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Mechanics of Advanced Materials Series
The Mechanics of Advanced Materials book series focuses on materials- and mechanics-related is-
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Mechanics at Technische Universität München in Germany. Educated in the USSR, he worked at the Institute
of Continuous Media Mechanics and Institute for Geosciences [bothdthe USSR (laterdRussian) Academy
of Sciences]. In 1993e94, he worked as a visiting researcher, Fellow of the Alexander-von-Humboldt
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fracture mechanics, finite strain inelasticity and defect field mechanics, distributed damage evolution,
constitutive relations, and microstructure-sensitive computational approaches to deformation and damage
of heterogeneous alloys, combined computational and experimental strategies for modeling high cycle fa-
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ELSEVIER SERIES IN MECHANICS
OF ADVANCED MATERIALS
PERIDYNAMIC
MODELING,
NUMERICAL
TECHNIQUES, AND
APPLICATIONS
Edited by
ERKAN OTERKUS
Department of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Marine Engineering,
University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
SELDA OTERKUS
Department of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Marine Engineering,
University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
ERDOGAN MADENCI
Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, The University of Arizona,
Tucson, AZ, United States
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copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
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xi
xii Contributors
xv
C H A P T E R
1
Introduction
Stewart A. Silling
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States
O U T L I N E
1. What is peridynamics? 2
2. Peridynamics obtained from the smoothing of an atomic system 3
3. Material models 5
3.1 Linear microelastic model 6
3.2 Prototype microelastic brittle model 8
3.3 Microelastic nucleation and growth model 10
3.4 Nonlinear and rate-dependent bond-based models 11
3.5 Ordinary state-based material models 12
3.6 Non-ordinary state-based materials and the correspondence model 15
4. Relation to the local theory 18
5. Simple meshless discretization 19
6. Some research trends in the peridynamic theory 20
6.1 Special purpose material models 21
6.2 Wave dispersion 21
6.3 Material stability 21
6.4 Micropolar theories 22
6.5 Better meshless numerical techniques 22
6.6 Ductile material response 23
6.7 Multiple physical fields 24
6.8 Material variability 24
7. Conclusions 25
Acknowledgments 26
References 26
1. What is peridynamics?
where s is the stress tensor and f(q,x,t) is a force density (per unit volume
squared) that a neighboring point q exerts on x. This force density is
determined by the deformation according to the material model. It is
always required as a consequence of Newton’s laws that
fðx; q; tÞ ¼ fðq; x; tÞ (1.2)
for all x, q, t. The region of integration in Eq. (1.1) is the family of x, which
is a neighborhood whose radius d > 0 is called the horizon (Fig. 1.1).
The horizon is a cutoff distance for force interactions.
Using Eq. (1.1), the peridynamic equation of motion is as follows:
Z
€ tÞ ¼
rðxÞyðx; fðq; x; tÞdq þ bðx; tÞ (1.3)
Hx
Bond
ℋ = family of
that the discussion in the next section helps to motivate the peridynamic
continuum theory especially with regard to nonlocality.
for all k, [, and t. It is also assumed that there is a cutoff distance d for the
atomic interactions such that Fk[ ¼ 0 if jx[ xk j > d.
Additionally, particle k is subject to a prescribed external force Bk(t). For
any x˛R3, define a smoothing function U(x,$) such that the following
normalization holds:
Z
Uðx; pÞdx ¼ 1 (1.5)
where
XX
fðq; x; tÞ ¼ Uðx; xk Þ Uðq; x[ ÞFk[ ðtÞ (1.13)
k [
and b is given by Eq. (1.6). It is easily shown from Eqs. (1.4) and (1.13) that
f has the antisymmetry Eq. (1.2). The vector defined by
x¼q x (1.14)
is called a bond. (When talking about bonds, it is always assumed that
x s 0, without explicitly stating this.) The function f is called the pairwise
bond force density and has dimensions of force/volume2. From Eq. (1.13),
the points x and q interact only if
jxj d; d ¼ 2R þ d (1.15)
The length d is the horizon for the continuum model (Fig. 1.1).
In summary, we defined a weighting function U and used it to define
smoothed fields r, b, and u. With these definitions, and Newton’s second
law applied to the particles, the smoothed displacement field was found
to obey the peridynamic equation of motion Eq. (1.12). The peridynamic
bond forces that appear in this equation of motion are defined by Eq.
(1.13). Conceptually, the equation of motion is, and should be, nonlocal
because changing the displacement of a single particle k directly affects
the smoothed displacements at all the points x whose smoothing function
U(x,$) have nonzero values at xk. A more complete derivation of the
peridynamic equations was obtained from statistical mechanics by
Lehoucq and Sears (2011).
The definition of the pairwise bond force density Eq. (1.13) is not very
practical as a material model because it does not directly relate the values
of u near x to the bond forces f. More practical methods of determining f
are discussed in Section 3.
3. Material models
where c(x) is the spring constant for the bond x and bf is a scalar valued
function that gives the magnitude of the force density.
The linear microelastic material model is elastic in the usual sense of
continuum mechanics. A body composed of linear microelastic material
stores strain energy due to quasi-static loading from external forces. This
energy storage is reversible, since it can all be recovered by reversing the
external forces and unloading the body to its original condition. In other
words, there is no energy dissipation.
The stored energy can be identified with individual bonds. Each bond x
has a micropotential w(s) such that
The strain energy density given by (1.22) has the same meaning as in
the local theory, since it represents the potential energy per unit volume
that is stored at x due to deformation of the nearby material. If the ma-
terial is isotropic as well as linear microelastic, this interpretation pro-
vides an easy way to calibrate c(x) if the general form of the dependence of
c on bond length is given. For an isotropic material, c(x) depends only on
the bond length, x ¼ |x|. By requiring the peridynamic strain energy
density given by (1.22) to equal its value in the local theory for an isotropic
expansion, it is easily shown that c is related to the bulk modulus k by the
following expression (Silling and Askari, 2005):
Z d
9k
x3 cðxÞdx ¼ . (1.23)
0 2p
As a special case, if c(x) has the form
cðxÞ ¼ c0 (1.24)
for any 0 <x d, where c0 is a constant, then Eq. (1.23) yields
18k
c0 ¼ . (1.25)
pd4
Thus, with the simplifying assumption Eq. (1.24), if the horizon d is
given, the only parameter in the linear microelastic material model is
easily computed from the bulk modulus.
The linear microelastic is an example of bond-based peridynamic ma-
terial models. This class of material models has the property that the
pairwise force density in the bond x ¼ q x is fully determined by the
deformation of that particular bond, and does not depend on what hap-
pens in other bonds.
Bond-based materials have the advantage of being simple to under-
stand and calibrate. They allow for geometric nonlinearity, because the
bonds rotate along with the bonds as they deform. They conserve angular
momentum, because regardless of the deformation, each pairwise bond
force exerts zero moment on the endpoints of the bond. Bond-based
material models can include material nonlinearity, as well as geometric
nonlinearity, by using a function bf in Eq. (1.19) that includes nonlinear
dependence on the bond strain.
8 1. Introduction
FIGURE 1.2 Peridynamic simulation of the impact of a brittle cylinder on a rigid wall.
FIGURE 1.3 Simulated surface of a dynamically fractured glass rod, showing features
similar to the mirror-mist-hackle transition. Colors represent the axial position of the sur-
face model is obtained (Weckner and Mohamed, 2013).
10 1. Introduction
5.7 ns 11.4 ns
17.1 ns 60.0 ns
FIGURE 1.4 Perforation of a membrane by a sphere modeled with the MNG material
model.
3. Material models 11
The growth of these cracks follows the Griffith criterion, which is built
into Eq. (1.28). This example also illustrates the capability of bond-based
peridynamic material models to treat geometric nonlinearity, due to the
large out-of-plane displacements.
for any x,q,t. The deformation state maps any bond to its image under the
deformation. Internal forces among bonds are contained in the force state T
such that
fðq; x; tÞ ¼ T½x; tCq xD T½q; tCx qD. (1.36)
The two terms on the right hand side of (1.36) are the force states due to
the material models at x and q. A material model T b for a simple material is
a state-valued function of a state:
b
T½x; t ¼ TðY½x; tÞ (1.37)
For more general materials, the material model can include depen-
dence on other variables such as temperature.
How is the force state related to the stress tensor in local theory? For a
uniform deformation of a homogeneous material, the applicable concept
of stress is given by the partial stress tensor (Silling et al., 2015):
Z
np ¼ TCxD5xdx: (1.38)
H