Fuelling the World Economy: Seaports,

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PALGRAVE STUDIES
IN MARITIME ECONOMICS

Edited by
Daniel Castillo Hidalgo
Cezar Honorato

Fuelling the World

Economy
Seaports, Coal, and
Oil Markets
Palgrave Studies in Maritime Economics

Series Editors
Hercules Haralambides
Erasmus School of Economics
Erasmus University Rotterdam
Rotterdam, The Netherlands

Stig Tenold
Department of Economics
NHH – Norwegian School of Economics
Bergen, Norway
Palgrave Studies in Maritime Economics is a new, original and timely
interdisciplinary series that seeks to be pivotal in nature and improve our
understanding of the role of the maritime sector within port economics
and global supply chain management, shipping finance, and maritime
business and economic history. The maritime industry plays an increas-
ingly important role in the changing world economy, and this new series
offers an outlet for reviewing trends and developments over time as well as
analysing how such changes are affecting trade, transport, the environ-
ment and financial markets. Each title in the series will communicate key
research findings, shaping new approaches to maritime economics. The
core audience will be academic, as well as policymakers, regulators and
international maritime authorities and organisations. Individual titles will
often be theoretically informed but will always be firmly evidence-based,
seeking to link theory to policy outcomes and changing practices.
Daniel Castillo Hidalgo • Cezar Honorato
Editors

Fuelling the World

Economy
Seaports, Coal, and Oil Markets
Editors
Daniel Castillo Hidalgo Cezar Honorato
University of Las Palmas de Fluminense Federal University
Gran Canaria Niterói, Brazil
Las Palmas, Spain

ISSN 2662-6551     ISSN 2662-656X (electronic)

Palgrave Studies in Maritime Economics
ISBN 978-3-031-32564-9    ISBN 978-3-031-32565-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32565-6

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2023
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to
the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This book is dedicated to Prof. Miguel Suárez Bosa (1952–2022) Scholar,
mentor, and friend.
 Preface and Acknowledgements

Steam shipping and maritime trade represent an essential element of eco-

nomic and political global integration from the second half of the nine-
teenth century onwards. Its importance is represented in a considerable
volume of scholarly literature as well as contemporary authors such as Jules
Verne, who imagined future landscapes built on the technological advances
of his time. The expansion of global trade by sea was one of the most dis-
tinctive features of the globalization process. Despite its key importance,
and in a similar manner as the shipping industry, the coal business is a rela-
tively unexplored topic. This assertion is even more evident in geographical
contexts outside the United Kingdom and the United States. However,
studying the international structure of the coal business also involves analys-
ing North–South linkages. The Western global expansion led by the British
fleet cannot be understood without the decisive support of maritime coaling
stations around the world. Thus, port cities and their hinterlands were the
places where local and global agents interacted, facilitating the diffusion of
steamship technology that fostered seaborne trade and the subsequent con-
solidation of the international division of production and labour.
This book is a collaborative effort by scholars of economic, business,
and social history across disciplines, countries, and generations. This
edited volume of essays aims to fill a gap in the literature by combining
primary research and synthesis of secondary sources exploring neglected
topics related to the coal and oil business from the second half of the nine-
teenth century up to the World War II aftermath. While it was not possible
to cover every single country or region, the contributions included in this
book prepared by historians, geographers, and economists make available

vii
viii PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

in one volume of up-to-date research on the structure and functioning of

the coal business in Europe, Africa, and South America. This volume
addresses issues of concern to the scholarly community as well as the gen-
eral reader interested in the globalization process.
The idea to prepare an edited collection of essays on coal business took
shape during long conversations with Prof. Miguel Suárez Bosa almost a
decade ago. These dialogues led to the organization of a local workshop
on this topic in Las Palmas in 2017. Then, we organized a session in the
XIX World Economic History Congress, scheduled for July 2020 at Paris.
The coronavirus pandemic delayed the celebration of the conference until
2022. In addition, we present preliminary advances in other conferences,
such as the XIII International Conference of the Spanish Association of
Economic History (September 2022) and the 15th International Meeting of
the African Economic History Network (October 2022). We thank all par-
ticipants for their valuable comments and suggestions, which have con-
tributed to the ideas presented in this volume. We especially thank Prof.
Miguel Suárez Bosa for his extensive comments and support on earlier
drafts as well as the preparation of his chapter. Thanks, Miguel, for every-
thing you gave us all these years. Our indebtedness is even larger to all
academics and colleagues who introduced us through their works into the
historical analysis of coal business.
Moreover, we thank the IATEXT, PORMAR, the University of Las
Palmas de Gran Canaria and the Institute of History of the University
Federal Fluminense for funding an essential part of our academic efforts.
We gratefully acknowledge financial support from the Japan Society for
the Promotion of Science (18KK0051) led by Prof. Kenmei Tsubota and
the Canary Agency for Research and Innovation (ProID2020010056) led
by Prof. Lourdes Trujillo.
We gratefully acknowledge the help of everyone who contributed to
the completion of this editorial project, especially the contributors who
succeeded in delivering their chapters on schedule. Our special gratitude
goes to our publishers, Palgrave Macmillan, and, especially, Wyndham
Hacket, Arunaa Devi, Lauren Dooley, and Anette Weiss. We also acknowl-
edge, on behalf of the contributors, the support of our respective research
assistants and, above all, our families. Finally, we hope this volume will
contribute to fostering new discussions and research on the topic.

Las Palmas, Spain Daniel Castillo Hidalgo

Niterói, Brazil  Cezar Honorato
15 March 2023
 Contents

1 Introduction  1
Daniel Castillo Hidalgo and Cezar Honorato

2 The
 Use of Coal in Maritime Transport and Maritime
Station Networks: Routes, Stores and Companies, Circa
1850–1930 11
Miguel Suárez Bosa

3 Bunkering
 in West Africa: The Case of Dakar 33
Daniel Castillo Hidalgo

4 The
 Rhenish-Westphalian Coal Syndicate and the German
Bunker Coal Business, 1905–1947 59
Eva-Maria Roelevink

5 Common
 Destines: French Trading Ports and Oil in the
Twentieth Century, 1914–1965 81
Bruno Marnot

6 French
 Capital, Gdynia, and the Position of Polish Coal
on International Markets in the Interwar Period 99
Jerzy Łazor

ix
x Contents

7 Ports,
 Coal, and Exports from the Argentine Pampas
Region: An Evaluation of the Institutional Actors Related
to Coal Circulation in the Agro-Export Period, 1860–1930123
Santiago Prieto, Miguel Ángel de Marco (h), José Luis Jofré,
and Marcelo Weissel

8 The
 Coal Economy in Brazil (1850–1889)149
Cezar Honorato, Luiz Cláudio M. Ribeiro, and
Thiago Mantuano

Index187
 Notes on Contributors

Miguel Suárez Bosa was Professor of Economic History at the University

of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain. He was the author of many books
and articles on economic, social, and business history in the Atlantic con-
text during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. He was the editor of
Atlantic Ports and the First Globalization, 1850-1930 (Palgrave, 2014).
Daniel Castillo Hidalgo is Associate Professor of Economic History at
the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain. He has published
widely on African seaport development, especially on patterns of long-
term port system evolution, dock labour, and port communities. He was
the co-editor with Prof. Olukoju of African Seaports and Maritime
Economics in Historical Perspective (Palgrave, 2020).
Miguel Ángel de Marco (h) is an independent researcher tied to the
Scientific Board of Argentina (CONICET). He is the head of the Núcleo
de Ciudades Portuarias Regionales and main researcher of several grants
funded by PICT and Ecosur about the history, development, and urban
heritage of port cities in Latin America. He is a member of the National
Academy of History (Argentina). He broadly published on port, eco-
nomic, and urban history in South America.
Cezar Honorato is Professor of Social and Economic History at the
University Federal Fluminense, Brazil. His research interests include mari-
time, urban, labour, and business history. He is the coordinator of several
research projects as well as a collaborator of different public national and

xi
xii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

international institutions engaged in social and economic development.

He is widely published on different topics on the economic history of
Brazil and Latin America.
José Luis Jofré holds a BA Degree in Sociology by the University
Nacional de Cuyo, MA in Politics and Sociology, and a Ph.D. in Social
Sciences by the Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales. He is a
specialist in the analysis of the economic structure of Latin America. He
broadly published on urban and economic development. He is Associate
Professor in Economics and Dean of the Faculty of Political and Social
Sciences in the University of Cuyo (Argentina).
Jerzy Łazor is Assistant Professor of Economics at Warsaw School of
Economics. His research topic addresses the economic and social history
of the twentieth century, especially the history of Polish contacts with
foreign countries and the history of finance and migration. He is winner
of the 11th competition “Historical Book of the Year” for the Oskar
Halecki Award (2018) and the 1st competition of the Polish Society of
Economic History for the Franciszek Bujak Award for the best book in the
field of economic and social history (2018). He is founding member of
the Polish Society of Economic History and the Institute of Economic
and Social Studies and member of the Association for Slavic, East
European, & Eurasian Studies.
Thiago Mantuano is a lecturer at the Department of Philosophy and
Human Sciences of the Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz (Brazil). He
is member of the Research Group “Ports and Cities in the Atlantic World”.
He also belongs to the POLIS Laboratory and the Laboratory for Regional
History from the University of Espirito Santo. He is associate member of
the Governance of the Atlantic Ports networks. His publications focus on
the urban, economic, and social evolution of Brazilian port cities during
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Bruno Marnot is Professor of Modern History at the University of La
Rochelle (France) and member of the interdisciplinary laboratory LIENSs
(Littoral, Environment and Society). He broadly published on techno-
logical changes and the economic history of commercial ports in Western
Europe during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. He is currently
exploring the history of the major French seaports between World War I
and the 1960s.
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xiii

Santiago Prieto is a Ph.D. Candidate at the University Nacional of

Rosario (Argentina). He has a research fellowship from the National
Research Council (Argentina), affiliated to the Institute of Economic and
Social Research (IDEHESI). He is secretary of the Interdisciplinary
Research Network of Water Management (RIEGA), and he is also a mem-
ber of the Regional Port Cities Research Network (Argentina).
Luiz Cláudio M. Ribeiro is Professor of Economic and Social History at
the University of Espirito Santo (Brazil). He is coordinator of the Research
Laboratory “Regional History of Espirito Santo and its Atlantic
Connections”. He is member of the CoopMar Research Grant and is asso-
ciated with the Governance of the Atlantic Ports Network. His research
focuses on the economic, business, and urban history of Brazil and Latin
America.
Eva-Maria Roelevink is Professor of Economic History since 2017 at
the Johannes Gutenberg-University in Mainz, Germany. Before, she was
an assistant professor at Ruhr University Bochum. Her research interests
are the economic and business history of the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries, in particular cartelization and commodity markets as well as
historical marketing and historical politics. Her dissertation on the German
Coal Syndicate was awarded the GUG Prize for Corporate History in
2014 and published by the renowned C.H. Beck Verlag.
Marcelo Weissel holds a Ph.D. in Archeology from the University of
Buenos Aires. He is the director of the Heritage and Museum Department
at Buenos Aires. He is Associate Professor at the Universidad Nacional de
Lanús. He belongs to the Núcleo de Ciudades Portuarias Regionales. He
is also a member of the International Board of Maritime Museums. He
broadly published on cultural, urban, industrial, and maritime heritage in
Argentina.
 List of Figures

Fig. 4.1 DKD Turnover, 1900–1944 (in million tons). Sources:

Author’s elaboration. Statistics of the Decade; Turnover
DKD, 1900–1944, in: Annual Reports DKD, Hamburg, in:
BBA 33/556, BBA 33/557 u. BBA 33/1022. The share of
DKD business in total syndicate sales (including self-
consumption) was only between 1 and 2%, apart from the
war years. Even in the peak year of 1926, when DKD helped
make up for the shortfall of British coal because of the British
General Strike, its sales only reached a good 2 million tonnes,
while the syndicate volume was approximately 112 million
tonnes65
Fig. 4.2 Deposits and holdings from the DKD, 1943. Source: Author’s
elaboration. DKD to members of the Supervisory Board,
23.01.1943, concerning DKD structure, in: BBA 33/1022 70
Fig. 6.1 The volume of Polish exports to different international
markets, 1924–1938 (in millions of metric tons). Sources:
Author’s elaboration. Rocznik Handlu Zagranicznego
Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 1924–1927; Rocznik Handlu
Zagranicznego Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej i Wolnego Miasta
Gdańska 1928–1938103
Fig. 6.2 The use of different modes of transport for Polish coal exports,
1928–1938 (in millions of metric tons). Sources: Author’s
elaboration. Rocznik Handlu Zagranicznego Rzeczypospolitej
Polskiej i Wolnego Miasta Gdańska, 1928–1938 104
Fig. 6.3 Indices of average export prices of Polish coal in złotys and
shillings per metric ton, 1926–1938 (1929 = 100). Sources:

xv
xvi List of Figures

Author’s elaboration. Prices in złotys: Rocznik Handlu

Zagranicznego Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 1927; Rocznik Handlu
Zagranicznego Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej i Wolnego Miasta
Gdańska 1928–1938; conversion to shillings based on the
average annual exchange rate in Warsaw (Mały Rocznik
Statystyczny 1939)105
Fig. 6.4 Average prices of Polish coal in exports to different markets,
average UK export price of coal, 1927–1938 (in shillings per
metric ton). Sources: Author’s elaboration. Polish prices:
Rocznik Handlu Zagranicznego Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 1927;
Rocznik Handlu Zagranicznego Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej i
Wolnego Miasta Gdańska 1928–1938; conversion to shillings
based on the average annual exchange rate in Warsaw (Mały
Rocznik Statystyczny 1939); British prices taken from
A. Sauerbeck‘s and Statist estimates (Editor of the
Statist, 1939) 106
Fig. 7.1 Exports from the port of La Plata, 1897–1904 (in tons).
Sources: Author’s elaboration built on annual reports of the
Administración General del Puerto de La Plata (1897–1903)
and Carmona (1905) 137
Fig. 8.1 Military Navy by driving force, (1850–1880). Sources:
Author’s elaboration. Brazil. Ministry of the Navy. Proposal
and Report. Rio de Janeiro: National Press, 1850–1880 154
Fig. 8.2 Brazilian imports of British coal, 1870–1889. Note: annual
average in pounds. Sources (annual average in pounds):
Grahan (1973, p. 331) 155
Fig. 8.3 State concessions for coal exploration works by province,
1850–1880. Source: Author’s elaboration. Brazil
(1850–1889), various issues 156
Fig. 8.4 World share of Brazilian coffee production, 1820–1889.
Sources: Martins (1990, p. 39) 158
Fig. 8.5 Calls of long-haul vessels in the Port of Rio de Janeiro,
1878–1888. Sources: Author’s elaboration. Brazil
(1878–1888). Various issues 160
Fig. 8.6 Coal imported in Rio de Janeiro, 1875–1889 (tons). Sources:
Author’s elaboration. Retrospecto Commercial (1875–1889) 162
Fig. 8.7 Coal imported in Rio de Janeiro, 1878–1888 (value). Note:
Figures in thousands of réis. Sources: Author’s elaboration.
Brazil. Ministry of Finance (1878–1888) 162
Fig. 8.8 Higher and Lower prices of coal imported in Rio de Janeiro,
1872–1889. Note: in thousand réis. Sources: Author’s
elaboration. Retrospecto Commercial (1875–1889) 163
 List of Figures  xvii

Fig. 8.9 Foundries, shipyards, and machinery factories in Rio de

Janeiro and the port district, 1870–1890. Sources: Author’s
elaboration built on Almanak (1870–1890) 165
Fig. 8.10 Coal and coke importers in Rio de Janeiro, 1870–1889.
Sources: Author’s elaboration built on Almanak (1870–1890) 168
Fig. 8.11 Registry of coal imported by the Brazilian Coal Company in
Rio de Janeiro (1887–1889). Note: in tons. Sources: Author’s
elaboration. Brazil. Ministry of Finance (1887–1889) 179
 List of Tables

Table 2.1 Coal exports by country, 1850–1919 (in millions of tonnes) 15

Table 3.1 Share of steamer traffic in total vessel traffic, 1880–1920 (% of
calls)38
Table 3.2 Tons of coal bunkered in Mindelo, Las Palmas, Santa Cruz de
Tenerife, and Dakar (1880–1914) (in tons) 39
Table 3.3 Regular steamship companies operating in Senegal, 1903 44
Table 3.4 Call of steamship vessels to Dakar, Mindelo, and Las Palmas,
1906–191346
Table 3.5 Average prices of bunkered coal in the main West African
coaling seaports, 1910 (in francs) 47
Table 3.6 Structure of coal prices in Dakar and Las Palmas (in francs), 1910 48
Table 3.7 Factors affecting interport competition in West Africa, 1913 49
Table 3.8 Call of vessels (units) and coal bunkered (in tons) in Dakar,
Las Palmas, and Mindelo, 1913–1918 50
Table 4.1 Annual purchases of bunker coal from Algeria depots (Oran,
Algiers, Bone), 1928–1930 (in tonnes) 68
Table 5.1 Distribution of oil traffic in the main French refining
terminals (1965) 94
Table 8.1 Entrepreneurial taxonomy of major coal traders in Rio de
Janeiro, 1913 169

xix
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Daniel Castillo Hidalgo and Cezar Honorato

The long nineteenth century was a period of imperial expansion also known
as “steam globalisation”, as John Darwin (2020) stated. The technological
revolutions in the maritime sector were also pushed by emergent global
security, where steamship shipping and telecommunications played a major
role (Fichter, 2019; Gray, 2018; Kaukiainen, 2012). Hence, the diffusion
of technology was closely related to the expansion of colonial empires
around the world (Miller, 2012). Steamship navigation is linked to techno-
logical revolutions and the consolidation and further expansion of global
economic and political systems broadly analysed by the academic literature
(Boyns & Gray, 2016; Curry-Machado, 2013; Ducruet & Itoh, 2022;
Gray, 2017; Huber, 2013; Suárez Bosa, 2014; Williams & Armstrong,
2012). Thus, the global port cities we study in this book were connected
by a complex network of shipping connections whose edges were coaling
stations, as Suárez Bosa presents in his contribution (Chap. 2). Hence, the

D. Castillo Hidalgo (*)

University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas, Spain
e-mail: daniel.castillohidalgo@ulpgc.es
C. Honorato
University Federal Fluminense, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2023
D. Castillo Hidalgo, C. Honorato (eds.), Fuelling the World
Economy, Palgrave Studies in Maritime Economics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32565-6_1
2 D. CASTILLO HIDALGO AND C. HONORATO

coaling sector—later oil companies—is a representative element explaining

the functioning of these complex networks featuring Global North–South
relations (see Chaps. 2, 3, 7, and 8). Port cities and their hinterlands were
also integrated into these international commercial flows, impacting their
port facilities, geography, economic activity, and urban culture (Mah,
2014). As Prieto et al. stated in their contribution, port activity and coal
business also influenced the daily narratives and local vocabulary of people
living close to the port areas (Chap. 7).
Steam-powered seagoing ships require large quantities of coal for
propulsion. Since coal was a bulky commodity compared to fuel oil, for
example, which had only been used as a fuel since the end of World War I,
the steamers were forced to stop and bunker coal again and again on their
voyages. This technical constraint promoted the emergence of a global
network of coaling stations where logistics strategies involved the partici-
pation of private and public partners. It was not only a pure commercial
issue but also a military and geostrategic question. Thus, public institu-
tions of leading industrial countries managed to find the way to promote
maritime economic activity—as well as their naval defence—through dif-
ferent energy management policies related to coal that emerged as the key
factor for economic growth in the second half of the nineteenth century
(see Chaps. 4 and 6).
Thus, possession of the largest fleet of ships and control of the stations
were important factors for the colonial empires and more broadly for the
British and French empires. The UK coaling companies led the world
market, promoting the installation of coaling stations located in strategic
positions around the globe (Suárez Bosa, 2004). Briefly, the scholarly lit-
erature provides compelling evidence that since the beginning of the age
of steamships, coal has been vital in the growth of maritime transport and
seaborne trade. Proportionally, coal exportation favoured British predom-
inance in world trade, as it is exposed in every contribution in this book.
Broadly, coaling companies also diversified their entrepreneurial
activities to other essential port functions: shipbroking, ship construction
and repair, insurance brokers, and so on. Depending on the historical
pattern of development of the local port communities, the weight of those
coaling companies will be more or less important. This aspect is related to
the strength of local capitals and shareholders facing foreign competitors
(see Chaps. 2, 3, 6, 7, and 8). All contributions in this volume analyse the
structure of coal markets and a common trend to establish corporative
entrepreneurial strategies driving oligopolies, trust, and cartel
 1 INTRODUCTION 3

configuration. Hence, major coaling companies were able to influence the

functioning of local and regional markets thanks to the control they had
on global supply chains (i.e., ownership of main coal mines, special agree-
ments with the owners of coal mines). As a response to those cartelizing
strategies, other national responses also represent the struggle of the capi-
talist competition for international markets, as Eva-Maria Roelevink
(Chap. 4) and Jerzy Lazor (Chap. 6) show.
On the other hand, studying late nineteenth-century shipping routes
and the structure of coal markets, it is worth understanding the pivotal
role played by the Global North and its economic, military, and political
agents. They were the centre of manufacturing and major industry suppli-
ers. These economic centres required supplies of commodities from the
Global South, and people living there also demanded foodstuffs and man-
ufactured goods from the North. The extension of the international divi-
sion of labour and production was fuelled and sustained by steamship
navigation and the seaborne trade. The contributions in this volume par-
tially analysed this dialectic between the local and global economic opera-
tors, as Honorato et al. proposed in their chapter (Chap. 8).
The final stage of coal as fuel for shipping coincided with the end of
World War I. There are several factors explaining the decline of coal and
the emergence of liquid fuels during the 1920s. In this book, this transi-
tion is partially explored in different ways, but a specific study is provided
by Bruno Marnot on his contribution to the implementation and expan-
sion of liquid fuels in French seaports since the Great War (Chap. 5).
Moreover, the scholarly literature has studied in depth the structural
changes in the international political system caused by the progressive
replacement of coal by oil and the increased influence of the United States
as the main world producer. However, although coal returned to provide
fuel for international shipping in the aftermath of the Great War, the
golden days of coal business in seaports came to an end, as Castillo sug-
gested in Chap. 3. The economic crisis of the 1930s and the unaffordable
competition presented by liquid fuels for shipping companies (i.e., more
space on board, reduced cost and speed of bunkering operations) made
coal languished in the shipping industry after World War II, and it almost
disappeared from the docks during the 1950s.
This edited collection explores the long-term evolution of coal and fuel
business in seaports running from the early wave of globalization up to the
World War II aftermath. This book aims to fill a relatively neglected topic
on economic and maritime history, where different regions around the
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Lettish language, 212, 242.
Levant, Hellenization of, 162, 220.
Libya, 152.
Libyans, blondness of, 223;
invade Egypt, 223.
Liguria, Mediterraneans in, 152, 157.
Ligurian language, 140, 234.
Lips, as race character, 31.
Literary characters and physical types, 229–230.
Lithuanian language, 212, 242.
“Litus Saxonicum,” 252.
Livonian language, 236.
Livonians, or Livs, 236.
Lombards, 73, 142, 145, 177, 271;
in Italy, 157, 180;
overthrow of, by Franks, 181, 191.
Lombardy, 25, 35, 183;
Nordics in, 189, 221.
London, 29, 153.
Long skulls in India, 261.
Lorraine, 182;
Alpines in, 140.
Low Countries and the Huguenots, 53.
Low German language, 258;
and the Nordics, 188–189.
Low German people, 73.
Lower Paleolithic, 104–106, 132.
Loyalists, 6.
Lusitania (Portugal), occupied by the Suevi, 180.
Luxemburg, 183.

Macedon, 161–162.
Macedonian dynasties, 162.
Macedonians, mixed with Asiatics, 161–162.
Magdalenian bow, 112–113;
Period, 105, 111, 112, 114, 115, 132;
art, 114.
Magi, 254.
Maglemose culture, 117, 123, 132, 169, 265.
Magna Græcia, 158.
Magyar language, 236, 244.
Magyars, 143, 144.
Malay Peninsula, Negroids in, 149.
Male, as indicating the trend of the race, 27.
Man, ancestry of, 104–118;
arboreal, 101;
ascent of, 97–98;
classification of, 32;
definition of, 104;
earliest skeletal evidence of, in Europe, 101, 102;
evolution of, 101;
phases of development of, 101–103;
place of origin, 100;
predisposition to mismate, 22;
race, language, and nationality of, 3, 4;
three distinct subspecies of, in Europe, 19–22.
Manx language, 247.
Marcomanni, 177.
Maritime architecture, 165, 199.
Marius, 177, 217.
Marriages between contrasted races, 60.
Mas d’Azil, 115, 265.
Massachusetts, genius produced in, 99.
Massagetæ (see Sacæ), 214, 254, 257, 270;
physical characters of, 259.
Massif Central, 141.
Medes, 173, 216, 254;
Nordics in the Empire of, 254.
Media, 147;
language of, 239;
introduction of Aryan language into, 254;
Nordics in, 173.
Mediæval Europe, 10, 52, 179–188.
See also Middle Ages.
Medic language (see Media, also Zendic language), 255.
Mediterranean basin, 89, 111, 123;
immigrants from to America, 89.
Mediterranean race, or subspecies, 20, 21, 23, 24, 26, 29, 31, 34, 66,
68, 69, 111, 134, 145, 148–167, 226;
and Alpine race, 146, 181;
and ancient civilization, 153, 214–215;
and Aryan speech, 155, 233, 235, 237–238, 257;
and Celtic language, 247–251;
and Gauls, 156;
and Negroes, 151;
and Negritos, 151;
and synthetic languages, 237;
as sailors, 227–228;
classic civilization due to, 153, 165–166;
Celticized, 248;
crossed with Goidels, 248;
description of, 20, 148;
distribution of, 148–149, 241;
distribution in the Neolithic, 123, 148–149;
in the Paleolithic, 147;
to-day, 20, 148 seq., 152, 167, 273;
habitat of, 44, 45;
hair of, 20, 26, 31, 34;
expansion of, 266;
eye color of, 20;
forerunners of, 117;
handsomest types of, 158;
in Afghanistan, 148;
Africa, 148, 151–152, 155;
Algeria, 44;
America, 44, 45;
Arabia, 153;
Argentine, 78;
Asia, 148–150, 257;
Azilian Period, 117;
Baluchistan, 148;
Britain (see also British Isles and England), 123, 149, 247–249;
British Isles, 137, 149–153, 177 (Pre-Nordic), 153, 198–199, 247;
Bronze Age, 128, 155;
Eastern Bulgaria, 145;
Canada, 44;
Ceylon, 148;
cities, 94, 209;
north and western Europe, 149, 155;
Egypt, 148;
England, or the British Isles, 64, 83, 123, 127, 137, 149, 150, 153,
208–210, 249;
France, 44, 149, 156, 194, 197;
Greece, 158–161;
Iberian Peninsula, 152, 156;
India, 66, 148, 150, 257, 261;
Italy, 122, 127, 157, 158;
Languedoc, 156;
Liguria, 152, 157;
Morocco, 148;
Nile Valley, 151;
Paleolithic Period, 149;
Persia, 66, 148;
Po Valley, 157;
Provence, 156;
Rome, 153–154;
Sahara, 151;
Scotland, 150, 153, 203–204;
Senegambian regions, 151;
in Sicily, 158;
in South America, 78;
in Spain, 149, 151, 155–156, 192;
in the Terramara Period, 122;
in Wales, 62, 63, 153, 177, 203, 205;
increasing in America, 45;
language of, 155–158, 233;
(in Spain, Italy, and France, 238);
knowledge of metallurgy, 146;
mental characteristics of, 229;
mixed with Celts, 177;
with Dravidians, 150;
with Gauls, 192;
with Negroids, 150, 241;
with Nordics, 161;
with other ethnic elements, 149–166;
never in Scandinavia, 150–151;
not in the Alps, 149, 151;
not purely European, 155, 241;
origin of, 241;
original language of, 235;
physical characters of, 34, 117, 134, 148;
racial aptitudes of, 228–229;
rise of, in Europe, 190;
route of migration of, 155;
resurgence of, 190, 196;
in England, 83, 208;
skulls of, 20, 24, 117, 134;
stature of, 20, 29;
underlying the Alpines and Nordics in western Europe, 150;
victims of tuberculosis, 45;
yielding to the Alpines at the present time, 177;
Proto-Mediterraneans, 132, 149, 150.
Mediterranean Sea, 71, 89, 111, 117, 123, 148, 155, 165, 179.
Megalithic monuments, 128–129;
distribution of, 155, 265.
Melanesians, 33.
Melting Pot, 16, 263.
Mendelian characters, 13.
Mercenaries, 135, 216.
Mesaticephaly, 19.
Mesopotamia, 147, 239;
chronicles of, 253;
city-states of, 119;
copper in, 125;
culture synchronous with the northern Neolithic, 125;
earliest fixed date of, 126.
Messapian language, 234.
Messina, Pelasgians in, 160.
Mesvinian river terraces, 133.
Metallurgy, 120, 122, 123, 125–132, 146, 238–240, 267.
Metals, 120–132.
Mexican War, 86.
Mexico, 17, 76;
peons of, 9.
Michael Angelo, 215.
Microliths, 113.
Middle Ages, 65, 135, 156, 183, 185, 189, 197, 202, 227;
civilization of, 165;
elimination of good strains of, 52–53.
Middle Paleolithic Period, 104, 106, 132.
Middle West, settlement of by poor whites, 40.
Migrating types, 10, 208.
Mikklegard, 179.
Mindel glaciation, 133.
Mindel-Riss Interglacial stage, 102, 133.
Minoan culture of Crete, 99, 164;
Minoan Empire, 164.
Miocene Period, 101–102.
Miscegenation, 60.
Mississippi, 99;
black belt of, 76.
Missouri, 40;
river, 40.
Mitanni, 214;
Aryan names among, 253;
Empire of, 239.
Mixture of races, 18, 34, 60;
see also race mixture.
Mohammedan invasion of Europe, 181.
Moldavia, Vlachs in, 246.
Mongolian elements in Europe, 139.
Mongolians, see Mongols.
Mongoloid race, 33, 144, 237;
hair of, 34;
invasions of Europe by, 65, 259–260, 272.
Mongols, 31, 33, 34, 65, 134, 139, 144, 224, 241, 260;
crossed with Ainus, 225;
crossed with Esquimaux, 225;
in Russia, 65.
Monosyllabic languages, 240.
Moors, in Spain, 156, 181, 192.
Moral, intellectual and physical characters, race differences in, 226 et
seq.
Mordvins, 144.
Morocco, bronze in, 128;
Mediterranean race in, 148.
Mosaics, 13.
Moscovy, 212.
Moslems in Europe, 181.
Mound burials, 129.
Mousterian Period, 104, 106–107, 132.
Muscovite expansion in Europe, 65.
Mycenæ, ancient civilization of, 153.
Mycenæan civilization, 159, 161, 164;
culture, of Crete, 164;
of Greece, 99;
of Sardinia, 164.
Myrmidons, 159.

Napoleon, 186.
Napoleonic Wars, 197.
National consciousness of Americans, 90.
National movements, 57, 58;
types, absorption of higher by lower, 58, 59.
Nationalities, formed around language and religion, 57, 58.
Nationality, 3, 4;
artificial grouping, 56;
and language, 56–68.
Navigation, development of, 165, 199.
Neanderthal man, 15, 104–107, 111, 114, 118, 132;
habits of, 107;
race characters of, 107;
remnants or survivals of, 15, 107–108;
 skull of, 15, 107–108.
Neanderthaloids, 106–107;
remnants of, 114.
Negritos, and Mediterraneans, 151;
as substratum in southern Asia, 148–149.
Negroes, 16, 18, 23, 24, 31, 33, 34, 40, 65, 76, 80, 88, 152;
African, 80;
American, provenience of, 82;
and genius, 109;
and the Mediterranean race, 151–152;
and socialism, 87;
citizenship of, 218;
hair of, 34;
in Africa, 23, 24, 33, 79, 80;
America, 82;
Brazil, 78;
Haiti, 76, 77;
Mexico, 76;
New England, 86;
South America, 76, 78;
Southern States, 42;
United States, 16, 40, 65, 76, 82, 85–87, 99;
West Indies, 76;
Nordic blood in, 82;
rapid multiplication of, 79;
replacing whites in the South, 76–78;
a servient race, 87, 88;
stationary character of their development, 77.
Negroids, 33, 111, 149;
crossed with Mediterraneans, 150, 241, 257;
hair of, 34;
(in India) physical character of, 261.
Neo-Celtic languages, 248.
Neo-Latin, 250.
Neolithic (New Stone Age), 29, 105, 136, 139, 148, 157, 169, 199, 205,
213–214, 248;
 Beaker Makers in, 138;
beginning of, 118–122;
duration of, 121;
distribution of races during, 123–124;
in western Europe, 121;
northern Neolithic contemporary with southern Bronze, 129;
Pre-Neolithic, 117, 207;
Upper or Late Neolithic, 121, 132;
and writing, 115.
Neolithic ancestors of the Proto-Mediterraneans, 149;
invasion of the Alpines, 138.
Nero, 217.
New England, 11, 38, 41, 55;
immigrants in, 11, 72;
lack of race consciousness in, 86;
Negro in, 86;
Nordic in Colonial times, 83;
race mixture in, 72;
settlers of, 83.
New England type, 83.
New France, Catholic colonies in, 85.
New Spain, Catholic colonies in, 85.
New Stone Age, 119;
see Neolithic.
New York, 5, 41, 80;
immigrants in, 91, 92.
New Zealand, whites in, 79.
Nile river, 80;
Nile valley, Mediterraneans in, 151.
Nobility (French), Oriental and Mediterranean strains in, 197.
Nomads, 10, 209, 258, 259;
see also migratory types.
Non-Aryan, 204.
 See Anaryan.
Nordic aristocracy, 213;
see also aristocracy;
in Austria, 141;
Britain, 247;
eastern Germany, 141;
France, 140, 196–197;
Gaul, 247;
Germany, 187;
Greece, 153;
Italy, 215;
Lombardy, 189;
Persia, 254;
Rome, 154;
Russia, 142;
Spain, 192, 247;
southern Europe, 188;
Venice, 189;
loss of through war, 191.
Nordic broodland, 141, 213 et seq.;
Nordic conquerors of India, 71, 216;
fatherland, 213–222;
immigrants to America, 211;
invaders of Italy, 215;
invasions of Asia, 257–259;
nations, 142.
Nordic race, or subspecies, 20, 24, 31, 61, 131, 133, 149, 151, 167–178;
adventurers, pioneers and sailors, 74;
affected by the actinic rays, 84;
allied to the Mediterraneans, 24;
depleted by war, 73–74;
a European type, 167;
in the Great War, 168;
habitat of, 37–38;
hair of, 34;
in Italy, 42;
 in the subtropics and elsewhere outside of its native habitat, 41–
42;
location of, in Roman times, 131;
mixed with Alpines, 25, 35–36, 135–136;
mixed with other types in the United States, 82–94;
passing of, 168;
physical character of, 20, 26, 27, 29, 31, 32, 167–168;
at the present time, 168;
racial aptitudes of, 226–228;
red-haired branch of, 32.
Nordic stature, 29.
Nordic substratum in eastern Germany and Poland, 141;
in Russia, 172.
Nordic troops of Philip and Alexander, 161.
Nordic type, 40;
among native Americans, 88;
in California, 75;
in Scotland, 249.
Nordic vice, 55.
Nordics, 58, 61, 72, 129;
absorption of by conquered nations, 176;
and alcoholism, 55;
and consumption, 55;
and Low German, 188–189;
and Aryan languages, 240–242;
and Proto-Slavic languages, 143;
and specialized features, 92;
around the Caspian-Aral Sea, 214;
among the Amorites, 223;
among the Philistines, 223;
as mercenaries, 155, 216;
as officers, 142;
as raiders, 130;
Celtic dialects of, 157, 194;
Celtic and Teutonic Nordics, 139;
centre of evolution of, 169–171;
checked by the Etruscans in their advance southward, 157;
carriers of Aryan speech, 234;
conquer Alpines, 145, 147;
continental, 73;
cross the Rhine westward, 173, 194, 240;
decline of, 190, 196;
(in England) 208–210, (in India) 216, (in Europe and Asia) 260,
(in Spain) 192;
destroyed by war, 230–231;
distribution of, 242;
early movements of, 253;
energy of, 215;
expansion of, 174, 188–212;
first, 130–132;
first appearance of along the Baltic, 169;
first appearance of in Scandinavia, 117;
founders of France, England and America, 206;
in agriculture, 209;
Africa, 223;
Afghan passes, 257;
the Ægean region, 253;
the Alps, 151:
Austria, 210;
Asia, 214, 224;
Asia Minor, 214, 225;
the Balkan Peninsula, 189;
the British Isles, 188;
the Caucasus, 214, 225;
south of the Caucasus, 253–254;
cities, 94, 209;
colonies, 84;
England (Britain), 64, 137, 188, 249;
France, 188, 231;
Flanders, 188, 210, 231;
Gaul, 69, 193–194;
Germany, 170, 174, 188, 210, 231;
Europe, 188;
Hindustan, 67;
Holland, 188;
 Galicia, 156;
Greece, 158–160, 214;
India, 257;
Ireland, 201;
Italy, 189, 220–221;
Lombardy, 221;
Persia, 254;
Poland, 188;
Portugal, 192;
the Punjab, 257–258;
Rome, 154;
Russia, 188, 214, 231;
Scandinavia, 188, 210;
Scotland, 188;
Spain, 156;
Styria, 210;
Thrace, 214;
the Tyrol, 210;
invade Greece, 158–160;
landed gentry in Wales, 205;
later in central Europe, 141;
long skulls of, 134;
loss of through war, 184, 191–193, 196–197;
mixed with Alpines, 134–135, 151, 163;
with Mediterraneans, 161, 192;
Neolithic location of, 124;
outside of Europe, 223–224;
owners of fertile lands and valleys, 141;
physical characters of, 214;
Protestants, 228;
reach the Mediterranean Sea through the Alpines, 145, 147;
seize the Po valley, 157.
Norman language, spoken by French Canadians, 81.
Norman type, in England and America, 207.
Normandy, 23, 206;
conquest of, 196;
Belgæ in, 251;
 change of language in, 251;
Cymric language in, 251;
Latin speech in, 251;
Normans in, 252;
Norse pirates in, 70;
ravaged by Saxons, 251–252.
Normans, 201, 206–207;
characters of in Sicily, 207;
ecclesiastics among, 208;
in Britain, 249;
in England, 252;
language of, 252;
racial aptitudes of, 207–208;
racial mixture among, 208;
settle Normandy, 252;
transformation of, 252.
Norse, along the Atlantic coasts, 180;
Norse blood of American settlers, 83;
Norse in Britain, 200, 249;
in Ireland, 64;
in Scotland, 203;
Norsemen, 201;
Norse pirates, 70;
language of, 250;
Norse Vikings, see Vikings.
North Europeans, 67.
North Germans, 61.
North Sea, 20, 73, 166, 168, 171.
Northmen, 145, 196;
invasion of, 201;
language of, 70.
Norway, 201;
Alpines in, 136, 211;
bronze in, 127;
intellectual anæmia of, 210.
Norwegian immigrants, 211.
Nose form, 13, 30, 31.

Ofnet race, 116.

Oklahoma, 87.
Old Persian, 254–255, 258.
Old Prussian, 212, 242.
Old Sanskrit, 257.
Old Saxon (related to Frisian and Taal), 80.
Old South, 42–43.
Old Stone Age (see also Paleolithic), 120, 123.
Oscan language, 234.
Oscans, 157, 160, 173, 244, 269.
Osmanli Turks, 237.
Ossetes, 66;
language of, 66.
Ostrogoths, 176;
in Italy, 180.
Ottoman Turks, 166.

Paintings, polychrome, 112.

Palatine Germans, 84.
Paleolithic Period, 23, 38;
art of, 112, 114;
close of, 117, 149;
dates of, 104;
man, 104–118, 107–108, 124, 149, 227, 247;
in Ireland, 202;
remnants of in England, 64;
in Wales, 205;
 races of the Paleolithic Period, 118;
Lower Paleolithic Period, 104–106, 133;
Middle Paleolithic Period, 104, 106, 133;
Upper Paleolithic Period, 100, 105, 108, 111, 113, 132;
close of, 115.
Palestine, 223;
bronze weapons in, 127;
language of, 239.
Pamirs, the, 20, 254, 261;
Alpines in, 134;
language of, 259.
Pan-Germanic movement, 58.
Pan-Rumanian movement, 58.
Pan-Slavic movement, 58.
Parthian language, 255.
Patagonia, 23.
Patricians in Rome, 11, 217.
Pax Romana, 195.
Peasant, European, 117;
see also under Alpines and Racial aptitudes.
Pehlevi language, 255.
Pelasgians, 158–161, 215;
at Troy, 159;
language of, 158, 233, 243.
Peloponnesus, 160.
Pennsylvania Dutch, 84.
Peons, Mexican, 9.
Pericles, 263.
Persia, 22, 66, 147, 171, 241, 254;
Aryan language in, 237;
Aryanization of, 225;
 language of (see Old Persian), 255;
Mediterraneans in, 148;
physical types in, 257;
wars of with Greece, 255.
Persian Empire, organization of, 254.
Persians, 63, 73, 161, 214, 216, 253–256, 269;
culture of, 255;
date of separation of, from the Sacæ, 258;
expansion of, 225;
Hellenization of, 256;
as Nordics, 255;
physical character of, 259.
Pharsalia, 217.
Philip of Macedon, 161.
Philippi, 217.
Philippines, 33;
Spanish in, 78;
whites in, 78.
Philistines, Nordics among, 223.
Phœnicia, 165;
ancient civilization of, 153.
Phœnician language in Spain, 156.
Phœnicians, 228;
colonies of, 126;
in Spain, 156;
voyages of, 126–127.
Phrygians, 173, 225, 253, 256;
invade Asia Minor, 159;
language of, 256.
Physical types and literary or legendary characters, 229–230;
physical types of Normans, 207–208;
of British soldiers and sailors, 208;
see also under various races.
Picardy, 210.
Pictish language, 204, 247.
Picts, 204.
Pile dwellings, 121, 127, 132.
Piltdown man, 105–106.
Pindus mountains, Vlachs in, 45–246.
Pioneers, 45, 74–75.
Pithecanthropus erectus, 101, 133.
Plebeians or Plebs of Rome, 11, 154, 217–218.
Pleistocene Period, 100.
Pliocene Period, 22, 101.
Po valley, Alpines in, 157;
as Cisalpine Gaul, 157;
Mediterraneans in, 157;
seized by Nordics, 157;
Terramara settlements in, 127.
Poetry, 241.
Poland, 59;
Alpines in, 44, 124, 141–142;
blondness in, 190;
dolichocephaly in, 190;
Nordics in, 124, 131, 170, 188–213;
Nordic substratum in, 141;
Slavs in, 131, 142;
stature in, 190.
Poles, 58, 72, 143;
increase in East Germany, 184.
Polesia, 143.
Polish Ghettos, immigrants from, 89.
Polish Jews, 16;
in New York, 91.
Polished Stone Age, see Neolithic;
beginning of, 118–119.
Polygamy, among the Turks, 237.
Pompey, 217.
“Poor Whites,” 39–40;
physical types of, 40.
Population, direction of pressure of, 171;
effect of foreign invasion on, 69–71;
infiltration into, of slaves or immigrants, 71;
value and efficiency of a, 48.
Portugal, Nordics in, 192;
occupied by the Suevi, 180, 192.
Portuguese language, 156, 244.
Posen, 72.
Post-Glacial Periods, 105–106, 132–133.
Post-Roman invaders of Britain, 73.
Pottery, 138, 146, 241;
first appearance of, 122–123.
Pre-Aryan language, 204, 233, 235, 247;
in the British Isles, 246.
Pre-Dravidians, 149;
physical character of, 261.
Pre-Neolithic culture on the Baltic, 117.
Pre-Nordic brunets in New England, 83.
Pre-Nordics, 29, 63;
of Ireland, 64.
Primates, 3, 24, 106;
erect, 101.
Pripet swamps, 143.
Procopius, 189.