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Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
3RD
AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND
EDITION
Sigelman – De George – Cunial – Rider

Life Span Human Development © 2019 Cengage Learning Australia Pty Limited
3rd Edition
Carol K. Sigelman Copyright Notice
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 22 21 20 19 18
CONTENTS v
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2
BRIEF
CONTENTS
Understanding life span Theories of human

human development 1 development 48
CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5
Genes, environment and Body, brain and Cognitive development 219

the beginnings of life 97 health 156
Sensory-perception, Intelligence and Language, literacy and

attention and memory 267 creativity 326 learning 381
Self, personality, gender Social cognition and moral Emotions, attachment and
and sexuality 429 development 491 social relationships 548
CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER 13
Developmental The final challenge:

psychopathology 615 Death and dying 676
vi
CONTENTS
Guide to the text xii

Guide to the online resources xvi
Preface xviii
About the authors xxii
Acknowledgments xxiii
1 UNDERSTANDING LIFE SPAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 1
1.1 How should we think about 1.3 How is development studied? 21

development? 3 The scientific method 22
Defining development 3 Sample selection 23
Conceptualising the life span 4 Data collection techniques 23
Framing the influence of nature and Case study, experimental
nurture 11 and correlational methods 25
1.2 What is the science of life Developmental research designs 31
span development? 15 1.4 What special challenges do
Goals of study 16 developmental scientists face? 38
Early beginnings 17 Protecting the rights of research
The modern life span perspective 18 participants 38
Conducting culturally sensitive
research 39
2 THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 48
2.1 Developmental theories 2.4 Humanistic theories 68

and the issues they raise 49 Maslow: Hierarchy of needs 69
Nature and nurture 51 Humanistic theories: Contributions
Activity and passivity 51 and weaknesses 71
Continuity and discontinuity 52 2.5 Cognitive theories 72
Universality and context specificity 52 Piaget: Cognitive developmental
2.2 Psychoanalytic theories 54 theory 72
Freud: Psychoanalytic theory 55 Vygotsky: Sociocultural theory 74
Erikson: Psychosocial theory 58 Information-processing approach 74
Psychoanalytic theories: Contributions Theories of adult cognitive

and weaknesses 60 development 75
Cognitive theories: Contributions and
2.3 Learning theories 60
weaknesses 76
Pavlov and Watson: Classical
conditioning 61 2.6 Systems theories 78
Skinner: Operant conditioning 62 Gottlieb: Epigenetic psychobiological
systems perspective 78
Bandura: Social cognitive theory 65
Systems theories: Contributions and
Learning theories: Contributions and weaknesses 81
weaknesses 67
2.7 Theories in perspective 83
CONTENTS vii
3 GENES, ENVIRONMENT AND THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE 97
3.1 Individual heredity 98 3.4 The prenatal environment

Conception 98 and foetal health 126
The genetic code 100 Teratogens 126
Mechanisms of inheritance 104 Maternal characteristics and foetal
Genetic abnormalities and disorders 107 health 132
Paternal characteristics and foetal
3.2 The interplay of genes
health 136
and environment 110
3.5 The perinatal environment 136
Studying genetic and environmental
influences 111 Childbirth 137
The heritability of different traits 114 Identifying at-risk newborns 141
How genes and environment 3.6 The neonatal environment 142
work together 115 Breast or bottle? 142
3.3 Prenatal stages 120 Peripartum depression 143
The germinal period 121 Risk and resilience 144
The embryonic period 121
The foetal period 123
4 BODY, BRAIN AND HEALTH 156
4.1 Building blocks of growth 4.3 The child 176

and lifelong health 157 Physical growth and motor capabilites 176
The endocrine system 158 Brain lateralisation 178
The brain and nervous system 160 Health and wellness in childhood 179
Principles of growth 161 4.4 The adolescent 185
A life span developmental model of The adolescent growth spurt
health 162 and puberty 185
4.2 The infant 164 The adolescent brain 191
Rapid physical growth 164 Teen health and wellness 193
The infant brain 165 4.5 The adult 196
Newborn capabilities 166 The changing body 196
Infant motor development 169 The changing brain 197
Health and wellness in infancy 173 The changing reproductive system 199
Health challenges: Ageing or disease,
disuse or misuse? 202
5 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 219
5.1 Piaget’s cognitive 5.2 Vygotsky’s sociocultural

developmental theory 220 theory 228
Processes of intellectual and cognitive Culture and thought 228
development 221 Social interaction and thought 228
Piaget: Contributions and challenges 223 Tools of thought 230
A modern take on constructivism 226 Evaluation of Vygotsky 232
viii CONTENTS
5.3 Fischer’s dynamic skill 5.6 The adolescent 249

framework 234 Emergence of abstract and
Comparison to Piaget and Vygotsky 235 systematic thinking 249
5.4 The infant 237 Progress toward mastery of formal
operations 252
Sensorimotor thinking 237
Implications of formal thought 254
The development of object
permanence 238 5.7 The adult 256
The emergence of symbols 240 Limitations in adult cognitive
performance 256
5.5 The child 241
Growth beyond formal thought 257
Preschoolers: Symbolic thinking 241
Ageing and cognitive growth 259
School-age children: Logical thinking 246
6 SENSORY-PERCEPTION, ATTENTION AND MEMORY 267
6.1 The information-processing Advances in attention 287

approach to cognition 269 Explaining memory development 288
Sensation, perception and attention 269 Autobiographical memory 293
Memory 269 Developments in problem solving 296
Problem solving 273 6.4 The adolescent 299
6.2 The infant 274 Attention 299
Uncovering infants’ mental Improvements in memory and
capabilities 274 problem solving 300
Sensory-perceptual abilities 275 6.5 The adult 303
Early memory abilities 285 Sensory-perceptual changes 303
6.3 The child 287 Memory, problem solving and ageing 308
Sensory-perceptual refinements 287
7 INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY 326
7.1 Defining and measuring 7.4 The child 351

intelligence and creativity 327 The stability of IQ scores during
The psychometric view of childhood 351
intelligence 327 The emergence of creativity 352
Gardner’s theory of multiple 7.5 The adolescent 353
intelligences 332
Intellectual change and continuity 353
Sternberg’s triarchic theory of
IQ and school achievement 354
intelligence 333
Fostering creativity 354
Creativity 336
7.6 The adult 355
7.2 Factors that influence
intelligence and creativity 339 Changes in IQ with age 355
The Flynn effect 339 IQ, wealth and health 359
Genes and intelligence 340 Potential for wisdom 362
Environment and intelligence 341 Creative endeavours 363
Genes, environments and creativity 345 7.7 The extremes of intelligence 365
7.3 The infant 345 Intellectual disability 365
Developmental quotients 346 Giftedness 367
Infant intelligence as a predictor 7.8 Integrating cognitive

of later intelligence 346 perspectives 370
CONTENTS ix
8 LANGUAGE, LITERACY AND LEARNING 381
8.1 The language system 382 8.4 The adolescent 411

Describing language: Basic Academic achievement 411
components 382 Integrating school and work 413
Explaining language: Nature and Pathways to adulthood 415
nurture 384
8.5 The adult 416
8.2 The infant 388
Language: Continuity and change 416
Developing language 388
Adult literacy 417
Mastery motivation 394
Adult education 418
Early learning 395
Theoretical contributions to
8.3 The child 398 learning and education 419
Expanding language skills 399
Learning to read 399
Fostering academic success 402
9 SELF, PERSONALITY, GENDER AND SEXUALITY 429
9.1 Conceptualising the self 9.4 The adolescent 457

and personality 430 Forging a sense of self and identity 457
Basic concepts and theories of Adhering to gender roles 463
self and personality 430 Adolescent sexuality 464
Sex, gender and sexuality 435
9.5 The adult 466
9.2 The infant 440 Ageing and self-esteem 467
The emerging self 440 Continuity and discontinuity in
Temperament 443 personality 468
9.3 The child 446 Eriksonian psychosocial personality
The evolving self and personality 446 growth 471
Acquiring gender roles 450 Changes in gender roles and
sexuality 472
Childhood sexuality 455
Vocational identity and development 475
10 SOCIAL COGNITION AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT 491
10.1 Social cognition 492 The functions of morality:

Developing a theory of mind 492 Evolutionary theory 508
Perspective taking 498 10.3 The infant 509
Social cognition in adulthood 499 Empathy and prosocial behaviour 510
10.2 Perspectives on moral Early antisocial behaviour 511
development 501 Early moral training 511
Moral emotion: Psychoanalytic 10.4 The child 513
theory and beyond 502 Moral understandings 513
Moral reasoning: Cognitive Moral socialisation 515
developmental theory 503
10.5 The adolescent 518
Moral behaviour: Social cognitive
Moral identity 518
theory 507
x CONTENTS
Changes in moral reasoning 518 10.6 The adult 530

Antisocial behaviour 519 Changes in moral reasoning 530
Bullying 527 Religiousness and spirituality 534
11 EMOTIONS, ATTACHMENT AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS 548
11.1 Emotional development 549 11.5 The adolescent 580

First emotions and emotional regulation 549 Balancing autonomy and attachment
Emotional learning in childhood 552 to parents 580
Adolescent moods 553 Changing peer relationships 581
Emotions and ageing 554 11.6 The adult 584
11.2 Perspectives on relationships 556 Evolving social relationships 584
Changing social systems across Family relationships 585
the life span 556 Adult attachment styles 590
Attachment theory 559 11.7 Family violence and child
11.3 The infant 562 abuse 594
An attachment forms 562 Why does child abuse occur? 595
Quality of attachment 563 What problems do abused children
Implications of early attachment 568 display? 599
First peer relations 572 How do we stop the violence? 599
11.4 The child 573

The caregiver–child relationship 573
A new baby arrives 576
Peer networks 577
12 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 615
12.1 What makes development 12.4 The adolescent 640

abnormal? 616 Storm and stress? 640
Diagnostic guidelines and criteria 616 Eating disorders 641
Developmental psychopathology 618 Substance use disorders 645
12.2 The infant 623 Depression and suicidality 649
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) 623 12.5 The adult 655
Depression in infancy? 629 Depression in adulthood 656
12.3 The child 631 Ageing and dementia 658
Externalising and internalising
problems 631
Attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) 634
Childhood depression 637
CONTENTS xi
13 THE FINAL CHALLENGE: DEATH AND DYING 676
13.1 Matters of life and death 677 13.5 The adolescent 704
What is death? 677 Advanced understandings of death 704
What kills us and when? 682 Experiences with death and dying 704
Theories of ageing: Why do we age 13.6 The adult 706
and die? 686 Death in the family context 706
13.2 The experience of death 690 13.7 Coping with death 713
Perspectives on dying 691 Challenges to the grief work
Perspectives on bereavement 692 perspective 713
13.3 The infant 697 Who copes and who succumbs? 715
13.4 The child 699 Bereavement and positive growth 717
Grasping the concept of death 699 Supporting the dying and bereaved 717
Experiences with death and dying 701 Taking our leave 720
Glossary [Online]
Name index 732
Subject index 751
xii
4
GUIDE TO THE TEXT CHAPTER
As you read this text you will find a number of features in every
chapter to enhance your study of human development and help
you understand how the theory is applied in the real world.
4
BODY, BRAIN AND HEALTH
CHAPTER
CHAPTER-OPENING FEATURES CHAPTER OUTLINE
4.1 Building blocks of growth 4.3 The child 4.5 The adult
and lifelong health Physical growth and motor The changing body
Gain insight into how psychology theories explored in the chapter relate to real life individuals The endocrine system
The brain and nervous system
capabilities
Brain lateralisation
The changing brain
The changing reproductive
Principles of growth Health and wellness in childhood system
through the real-life story at the beginning of each chapter. 4.4 The adolescent
A life span developmental model Health challenges: Ageing or
of health disease, disuse or misuse?
The chapter outline signposts the main chapter heading
4.2 The infant
contained in eachThechapter
puberty
for
adolescent growth spurt and
The adolescent brain

easy reference. Rapid physical growth
The infant brain Teen health and wellness
BODY, BRAIN AND HEALTH

Newborn capabilities
Infant motor development
Health and wellness in infancy
CHAPTER OUTLINE
The arrow of time evident in the photographs. Greying hair, wrinkling
4.1 Building blocks of growth 4.3 The child 4.5 The On
adult
17 June every year, the Goldberg family photographs skin and glasses appear in images of Diego and Susy as
and lifelong health Physical growth and motor The changing body
each family member ‘to stop, for a fleeting moment, they progress through adulthood toward old age. And
The endocrine system capabilities The changing
the arrowbrain
of time passing by’ (Goldberg, 2017). Diego the photographs of their sons chronicle the remarkable
The brain and nervous system Brain lateralisation The changing reproductive
Goldberg, a photographer, and his wife Susy began their growth and physical development that occurs from
Principles of growth Health and wellness in childhood system
family ritual in 1976. As each of their three sons, Nicolas, infancy through puberty to early adulthood. Nicolas,
A life span developmental model Health challenges: Ageing or Matias and Sebastian now add yearly portraits of their
4.4 The adolescent Matias and Sebastian, were born, they too became part
of health disease, disuse or misuse? own growing families – this Goldberg family tradition
The adolescent growth spurt and of the photographic essay. Adopting the same pose year
4.2 The infant puberty to year, the physical changes of growth and ageing are today spans three generations.
Rapid physical growth The adolescent brain
The infant brain Teen health and wellness CHAPTER 4: BODY, BRAIN AND HEALTH 157
Express
Newborn capabilities
Infant motor development
Throughout this chapter, the CourseMate Express logo indicates an opportunity for online self-study, linking you to
Health and wellness in infancy
activities, videos and other online resources.
The Goldberg family’s photographic case study, spanning over four decades and now several
generations, illustrates the changes in physical growth and appearance that occur throughout the life ON THE
INTERNET
The arrow span of time
(see On the internet: Goldberg family evident
tradition). What
in the are the processes
photographs. underlying
Greying hair, wrinkling such growth
On 17 June everyandyear,
change? And what
the Goldberg familyabout physical and
photographs skin and glasses appear in images of Diego and Susy as
biological changes that are not easily captured in yearly Goldberg family
each family member ‘to stop, for a fleeting moment, they progress through adulthood toward old age. And tradition
photographic snapshots, such as changes the in internal bodily systems, physical capabilities and health
photographs of their sons chronicle the remarkable http://zonezero.
the arrow of time passing by’ (Goldberg, 2017). Diego
status? These are the sorts of questions that com/en/open/158-
Goldberg, a photographer, and his wife Susy began their growth and physical development that occurs brain
we address in this chapter on body, from and health.
the-arrow-of-time
FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS

family ritual inWe overview
1976. changes
As each of across
their three sons,the life spaninfancy
Nicolas, in body and brain
through and
puberty to156
how adulthood.
early these changes influence our
Nicolas,
Visit this link to
health. were
Matias and Sebastian, We also
born,look
they at
toothe reproductive
became part Matias and
system as itSebastian
maturesnow add yearly
during portraitsand
adolescence of their
then changes view the Goldberg
of the photographic
againessay. Adopting
during the same
adulthood. Andpose considerown
weyear thegrowing
physicalfamilies – this Goldberg family tradition
self in action as movement becomes more family’s yearly
to year, the physical changes of growth and ageing are today spans three generations. photographic
sophisticated throughout the life span. We identify influences on body, brain and health so that you portraits that feature
Identify the key concepts that the chapter will cover with the Learning objectives at the start
can better understand why some children develop – and some older adults age – more rapidly than in the chapter
Express opening vignette.
others.
of each key164heading. LIFE SPANThen HUMAN test your knowledge and apply the theory you have learned with the
DEVELOPMENT The portraits span
three generations
Throughout this chapter, the CourseMate Express logo indicates an opportunity for online self-study, linking you to
and four decades
checking understanding and critical thinking questions at the end of each key topic.
activities, videos and other online resources.
> >4.1 BUILDING BLOCKS OF GROWTH

and chronicle some
> of the physical
when I cameAND LIFELONG HEALTH

changes that occur
to New Zealand from the the hospital environment. Family do all Māori and Pasifikaasfamilies
individuals age.
treat their
United Kingdom was that often when their personal cares, sit with them, elders in that way and that’s why it’s so
an elderly Māori or Pasifika person was sometimes bring their guitars in and important not to make assumptions
■ Associate key processes of the endocrine and nervous systems with important aspects of Learning
admitted to hospital, the entire family, sing to them; and to me that is a huge based on stereotypes. But I take a
and
growth and development.
even the young people – the kids, positive strength of the culture. Of personal and
objectives
person-centred approach
156 ■ Describe and provide an example of each of the three major principles of growth.
and
■ the grandkids
Articulate theinmain
their components
teens – are of the
course, it is important
life span not tomodel
developmental make of health,
to and
eachthe
person and their situation.
involved in of
value supporting
adoptingthat
this person
sort of in sweeping
approach generalisations,
to understanding after all not
health.
Our physical selves – brain, body, and all the behaviours that emerge from these – are fundamental to
IN REVIEW
what we are able to do in life. A 5-year-old child is physically able to experience the world in ways
markedly different from those available to a 5-month-old infant. Five-year-old Mariah, for example,
CHECKING
can throw a ball withUNDERSTANDING
her mum, run with her dog, play hopscotch CRITICAL
with herTHINKING
friends, feed and dress
herself,
1 How anddoes
enjoythe
many of the system
endocrine rides atsupport
the park.Yet Mariah and Illustrate
other 5-year-olds
the aspectsareoflimited
the lifeby their
span developmental model
physical of health
selves. As you will learn in this chapter, their strength and coordination
development? using the example of coeliac
must continue to disease discussed
earlier in this chapter.
improve
2 How before
does they can competently
myelination contribute engage with detailed motor tasks, and their bodies must grow
to developmental LINKAGES
taller and heavier
changes thatbefore
we canthey can move through the world as adults do. It will be years before their
observe?
Chapter 3 Genes,
3 What
brains are fully developed,
is one example allowing
of each ofgreater Get
concentration and more sophisticated thought processes
the cephalocaudal, the answers to the Checkingand
environment
Express understanding questions on
proximodistal
(see Chapters 5 and 6). and orthogenetic principles of the beginnings of
CourseMate Express. life
Asdevelopment?
you have been learning, human growth and development is an incredibly complex process,
Chapter 5
influenced by both genetic and environmental factors (see Chapter 3). At certain times and for Cognitive
certain developments, genetic influences dominate, whereas at other times environmental influences development
4.2 THE INFANT

are more powerful – yet genetic and environmental forces are always working together. Consider Chapter 6 Sensory-
perception,
height. The average female in Australia and New Zealand is 162 centimetres tall and the average attention and
male isLearning
176 centimetres■tall,Discuss
but there is considerable
typical variability
physical and in individual
brain changes duringadult height (Australian
infancy. memory
objectives
Bureau of Statistics, 2012; Summarise
■ Daley, 2013).newborn capabilities
Genes account thatof
for some promote
this: tallhealthy adaptation
people tend to havetotallthe world outside the
womb.
parents, whereas short people often have ‘short genes’ in their family history. Heritability studies
■ Describe fine motor, gross motor, and locomotor skills, and note the typical order in which
confirm a strong genetic influence on height (Dubois et al., 2012).
these skills develop.
Even if you inherit■theDiscuss
geneticthepropensity to be tall (or short), environment can influence the
dynamic systems theory of motor development and summarise the research
expression of those genes.
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. If you lack
findingsMay adequate
supporting nutrition,
not bethis theory.
copied, for example, or
scanned, youduplicated,
may not realise inyour
wholefull or in part. WCN 02-200-202
growth potential. And consider
■ Describethe case
the of children with
birth-related coeliac
risks disease,health
to infant an inherited digestive
and the role ofproblem
vaccinations in health.
in which gluten (the protein found in all wheat products) triggers an immune response that damages
We hope the broader message is clear: We must view life span development in its sociocultural and
sociohistorical context. We must bear in mind that each social group settles on its own definitions of
the life span, the age grades within it and the age norms appropriate to each age range, and that each
social group experiences development differently. We must also appreciate that age – whether it is 7,
17 or 70 – has had different meanings in different historical eras and most likely will mean something
Guide to the text
different again in the decades and centuries to come. We must also remain aware of the cultural
and subcultural contexts of development and how these too influence views of age boundaries
xiii
and expectations. One of the most fascinating challenges in the study of human development is to
understand which aspects of development are universal and which differ across social, historical and
cultural contexts – and why (Norenzayan & Heine, 2005; Shweder et al., 2006).
Application
Application SUCCESSFUL AGEING
There is tremendous variability in the more about longitudinal studies, see

health, wellness and functioning of the section later in this chapter on
Source: Steve Liss/Getty Images

older adults. Some are limited by health ‘Developmental research designs’.) For
Application boxes examine how knowledge has problems, but others, like Ruth Frith, the
centenarian athlete who features in the
example, the Melbourne Collaborative
Cohort study (which commenced in
been applied to optimise development in a domain chapter opening, enjoy active, healthy
lives. What factors might account for
1990 with over 40 000 participants born
in Australia, New Zealand and Europe)
of developmental psychology. These facilitate student differences in the functioning of older

adults, and what do we know about
and the Three-City (3C) study in France
(which commenced in 1999 with 9000
staying healthy and ageing successfully participants) both found that avoiding Sister Esther, shown here at age 106,
understanding of the practical and professional in older adulthood? smoking, maintaining a healthy weight interacting with Nun Study researcher
Dr David Snowdon
Longitudinal studies that have and engaging in physical activity are
applications of developmental psychology theory. followed the same participants for
a decade or more have produced
strong predictors of successful ageing in
the elderly (Artaud et al., 2013; Hodge,
study, those older people who smoked
and were overweight and sedentary had
some consistent findings. (To learn English, Giles, & Flicker, 2013). In the 3C a 2.5-fold increased hazard of disability.
>>> >>>
Successful aging Ch 1, p. 10
Using developmental theories to prevent risky
sexual behaviour and unplanned teen pregnancy Ch 2, p. 86 Making inclusion work Ch 8, p. 408
Prevention and treatment of genetic conditions Ch 3, p. 109 Treating disorders of sex development Ch 9, p. 437
Halting the obesity ‘brain drain’ Ch 4, p. 195 Stopping the bullies Ch 10, p. 528
Improving children’s cognitive functioning Ch 5, p. 233 Preventing child abuse Ch 11, p. 600
Aiding children with hearing impairments Ch 6, p. 281 Reducing risks to mental health when
Nurturing development in early natural disasters strike Ch 12, p. 632
learning programs Ch 7, p. 347 Supporting the bereaved family Ch 13, p. 720
40 LIFE SPAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Diversity
Diversity CULTURALLY SENSITIVE RESEARCHERS
Both Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological in New Zealand and Australia (see On method (Māori approaches to research),
model and Baltes’ life span perspective the internet: Guidelines for research which involved engaging Māori iwi
Explore the diverse cultural issues, research and emphasise that development is shaped
by its cultural context. This implies
with Indigenous peoples) require
consultation at all stages of research
(tribes) and health providers to assist
with recruitment and conduct of the
that we need to study development with Indigenous people, not only for research and the use of Māori language
practices in relation to developmental science by in a variety of contexts using culturally protecting research participants but in interviews (Dyall et al., 2013; Walker,
sensitive methods to understand both also to ensure Māori and Aboriginal Eketone, & Gibbs, 2006). With this
reading the Diversity boxes. what is universal and what is culturally
specific about human development
and Torres Strait Islander people have a
voice and are meaningfully engaged in
approach the researchers successfully
recruited large, equal numbers of Māori
(Cole & Packer, 2011). research about issues for their people and non-Māori participants (600 in each
Culturally sensitive researchers must and communities (Health Research Council group).
first be prepared to consult, negotiate of New Zealand, 2010; National Health Third, researchers who study
Culturally sensitive researchers Ch 1, p. 40 and research with participants and

representatives (such as elders) of
and Medical Research Council, 2003).
Second, it can be extremely
cultural influences on development,
or racial, ethnic and socioeconomic
Culture and observational learning Ch 2, p. 67 other cultural and subcultural groups

before, during and after research and
challenging to ensure that data
collection procedures are culturally
differences in development, must
work hard to keep their own cultural
when planning, implementing and appropriate, and that they mean values from biasing their perceptions
Childbirth and culture Ch 3, p. 140 disseminating research. Research the same thing for individuals from of other groups. Too often, Western
design, conduct and analysis have different cultural groups if comparisons researchers have let ethnocentrism –
Aboriginal children’s health Ch 4, p. 180 evolved from Western worldviews, are to be made (Rogoff, 2003). For the belief that
ethnocentrism The
and people from other societies and example, when one organisation one’s own group belief that one’s own
Are Piaget’s stages cross-culturally universal? Ch 5, p. 224 cultures may have different ideas translated a survey into 63 languages and its culture cultural or ethnic group
about who should give consent for and then had the questions translated are superior – is superior to others.
Culture and autobiographical memory Ch 6, p. 295 Morality, culture and gender
participation, or how research data can back into English, strange things Ch 10, p. 531 creep into their
be collected, analysed and used. For happened: ‘married or living with a research designs, procedures and
Explaining cultural differences in IQ test scores Ch 7, p. 344 Attachment and culture
example, in Australia and New Zealand, Ch 11, p. 567
partner’ was translated as ‘married but measures. Ethnocentrism can mean
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander have a girlfriend’, and ‘American ideas the results of studies with children
International differences in achievement test scores Ch 8, p. 414 Ethnic differences in rates of psychological distress Ch 12, p. 656
and Māori knowledge, which is an and customs’ became ‘the ideology of and adults from other cultures are
integral part of identity development America and border guards’ (Morin, misinterpreted according to standards
Culture and self-conceptions Ch 9, p. 434 Grief, mourning and culture
and cultural preservation, is verbally 2003). Other times, researchers needCh 13, p. 693 of another culture; label participants
passed down through the generations to select alternative research methods as ‘deficient’ when they would
and is collectively owned. Researchers or adapt data gathering processes. better be described as ‘different’; or
8 must therefore
LIFE SPANrespect group
HUMAN consent
DEVELOPMENT When recruiting older adult research focus on vulnerabilities rather than
processes (in addition to individual participants for ‘Life and Living in strengths (Spencer, 2006). Also, too
consent), that data gathered remains Advanced Age: A Cohort Study in New often researchers have assumed that
Engagement
the property of the community (not Zealand’ (LiLACS NZ), the research all individuals within various cultural
Engagement the researcher), and that use of the

HOW DO YOU
data should be agreedRELATE TOthe
by both
team used two different methods –
OLDER ADULTS?
non-Māori participants were recruited
groups are alike psychologically, when
in fact there is immense diversity
researchers and the community through local health and community within each cultural, racial or ethnic
Below
(Gorman are&20Toombs,
statements that
2009). may or
General 10 When
networks, whileanMā
older person has were
ori participants endorsed
group (Helms,when compared
Jernigan, to the
& Mascher,
may not apply to you. Write a number
and specific research ethics guidelines an ailment, I may say,
recruited using the Kaupapa Māori ‘That’s highest possible total score for all
2005).
Engagement boxes in each chapter provide from 0 to 2 next to each statement that
indicates how often you relate to older
normal at your age’.
11 When an older person can’t
the positive items.
B Add together the ratings for items 2,
people, aged 60 and over, in these remember something, I may 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18,
real-life or hypothetical situations that will help ways. ON THE INTERNET say, ‘That’s what they call a 19 & 20 then divide that total by 28.
0 = Never “Senior Moment”.’ This is the proportion of negative
students to engage personally with the material 1 = Sometimes
2 = Often
Guidelines for research
Health Research
12 Talk
Council of
withlouder
New
Indigenous
Zealand
or slower
(HRC)
peoples
to older
and
people because of their age. Research with
ageist behaviours you endorsed
Māori people
http://www.hrc.govt.nz/news-and-publications/publications/maori
when compared to the highest
and assess their own knowledge, beliefs, traits and Search me! and
Discover
How often Access
do you:the
13 Use simple words when talking
The Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies possible
to older
Research in Australian Indigenous Studiespeople.
(AIATSIS) total
negative items.
score for all
and Guidelines for the
Ethical
Psychology database older people

1 Compliment 14 Ignore older people because of
attitudes by completing personality scales, test and investigate the
https://aiatsis.gov.au/research/ethical-research/guidelines-ethical-research-australian-indigenous-studies
how well they look,Visit
on
these website links for their
despite furtherage.
C To help you see roughly where you
information about research ethics and culturally sensitive research
topic of culturally approaches with Aboriginal,
15 Vote Torres
forStrait Islander and Māori peoples. stand, compare your positive and
sensitivetheir age. an older person
items, surveys and short quizzes. research.
2 Send birthday cards to older because of their age.
negative scores to the average age
and gender scores in Table 1.2.
people that joke about 16 Vote against an older person
The values in the table were found
their age. because of their age.
by Cherry and Palmore (2008) in
3 Enjoy conversations with older 17 Avoid older people because of
a sample of 162 participants. As
people because of their age. their age.
indicated by the results in the
How do you relate to older adults? Ch 1, p. 8 4 Tell older people jokes about
old age.
18 Avoid older people because
they are cranky.
table, they found all age groups
readily admitted to positive ageist
5 Hold doors open for older 19 When a slow driver is in front of
Where do you stand on major people because of their age. me, I may think, ‘It must be an
behaviours. Any differences in the
endorsement of positive or negative
developmental issues? Ch 2, p. 50 What’s your motivation style?
6 Tell an older person, ‘You’re too old person’. Ch 8, p. 403 ageist items between age groups
old for that’. 20 Call an older woman, ‘young
was not significant, meaning the
Genetic influence: what is myth, what is reality Ch 3, p. 100 A brief personality scale
7 Offer to help an older person lady’, or call an older man, Ch 9, p. 432 younger and older adults endorsed
across the street because of ‘young man’.
similar numbers of items. Females
Longevity quiz Ch 4, p. 206 Do you have a theory of mind?
their age. Ch 10, p. 496
To score and interpret your responses:
endorsed positive ageist items
8 When I find out an older A Add together the ratings for items significantly more often than
How well do you understand Piaget’s stages? Ch 5, p. 251 Identifying internal working models of attachment Ch 11, p. 592
person’s age, I may say, ‘You 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 10, then divide that males, but there were no gender
don’t look that old’. total by 12. This is the proportion differences for the endorsement of
Improve your memory! Ch 6, p. 301 9 Ask an older person for advice
Is someone you know suicidal? Ch 12, p. 654
of positive ageist behaviours you negative items.
because of their age.
Are you creative? Ch 7, p. 337 Life and death: what are your views? Ch 13, p. 681
TABLE 1.2 Average age and gender scores
Group Positive items Negative items

Younger adults (18–29 years) 0.54 0.24
Middle-aged adults (40–57 years) 0.51 0.15
Older adults (60+ years) 0.54 0.26
Males 0.49 0.23
Females 0.55 0.24
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole 0.53
Total sample
or in part. WCN 02-200-202
0.23
Source: Reprinted from Cherry & Palmore (2008), with permission from Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandfonline.com, © 2008.
xiv Guide to the text
CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING LIFE SPAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 35
Exploration
Exploration AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND LONGITUDINAL STUDIES OF DEVELOPMENT
As you have learned, longitudinal life span – for example (and this is
research studies have clear advantages by no means an exhaustive list of LINKAGES
over cross-sectional designs for the featured longitudinal studies
Exploration boxes provide in-depth investigation answering questions about how we or of chapters that refer to the
Chapter 2 Theories of human
development
develop and grow as we age. In findings of longitudinal studies): the Chapter 3 Genes, environment and the
of local and international research on various high 14
Table 1.5 we highlight some of the
largest ongoing Australian and
LIFE SPAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT New
Australian Temperament Project
(ATP; Chapter 9 ); the Auckland
beginnings of life
Chapter 4 Body, brain and health
interest topics. Zealand longitudinal studies – some

studies are in early stages; others have
Birthweight Collaborative (ABC)
Study (Chapters 3, 4 and 7); the
Chapter 7 Intelligence and creativity
Chapter 8 Language, literacy and
been gathering data on participants Christchurch Health and Development learning
for over 40 years! enjoyable and more pressured as a result of work
Study (CHDS; Chapters 7 and 8); the (Hayes, Qu, Weston, & Baxter, 2011). Family-
Chapter 9 Self, personality, gender and
Throughout this bookfriendly
we workplaceGudagapolicies, such as flexible
Longitudinal Birthworking
Cohort hours, if available,
sexuality may help some families
will draw on the resultstoof better
these balance work
Study and family
of Urban life (Gray
Australian & Tudball, 2002).
Indigenous Further, therecognition
Chapter 10 Social is considerable
and moral
and many other Australian, Infants
international evidence (Chapter
that 7); the leave
paid parental Australian development
is associated with improved child development
Australian and New Zealand longitudinal New Zealand and international Mater-University Study of Pregnancy
and maternal health outcomes (Berger, Hill, & Waldfogel, 2005; Khanam, Nghiem, & Connelly,
studies of development Ch 1, p. 35 longitudinal studies as we seek (MUSP; Chapter 10); the Minnesota Values Study (NZAVS; Chapter 9);
2009). This is good news for the New Zealand and Australian parents who have been able to
to understand the influences on Twin Family Study (MTFS; Chapter 3); and the Seattle Longitudinal Study
accessthe
government-funded parentalAttitudes
leave since
and 2002 and(this
2011 respectively (Department
2 and of
Psychoanalytic theorists: Notes on school refusal Ch 2, p. 59 human development across the New Zealand chapter and Chapters
Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs, 2011; Inland Revenue, 2011).
7).
5 In addition to microsystems, mesosystems, exosystems and macrosystems, Bronfenbrenner

Learning theorists: Notes on school refusal Ch 2, p. 67 TABLE 1.5 Ongoing Australian and New Zealand longitudinal studies
chronosystem The introduced the concept of the chronosystem to capture the idea that changes in people and
Humanistic theorists: Notes on school refusal Ch 2, p. 70 system that captures
Study in
the way changes
their environments occur
Purpose in a timeframe
Participants and timing(chrono
Data means time) and
collection unfold
Unique in particular
features Examples patterns
environmental systems, or sequences over a person’s lifetime. Another
of data collection way to think about this is that we cannot study
methods
Cognitive theorists: Notes on school refusal Ch 2, p. 75 such as social trends
Australian development by taking
To gain further still1992,
Since photos;
2000+we mustInterviews,
use video to understand how one See,
In addition eventforleads to
example,
The summer learning effect
and life events, are
Longitudinal Study of understanding
another
South Australian adults surveys, Ch 8, p. 407 to tracking in this chapter,
of how and how societal changes intertwineinformant
with changes inindividual
people’s lives. Fordiscussion
example,of an
Systems theorists: Notes of school refusal Ch 2, p. 81 patternedAgeing
over a (ALSA) social, aged 70+ years have
Self-recognition around the

person’s lifetime.
edu.au/sabs/fcas/
world
http://www.flinders. economic
environmental
crisis
biomedical andmay result
occasions. Around 70
in a husband’s
been assessed
Ch 9, p. 442
on 10+job reports,
loss, causing marital
objective
assessments
conflict, and in turn
development,
500+ married
ALSAleading
findingsto
that provide
divorce and to changesper in cent
theirwere
children’s lives of
and family relationships. Each of us, then, functions
Parental influences on gene expression Ch 3, p. 119 alsa/ factors are born in physical couples have insights into
Marshmallows and the life span significance of
in associated
particular with
microsystems
ageing in older
linked
Australia, through
with a smallthefunctioning
number of Aboriginal
mesosystem and embedded
(e.g.
blood pressure,
in the larger
been followed
over the course of
contexts
successful ageing.
How can brain changes during adolescence self-control Ch 10, p. 512 of people,
the exosystem
and
and and
the Torres
macrosystem,
Strait
all in balance)
the continual
and
flux the
of the chronosystem.
study.
Bronfenbrenner’s
to explore the bioecological model suggests that function
answers to questions about how child
explain risky behaviours? Ch 4, p. 192 MAKING
Islander peoples. Those cognitive
The intergenerational
CONNECTIONS transmission of parenting
abuse,concept of healthy, born overseas are
marriage, retirement or other experiences (e.g.
active ageing. largely from English- Ch 11, p. 597
memory and
affect development will often be complex because
verbal ability).
Can there really be a Santa Claus? Ch 5, p. 244 outcomes depend on so many speakingfactors. According to Bronfenbrenner and Morris (2006), researchers
countries.
Explaining the gender
Give an example
Growing
of how each of
up in New difference
need to
To consider inrelationships
provide a the eating disorders
amongNew
Seven thousand Ch
and effects of12, p. 642
key characteristics
Interviews of the person,
Data gathering See,the context,
for example,
Ageing drivers Ch 6, p. 306 Zealand study
Bronfenbrenner’s
complete picture
the time Zealand children
dimension and the with parents
processes through which started when
an active person Chapter 3,
and his or herinenvironment
Communicating
environmental with patients
http://www.
growingup.co.nz/interact
that(for
lead
with parent–infant
of the pathways
example,
to
unresponsive
born in 2009/10 have
interaction
been assessed every
and children
or playhealth
about
the mother of
with peers).
theNature
discussion of
and nurture,
study child studytherefore,
findings
Cognitive enhancement for ageing adult Ch 7, p. 358 wakefulness syndrome
systemsen.html
have
affected you and cannotsuccessful and easily12–18
be separated months,
because are part Ch
theywith and 13, p.system,
of awellbeing,
dynamic 678
was 28 weeks
continually that provideone
influencing
equitable child the study planned whānau (family) pregnant. insights into the
your development another. Complex research
development, and todesigns
continueand statistical techniques
until are needed to assess the many
life, education, interacting
health of mothers
over the past year. improve outcomes they become adults. psychological and babies during
influences on development portrayed in Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model, but progress is being
for all children. All socioeconomic development, pregnancy and
made (Holt, 2009; Sameroff, 2009). It is appropriate,
levels are represented then,
neighbourhood that we look next at the science
early of life
infancy.
span human development.and the sample is and environment,
ethnically diverse. and culture and
identity.
Professional practice
Professional Practice MEET AN EDUCATIONAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGIST
What does your role as an I decided to become an educational

educational and developmental and developmental psychologist
Meet real professionals in the Professional practice psychologist involve, and why did
you decide to become one?
because as a former teacher I had
a passion for nurturing children’s
>>>
boxes and gain insights into how theory relates to, The Australian Psychological
Society recognises educational and
strengths and supporting their
weaknesses, particularly those children
developmental psychologists as those with special learning or developmental
and informs day-to-day practice for psychologists, practitioners with specialised training needs, in order to help them achieve
and experience in providing assessment, their full potential and succeed in a
Source: Kimberley Cunial

social workers and educators. intervention and counselling services to
help children and adults with learning as
way that is meaningful for them. Thus,
in my psychology practice I work
well as developmental issues. I personally with children, adolescents and their
believe this definition accurately captures families. This means I really work with all
the nature of this specialisation. Yet the stages of the life span, including even
Meet an educational and developmental specific roles within this specialisation the prenatal stage if I am providing Kimberley Cunial BA(Hons), PGDipEd,
MEdPsych, MAPS, CEDP, Educational and
psychologist Ch 1, p. 14 can be quite diverse. pregnancy support counselling.
Developmental Psychologist, Queensland,
Australia
>>>
Meet an occupational therapist Ch 1, p. 17
Meet a social worker Ch 1, p. 20
Meet a clinical psychologist Ch 2, p. 53 Administering intelligence tests Ch 7, p. 331
Meet an educator Ch 2, p. 82 Cooperative learning Ch 8, p. 410
Fostering self-righting pathways Ch 3, p. 145 Identity and wellbeing Ch 9, p. 464
A strengths-based approach to health Ch 4, p. 163 Responding to bullying Ch 10, p. 529
Nurturing student success Ch 5, p. 236 Responding to family violence Ch 11, p. 596
Selective optimisation with compensation Kick-ing the rumination habit Ch 12, p. 650
in practice Ch 6, p. 313 Being a person and a professional Ch 13, p. 719
6 LIFE SPAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Statistics snapshot
Statistics Snapshot SOCIAL TRENDS
In Australia … • In 1971 the median age of first • In 1971, the median age of first
• In 1976, 21 per cent of 18- to motherhood was 25.4 years; in 2014 marriage was 23 years for males
34-year-olds lived at home with their this had increased to 29 years. and 21 years for females; in 1966 it
Statistics snapshot boxes highlight parents; in 2011 this had increased • In 1974 the median age for first was 28 years for males and 26 years
for females; and in 2015 it was 30
to 29 per cent. fatherhood was around 29 years;
important data relating to this region. • In 1976, the median age of first in 2010 this had increased to 33.1
years.
years for males and 29 years for
females.
marriage was 24 years for males and
21 years for females; in 2015 this had • In 1996, 30 per cent of 18- to
In New Zealand … 24 year olds were studying,
increased to 32 years for males and
30 years for females. • From 1986 to 2006, the number of compared to 40 per cent in 2006.
20- to 24 year olds living at home • in 1976 the median age for first
• In 1976, 14 per cent of 18- to
has remained relatively stable at motherhood was 25 years; this had
34-year olds attended a higher
Social trends Ch 1, p. 6 education institution compared to
around 30 per cent, although there increased to 28 years in 2011.
was a peak in 1991 at 38.7 per cent.
26 per cent in 2011.
Teen birth rates Ch 2, p. 88 Sources: AIHW (2016); Australian Bureau of Statistics (1997, 2009, 2010, 2013, 2015); New Zealand Families Commission (2008);
Statistics New Zealand (2012, 2015, 2017).
Prematurity, low birth weight and foetal mortality Ch 3, p. 135
Overweightness and obesity Ch 4, p. 206 Age and development: Sociocultural perspectives
Table 1.1 represents only one view of the periods of the life span; age, like gender, race and other
Visual impairment and ageing Ch 6, p. 305 Juvenile crime rates Chthings
significant human characteristics, means different 10,inp.different
521societies and cultures (Fry, 2009).
culture A system of Culture is often defined as the shared understandings and way of life of a people (see Mistry &
Participation in early childhood education Ch 7, p. 349 Households and families
meanings shared by a Ch 11, p. 558
Dutta, 2015; Packer & Cole, 2015). It includes beliefs, values and practices concerning the nature
population of people
of humans in different phases of the life span, what children need to be taught to function in
Participation in adult education Ch 8, p. 418 Suicide rates Ch
and transmitted from
one generation to the
12, p. 650
their society, and how people should lead their lives as adults. Different cultures can lead us along
next.
Gender identification Ch 9, p. 436 Life expectancy
different developmental pathways, but we allCh 13, p.
participate in a683
culture. That culture becomes part of
us, influencing how we live and how we experience our lives (Packer & Cole, 2015).
Each culture has its own ways of dividing the life span and of treating the people in different
age grade Socially-age groups. And each socially-defined age group in a culture – called an age grade or age
defined age group or
stratum – is assigned different statuses, roles, privileges and responsibilities. Segregating children into
stratum, with distinct
grades in school based on age is one form of age grading, but whole societies are layered into age
statuses, roles, privileges
and responsibilities in
grades and privilege certain ages. For example, in Australia and New Zealand, it has been determined
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or society. duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
that ‘adults’ (18-year-olds by law) can legally consume alcohol and are extended a voting privilege
not granted to children. But even legal definitions of the boundaries between adolescence and
adulthood vary. The legal age for marriage in Australia and New Zealand is 18 years; however, the
age of consent for sexual activity ranges from 16–17 years (Lamont, 2010). Similarly, although many
Guide to the text xv
ICONS
As you read, keep an eye out for these icons.
NEW Linkages icons in the margin direct Think about how developmental science
students to make connections between theory connects with you by considering
important topics covered elsewhere in the Making connections margin questions
the text. throughout the chapters.
Express
Take your learning further by Explore the online resources by

considering the On the Internet following the NEW CourseMate Express
activities throughout the chapters. margin icons throughout the text. Find
answers, activities and more.
END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING LIFE SPAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 41
At the end of each chapter you will find several tools to help you to review, practise and extend
IN REVIEW
your
CHECKING knowledge of the
UNDERSTANDING keyTHINKING
CRITICAL learning objectives.
A researcher wants to interview elderly widows in Japan,
1
• Review your understanding of the key chapter topics with the Summary.
If researchers do not try to keep ethnocentrism out of
their research, what can happen? South Korea, Australia and New Zealand about their
emotional reactions to widowhood shortly after the >>>
2 A researcher deceives research participants into
• Test your knowledge and consolidate your learning through the Self-test, Review questions
thinking they are in a study of learning, when the
real purpose is to determine whether they are willing
deaths of their husbands. What might the researcher do
>>>
to make this research as culturally sensitive as possible?
>>>
4 True or false? Plasticity, or the capacity of an organism
to respond to positive and negative experiences,
c the conclusions are confounded by time-of-
measurement effects.
to inflict harm on people who make learning errors, should be internally consistent, falsifiable and, Case studies haveafter
ceases limited generalisability,
childhood and in
and adolescence. d they have no clear dependent variables.
and Discussion questions. Answers to the self-test can be found at the end of each chapter.
Get the answers to the Checking
if told to do so by an authority figure. What ethical ultimately,
Express supported by
understanding the data.
questions correlational studies, one faces the directionality and
4 True 5 orA false?
good Plasticity, or __________,
theory is (a) the capacity (b)
of an organismand (c)
__________ c 7 the
Researchers
conclusionsmust protect research
are confounded participants
by time-of-
responsibilities does this researcher have? ■ Commonondata collection
CourseMate methods include reporting
Express. third variable problems in attempting to draw cause- from physicaleffects.
and psychological harm by following
to respond to positive and negative experiences,
__________. measurement
(self- and informant), behavioural observations and effect conclusions. Developmentalists use meta-
d they
• Expand your knowledge by conducting further research in the Search me! Psychology database
ceases after childhood and adolescence. standards
have noofclear
(a) __________.
dependent This involves informing
variables.
physiological measures. Use of multiple methods 6 toThe
analysis synthesise the results of of
major disadvantage multiple studiesstudies
correlational participants about all aspects of the research so they
in the same study can capture different aspects of 5 the
of A same
good theory
toisproduce
(a) __________, (b) __________ and (c) 7 Researchers must protect research participants
is issue
that: overall conclusions. can provide
development and compensate for weaknesses in the __________.research designs seek to describe
■ Developmental from physical and (b) __________.harm
psychological Participants must be
by following
a they are costly and time consuming.
with the suggested key terms.
guaranteed
standards that their responses
of (a) __________. provided
This involves during the
informing
different methods. age
6 effects bonthey
The major development.
disadvantage Cross-sectional
do not allow studies
researchers tostudies
of correlational draw cause-and- research will be (c) __________.
■ The goal of explaining development is best compare different age groups but confound age participants about all aspects of the research so they
is that: effect conclusions.
achieved through experiments involving random effects and cohort effects. Longitudinal studies study can provide (b) __________. Participants must be
CHAPTER REVIEW
a they are costly and time consuming. guaranteed that their responses provided during the
assignments to conditions, manipulation of the age change but confound age effects and time-of-
b they do not allow researchers to draw cause-and- research will be (c) __________.
independent variable and experimental control. measurement effects. Sequential studies combine
effect conclusions.
However, not all developmental issues can be the cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches to
studied with experiments for ethical reasons. REVIEW
overcome QUESTIONS
these weaknesses.
1.4 What special challenges do developmental scientists face? Develop your understanding of the chapter content by preparing short answer or essay responses to the following
REVIEW QUESTIONS
SUMMARY
■ Researchers must adhere to standards of ethical
research practice, with attention to ensuring
contexts; this requires
questions – or ayou
culturally sensitive
might like
to research in which researchers collaborate with
to tryapproach
developing a concept map or thinking map for these questions.
informed consent, debriefing individuals from

whom information has been withheld, protecting ONLINE STUDY TOOLS
participants
Develop
1 in the
your
Explain
dissemination
planning,
understanding
the implementation
difference
of research;howutilise
ofbetween
the chapter
eachtoculturally
and
contentand
maturation
sensitive
by preparing short answerthe
6 Explain
observation
or difference
essay responses
betweento naturalistic
the following
1.1 How should we think about development? questionslearning

– or you and
might like contributes to development
try developing a concept map or thinking map forand structured
these observation and the
questions.
research participants from harm and maintaining methods and measures;
across the life and
span.keep their own reasons you would select one over the other to study
■ Development is systematic changes and continuities ■ Understanding nature and
confidentiality nurture influences
of data. cultural values and ethnocentrism from biasing their
over the life span in the areas of physical, cognitive on development
■ To understandmeanshuman
understanding the researchers
development,
COURSEMATE
1 2 Discuss
Explain
conclusions. the differenceEXPRESS
why emerging
between adulthood is proposed
maturation and as a 6 Explain development.
the difference between naturalistic
and psychosocial functioning, involving gains, losses interaction of study
heredity, biology distinct
learning developmental
and how stage.to development
each contributes 7 Evaluate
observation andthe strengthsobservation
structured and weaknesses
and theof the case
must humans in aand maturation
variety of ecological
and neutral changes in physical, cognitive and with environment, experiences and learning. The across the life the
Express
3 Discuss span. The CourseMate
following one of theExpress website contains a
seven assumptions range of research
study
reasons you resources andone
method.
would select study tools
over for this
the other to study
psychosocial functioning; it is more than just growth complexities of transactions between people and 2 Discuss of why
the modern
emerging chapter,
spanincluding:
lifeadulthoodperspective: Development
is proposed as a is development.
8 Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the
in childhood and biological ageing in adulthood. their environment are captured in Bronfenbrenner’s characterised
distinct developmental by lifelong
stage. plasticity. 7 Evaluate
correlational research
the strengths method. of the case
and weaknesses
■ Development takes place in a historical, cultural and bioecological model, in which the individual, with his →3 Revision quizzes
4 Explain
Discuss what theone
the following scientific
of the method
seven assumptions study
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optimisation, began with the baby biographies development (1) occurs throughout the life span, FOR DISCUSSION The Australian andtoThe
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contains information from both 42 CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING LIFE SPAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
→ ageism
local and international sources. To CHAPTER REVIEW 43
Aber, L., Morris, P., & Raver, C. (2012). Children, Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory Australian Bureau of Statistics. (1997).
get the greatest number of search → functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). families and poverty. Definitions, trends, of development from the late teens through the Australian social trends, 1997. Canberra,
results, try using both Australian and emerging science and implications for policy. twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469–480. ACT: ABS. Retrieved from http://
American spellings in your searches, SRCD Social Policy Report, 26,1–19. Arnett, J. J. (2015). The cultural psychology of www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.
Alwin, D. F. (2009). History, cohorts, and patterns emerging adulthood. In L. A. Jensen (Ed.), The nsf/2f762f95845417aeca25706c00834efa/
e.g. ‘globalisation’ and ‘globalization’; a8d1bea8a2ff1b33ca2570e
of cognitive aging. In H. B. Bosworth, & C. Oxford handbook of human development and
‘organisation’ and ‘organization’. Hertzog (Eds.), Aging and cognition: Research culture: An interdisciplinary perspective (pp. c001b0dc3!penDocument
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied,
methodologies scanned, or duplicated, in wholeAustralian
and empirical advances. or in part.
Bureau WCN
of Statistics. 02-200-202
(2009). Australian 487–501). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Arnett, J. J., & Tanner, J. L. (Eds.) (2006). Emerging social trends, 2009: Home and away: The
Association. adults in America: Coming of age in the living arrangements of young people.
Andrews, G., Clark, M., & Luszcz, M. (2002). 21st century. Washington, DC: American Canberra, ACT: ABS. Retrieved from http://
ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST Successful aging in the Australian Longitudinal Psychological Association. www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/
Study of Aging: Applying the MacArthur model Lookup/4102.0Main+Features50June+2009
Artaud, F., Dugravot, A., Sabia, S., Singh-Manoux,
xvi
GUIDE TO THE ONLINE RESOURCES
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xviii
PREFACE
This book is about the development of human beings – from their days as fertilised eggs to their
dying days. It highlights regularities as well as differences in development, and it asks fundamental
questions about why we humans develop as we do.
This third Australian and New Zealand edition of Life Span Human Development incorporates
many exciting changes to ensure the book is relevant to students studying in the Australian
and New Zealand context, yet it retains four core features of the original text that have been
valued by students and instructors over the years: (1) the unique integrated topical–chronological
approach, (2) a presentation that is both research-based and applied, (3) an emphasis on the different
theoretical perspectives that guide thinking about human development and research; and (4) an in-
depth exploration throughout of nature and nurture contributions to development as well as the
universality and diversity surrounding human development.
TOPICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL APPROACH

The most distinctive feature of this book is its unique integrated topical–chronological approach.
Most other life span development textbooks adopt a chronological or ‘age–stage’ approach, carving
the life span into age ranges and describing the prominent characteristics of individuals within
each age range. In contrast, we adopt a topical approach for the overall organisation of the book
and after three introductory chapters we blend a topical approach with a chronological approach
within chapters. Each blended chapter focuses on a domain of development, such as physical growth,
cognition or psychosocial development, and then incorporates major sections on infancy, childhood,
adolescence and adulthood to trace the developmental trends and influences throughout the life span.
Why topical?
Like many other instructors, we have typically favoured topically organised textbooks when teaching
child-, adolescent- or adult-development courses. As a result, it seemed natural to use that same
topical approach in introducing students to the whole life span. Besides, chronologically organised
texts often have to repeat themselves as they remind readers of where development left off in an
earlier age period that was covered in a previous chapter.
More important, a topic-by-topic organisation conveys the flow of development in each area –
the systematic, and often dramatic, transformations that take place as well as the developmental
continuities. The topical approach also helps us emphasise the processes behind development.
Finally, a predominantly topical approach is more compatible with a life span perspective, which
views each period of life in relation to what comes before and what is yet to come. In chronologically
organised textbooks, many topics are described only in connection with the age group to which
they seem most relevant – for example, attachment in relation to infancy, or sexuality in relation to
adolescence and adulthood. A topical organisation stimulates us to ask intriguing questions we might
otherwise not ask, such as these about attachment relationships as explored in Chapter 11 Emotions,
attachment and social relationships:
• What do infants’ attachments to their parents have in common with, and how do they differ
from, attachments between childhood friends or between adult romantic partners?
• Do securely attached infants later have a greater capacity to form and sustain friendships or
romantic partnerships than infants whose early social experiences are less favourable?
• What are the consequences at different points in the life span of lacking a close relationship?
Attachments are important throughout the life span, and a topical organisation helps make that
clear.
Preface xix
Why chronological?
We also appreciate the strengths of the chronological approach, particularly its ability to portray the
whole person in each period of the life span. For this reason, we integrated the age–stage approach
with the topical organisation, aiming to have the best of both worlds.
Each topical chapter contains major sections on infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood.
The existence of these sections is proof that the chapters consider development in each of the
domains covered across the whole life span. These age–stage sections call attention to the distinctive
qualities of each phase of life and make it easier for students to find material on an age period of
particular interest to them. In short, we believe that our integrated topical–chronological approach
allows us to convey the flow of life span development in particular areas and the factors influencing
it while highlighting the major physical, cognitive and psychosocial developments within each
particular developmental period.
Adaptability of the integrated topical–

chronological approach
Even though links among chapters have been clearly identified throughout the book, instructors
who are teaching short courses or who are otherwise pressed for time can omit a chapter without
fear of rendering other chapters incomprehensible. For example:
• A cognitively oriented course might omit one or more of the socially-oriented chapters (i.e.
omit any of Chapters 9 to 13).
• A socially oriented course might omit one or more of the cognitively-oriented chapters (i.e.
omit any of Chapters 5 to 8).
Moreover, the topical–chronological approach of the text gives instructors the flexibility to cover
infancy, childhood and adolescence in a course, if they prefer, and to save the material in each chapter
on adulthood for another course.
RESEARCH-ORIENTED AND RELEVANT

COVERAGE
We have worked hard to create a text that is rigorous yet readable – research-oriented yet ‘real’ to
students. Life Span Human Development tackles complex theoretical concepts and controversies and
presents the best of both classic and contemporary research from multiple disciplines in a way that is
accessible and relevant to students’ life experiences and career development.
We believe that it is critical for students to understand how we know what we know about
development – to appreciate the research process. With that in mind, we describe illustrative studies
and present their data in graphs and tables, and we cite the authors and dates of publication for a
large number of books and articles, all fully referenced in the reference section at the end of each
chapter. Some students may wonder why they are there. It is because we are committed to the value
of systematic research, because we are bound to give credit where credit is due and because we want
students and their instructors to have the resources they need to pursue their interests in human
development during and after the course.
We also appreciate that solid scholarship is of little good to students unless they want to read it,
can understand it and see its relevance. We maintain that even the most complex issues in human
development can be made understandable through clear and organised writing.To make the material
more ‘real’, we clarify developmental concepts through examples and analogies, connect topics in
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have been developed in membrane overlying one of the dentigerous
bones mentioned, without having become anchylosed to the bone.
When the tooth is fixed to the bone the attachment has generally
been effected by the ossification of the bone of the tooth, but in
some fishes a process of the bone projects into the cavity of the
tooth; in others the teeth are implanted in alveoli. In these, again,
frequently a process of bone rises from the bottom, on which the
tooth rests.
Many fishes, especially predatory fishes with long, lancet-shaped
teeth, have all or some of the teeth capable of being bent inwards
towards the mouth. Such “hinged” teeth resume at once the upright
position when pressure is removed from them. They are, however,
depressible in one direction only, thus offering no obstacle to the
ingress, but opposing the egress of prey. Mr. C. S. Tomes has shown
that the means by which this mechanism is worked are different in
different fishes; for whilst, in the Pediculati and Gadoids (Hake) the
elasticity resides solely in the tissue of the hinge (the tooth being as
resilient as ever after everything else is severed), in the Pike the
hinge is not in the least endowed with elasticity, but the bundles of
fibres proceeding from the interior of the dentine cap are exceedingly
elastic.
As regards texture the teeth of fishes show considerable
variation. The conical teeth of the Cyclostomes and the setiform
teeth of many Teleosteans consist of a horny albuminous substance.
The principal substance of the teeth of other fishes consists of
dentine, with numerous dividing and anastomosing tubercles,
sometimes covered by a stratum of unvascular dentine. An enamel-
like substance has been observed on the crown of the teeth of
Sargus and Balistes, and an ossification of the capsule of their
matrix covers the enamel with a thin coating of cement. The teeth
either possess a cavity in which the matrix is received, or, more
frequently, they are solid, in which case vascular canals of the
underlying bone are continued into the substance of the tooth. In the
teeth of some fishes numerous sets of canals and tubes are so
arranged that they do not anastomose with one another, each set
being surrounded by a layer of dentine and cement. These
apparently simple teeth are evidently composed of numerous small
teeth, and called compound teeth.
The teeth may be, and generally are, very different as regards
size or form in the different parts of the mouth; they may be also
different according to the age or sex of the fish (Raja). The teeth may
be few in number and isolated, or placed in a single, double, or triple
series, distant from one another or closely set; they may form narrow
or broad bands, or patches of various forms. As regards form, they
may be cylindrical or conical, pointed, straight, or curved, with or
without an angular bent near their base; some are compressed
laterally or from the front backwards; the latter may be triangular in
shape, or truncated at the top like incisors of mammals; they may
have one apex (cusp) only, or be bi- or tri-lobate (bi- or tri-cuspid); or
have the margins denticulated or serrated. Compressed teeth may
be confluent, and form a cutting edge in both jaws, which assume
the shape of a parrot’s beak (Fig. 53). In some the apex is hooked or
provided with barbs. Again, some teeth are broad, with flat or convex
surface, like molar teeth. With regard to size, the finest teeth are like
fine flexible bristles, ciliiform or setiform; or, if very short and
anchylosed to the bone, they appear only as inconspicuous
asperities of the bone. Very fine conical teeth arranged in a band are
termed villiform teeth; when they are coarser, or mixed with coarser
teeth, they are card-like (dents en rape or en cardes) (Fig. 54);
molar-like teeth of very small size are termed granular.
Fig. 53.—Jaws of Calliodon.
In all fishes the teeth are constantly shed or renewed during the
whole course of their life. In fishes which have compound teeth, as
the Dipnoi, Chimæroids, Scari,[14] Gymnodonts, as well as in those
which have apparently permanent teeth, as in the saw of Pristis, the
detrition of the surface is made up by a constant growth of the tooth
from its base. When the teeth are implanted in alveoli, they are
generally succeeded by others in the vertical direction, but in others
they succeed one another, side by side. In the majority of fishes the
new tooth is not developed (as in reptiles and mammals) in a
diverticulum of the sack of its predecessor, but like this from the free
surface of the buccal membrane. Generally there are more than one
tooth growing, which are in various stages of development, and
destined to replace the one in function. This is very conspicuous in
Sharks, in which the whole phalanx of their numerous teeth is ever
marching slowly forwards (or in some backwards), in rotatory
progress, over the alveolar border of the jaw, the teeth being
successively cast off after having reached the outer margin, and
fulfilled for a longer and shorter period their special function.
[The richest materials for our knowledge of the teeth of fishes are
contained in Owen’s “Odontography.” Lond. 1840. 8vo.]
Fig. 54.—Cardlike teeth of
Plectropoma dentex, with
canines.
The intestinal tract is divided into four portions: œsophagus,
stomach, small and large intestine; two or more of these divisions
may coalesce in fishes and become indistinguishable. But it is
characteristic of the class that the urinary apertures are constantly
situated behind the termination of the intestinal tract.
In Branchiostoma the whole intestinal tract is straight, and coated
with a ciliated mucous membrane. The wide pharynx passes into a
narrow œsophagus, this into a gastric cavity, the remainder being
again narrower and terminating in the anal aperture, which lies
somewhat to the left of the median line. The liver is represented by a
green coloured cœcal diverticulum of the stomachic dilatation. A
mesenterium is absent.
In the Cyclostomi the intestinal tract is likewise straight, and
without clearly defined divisions; however, in Petromyzon the
œsophagus shows numerous longitudinal folds, and the intestine
proper is provided with a single longitudinal fold. A mesentery, which
is present in the Myxinoids, is represented by a short median fold
only, by means of which the hindmost part of the intestine is fixed.
The Palæichthyes show differences in the structure of their
intestinal tract as considerable as are found among the Teleostei, but
they have that in common that the absorbent surface of their
intestine is enlarged by the development of a spiral valve, evidence
of the presence of which in extinct Palæichthyes is still preserved in
the fossilised fæces or coproliths, so abundant in some of the older
strata.
In Chondropterygians (Fig. 55) the stomach is divided into a
cardiac and pyloric portion, the former frequently terminating in a
blind sac, and the latter varying in length. The pyloric portion is bent
at its origin and end, and separated from the short duodenum (called
Bursa entiana in these fishes) by a valve; the ductus hepaticus and
pancreaticus enter the duodenum. This is succeeded by the straight
intestine provided with the spiral valve, the coils of which may be
either longitudinal and wound vertically about the axis of the
intestine, as in Carcharias, Galeocerdo, Thalassorhinus, and
Zygœna, or they may be transverse to that axis, as in the other
genera. The number of gyrations in the latter case varies: there may
be as many as forty. The short rectum passes into a cloaca, which
contains also the orifices of the urogenital ducts. Only the
commencement and end of the intestinal tract are fixed by
mesenterial folds.
In the Holocephali and Dipnoi, the intestinal tract is short,
straight, and wide, without stomachic dilatation, a pyloric valve, close
to which the ductus choledochus enters, indicating the boundary of
the intestine proper (Fig. 57, p). The spiral valve is perfect, and
makes from three (Chimæra) to nine (Ceratodus) gyrations. A cloaca
is present, as in Chondropterygians. A mesentery fixing the dorsal
side of the intestine is absent.
Fig. 55.—Siphonal stomach and spiral valve of
Basking-Shark (Selache). (After Home and Owen.)
a, Œsophagus; b, Cardiac portion of stomach; c, pyloric
portion; d, pouch intermediate between stomach
and duodenum, with circular valves at both ends; e,
Duodenum; f, Valve of intestine; g, Ductus
hepaticus; h, Spleen.
The other Ganoids resemble again more the Chondropterygians
in the structure of their intestinal tract. The stomach has always a
distinct pyloric portion, and has a still more complicated structure in
Acipenser. The duodenal portion receives the contents of
Appendices pyloricæ, which are confluent into a gland-like mass in
Acipenser, but separate in Polyodon, and numerous and short in
Lepidosteus, whilst Polypterus possesses one such appendage only.
A spiral valve is developed in the Sturgeons and Polypterus, but in
Amia, in which the intestine performs several convolutions, the four
gyrations of the valve are situated far back towards the end of the
intestine. In Lepidosteus the valve is rudimentary, and indicated only
by three raised lines crossing the terminal portion of the intestine. In
all these Ganoids the rectum has a separate opening, without
cloaca.
The structure of the intestinal tract of Teleosteous fishes is
subject to so numerous modifications that we should go beyond the
limits of the present work if we would attempt to enter into details.
Great differences in this respect may be found even in groups of the
same natural families. Frequently the intestinal tract remains of
nearly the same width throughout its course, and only the entrance
of the various ducts serves as a guide for the distinction of its
divisions. An intestine of such uniform width may be straight and
short, as in Scombresocidæ, Symbranchidæ, or it may be more or
less convoluted and long, as in many Cyprinidæ, Doradina, etc. On
the whole, carnivorous fishes have a much shorter and simpler
intestinal tract than herbivorous.
In the majority of Teleosteans, however, œsophagus, stomach,
duodenum, small intestine and rectum, can be more or less
distinctly, even externally distinguished.
There are two predominant forms of the stomach, intermediate
forms being, however, numerous. In the first, the siphonal, it
presents the form of a bent tube or canal, one-half of the horse-shoe
being the cardiac, the other the pyloric portion. In the second, the
cæcal, the cardiac division is prolonged into a long descending blind
sac, the cardiac and pyloric openings of the stomach lying close
together (Clupea, Scomber, Thynnus, etc.)
Fig. 56.—Siphonal Stomach and Pyloric
Appendages of a Female Salmon, 3⅓ feet
long. a a a, Pyloric appendages; ch, ductus
choledochus; oe, œsophagus; st, lower end of
stomach; p, pyloric region; i, ascending; and í’,
descending portion of intestine.
The duodenum receives always the hepatic and pancreatic
secretions, and, besides, those of the appendices pyloricæ, which, in
varying numbers (from 1 to 200), are of very common occurrence in
Teleosteans (Fig. 56). They vary also in length and width, and whilst
the narrowest serve only as secretory organs, the widest are
frequently found filled with the same contents as the intestine. When
few in number, each opens by a separate duct into the duodenum;
when their number is greater two or more coalesce into a common
duct; in the latter case the appendages cease to be free, and are
connected with one another by a more or less firm tissue.
Cœcal appendages at the end of the intestinal tract are of
exceedingly rare occurrence in fishes (Box). There is no cloaca in
Teleosteans.
In the majority of Teleosteous fishes the vent is situated on the
boundary between trunk and tail, behind the ventral fins. In a few it
lies farther backwards, not far from the caudal fin; more frequently it
is advanced forwards, under the middle of the abdomen or to the
scapular arch. In two fishes, Aphredoderus and Amblyopsis, it lies
before the pectoral fins.
A peritoneum envelops all the divisions of the intestinal tract
within the abdominal cavity. A broad, well-developed omentum has
hitherto been found in Gobiesox cephalus only.
Liver.—The existence of a liver in Branchiostoma as a long
diverticulum of the intestine has been mentioned above. In the
Myxinoids the liver is divided into two glandular bodies, an anterior
rounded smaller one, and a posterior larger one of an elongate
shape. The gall-bladder lies between both, and receives a cystic
duct from each of them. In the other fishes the proportionally large
liver is a single large gland, from which only now and then small
portions are found to be detached. It is either simple, or with a right
and left lobe, or with a third lobe in the middle; each lobe may have
incisions or subdivisions, which, however, are very inconstant. The
liver of fishes is distinguished by the great quantity of fluid fat (oil)
which it contains. The gall-bladder is but rarely absent, and attached
to the right lobe, or towards the centre; however, in some fishes it is
detached from the liver and connected with it by the cystic duct only.
The bile may be conveyed by one or more hepatic ducts into a
common duct which is continued towards the gall-bladder as ductus
cysticus, and towards the duodenum as ductus choledochus; or
some of the hepatic ducts enter directly the gall-bladder, or directly
the duodenum, without communicating with the common duct.
Individual variations in this respect are of common occurrence.
A pancreas has been found hitherto in all Chondropterygians,
Acipenser, and many Teleosteans. In the first it is a glandular mass
of considerable size behind the stomach, close to the spleen; its duct
leads into the duodenum. In the Sturgeons the pancreas is attached
to the duodenum, and opens close to the ductus choledochus. In
Silurus glanis it is very large, and the ductus choledochus passes
through its substance; it is smaller in Belone and Pleuronectes, and
situated in the mesentery; its duct accompanies the terminal portion
of the ductus choledochus. In the Salmon, which possesses a large
lobed pancreas, the duct is so intimately connected with the ductus
choledochus that both appear externally as a single duct only.
The spleen, which is substantially a lymphatic gland, may be
mentioned here, as it is constantly situated in the immediate vicinity
of the stomach, generally near its cardiac portion. With the exception
of Branchiostoma, it is found in all fishes, and appears as a rounded
or oblong organ of dark-red colour. In the Sharks frequently one or
more smaller pieces are detached from the principal body. In the
Dipnoi a thin layer of a very soft substance of brownish-black colour
below the mucous membrane of the stomach and upper part of the
intestine has been regarded as the homologue of the spleen (Fig.
57, m). In most Teleostei the spleen is undivided, and appended by
its vessels and a fold of the peritoneum to the pyloric bend of the
stomach or the beginning of the intestine.
Fig. 57.—Upper part of Intestine of Ceratodus.
The anterior wall of the intestine is opened, the liver
(c) and gall-bladder (e) being drawn forward. A slit is
made at n, through which part of the next
compartment of the spirally wound intestine may be
seen.
é, Mouth of ductus choledochus; f, stomach; i,
adipose agglomeration; l, first compartment of
intestinal spire; m, spleen; oe, lower part of
œsophagus, opened; p, double pyloric fold; q q,
glandular patches.
CHAPTER IX.
ORGANS OF RESPIRATION.
Fishes breathe the air dissolved in water by means of gills or

branchiæ. The oxygen consumed by them is not that which forms
the chemical constituent of the water, but that contained in the air
which is dissolved in water. Hence fishes transferred into water from
which the air has been driven out by a high temperature, or in which
the air absorbed by them is not replaced, are speedily suffocated.
The absorption of oxygen by fishes is comparatively small, and it has
been calculated that a man consumes 50,000 times more than is
required by a Tench. However, some fishes evidently require a much
larger supply of oxygen than others: Eels and Carps, and other
fishes of similar low vitality, can survive the removal out of their
elements for days, the small quantity of moisture retained in their gill-
cavity being sufficient to sustain life, whilst other fishes, especially
such as have very wide gill-openings, are immediately suffocated
after being taken out of the water. In some fishes noted for their
muscular activity, like the Scombridæ, the respiratory process is so
energetic as to raise the temperature of their blood far beyond that of
the medium in which they live. A few fishes, especially such as are
periodically compelled to live in water thickened into mud by
desiccation and vitiated by decomposing substances, breathe
atmospheric air, and have generally special contrivances for this
purpose. These are so much habituated to breathing air that many of
them, even when brought into pure water of normal condition, are
obliged to rise to the surface at frequent intervals to take in a
quantity of air, and if they be kept beneath the surface by means of a
gauze net, they perish from suffocation. The special contrivances
consist of additional respiratory organs, lodged in cavities either
adjoining the gill-cavity or communicating with the ventral side of the
œsophagus, or of the air-bladder which enters upon respiratory
functions (Dipnoi, Lepidosteus, Amia).
The water used by fishes for respiration is received by the mouth,
and by an action similar to that of swallowing driven to the gills, and
expelled by the gill-openings, of which there may be one or several
on each side behind the head; rarely one only in the median line of
the ventral surface.
Fig. 58.—Fore-part of the body of an

embryon of Carcharias, showing the
branchial filaments (natural size).
The gills or branchiæ consist essentially of folds of the mucous
membrane of the gill-cavity (laminæ branchiales), in which the
capillary vessels are distributed. In all fishes the gills are lodged in a
cavity, but during the embryonic stage the Chondropterygians have
the gill-laminæ prolonged into long filaments projecting beyond the
gill-cavity (Fig. 58), and in a few young Ganoids external gills are
superadded to the internal.
In Branchiostoma the dilated pharynx is perforated by numerous
clefts, supported by cartilaginous rods (Fig. 29, h). The water passes
between these clefts into the peritoneal cavity, and makes its exit by
the porus abdominalis situated considerably in advance of the vent.
The water is propelled by cilia.
In the Cyclostomes the gills of each side are lodged in a series of
six or more antero-posteriorly compressed sacs, separated from
each other by intervening septa. Each sac communicates by an
inner duct with the œsophagus, the water being expelled by an outer
duct. In Bdellostoma each outer duct has a separate opening, but in
Myxine all the outer ducts pass outwards by one common gill-
opening on each side. In the Lampreys the ducts are short, the outer
ones having separate openings (Fig. 2, p. 39). The inner ducts lead
into a single diverticulum or bronchus, blind behind, situated below
the œsophagus, and communicating in front with the pharynx, where
it is provided with two valves by which the regurgitation of the water
into the buccal cavity is prevented.
The same type of branchial organs persists in
Chondropterygians, which possess five, rarely six or seven, flattened
pouches with transversely plaited walls. The septa between them are
supported by cartilaginous filaments rising from the hyoidean and
branchial arches. Each pouch opens by a cleft outwards, and by an
aperture into the pharynx, without intervening ducts. The anterior
wall of the first pouch is supported by the hyoidean arch. Between
the posterior wall of the first and the anterior of the second sac, and
between the adjacent walls of the succeeding, a branchial arch with
its two series of radiating cartilaginous filaments is interposed.
Consequently the first and last pouch have one set of gill-laminæ
only, viz. the first on its posterior and the last on its anterior wall. The
so-called spiracles on the upper surface of the head of
Chondropterygians are to be referred to in connection with the
respiratory organs. They are the external openings of a canal leading
on each side into the pharynx, and situated generally close to and
behind the orbit. They frequently possess valves or an irregularly
indented margin, and are found in all species during the embryonic
stage, but remaining persistent in a part only. The spiracles are the
remains of the first visceral cleft of the embryo, and in the fœtal state
long branchial filaments have been observed to protrude, as from the
other branchial clefts.
The Holocephali and Ganoidei show numerous deviations from
the Chondropterygian type, all leading in the direction towards the
Teleosteans. As a whole they take an intermediate position between
the preceding types and the Teleosteans, but they show a great
variation among themselves, and have in common only the imperfect
separation of the branchial sacs and the presence of a single outer
branchial aperture.
In Chimæra the septum separating the branchial sacs is
confluent with the wall of the gill-cavity in a part of its extent only, and
still more imperfect is the separation of those branchial divisions in
Ceratodus (Fig. 60). The other Ganoids show no such division
whatever. In Chimæra the first gill is incomplete (uniserial), and
belongs to the hyoid; then follow three complete gills; the last,
belonging to the fourth branchial arch, being again incomplete.
Acipenser, Scaphirhynchus, Lepidosiren, Protopterus, and
Lepidosteus, possess likewise an anterior incomplete gill (opercular
gill), followed by four complete gills in the Sturgeons and
Lepidosteus, whilst in Lepidosiren and Protopterus a part of the
branchial arches is gill-less. In Polyodon, Ceratodus, and Polypterus,
an opercular gill is absent, the two former having four complete gills,
the latter three and a half only. Spiracles are still in some Ganoids
present, viz. in the Sturgeons and Polypterus. In all the Ganoids an
osseous gill-cover is now developed.
In the Teleostei the gills with their supporting branchial arches lie
in one undivided cavity; more or less wide clefts between the arches
lead from the pharynx to the gills, and a more or less wide opening
gives exit to the water after it has washed the gills. The
interbranchial clefts have sometimes nearly the same extent as the
branchial arches; sometimes they are reduced to small openings, the
integuments stretching from one arch to the other. Sometimes there
is no cleft behind the fourth arch, in which case this arch has only an
uniserial gill developed. The gill-opening likewise varies much in its
extent, and when reduced to a foramen may be situated at any place
of the posterior boundary of the head. In the Symbranchidæ the gill-
openings coalesce into a single narrow slit in the median line of the
isthmus. In the majority of Teleosteans the integument of the
concave side of the branchial arches develops a series of horny
protuberances of various form, the so-called gill-rakers. They are
destined to catch any solid corpuscles or substances which would be
carried into the gill-cavity with the water. In some fishes they are
setiform, and form a complete sieve, whilst in others they are merely
rough tubercles, the action of which must be very incomplete if they
have any function at all.
Most Teleosteans possess four complete gills, but frequently the
fourth arch is provided with an uniserial gill only, as mentioned
above, or even entirely gill-less. The most imperfect gills are found in
Malthe, which has two and a half gills only, and in Amphipnous
cuchia, in which one small gill is fixed to the second arch.
The gills of the Teleosteans as well as of the Ganoids are
supported by a series of solid cartilaginous or horny pointed rods,
arranged along the convex edges of the branchial arches. Arches
bearing a complete gill have two series of those rods, one along
each edge; those with uniserial gills bear one row of rods only. The
rods are not part of the arch, but fixed in its integument, the several
rods of one row corresponding to those of the other, forming pairs
(feuillet, Cuvier) (Fig. 59). Each rod is covered by a loose mucous
membrane passing from one rod to its fellow opposite, which again
is finely transversely plaited, the general surface being greatly
increased by these plaits. In most Teleostei the branchial lamellæ
are compressed, and taper towards their free end, but in the
Lophobranchs their base is attenuated and the end enlarged. The
mucous membrane contains the finest terminations of the vessels,
which, being very superficial, impart the blood-red colour to living
gills. The Arteria branchialis, the course of which lies in the open
canal in the convexity of the branchial arch, emits a branch (a) for
every pair of lamellæ which ascends (b) along the inner edge of the
lamella, and supplies every one of the transverse plaits with a
branchlet. The latter break up into a fine net of capillaries, from
which the oxygenised blood is collected into venous branchlets,
returning by the venous branch (d), which occupies the outer edge of
the lamella.
Fig. 59.—A pair of branchial
lamellæ (magnified) of the Perch.
a, Branch of Arteria branchialis;
b, Ascending branch of the
same; c, Branch of Vena
branchialis; d, Descending
branch of the same; e,
Transverse section through
the branchial arch.
The so-called Pseudobranchiæ (Fig. 60) are the remains of an
anterior gill which had respiratory functions during the embryonic life
of the individuals. By a change in the circulatory system these
organs have lost those functions, and appear in the adult fish as retia
mirabilia, as they receive oxygenised blood, which, after having
passed through their capillary system, is carried to other parts of the
head. In Palæichthyes the pseudobranchia is a rete mirabile
caroticum for the brain and eye; in Teleosteans a rete mirabile
ophthalmicum only. Pseudobranchiæ are as frequently absent as
present in Chondropterygians as well as Teleosteans. As to the
Ganoids, they occur in Ceratodus, Acipenser, Polyodon, and
Lepidosteus, and are absent in Lepidosiren, Protopterus,
Scaphirhynchus, Polypterus, and Amia.
In Chondropterygians and Sturgeons the pseudobranchiæ are
situated within the spiracles; in those, in which spiracles have
become obliterated, the pseudobranchiæ lie on the suspensorium,
hidden below cellular tissue; but pseudobranchiæ are not
necessarily co-existent with spiracles. In the other Ganoids and
Teleosteans the pseudobranchiæ (Fig. 60, h) are within the gill-
cavity, near the base of the gill-cover; in Ceratodus even rudiments
of the gill-rakers (x’, x”) belonging to this embryonic gill are
preserved, part of them (x”) being attached to the hyoid arch.
Pseudobranchiæ are frequently hidden below the integuments of the
gill-cavity, and have the appearance of a glandular body rather than
of a gill.
[See Müller, “Vergleichende Anatomie des Gefäss-systems der
Myxinoiden;” and “Ueber den Bau und die Grenzen der Ganoiden.”]
Fig. 60.—Gills of Ceratodus.
x, Arcus aortæ; gl, Glossohyal; ch,
Ceratohyal; u, Attachment of the
first gill to the walls of the gill-
cavity; h, Pseudobranchia; x’, x”,
two series of gill-rakers
belonging to the
Pseudobranchia.
Accessory respiratory organs for retaining water or breathing air,
such as are found in the Labyrinthici, Ophiocephalidæ, certain
Siluridæ, and Lutodira, are structures so specialised that they are
better described in the accounts of the Fishes in which they have
been observed.

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Life Span Human Development 3rd

(ANZ) Edition Sigelman

Life-span: human development 9th edition Edition Rider

Life Span Human Development 4th Edition Carol K.

Human Development: A Life Span View 8th Edition, (Ebook

Life-Span Development 15th Edition

Life Span Development: A Topical Approach 3rd Edition,

Human Development: A Life-Span View 8th Edition – Ebook

Human Development: A Life-Span View 8th Edition Robert

Essentials of Human Development: A Life Span View 2nd

Sigelman – De George – Cunial – Rider

Printed in China by China Translation & Printing Services.

Understanding life span Theories of human

CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5

Genes, environment and Body, brain and Cognitive development 219

CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 8

Sensory-perception, Intelligence and Language, literacy and

CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 11

Developmental The final challenge:

Guide to the text xii

1 UNDERSTANDING LIFE SPAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 1

1.1 How should we think about 1.3 How is development studied? 21

2 THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 48

2.1 Developmental theories 2.4 Humanistic theories 68

Freud: Psychoanalytic theory 55 Vygotsky: Sociocultural theory 74

Erikson: Psychosocial theory 58 Information-processing approach 74

Psychoanalytic theories: Contributions Theories of adult cognitive

3 GENES, ENVIRONMENT AND THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE 97

3.1 Individual heredity 98 3.4 The prenatal environment

4 BODY, BRAIN AND HEALTH 156

4.1 Building blocks of growth 4.3 The child 176

5 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 219

5.1 Piaget’s cognitive 5.2 Vygotsky’s sociocultural

5.3 Fischer’s dynamic skill 5.6 The adolescent 249

6 SENSORY-PERCEPTION, ATTENTION AND MEMORY 267

6.1 The information-processing Advances in attention 287

7 INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY 326

7.1 Defining and measuring 7.4 The child 351

The Flynn effect 339 IQ, wealth and health 359

Genes and intelligence 340 Potential for wisdom 362

Environment and intelligence 341 Creative endeavours 363

Developmental quotients 346 Giftedness 367

Infant intelligence as a predictor 7.8 Integrating cognitive

8 LANGUAGE, LITERACY AND LEARNING 381

8.1 The language system 382 8.4 The adolescent 411

9 SELF, PERSONALITY, GENDER AND SEXUALITY 429

9.1 Conceptualising the self 9.4 The adolescent 457

10 SOCIAL COGNITION AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT 491

10.1 Social cognition 492 The functions of morality:

Changes in moral reasoning 518 10.6 The adult 530

11 EMOTIONS, ATTACHMENT AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS 548

11.1 Emotional development 549 11.5 The adolescent 580

First peer relations 572 How do we stop the violence? 599

11.4 The child 573

12 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 615

12.1 What makes development 12.4 The adolescent 640

13 THE FINAL CHALLENGE: DEATH AND DYING 676

The adolescent brain

BODY, BRAIN AND HEALTH