exam.
to do stuff, not just
1. What is a thin client? C. A system designed to handle only very basic
Motherboards fail. Not often, but motherboards and motherboard compo-
Motherboards fail. Not often, but motherboards and motherboard compo- ■ Multiple-Choice Quiz address bus
A. A computer with a 32-bit-wide applications with the minimum hardware know stuff.
■■ Troubleshooting
facturing defects made worse byMotherboards
nents can die from many causes: time, dust, cat hair, or simply slight manu- required by the operating system
nents can die from many causes: time, dust, cat hair, or simply slight manu- B. A is
portable computer
the millions of amps of current sluicing 1. What a thin client? C. A system designed to handle only very basic
facturing defects made worse by the millions of amps of current sluicing D. A computer in a narrow, small form-factor case
through the motherboard traces. Installing cards, electrostatic discharge, A. A computer with a 32-bit-wide address bus applications with the minimum hardware
Motherboards
through the fail.motherboard
Not often, but motherboards
traces. and motherboard
Installing cards, compo-
electrostatic discharge,
flexing the motherboard one time too many when swapping out RAM or required by the operating system
nents flexing
can diethefrommotherboard onetime,
many causes: time dust,
too many when
cat hair, or swapping out manu-
simply slight RAM or B. A portable computer
facturing defects made worse by the millions of amps of current sluicing D. A computer in a narrow, small form-factor case
through the motherboard traces. Installing cards, electrostatic discharge, 219 432
Chapter 7: Motherboards Mike Meyers’ CompTIA A+ Guide to Managing and Troubleshooting PCs
flexing the motherboard 219
Chapter 7: Motherboards one time too many when swapping out RAM or

432
Mike Meyers’ CompTIA A+ Guide to Managing and Troubleshooting PCs
219
Chapter 7: Motherboards
07-ch07.indd 219 19/02/16 2:46 pm 12-ch12.indd 432 21/01/16 2:21 pm
07-ch07.indd 219 19/02/16 2:46 pm

Offers Practical Experience— Robust Learning Tools—

12-ch12.indd 432 21/01/16 2:21 pm
07-ch07.indd 219 19/02/16 2:46 pm

Tutorials and lab assignments develop Summaries, key terms lists, quizzes,
essential hands-on skills and put essay questions, and lab projects
concepts in real-world contexts. help you practice skills and measure
progress.

Each chapter includes

■■ Learning objectives that set measurable goals for chapter-by-chapter ■■ Plenty of full-color photographs and illustrations that provide clear,
progress up-close pictures of the technology, making difficult concepts easy to
■■ Try This!, Cross Check, and Tech Tip sidebars that encourage you visualize and understand
to practice and apply concepts in real-world settings ■■ Highlighted Key Terms, Key Terms lists, and Chapter Summaries
■■ Notes, Tips, and Warnings that guide you through difficult areas that provide you with an easy way to review important concepts and
■■ Sims mirror the style of performance-based questions you’ll see on the vocabulary
CompTIA A+ exams so you’ll be ready to do stuff, not just know stuff. ■■ Challenging End-of-Chapter Quizzes that include vocabulary-
■■ Exam-driven organization that divides chapters into Historical/ building exercises, multiple-choice questions, essay questions, and
Conceptual, Exam 901, Exam 902, and Beyond A+ sections, making it on-the-job lab projects
easy to focus study
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CONTENTS AT A GLANCE

Chapter 1 ■ The Path of the PC Tech 2

Chapter 2 ■ Operational Procedures 18

Chapter 3 ■ The Visible Computer 42

Chapter 4 ■ Microprocessors 80

Chapter 5 ■ RAM 122

Chapter 6 ■ BIOS 154

Chapter 7 ■ Motherboards 190

Chapter 8 ■ Power Supplies 230

Chapter 9 ■ Hard Drive Technologies 262

Chapter 10 ■ Implementing Hard Drives 288

Chapter 11 ■ Essential Peripherals 344

Chapter 12 ■ Building a PC 394

Chapter 13 ■ Windows Under the Hood 436

Chapter 14 ■ Users, Groups, and Permissions 470

Chapter 15 ■ Maintaining and Optimizing Operating Systems 514

x
Contents At A Glance
 Chapter 16 ■ Working with the Command-Line Interface 550

Chapter 17 ■ Troubleshooting Operating Systems 598

Chapter 18 ■ Virtualization 648

Chapter 19 ■ Display Technologies 682

Chapter 20 ■ Essentials of Networking 730

Chapter 21 ■ Local Area Networking 756

Chapter 22 ■ Wireless Networking 796

Chapter 23 ■ The Internet 830

Chapter 24 ■ Portable Computing 882

Chapter 25 ■ Understanding Mobile Devices 930

Chapter 26 ■ Care and Feeding of Mobile Devices 966

Chapter 27 ■ Printers and Multifunction Devices 1004

Chapter 28 ■ Securing Computers 1054

Appendix A ■ Mapping to the CompTIA A+ Objectives 1110

Appendix B ■ About the CD-ROM 1154

■ Glossary 1158

■ Index 1218

xi
Contents At A Glance
 CONTENTS
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xx
Instructor Web Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
Chapter 1
■ The Path of the PC Tech 2 Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   46
CompTIA A+ Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Who Is CompTIA? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
The Path to Other Certifications . . . . . . . . . 3
CompTIA A+ Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Windows-Centric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Windows 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Exam 220–901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Exam 220-902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
The Path to Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Finding a Testing Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Exam Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
How to Pass the CompTIA A+ Exams . . . . .   9
Historical/Conceptual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   11
Chapter 2
■ Operational Procedures 18
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   19
The Professional Tech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   19
Appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   19
The Traits of a Tech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   19
Effective Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . .   23
Assertive Communication . . . . . . . . . . .   23
Respectful Communication . . . . . . . . . . .   24
Eliciting Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   25
Expectations and Follow-Up . . . . . . . . . .   26
Tools of the Trade and Personal Safety . . . . . .   27
Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) . . . . . . . . .   27
Antistatic Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   28
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) . . . . . .   29
Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) . . . . . .   30
Personal Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   30
Physical Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   31
Software Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   32
Troubleshooting Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . .   32
xii
Chapter 3
■ The Visible Computer 42
Historical/Conceptual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   43
The Computing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   43
The Computing Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   44
Why the Process Matters to Techs . . . . . . .   47
Breaking It Down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   47
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   48
Computing Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   48
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   51
Computing Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   51
Common Operating System Functions . . . .   52
User Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   52
File Structures and Paths . . . . . . . . . . . .   62
The Tech Launch Points . . . . . . . . . . . .   66
Chapter 4
■ Microprocessors 80
Historical/Conceptual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   81
CPU Core Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   81
The Man in the Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   81
Clock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   85
Back to the External Data Bus . . . . . . . . .   88
Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   89
Memory and RAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   89
Address Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   91
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   94
Modern CPUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   94
Developers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   94
Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   97
Selecting and Installing CPUs . . . . . . . . . . 107
Selecting a CPU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Installation Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Troubleshooting CPUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Symptoms of Overheating . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Catastrophic Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Beyond A+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
Intel Core M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Contents
Chapter 5 Chapter 7
■ RAM 122 ■ Motherboards 190
Historical/Conceptual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Historical/Conceptual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Understanding DRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 How Motherboards Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Organizing DRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Form Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Practical DRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
DRAM Sticks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Chipset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Consumer RAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Motherboard Components . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Types of RAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Expansion Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
SDRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Structure and Function of
RDRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 the Expansion Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 PCI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
DDR SDRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 AGP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
DDR2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 PCI-X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
DDR3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Mini-PCI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
DDR3L/DDR3U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 PCI Express . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
DDR4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Installing Expansion Cards . . . . . . . . . . 206
RAM Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Troubleshooting Expansion Cards . . . . . . 213
Working with RAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Upgrading and Installing Motherboards . . . . 214
Do You Need More RAM? . . . . . . . . . . 136 Choosing the Motherboard and Case . . . . . 215
Getting the Right RAM . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Installing the Motherboard . . . . . . . . . . 217
Installing DIMMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Troubleshooting Motherboards . . . . . . . . . . 219
Installing SO-DIMMs in Laptops . . . . . . 144 Symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Troubleshooting RAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Testing RAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Chapter 6 Chapter 8
■ BIOS 154 ■ Power Supplies 230
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Historical/Conceptual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
We Need to Talk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Understanding Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Talking to the Keyboard . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
BIOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Powering the PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
CMOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Supplying AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Modify CMOS: The Setup Program . . . . . 162 902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Typical CMOS Setup Programs . . . . . . . 166 901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Option ROM and Device Drivers . . . . . . . . 174
Supplying DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Option ROM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Installing and Maintaining Power Supplies . . . 247
Device Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Installing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
BIOS, BIOS, Everywhere! . . . . . . . . . . 176
Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
POST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Troubleshooting Power Supplies . . . . . . . . . 251
Before and During the Video Test:
No Motherboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
The Beep Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Text Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
When Power Supplies Die Slowly . . . . . . 252
POST Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Fuses and Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
The Boot Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Beyond A+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Care and Feeding of BIOS and CMOS . . . . . . 179
Default/Optimized Settings . . . . . . . . . . 179 It Glows! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Clearing CMOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Modular Power Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Losing CMOS Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Temperature and Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . 254
Flashing the ROM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

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 Chapter 9 Maintaining and Troubleshooting
■ Hard Drive Technologies 262 Hard Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Historical/Conceptual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
How Hard Drives Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Troubleshooting Hard Drive
Magnetic Hard Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Beyond A+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Solid-State Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Third-Party Partition Tools . . . . . . . . . . 334
Hybrid Hard Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Parallel and Serial ATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
PATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
SATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Chapter 11
Protecting Data with RAID . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 ■ Essential Peripherals 344
RAID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Implementing RAID . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Supporting Common Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Software Versus Hardware . . . . . . . . . . 273 USB Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Installing Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 FireWire Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Choosing Your Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Thunderbolt Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Jumpers and Cabling on PATA Drives . . . . 276 General Port Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Cabling SATA Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Common Peripherals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Connecting Solid-State Drives . . . . . . . . 278 Keyboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
BIOS Support: Configuring CMOS Pointing Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
and Installing Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Biometric Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Troubleshooting Hard Drive Installation . . . 281 Smart Card Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Bar Code Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Touch Screens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Chapter 10 Motion Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
■ Implementing Hard Drives 288 KVM Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Gamepads and Joysticks . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Historical/Conceptual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Digitizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Hard Drive Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Multimedia Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Video Capture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Master Boot Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 TV Tuners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Dynamic Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 Smart TV and Set-Top Boxes . . . . . . . . . 375
GUID Partition Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Storage Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Other Partition Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Flash Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
When to Partition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Optical Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Partition Naming Problems . . . . . . . . . . 295
Hard Drive Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
File Systems in Windows . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Chapter 12
FAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
FAT32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 ■ Building a PC 394
NTFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
FAT64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Specialized Custom PCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
File Systems in Mac OS X . . . . . . . . . . 305 Evaluating Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
File Systems in Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Workstation PCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
The Partitioning, Formatting, Specialized Consumer PCs . . . . . . . . . . 399
and Pooling Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Bootable Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Installing and Upgrading Windows . . . . . . . 407
Partitioning and Formatting with Media Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
the Installation Media . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Types of Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Disk Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 The Installation and Upgrade Process . . . . 410
Formatting a Partition . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Troubleshooting Installation Problems . . . . 421
Storage Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Post-Installation Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Patches, Service Packs, and Updates . . . . . 423
Upgrading Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

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 Restoring User Data Files (If Applicable) . . . 423 Chapter 15
Migrating and Retiring Systems . . . . . . . 424 ■ Maintaining and Optimizing
No Installation Is Perfect . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Operating Systems 514
Beyond A+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Installing Windows 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Maintaining Operating Systems . . . . . . . . . 515
Windows Patch Management . . . . . . . . . 515
Patch Management in Mac OS X
Chapter 13 and Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
■ Windows Under the Hood 436 Managing Temporary Files in Windows . . . 518
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Registry Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Registry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Disk Maintenance Utilities . . . . . . . . . . 520
Accessing the Registry . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Scheduling Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Registry Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Controlling Autostarting Software . . . . . . 523
Talkin’ Registry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 System Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Manual Registry Edits . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 Microsoft Management Console . . . . . . . 526
Command-Line Registry Editing Tools . . . . 440 Optimizing Operating Systems . . . . . . . . . . 528
The Boot Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 Installing and Removing Software . . . . . . 528
Processes, Services, and Threads . . . . . . . . . 442 Installing/Optimizing a Device . . . . . . . . 532
Task Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 Performance Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
Performance Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Preparing for Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Tools for Programmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 Backing Up Personal Data . . . . . . . . . . 536
Component Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 System Restore in Windows . . . . . . . . . . 542
Data Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

Chapter 16
Chapter 14 ■ Working with the Command-Line
■ Users, Groups, and Permissions 470 Interface 550
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
Authentication with Users and Groups . . . . . 471 Deciphering the Command-Line Interface . . . 551
User Accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
Passwords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 Accessing the Command-Line
Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 Interface in Windows . . . . . . . . . . . 552
Configuring Users and Groups . . . . . . . . 474 Accessing the Command-Line Interface
Local Users and Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 in Mac OS X and Linux . . . . . . . . . . 553
Authorization Through NTFS . . . . . . . . . . 484 The Command Prompt . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
NTFS Permissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 Closing the Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 Filenames and File Formats . . . . . . . . . . 555
Permission Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . 488 Drives and Folders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Techs and Permissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 Mastering Fundamental Commands . . . . . . 557
Permissions in Linux and Mac OS X . . . . . 489 Structure: Syntax and Switches . . . . . . . . 558
Sharing Resources Securely . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 Viewing Directory Contents: dir and ls . . . . 558
Sharing a Folder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 Changing Directory Focus: The cd
Add/Edit Users and/or Groups . . . . . . . . 493 Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
Administrative Shares . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 Moving Between Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Protecting Data with Encryption . . . . . . . 495 Making Directories: The md/mkdir
Beyond Sharing Users and Groups . . . . . . . 498 Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Security Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 Removing Directories: The rd/rmdir
User Account Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
How UAC Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502 Running a Program in Windows . . . . . . . 565
How to Turn Off UAC . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 Running a Program in Mac OS X
UAC in Modern Windows . . . . . . . . . . 505 and Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
Working with Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
Using Wildcards to Locate Files . . . . . . . . 569
Deleting Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570

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 Copying and Moving Files . . . . . . . . . . 571 Chapter 18
Pruning and Grafting Folder Trees . . . . . . 573 ■ Virtualization 648
Assorted Windows Commands . . . . . . . . . 575
chkdsk (/f /r) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 Benefits of Virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
hostname . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 Power Saving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
gpupdate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 Hardware Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . 650
gpresult . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 System Management and Security . . . . . . 650
sfc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
shutdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578 Implementing Virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . 651
Using Special Keys in Windows . . . . . . . 578 Meet the Hypervisor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
Beyond A+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Emulation Versus Virtualization . . . . . . . 654
The compact and cipher Commands . . . . . . 579 Client-Side Virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . 655
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582 Server-Side Virtualization . . . . . . . . . . 666
To the Cloud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
PowerShell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
The Service-Layer Cake . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
Assorted Mac OS X and Linux Commands . . . 583
Ownership and Access . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
ifconfig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Why We Cloud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
iwconfig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
ps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
grep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
apt-get . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 Chapter 19
vi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588 ■ Display Technologies 682
dd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589 Video Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
shutdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590 Historical/Conceptual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
passwd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590 CRT Monitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
LCD Monitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
Chapter 17 Projectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
■ Troubleshooting Operating Systems 598 Plasma Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599 Common Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
Failure to Boot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599 Display Adapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
Failure to Boot: Hardware or Configuration . . . 600 Historical/Conceptual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
Failure to Boot: Windows XP Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
(A CompTIA Retro Moment) . . . . . . . 601 901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
Failure to Boot: Modern Windows . . . . . . 605 Motherboard Slot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
Failure to Boot: Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 Graphics Processor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
Failure to Start Normally . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 Video Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
Device Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622 Integrated GPUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
Registry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623 Connector Types and Associated Cables . . . 703
Advanced Startup Options . . . . . . . . . . 624 Installing and Configuring Video . . . . . . . . 706
Troubleshooting Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627 Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
More Control Panel Tools . . . . . . . . . . . 632 902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
Application Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 Working with Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
Application Installation Problems . . . . . . 636 3-D Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
Problems with Uninstalling . . . . . . . . . . 637 Troubleshooting Video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637 Troubleshooting Video Cards/Drivers . . . . . 720
Missing File or Incorrect File Version . . . . 640 Troubleshooting Monitors . . . . . . . . . . . 721
Crashing Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640 Beyond A+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
Volume Shadow Copy Service and Changing Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
System Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640

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Chapter 20 Installing and Configuring
■ Essentials of Networking 730 Wireless Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810
Wi-Fi Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731 Bluetooth Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . 816
Roles Hosts Play in Networks . . . . . . . . . . 731 Cellular Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . 818
Historical/Conceptual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733 Troubleshooting Wi-Fi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
Networking Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733 Hardware Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . 820
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734 Software Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . 820
Frames and NICs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734 Connectivity Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . 821
Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736 Configuration Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . 821
Ethernet with Twisted Pair . . . . . . . . . . 739
Ethernet with Alternative Connections . . . . 740
Implementing Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742 Chapter 23
The Typical LAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742 ■ The Internet 830
Structured Cabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
Going Wide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751 Historical/Conceptual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
How the Internet Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
Internet Tiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
TCP/IP—The Common Language
Chapter 21
of the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832
■ Local Area Networking 756 Internet Service Providers . . . . . . . . . . . 833
901/902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757 Connection Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
TCP/IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757 901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
Network Addressing with IPv4 . . . . . . . . 757 Connecting to the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
Network Addressing with IPv6 . . . . . . . . 767 Dial-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835
Installing and Configuring a Wired Network . . . 771 DSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838
Installing a NIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772 Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 839
Configuring a Network Client . . . . . . . . 774 Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 839
Sharing and Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774 Wi-Fi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
Network Shares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775 Cellular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
Network Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . 775 Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841
Troubleshooting Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . 785 Connection to the Internet . . . . . . . . . . 842
Repairing Physical Cabling . . . . . . . . . . 785 Internet Application Protocols . . . . . . . . . . 846
Fixing Common Problems . . . . . . . . . . . 788 902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
The World Wide Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
E-mail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
Chapter 22 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) . . . . . . . . . 859
■ Wireless Networking 796 Telnet and SSH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
SFTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
Historical/Conceptual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
Voice over IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
Wireless Networking Components . . . . . . . 797 Remote Desktop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798 Virtual Private Networks . . . . . . . . . . . 864
Wireless Networking Software . . . . . . . . 799 Support Applications (Internet Utilities) . . . 867
Wireless Network Modes . . . . . . . . . . . 800 901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801 Internet Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
Wireless Networking Security . . . . . . . . 801 No Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804 Limited Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
Speed and Range Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . 804 Local Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
Wireless Networking Standards . . . . . . . . . 805 Slow Transfer Speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
IEEE 802.11-Based Wireless Networking . . . 805 Beyond A+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872
Other Wireless Standards . . . . . . . . . . . 808 Online Gaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810 Chat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873
File Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874

xvii
Contents
 Chapter 24 Chapter 26
■ Portable Computing 882 ■ Care and Feeding of Mobile Devices 966
Historical/Conceptual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883 901/902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967
Portable Computing Devices . . . . . . . . . . . 883 Troubleshooting Mobile Device Issues . . . . . 967
Taxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883 Troubleshooting Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887 Touchscreen and Display Issues . . . . . . . . 970
Input Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887 App Not Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972
Display Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889 Overheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973
Extending Portable Computers . . . . . . . . . . 890 Slow Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973
Single-Function Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890 Battery Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974
Networking Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892 Swollen Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 976
Portable-Specific Expansion Slots . . . . . . . 893 Frozen System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977
Storage Card Slots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894 Cannot Broadcast to an External Monitor . . 977
General-Purpose Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . 894 No Sound from Speakers . . . . . . . . . . . 978
Managing and Maintaining Portable Connectivity and Data Usage Issues . . . . . 978
Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 GPS and Location Services Problems . . . . . 979
Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896 System Lockout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980
Power Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896 Encryption Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981
Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902 Securing Mobile Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981
Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 BYOD versus Corporate-Owned Devices . . . 981
Protecting the Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . 905 Profile Security Requirements . . . . . . . . 982
Upgrading and Repairing Laptop Preventing Physical Damage . . . . . . . . . 983
Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906 Combating Malware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984
Disassembly Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907 Dealing with Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984
Standard Upgrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909 Recovering from Theft . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985
Hardware Replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . 912 Securing Your Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
Troubleshooting Portable Computers . . . . . . 916 Mobile OS and Application Security Issues . . . 989
Power and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . 916 Troubleshooting Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989
Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918 Risks, Symptoms, and Clues . . . . . . . . . 991

Chapter 25 Chapter 27
■ Understanding Mobile Devices 930 ■ Printers and Multifunction Devices 1004
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931 901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
Mobile Computing Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . 931 Printer and Multifunction Device
Device Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931 Components and Technologies . . . . . . . . 1005
Mobile Hardware Features . . . . . . . . . . 935 Printers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938 Scanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016
Meet the Big Three Mobile OSs . . . . . . . . . . 938 Copy and Fax Components . . . . . . . . . . 1020
Development Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938 Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
Apple iOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940 The Laser Printing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021
Google Android . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940 Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
Microsoft Windows Phone . . . . . . . . . . 941 Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
Mobile OS Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941 Exposing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
Configuring a Mobile Device . . . . . . . . . . . 947 Developing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
Enhancing Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947 Transferring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
Adding Apps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949 Fusing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
Network Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 951 Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952 Installing a Multifunction Device . . . . . . . . 1025
E-mail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 953 Setting Up Printers in Windows . . . . . . . 1025
Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955 Configuring Print Settings . . . . . . . . . . 1030
Mobile Device Communication and Ports . . 957 Optimizing Print Performance . . . . . . . . 1031
Managing Shared/Public/Networked
Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1032

xviii
Contents
Troubleshooting Printers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033
Troubleshooting General Issues . . . . . . . . 1033
Troubleshooting Impact Printers . . . . . . . 1036
Troubleshooting Thermal Printers . . . . . . 1037
Troubleshooting Inkjet Printers . . . . . . . 1038
Troubleshooting Laser Printers . . . . . . . . 1040
Chapter 28
■ Securing Computers 1054
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055
Analyzing Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055
Unauthorized Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055
Social Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056
Data Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057
Administrative Access . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058
System Crash/Hardware Failure . . . . . . . 1058
Physical Theft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058
Malware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059
Environmental Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059
Security Concepts and Technologies . . . . . . 1061
Access Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1061
Data Classification and Compliance . . . . . 1068
Licensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
Network Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Malicious Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Malware Signs and Symptoms . . . . . . . . 1080
Malware Prevention and Recovery . . . . . . 1081
Firewalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
Contents
Internet Appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096
Authentication and Encryption . . . . . . . . 1096
Wireless Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1100
Appendix A
■ Mapping to the CompTIA A+
Objectives 1110
220–901 Exam Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1110
220–902 Exam Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1131
Appendix B
■ About the CD-ROM 1154
Playing the Mike Meyers Introduction Video . . . 1154
System Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1154
Total Tester Exam Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
Pre-assessment Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
TotalSims for CompTIA A+ . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
Mike’s Video Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
Mike’s Cool Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156
PDF Copy of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156
Technical Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156
Total Seminars Technical Support . . . . . . . 1156
McGraw-Hill Education Content Support . . . 1157
■ Glossary 1158
■ Index 1218
xix
 PREFACE

I started writing computer books for the simple reason that no one wrote the
kind of books I wanted to read. The books were either too simple (Chapter 1,
“Using Your Mouse”) or too complex (Chapter 1, “TTL Logic and Transistors”),
and none of them provided a motivation for me to learn the information.
I believed that there were geeky readers just like me who wanted to know
why they needed to know the information in a computer book.
Good books motivate readers to learn what they are reading. For ex-
ample, if a book discusses binary arithmetic but doesn’t explain why I need
to learn it, that’s not a good book. Tell me that understanding binary makes
it easier to understand how a CPU works or why a megabyte is different
from a million bytes—then I get excited, no matter how geeky the topic. If
I don’t have a good motivation to do something, then I’m simply not going
to do it (which explains why I haven’t jumped out of an airplane!).
In this book, I teach you why you need to understand the technology
that runs almost every modern business. You’ll learn to build and fix com-
puters, exploring every nook and cranny, and master the art of the PC tech.
In the process, you’ll gain the knowledge you need to pass the CompTIA
A+ certification exams.
Enjoy, my fellow geek.

xx
Preface
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
suspect that they are casual visitors, coming to us at the end of the
year. The ordinary Parrots wing high, but the Macaws are
exceedingly high fliers, and the command of the continental and
insular shores, could be no difficulty to birds of their powerful,
though, usually, not long-sustained flight. When the October rains set
in, storms and deluges from the mountains of the continent to the
west of us, send myriad flocks of aquatic birds over to us, and it is
extremely likely that these magnificent Parrots are driven to our
shores, where they find in our genial mountains, the mild quietude of
the upper summer woods of Mexico.
“A mountain district very remote, between Trelawney and St.
Ann’s, here and there cleared and settled,—a peculiar country called
the Black grounds, is said to be the never failing resort of these
Mexican Macaws. I have been assured that several birds have been
procured there. This is said to be nearly as far eastward as they
have been found. Further westward, in the neighbourhood of the
Accompong Maroons, young birds, bearing the evidence of being in
the first year’s plumage, have been procured from hog-hunters. One
specimen, purchased from them by Mr. White, the proprietor of
Oxford estate, was for some time the admiration and talk of the
country round. I have been informed by those who have noticed the
bird on the wing, that although the Macaws are never seen but flying
extremely high, their great size, and their splendid length of tail,
brilliant with intense scarlet, and blue and yellow, strikingly attract
attention, if their harsh scream, heard in the hushed mountain
solitudes, does not betray them. They fly from one ridge to another,
journeying in pairs, and have been followed by the eye till they have
alighted on the loftiest of the forest trees, in their chosen resting
places.”

YELLOW-BELLIED PARROQUET.[75]

Conurus flaviventer.
Psittacus æruginosus, var. Lath. Syn.
 Aratinga flaviventer, Spix. Av. Br. t. 18. f. 1.

[75] Length, measured over the head, 11¾ inches, expanse 16¾, flexure
5¾, tail 5, rictus ¾, tarsus ⁵⁄₁₀, middle toe 1¹⁄₁₀. Irides pale orange; cere
and cheeks, pale buff.

The large earthy nests accumulated by the duck-ants (Termites,)

around the trunk or branches of trees, frequently afford the
Parroquet a fit situation for her own domestic economy. Though
easily cut by her strong beak, the thin arches and galleries of these
insects are of sufficiently firm consistence to constitute a secure and
strong abode. In the cavity formed by her own industry she lays four
or five eggs, upon the chips and dust.
But the precaution of the poor bird in selecting a locality, and her
perseverance in burrowing into so solid a structure, are not sufficient
to ensure her safety or that of her young. The aperture by which she
herself enters and departs, affords also a ready entrance to a subtle
and voracious enemy, the Yellow Boa. A young friend of mine once
observing a Parroquet enter into a hole in a large duck-ants’ nest,
situated on a bastard-cedar, mounted to take her eggs or young.
Arrived at the place, he cautiously inserted his hand, which presently
came into contact with something smooth and soft. He guessed it
might be the callow young, but hesitating to trust it, he descended,
and proceeded to cut a stick, keeping his eye on the orifice, from
which the old bird had not yet flown. Having again mounted, he
thrust in the stick and forced off the whole upper part of the structure,
disclosing to his utter discomfiture and terror, an enormous Yellow
Snake, about whose jaws the feathers of the swallowed Parroquet
were still adhering, while more of her plumage scattered in the nest
revealed her unhappy fate. The serpent instantly darted down the
tree, and the astonished youth, certainly not less terrified, also
descended with precipitation, and ran as if for life from the scene.
The food of this species consists of various fruits and seeds. The
fiddle-wood, burn-wood, fig, and pride of China, afford it plentiful and
agreeable nutriment. It cuts into the plantains, both when green and
ripe; and its fondness for the sweet and spicy berries of the pimento
renders it the abhorrence of the planter. I have seen it on the top of a
guava-tree holding something in its foot, which it cut to pieces with
its beak and fed upon; probably the young fruit. When the prickly-
yellow is in seed, the Parroquets come in flocks to eat of it; when
they lose their wonted wariness. I have known them to resort to a
large tree, overhanging the public road, day after day; the passing by
of persons beneath causing little observation; generally, however,
they would utter a screech or two, and then go on feeding. I have
shot several individuals from this tree in succession, yet in a few
minutes the flock would be there again.
Often when mortally wounded by a shot, the grasp of the climbing
feet, by which the bird was hanging from the twigs, becomes
convulsively tightened, and the falling body is seen suspended head
downward; for some minutes, often longer, it thus remains, the wings
now and then giving an ineffectual flutter, till at last one foot relaxes
its hold, and then the other, and the bird falls heavily to the ground.
They are often sought for the table, and I can speak from personal
knowledge to their juiciness and flavour, especially in the pimento
season.
The flight of these birds is swift and rushing; in mid air they have a
habit of suddenly deviating from the straight line of their course,
making a sharp doubling, and then pursuing the same direction as
before. They go in flocks, usually above the trees, and utter harsh
screams as they fly. The sexes are precisely alike in plumage.

BLACK-BILLED PARROT.[76]

Psittacus agilis.
Psittacus agilis, Gmel.—Le Vaill. Perr. 105.
? Psittacus æstivus, var. α. Lath. Syn.
? ” ” var. δ. Ibid.

[76] Length 13¼ inches, expanse 20¼, flexure 6⁴⁄₁₀, tail 3¼, rictus ⁸⁄₁₀,
tarsus ⁹⁄₁₀, middle toe 1²⁄₁₀. Irides dark hazel: cere blackish ash-colour.
 All the Parrots are gregarious, cunning, watchful, noisy,
mischievous; and thus are like the Monkeys. This and the following
species are so much alike in manners and general appearance, that
a description of one applies nearly to the other. Flocks varying from
half-a-dozen to twenty or thirty, fly hither and thither over the forest,
screeching as they go, and all alight together on some tree covered
with berries. Here they feast, but with caution; on a slight alarm one
screams, and the whole flock is on the wing, vociferous if not
musical; and brilliant if not beautiful; particularly when the sun shines
on their green backs and crimsoned wings. They generally prefer
lofty trees, except when, in June, the ripe yellow plantain tempts
them to descend, or when the black berry shines upon the pimento.
Of the latter, the flocks devour an immense quantity, and the former
they destroy by cutting it to pieces with their powerful beaks, to get at
the small seeds.
One day in January, when the pimento on the brow of Bluefields
Mountain was about ready for picking, being full-sized, but yet green
and hard, I observed large flocks of Black-bills and a few Parroquets,
flying to and fro with voluble chatter, now alighting to feed on the hot
aromatic berry, now flying off, and wheeling round to the same
neighbourhood again. They were not at all shy, but, with unusual
carelessness of our proximity, scarcely moved at the report of the
gun which brought their companions to the ground. Of two which I
shot on this occasion, I found the craws stuffed with the cotyledons
of the seed alone, the most pungently aromatic part of the berry; the
fleshy part having been, as I presume, shorn off by the beak and
rejected. When alighted, as is often the case, on a dry branch, their
emerald hue is conspicuous, and affords a fair mark for the gunner;
but in a tree of full foliage, their colour proves an excellent
concealment. They seem aware of this, and their sagacity prompts
them frequently to rely on it for security. Often we hear their voices
proceeding from a certain tree, or else have marked the descent of a
flock upon it, but on proceeding to the spot, though the eye has not
wandered from it, and we are therefore sure that they are there, we
cannot discover an individual. We go close to the tree, but all is
silent, and still as death; we institute a careful survey of every part
with the eye, to detect the slightest motion, or the form of a bird
among the leaves, but in vain; we begin to think that they have
stolen off unperceived, but on throwing a stone into the tree, a dozen
throats burst forth into cry, and as many green birds rush forth upon
the wing.
The screaming of this and the following species differs from that of
the Parroquet, so far as to be easily distinguished. That of the latter
consists of a series of harsh screeches, of comparative length; that
of the Parrots is less shrill, more broken into short and rapid
articulations, forming series of varying length, separated by
momentary pauses. It is, in fact, much more like a hurried chattering.
In some specimens, the patch of bright scarlet in the centre of the
wing, is diminished to a slight tinge on the edge, or even entirely
wanting. This is not a difference of sex, but probably of age.
I cannot well identify our Black-bill with Latham’s “Jamaica Black-
billed Green Parrot;” he calls it var. α of Æstivus, which it surely is
not; var. δ agrees in other particulars. Ours seems, as it were, made
up of both descriptions.

YELLOW-BILLED PARROT.[77]

Psittacus leucocephalus.
Psittacus leucocephalus, Linn.—Pl. Enl. 549.
Psittacus collarius, (young?) Ibid.

[77] Length 13½ inches, expanse 22¾, flexure 7¼, tail 4²⁄₁₀, rictus 1,
tarsus ⁸⁄₁₀, middle toe 1⁶⁄₁₀. Irides dark hazel; cere and eyelids greyish-
white. Sexes exactly alike.

The Yellow-bill is less common than either of the only two

preceding, but its habits are the same. The same fruits supply it with
food, but in addition, it divides the oranges, to procure the pips, and
even cuts the acrid cashew-nut, to extract the kernel; which the
others will not do.
 The present and the preceding species build in holes in lofty trees;
often a hollow bread-nut is chosen, and often the capacious and
comfortable cavity chiselled out by the Woodpecker. Four eggs are
usually laid; and when the green feathers begin to clothe the callow
heads of the promising family, they are too often taken by some
daring youth, who having watched the parent to her hole, climbs the
giddy elevation. He feeds the young with ripe plantain or banana, till
they approach maturity, and their appetites can digest plainer food;
for when grown they will eat almost anything.
All the three species learn to speak, but the Parroquet is barely
intelligible; the Black-bill is the most docile, but the beauty and
superior size of the Yellow-bill causes it to be preferred for the cage.
One in full plumage, and able to articulate with distinctness, usually
fetches about twenty shillings in the towns.
Robinson, in enumerating the Jamaican Psittacidæ, distinguishing
them from introduced specimens, mentions in addition to those I
have given, “the Mountain Parroquet.” (MSS. ii. 88.)

Fam.—PICIDÆ.—(The Woodpeckers.)
YELLOW-BELLIED WOODPECKER.[78]

Picus varius.—Linn.
Aud pl. 190.

[78] Length 8¾ inches, expanse 15½, flexure 5, tail 3¼, rictus 1²⁄₁₀,
tarsus ¹⁷⁄₂₀, middle toe ¹⁸⁄₂₀

Four or five specimens of this beautiful Woodpecker, all females,

occurred to us, in the months of December, January, and February;
but at no other time was it seen. I have no doubt it is a winter migrant
from the northern continent, where, however, Wilson states that it
abides all the year. I have nothing to give of its history: its manners,
as far as observed, were those common to the tribe; the stomachs of
such as I dissected, contained wood-boring larvæ.
 RADIOLATED WOODPECKER.[79]

Centurus radiolatus.—Wagl.
Edw. 244.

[79] Length 11 inches, expanse 17¾, flexure 5½, tail 3⁷⁄₁₀, rictus 1¹³⁄₂₀,
tarsus 1²⁄₁₀, middle toe 1³⁄₁₀, versatile toe 1³⁄₁₀, nearly. Irides bright hazel,
or scarlet.

This species greatly resembles the Red-bellied Woodpecker of

Wilson, (C. Carolinus,) from which it may be distinguished by the
plumage of the rump and tail-coverts being barred as the back, and
the tail being black, with the two middle feathers crossed by narrow
bars of white on their inner vanes, and the outmost feathers spotted
with white on the outer edge.
This is among the commonest of Jamaican birds, being abundant
in all situations, from the shores to the summits of the mountains. His
loud screams as he darts along from one dead tree to another,
perpetually betray his proximity even before we see him. Like the
rest of his tribe, his flight consists of a series of undulations, or rather
a succession of arcs of a circle, performed by alternate strokes and
closures of the wings. Though rapid and rushing in its character, it
does not extend to long distances, nor does it appear capable of
protraction, the wings having the shortness and hollowness which
mark a subordinate power of flight. Occasionally he alights on a
horizontal branch, but if so, it is lengthwise, not across, as other
birds perch; neither does he stand up on the toes, elevating the tarsi,
but squats down close to the wood, clinging rather than perching.
Far more usually, however, he flies direct to the trunk, on whose
perpendicular side he alights as suddenly as if he had been stuck
there, and either commences rapping with his powerful beak, or
hops upward till he finds a more promising scene of operations. If he
wishes to descend, which he does but seldom, it is backward and in
a diagonal direction; or sometimes he turns, so as to come down
sideways, but it is never more than a short distance, and is
performed so awkwardly, and in so scrambling a manner, as to
indicate that he is not formed for descending.
His food is not confined to boring larvæ; the large red ants, so
common in the woods, I have found numerous in his stomach; and at
other times, hard strong seeds enclosed in a scarlet pulpy skin. In
March we sometimes find him filled with the white pulp and oval
seeds of the sour-sop. He is said to feed on the beautiful cherries
(Cordia collococca) which in brilliant bunches are ripe at the same
season; and I have seen him engaged in picking off the pretty
crimson berries, that hang like clusters of miniature grapes from the
fiddlewood (Cytharaxylon). Sometimes he extracts the pulp of the
orange, having cut a hole through the rind; and mangoes he eats in
the autumn. He does damage to the sugar-cane, by chiselling away
the woody exterior, and sucking out the juice, and gets shot for this
feat, by the owners.
I have never seen the nest, but I have seen the bird go in and out
of a round hole, far up the stipe of a dead cocoa-nut palm, where
doubtless it was nesting.

Fam.—CUCULIDÆ.—(The Cuckoos.)
RAINBIRD.[80]

Saurothera vetula.
Cuculus vetula, Linn.—Pl. Enl. 772.
Saurothera vetula, Vieill.—Gal. Ois. 38.

[80] Length 15½ inches, expanse 14³⁄₁₀, flexure 4⁶⁄₁₀, tail 6¾, rictus 2¹⁄₁₀,
tarsus 1⁶⁄₁₀, middle toe 1²⁄₁₀. Intestine 16 inches, very tender; two cæca,
about 2 inches long. Irides hazel; orbits scarlet. The sexes exactly alike.

Interesting to myself, as being the first bird that I obtained in

Jamaica, I mention the fact, because the mode in which I procured it
is illustrative of one of its most remarkable characteristics. A day or
two after my arrival, I was taking a ramble with a little lad, who was
delighted to be my pioneer and assistant; we had climbed a hill
which was clothed with large timber, so densely matted with lianes
and briers as to be almost impenetrable. We had, however, got into
the thickest of it, when a large and handsome bird with a long tail,
beautifully barred with black and white, appeared on a low shrub
within a few feet of us, watching our motions with much apparent
interest. My little friend informed me that it was a Rainbird, but that it
had received also the title of Tom Fool, from its silly habit of gratifying
its curiosity, instead of securing its safety. Without wasting many
words, however, the youth picked up a “rock-stone,” as pebbles are
called in Jamaica, and delivered the missile with so skilful an aim,
that the bird dropped to the ground, and became the first-fruits of an
ornithological collection.
I have often seen the bird since, and always with the same
manners, jumping from twig to twig, or climbing with facility up the
slender stems of the young trees, gazing at the intruder; and if driven
away, flying only a few yards, and again peeping as before. It is little
seen except where the woods are high, but is widely scattered on
mountain as well as lowland.
The wings are remarkably short and hollow, like those of the
Gallinaceæ, the bird displaying the unusual phenomenon of a length
greater than the expanse. Conformably to this, the bird is seldom
seen to fly except from tree to tree; more usually leaping in a hurried
manner along the branches, or proceeding up the perpendicular bole
by short jumps. When it does fly, it glides nearly in a straight line,
without flapping the wings. It often sits on a branch in a remarkable
posture, the head lower than the feet, and the long tail hanging
nearly perpendicularly downward. When sitting it now and then utters
a loud and harsh cackle, unvarying in note, but increasing in the
rapidity of its emission; and sometimes this sound is produced during
its short flights. All the time of this effusion, the beak is held widely
opened. It may be imitated in some degree, by repeating the
syllables, ticky ticky ticky, for about a minute, as rapidly as they can
be uttered. It is frequently seen on the ground in morasses and
woods, when it proceeds by a succession of bounds, the long tail
held somewhat high, the head low: the tail is jerked forward by the
impulse at each pause of motion; and the whole action is like that of
the Crotophaga.
When held, it is fierce, trying with widely opened beak to bite, and
uttering angry screams; the tail expanded. A male, which had been
knocked down with a stone, but not much hurt, on being put into a
cage, was outrageous when one’s hand was placed near the wires,
dashing from side to side, now and then snapping at the hand, and
snarling all the while, exactly in the tone of an angry puppy.
It is extremely retentive of life; sometimes when a wounded one
has come into my possession, I have been distressed at the vain
efforts that I have made to deprive it of life, without absolute
destruction of the specimen. The craw is large and protuberant,
below the sternum, and is usually much distended. I have found in
various individuals large caterpillars, locusts, phasmata, spiders,
phryni, a whole mouse, lizards, &c. Robinson found in one a large
Green Anolis, eight inches long, coiled up in a spiral manner, the
head being in the centre. He says it bruises the heads of lizards, and
then swallows them head foremost, and the stomach being of a
roundish form, he conjectures that the lizard must necessarily be
coiled in this manner. Mr. Hill had one alive for several weeks; it
seized cockroaches and other insects, when put into its box, and ate
fresh meat, if chopped small.
I know nothing of the nest, except what the following note may
afford. A young friend informs me that he once observed a Rainbird
carrying “trash” into the hollow or fork of the divergent limbs of a
logwood tree. Some little while after, passing that way, he observed
a nest-like accumulation of similar substances, but as it was beyond
reach, he took a long stick to poke it out. In doing so, he pushed out
an egg, which was about as long as that of the Tinkling, but not so
broad: its colour white with many spots, but he had no distinct
recollection of what hue they were.
“When pairing,” observes Mr. Hill, “the male bird attracts the
female by gracefully displaying his plumage. His long graduated tail,
which insensibly blends tints of drab-grey with black, and terminates
with a border of white, is then seen expanded. The short rufous
wings are spread out, and the whole plumage, from the sage-grey,
hair-like, downy web of the back, to the soft, dull yellow under
feathers, are in motion, as the bird endeavours by playful dalliance to
win his mate’s attention.”

HUNTER.[81]
Old Man.—Rainbird.

Piaya pluvialis.
Cuculus pluvialis, Gm.—Sloane. pl. 258.
Piaya pluvialis, Lesson.

[81] Length 19½ inches, expanse 19½, flexure 7½, tail 11¾, rictus 2,
tarsus 1¾, middle toe 1½. Irides hazel; feet bluish grey; beak black,
gonys pale grey. Plumage extremely loose and unwebbed. Head dark
grey, merging on the neck into dark greyish-green, which is the hue of the
back, rump, and wings, with metallic gloss. Tail feathers broad,
graduated, glossy black, tipped with white, broadly on the outmost.
Throat and breast white, the latter greyish; the remaining under parts
deep red-brown. Eyelids blackish. Interior of mouth black.

The appellation of Rainbird is indiscriminately applied to both this

and the preceding, as is, in a less degree, that of Old Man. I use a
term by which I have heard it distinguished, in St. Elizabeth’s,
perhaps derived from the perseverance with which it “hunts” (i. e.
searches) for its prey.
The manners of this fine bird greatly resemble those of its relative,
and its prey is also similar. It is a bird of large size and imposing
aspect, and its puffed plumage and long barred tail give it an
appearance of even greater magnitude than it possesses. Its voice is
sometimes a cackling repetition of one sound, increasing in rapidity
until the separate notes are undistinguishable. At other times it is a
hoarse croaking. The craw projects below the sternum, and the skin
of that part of the abdomen is destitute of feathers and even of down.
 The obesity of this bird is often extraordinary; I have seen the fat
lying over the bowels, between the stomach and the vent, three-
fourths of an inch thick. When alive, it has a strong musky odour, like
that of the John-crow.
“In the changes of our mountain roads,” remarks Mr. Hill, “from
deep masses of shadowy forest, with prodigious trees overgrown
with moss, and climbing shrubs and lianes, to luxuriant and park-like
pastures, flowery hedgerows and shrubby thickets,—two sounds,
remarkable and different from each other, prevail. The one is the
tapping of the Woodpecker, broken in its measured monotony by an
occasional scream; and the other the rattle of the Rainbird, varied by
a cry at intervals like the caw of the Crow tribe. The deep forest is
the haunt of the Woodpecker,—the open thickets the resort of the
Rainbird. The insects which form the food of the one, are those that
subsist out of the sun-light, and perforate the alburnum of trees, or
live beneath the bark; those that are the prey of the other, are the
tribes that find their sustenance on the surface of vegetation, exist in
the shade, and only resort to the open air to shift from place to
place.”

YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO.[82]
May-bird.

Coccyzus Americanus.
Cuculus Americanus, Linn.—Aud. pl. 2.
Cuculus Carolinensis, Wils.
Coccyzus Americanus, Vieill.
Erythrophrys Americanus, Sw.

[82] Length 13 inches, expanse 16½, flexure 5⁴⁄₁₀, tail 5½, rictus 1²⁄₁₀,
tarsus 1, middle toe 1.

All our Cuckoos but the present are permanent residents; this is
but a summer visitor. Nor is it at any time very common, a few only
taking up their abode with us, while their brethren continue their
vernal migration from the southern to the northern continent. In the
“Notes of a Year,” before quoted, Mr. Hill has the following
observations on this species. “The visit of the May-bird is one of the
precursors of the spring rains in this island. The hazy atmosphere
which precedes the showers of the vernal season, has already
dimmed the usual lustre of the sky; the winds have ceased; the heat
has begun to be irritably oppressive; the air to assume a steamy
denseness, hot and heavy; the butterflies have left the parched and
blighted pastures to congregate wherever they can find any kind of
moisture, and the insects to attract the Nightjars to the lowlands,
when the stuttering voice of this Yellow-billed Cuckoo is heard
among the prognostics of the coming rain.
“The May-bird, unlike the other Cuckoos with us, that never
migrate, prefers straggling trees by the wayside to hedgerow
thickets. With the first rain that falls, the hedge-trees, cleared of their
dust, have begun to put forth fresh foliage, and to form those closer
bowers favourable to the shy and solitary habits of this bird. It is
[comparatively] long-winged, and its swift arrowy flight might be
mistaken for that of some of the wild-pigeons. It ranges excursively,
and flies horizontally with a noiseless speed, dropping on the
topmost stems of trees, or descending into the middlemost
branches. When alighting, it betrays its presence by a sound like the
drawling cuck-cuck-cuck of a sauntering barn-door fowl.”
One which was slightly wounded, on being put into a cage with
some Pea-doves, began to attack them by munching out their
feathers. It was therefore placed by itself, when it sat moody and
motionless; attempting occasionally, however, to seize cockroaches
which were put in to it, and biting spitefully at the hand when
approached.
In skinning this bird, an operation very difficult from the tenderness
of the skin, my attention was called to a number of Entozoa, which
were writhing about on the surface of the sclerotica of the eyes,
within the orbit. They were very active, about half an inch long, and
as thick as a horse-hair. Under a lens, they appeared whitish,
pellucid, cylindrical, but tapered at each end; the intestinal canal
distinctly visible, much corrugated and in motion. There were traces
of transverse wrinkles. Sam informed me that he had observed them
once before in the eyes of the same species.

BLACK-EARED CUCKOO.[83]

Coccyzus seniculus.
Cuculus seniculus, Linn.—Aud. pl. 169.
Erythrophrys seniculis, Sw.

[83] Length 12½ inches, expanse 15½, flexure 5, tail 6¾, rictus 1⁴⁄₁₀.
tarsus 1¹⁄₁₀, middle toe 1¹⁄₁₀, versatile toe ⁹⁄₁₀. Intestine 10 inches; two
cæca, 1¼ inch long, about 1½ inch from cloaca.

The tawny underparts, contrasted with the sober grey of the upper,
glossed like shot-silk, and the long tail beautifully barred with black
and white, render the subject before us one of the handsomest of
this genus of Cuckoos. It is a dull, and, so to speak, a stupid bird; we
not unfrequently see it suddenly fly out from the woods, and crossing
the road rest on a branch at a short distance, where it sits little
disturbed by the proximity of passengers: or jumps to another twig
near, and thence to another. I have never heard it utter a sound. It
lives on soft insects, large spiders, &c., which are stationary, and
which it seeks by thus peeping among the trees, and for the capture
of which long flights would be unnecessary.
I know nothing of its domestic economy; but in January I have
found eggs in the ovary, as large as dust-shot.
The shortness of the intestinal canal, and its freedom from
convolutions is remarkable, and struck me forcibly by comparison
with that of a White-winged Dove, which I happened to dissect on
the same day with this. The length of the intestine in the granivorous
bird was forty-one inches, that in the insectivorous, ten.
 SAVANNA BLACKBIRD.[84]

Crotophaga Ani.—Linn.
Pl. Enl. 102.
[84] Length 14¾ inches, expanse 17¾, flexure 6¼, tail 7¾, rictus 1³⁄₁₀,
height of beak ⁹⁄₁₀, tarsus 1⁸⁄₁₀, middle toe 1⁹⁄₁₀.
Irides deep hazel, feet black; beak black, the ridge semitransparent,
furrowed perpendicularly. Plumage black, with rich purple reflections,
most conspicuous on the wing-quills; the clothing feathers have the disk
of an intense black, with a lighter border, brilliantly iridescent; the borders
on the neck are larger in proportion, and are sometimes brassy.
Intestine 12 inches; two cæca, 1½ inch long, 2 inches from the cloaca.
The young have not the scaly character of the plumage, nor any ridge
upon the beak.

In all open places, but particularly savannas and pastures which

are occupied by cattle or horses, these birds are seen all day long,
and all the year round. They are perhaps the most common of the
birds of Jamaica. Familiar and impudent, though very wary, they
permit a considerable acquaintance with their manners, while an
approach within a limited distance, in a moment sets the whole flock
upon the wing, with a singular cry, which the negroes please to
express by the words, going-awa-a-ay, but which may be as well
described, according to the fancy of the hearer, as How-d’ye? or Anī.
The appearance of the bird in its gliding flights is unusual; the body
is slender, the head large, and the beak enormous; and as in flying it
assumes a perfectly straight form, with the long tail in the same line,
without flapping the wings, it takes the aspect, on a side view, rather
of a fish than of a bird. The centre of the upper mandible is hollow,
and the surrounding part is composed of cells of very thin bone, as is
the lower mandible. It thus bears a great resemblance to the beaks
of the Toucans and Hornbills. The belly is thin and lank, and the bird,
even though fat, has always the appearance of meagreness: the
shabbiness of the downy feathers that clothe the belly and the long
tibiæ, adds to this effect. In these particulars, as well as in general
aspect and manners, the Blackbird displays a strong affinity to the
Cuckoos and Toucans; indeed, if I may judge from a living
Rhamphastos carinatus which was some time in my possession, it
seems nearer to the latter than to the former.
The food of our Blackbird, though consisting mainly of insects, is
not confined to them. We usually find the stomach distended with
caterpillars, moths, grasshoppers, beetles, and other insects, to such
a degree that we wonder how the mass could have been forced in.
But I have found these contents mixed up with, and stained by the
berries of the snake-withe; and in July I have found the stomach
crammed with the berries of the fiddle-wood, (Cytharaxylon,) which
had stained the whole inner surface of a bright crimson. Flocks of
these birds were at that time feeding on the glowing clusters
profusely ripe upon the trees. Stationary insects are the staple food;
to obtain which, they hop about grassy places, and are often seen to
jump, or to run eagerly at their prey; on which occasions the long tail,
continuing the given motion after the body has stopped, is thrown
forward in an odd manner, sometimes nearly turning the bird head
over heels. It is probably to protect the eyes from the stalks of weeds
and blades of grass in these headlong leaps, that the projecting
brows are furnished with a row of short but very stiff overhanging
bristles; but what purpose was served by the high and thin knife-
blade of a beak, I was ignorant, till informed by Mr. Hill, who
observes that it “enables the bird to open out the soft earth, and seek
for its insect food; it also facilitates its access to the vermin
imbedded in the long close hair of animals. I am assured,” he adds,
“that if a patch of cows’ dung be examined after Crotophagas have
been searching for the larvæ of insects, it will be found furrowed as if
a miniature plough had passed through it.”
The form of this organ has given occasion, in Hayti, where also it
is common, to the appellation of “bout de tabac,” that is “bowl of
tobacco pipe;” it is also called there Judeo.
The name Crotophaga, (tick-eater,) is no misnomer, as has been,
without foundation, asserted by some who never saw the living bird.
Almost every one in Jamaica is aware that the Savanna Blackbird,
as well as the Grakle, feeds on the parasites of cattle. I made
particular inquiries about this soon after my arrival, and was assured
of the fact by persons who had witnessed it multitudes of times, and
who could not “mistake” the Blackbird for the Grakle, their whole
form, voice, and motions, being different.
Afterwards, however, I had repeated opportunities of personal
observation on this point. One day I noticed a cow lying down,
around which were four or five Blackbirds, hopping on and off her
back, and eagerly picking the insects from her body; which service
seemed in no wise unpleasing to her. I have also seen them leaping
up on cows when grazing; and, on another occasion, jumping to and
from a horse’s back; and my lad Sam has repeatedly observed them
clinging to a cow’s tail, and picking insects from it, as far down as the
terminal tuft. Had cattle been pastured near where I resided, I should
doubtless have had many more ocular demonstrations: but the
evidence is amply sufficient. In some of these cases, the occurrence
was close to me, so that there was no possibility of deception,
especially as, being aware of the conflicting statement, I looked with
the more interest to satisfy myself.
But stationary insects are not the only prey of the Crotophaga; in
December, I have seen little groups of them engaged in the
evenings, leaping up from the pasture about a yard into the air,
doubtless after flying insects, which they seemed to catch. One day
in March as I sat at dinner, my attention was arrested by what
seemed to be a green bird chased by several Crotophagas, near the
top of a lofty tree at some distance, I presently saw that it was a very
large lepidopterous insect; it flew over the woods about a quarter of
a mile before I lost sight of it, when it appeared to alight on the top of
a tree. The birds did not pursue the chase far. I have seen one with a
dragon-fly in its beak, which it had just caught, but it may have been
while resting. At another time I saw that a Blackbird had actually
made prey of one of our little nimble lizards (Anolis). These
circumstances show, that like the Toucans, the Ani is to some extent
omnivorous.
Though its usual mode of progression on the ground is by
hopping, or rather bounding, the feet being lifted together, the
Blackbird is seen occasionally to run in a headlong manner for a
short distance, moving the feet alternately. He is fond of sitting in the
morning sun on a low tree with the wings expanded; remaining there
perfectly still for a considerable time. In the heat of the day, in July
and August, many may be seen in the lowland plains, sitting on the
fences and logwood hedges with the beaks wide open, as if gasping
for air; they then forget their usual loquacity and wariness. Often two
or three will sit in the centre of a thick bush, overhung with a matted
drapery of convolvolus, whence they utter their singular cry in a
calling tone, as if they were playing at hide-and-seek, and requiring
their fellows to come and find them.
The statement that the Blackbird builds in company, forming an
immense nest of basket-work by the united labours of the flock, is
universally maintained by the inhabitants of the colony. It is said to
be usually on a high tree, where many parents bring forth and
educate a common family. Mr. Hill, whose statements in Jamaican
Ornithology are worthy of unlimited confidence, observes: “Some
half-a-dozen of them together build but one nest, which is large and
capacious enough for them to resort to in common, and to rear their
young ones together. They are extremely attentive to the business of
incubation, and never quit the nest, while sitting, without covering the
eggs with leaves, to preserve them at an equal temperature.” The
only instance in which I ever met with a nest, while it is not
conclusive, is rather in favour of this opinion than the opposite. In
July I found a Blackbirds’ nest in a Bastard Cedar (Guazuma); it was
a rather large mass of interwoven twigs lined with leaves. Eight eggs
were in the nest, and the shells of many more were also in it, and
scattered beneath the tree. The eggs were about as large as a
pullet’s, very regularly oval, of a greenish blue, but covered with a
coating of white chalky substance, which was much scratched and
eroded on them all, and which was displaced with little force. On
being broken, the interior was peculiar; the glaire was less tenacious
than usual, but more jelly-like, yet at the same time thinner in
consistence; but what surprised me was, that in each egg this glaire
filled at least three-fourths of the whole space, while the yolk,
flattened in form, not larger in diameter than a coat-button-mould,
and about twice as thick, was adhering to one side and end. It was
pale, and resembled in appearance that of a hen’s egg, when just
turned by boiling. I examined several, and found all alike.
 I close this account with some pleasing notes of the species by Mr.
Hill. “Though the Savanna Blackbird is classed among the scansorial
or climbing tribe of birds, and has the yoke-formed foot,—like
another class of the Cuckoo tribe among us, of which we have four
or five different kinds,—it is generally a downward, not an upward
climber. It enters a tree by alighting on the extremity of some main
branch, and gains the centre of the foliage by creeping along the
stem, and searching for its insect food. Unlike, however, our
Cuckoos, which are solitary-feeding birds, it does not range from
stem to stem, and search the tree through. The Blackbirds, moving
in flocks of half-dozens, tens, and twelves, seldom penetrate far
among the leaves. They glance along the branches rapidly, and
silently quit the tree they have visited, by dropping one by one on
some inviting spot on the green sward under them, or start away
suddenly, the whole possé together, to some near-by thicket, to
which one among them generally leads with that peculiar shrill and
screaming cry that distinguishes them from every other bird of the
field.
“These Savanna Blackbirds are favourites with me. Other winged
wanderers have their season, but these are the tenants of the field
all the year round. Their life is in the sunshine. Wherever there are
open lands in tillage or pasture, with intermingled trees and shrubs,
there these social birds frequent:—always familiar and seemingly
fearless, but never omitting to set their sentinel watchmen to sound
their cry when any one obtrudes nearer upon them than to a certain
space within their social haunts.
“After a passing fall of rain, one of our sudden mid-day thunder
showers for instance, when the full burst of sunshine, bright and
fierce, breaks again on the freshened landscape;—the first bird seen
creeping out from the thicket to dry his wings, and regain the fields,
is the Savanna Blackbird. The Mocking-bird, ready as he is with his
song, to gladden the landscape once more, is seldom before the
shrill Blackbird, in breaking the hush that succeeds the overpast
shower. Que-yuch, que-yuch, que-yuch is heard from some
embowered clump not far off, and a little stream of Blackbirds, with
their long tails and short gliding wings outstretched in flight, are seen
straggling away to some spot, where insect-life is stirring, in the
fresh, damp, and exuberant earth. The sun is levelling its slant beam
along the plains, and the sea-breeze is breathing fresh and fragrant
with a sense of reviving moisture from the afternoon showers, que-
yuch, que-yuch, que-yuch is heard again, hastily and anxiously
repeated; and the little birds are seen scrambling into the hedge-
rows, and the Blackbirds are pushing from the outer limbs of the
solitary thicket, from whence they sounded their cry of alarm, to gain
the inward covert of the leaves. A hawk with silent stealth is
skimming along the bordering woodland, gliding occasionally
downward to the lesser bushes in the Savanna. The tocsin of the
Blackbird, however, has warned the whole field, and not a voice is
heard, and not a wing is stirring.
“In the hot and sultry days when the dews have ceased to fall, and
all vegetation is parched and languid, the Blackbirds are seen
wending their way at an early hour of the afternoon to the riverside,
trooping in little parties. They have found some spot where an
uprooted tree has grounded in the shallow stream. Here they are
perched, some tail upward, drinking from the gliding waters below,
some silent and drooping, some pluming themselves, and some in
the sands that have shoaled about the embedded trunk of the tree,
washing in the little half-inch depths of water. They will continue here
till sunset, when they will start off laggingly, the signal being first
given by some one of the flock, who has announced, that it is time to
seek their coverts for the night, with the still peculiar cry of que-
yuch.”
I am inclined to attach very little importance to the wrinkles on the
beak as indicating specific difference: these, as well as the form and
size of the organ, varying considerably in individuals from the same
locality; the result, I have no doubt, of age.

Order.—GYRANTES. (Circlers.)
Fam.—COLUMBADÆ. (The pigeons.)
RING-TAIL PIGEON.[85]