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Partition of Unity Methods
Partition of Unity Methods

Stéphane P. A. Bordas
University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg, UK

Alexander Menk
Robert Bosch GmbH, Germany

Sundararajan Natarajan
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India
This edition first published 2024
© 2024 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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 v

Contents

List of Contributors xi
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xv

1 Introduction 1
1.1 The Finite Element Method 2
1.2 Suitability of the Finite Element Method 9
1.3 Some Limitations of the FEM 11
1.4 The Idea of Enrichment 16
1.5 Conclusions 19
References 21

2 A Step-by-Step Introduction to Enrichment 23

2.1 History of Enrichment for Singularities and Localized Gradients 25
2.1.1 Enrichment by the “Method of Supplementary Singular Functions” 25
2.1.2 Finite Element with a Singularity 31
2.1.3 Partition of Unity Enrichment 33
2.1.4 Mesh Overlay Methods 35
2.1.5 Enrichment for Strong Discontinuities 36
2.2 Weak Discontinuities for One-dimensional Problems 38
2.2.1 Conventional Finite Element Solution 41
2.2.2 eXtended Finite Element Solution 44
2.2.3 eXtended Finite Element Solution with Nodal Subtraction/Shifting 54
2.2.4 Solution 55
2.3 Strong Discontinuities for One-dimensional Problem 58
2.4 Conclusions 61
References 61

3 Partition of Unity Revisited 67

3.1 Completeness, Consistency, and Reproducing Conditions 67
3.2 Partition of Unity 68
3.3 Enrichment 69
3.3.1 Description of Geometry of Enrichment Features 71
3.3.2 Choice of Enrichment Functions 75
3.3.3 Imposition of boundary conditions 80
vi Contents

3.3.4 Numerical Integration of the Weak Form 86

3.4 Numerical Examples 86
3.4.1 One-Dimensional Multiple Interface 86
3.4.2 Two-Dimensional Circular Inhomogeneity 89
3.4.3 Infinite Plate with a Center Crack Under Tension 91
3.5 Conclusions 95
References 96

4 Advanced Topics 99
4.1 Size of the Enrichment Zone 99
4.2 Numerical Integration 100
4.2.1 Polar Integration 100
4.2.2 Equivalent Polynomial Integration 101
4.2.3 Conformal Mapping 102
4.2.4 Strain Smoothing in XFEM 104
4.3 Blending Elements and Corrections 108
4.3.1 Blending Between Different Partitions of Unity 108
4.3.2 Interpolation Error in Blending Elements 109
4.3.3 Addressing Blending Phenomena 113
4.4 Preconditioning Techniques 116
4.4.1 The First Preconditioner Proposed for the XFEM 117
4.4.2 A domain Decomposition Preconditioner for the XFEM 117
References 123

5 Applications 125
5.1 Linear Elastic Fracture in Two Dimensions with XFEM 125
5.1.1 Inclined Crack in Tension 126
5.1.2 Example of a Crack Inclusion Interaction Problem 126
5.1.3 Effect of the Distance Between the Crack and the Inclusion 127
5.2 Numerical Enrichment for Anisotropic Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics 130
5.3 Creep and Crack Growth in Polycrystals 133
5.4 Fatigue Crack Growth Simulations 138
5.5 Rectangular Plate with an Inclined Crack Subjected to Thermo-Mechanical Loading 140
References 142

6 Recovery-Based Error Estimation and Bounding in XFEM 145

6.1 Introduction 145
6.2 Error Estimation in the Energy Norm. The ZZ Error Estimator 147
6.2.1 The SPR Technique 148
6.2.2 The MLS Approach 149
6.3 Recovery-based Error Estimation in XFEM 151
6.3.1 The SPR-CX Technique 151
6.3.2 The XMLS Technique 161
6.3.3 The MLS-CX Technique 163
6.3.4 On the Roles of Enhanced Recovery and Admissibility 169
6.4 Recovery Techniques in Error Bounding. Practical Error Bounds. 174
6.5 Error Estimation in Quantities of Interest 179
 Contents vii

6.5.1 Recovery-based Estimates for the Error in Quantities of Interest 179

6.5.2 The Stress Intensity Factor as QoI: Error Estimation 181
References 187

7 𝝓-FEM: An Efficient Simulation Tool Using Simple Meshes for Problems in Structure
Mechanics and Heat Transfer 191
7.1 Introduction 191
7.2 Linear Elasticity 194
7.2.1 Dirichlet Conditions 195
7.2.2 Mixed Boundary Conditions 199
7.3 Linear Elasticity with Multiple Materials 204
7.4 Linear Elasticity with Cracks 208
7.5 Heat Equation 212
7.6 Conclusions and Perspectives 214
References 215

8 eXtended Boundary Element Method (XBEM) for Fracture Mechanics and Wave Problems 217
8.1 Introduction 217
8.2 Conventional BEM Formulation 218
8.2.1 Elasticity 219
8.2.2 Helmholtz Wave Problems 222
8.3 Shortcomings of the Conventional Formulations 226
8.4 Partition of Unity BEM Formulation 228
8.5 XBEM for Accurate Fracture Analysis 228
8.5.1 Williams Expansions 228
8.5.2 Local XBEM Enrichment at Crack Tips 229
8.5.3 Results 231
8.5.4 Auxiliary Equations and Direct Evaluation of Stress Intensity Factors 232
8.5.5 Fracture in Anisotropic Materials 234
8.5.6 Conclusions 235
8.6 XBEM for Short Wave Simulation 235
8.6.1 Background to the Development of Plane Wave Enrichment 235
8.6.2 Plane Wave Enrichment 236
8.6.3 Evaluation of Boundary Integrals 238
8.6.4 Collocation Strategy and Solution 238
8.6.5 Results 239
8.6.6 Choice of Basis Functions 240
8.6.7 Scattering from Sharp Corners 242
8.7 Conditioning and its Control 243
8.8 Conclusions 245
References 245

9 Combined Extended Finite Element and Level Set Method (XFE-LSM) for
Free Boundary Problems 249
9.1 Motivation 249
9.2 The Level Set Method 250
9.2.1 The Level Set Representation of the Embedded Interface 250
9.2.2 The Basic Level Set Evolution Equation 251
viii Contents

9.2.3 Velocity Extension 252

9.2.4 Level Set Function Update 254
9.2.5 Coupling the Level Set Method with the XFEM 255
9.3 Biofilm Evolution 256
9.3.1 Biofilms 257
9.3.2 Biofilm Modeling 257
9.3.3 Two-Dimensional Model 258
9.3.4 Solution Strategy 260
9.3.5 Variational Form 261
9.3.6 Enrichment Functions 262
9.3.7 Interface Conditions 263
9.3.8 Interface Speed Function 264
9.3.9 Accuracy and Convergence 265
9.3.10 Numerical Results 266
9.4 Conclusion 269
Acknowledgment 269
References 269

10 XFEM for 3D Fracture Simulation 273

10.1 Introduction 273
10.2 Governing Equations 274
10.3 XFEM Enrichment Approximation 275
10.4 Vector Level Set 280
10.5 Computation of Stress Intensity Factor 282
10.5.1 Brittle Material 282
10.5.2 Ductile Material 286
10.6 Numerical Simulations 288
10.6.1 Computation of Fracture Parameters 288
10.6.2 Fatigue Crack Growth in Compact Tension Specimen 297
10.7 Summary 300
References 300

11 XFEM Modeling of Cracked Elastic-Plastic Solids 303

11.1 Introduction 303
11.2 Conventional von Mises Plasticity 303
11.2.1 Constitutive Model 303
11.2.2 Asymptotic Crack Tip Fields 305
11.2.3 XFEM Enrichment 307
11.2.4 Numerical Implementation 308
11.2.5 Representative Results 309
11.3 Strain Gradient Plasticity 312
11.3.1 Constitutive Model 313
11.3.2 Asymptotic Crack Tip Fields 314
11.3.3 XFEM Enrichment 316
11.3.4 Numerical Implementation 317
11.3.5 Representative Results 319
11.4 Conclusions 323
References 324
 Contents ix

12 An Introduction to Multiscale analysis with XFEM 329

12.1 Introduction 329
12.1.1 Types of Multiscale Analysis 329
12.2 Molecular Statics 330
12.2.1 Atomistic Potentials 332
12.2.2 A simple 1D Harmonic Potential Example 333
12.2.3 The Lennard-Jones Potential 335
12.2.4 The Embedded Atom Method 335
12.3 Hierarchical Multiscale Models of Elastic Behavior – The Cauchy-Born Rule 336
12.4 Current Multiscale Analysis – The Bridging Domain Method 338
12.5 The eXtended Bridging Domain Method 340
12.5.1 Simulation of a Crack Using XFEM 342
References 344

Index 345
 xi

List of Contributors

Stéphane Cotin Vanessa Lleras

Universite de Strasburg, Strasburg IMAG, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
France
Alexei Lozinski
Ravindra Duddu Laboratoire de Mathématiques, Université de
School of Engineering, Vanderbilt University Franche-Comté, Besançon Cedex, France
Nashville, USA
Emilio Martínez-Pañeda
Michel Duprez
Imperical College, London, UK
Universite de Strasburg, Strasburg
France
Indra Vir Singh
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Octavio Andrés González-Estrada
Uttarakhand, India
Escuela de Ingeniería Mecánica Colombia

Juan José Ródenas García Jon Trevelyan

Universidad Politecnica De Valencia
Valencia, Spain
Robert Gracie
University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
Durham University, Durham, UK
Killian Vuillemot
Laboratoire de Mathématiques, Université de
Franche-Comté, Besançon Cedex, France
 xiii

Preface

This book has been a moving target for the past 13 years (2009–2022). We are delighted to see its first edition
published. We tell the story of extensions to the finite element method which are now globally accepted, and imple-
mented in industrial simulation software. The book relies on the expertise of the authors and borrows additional
know-how and experience from chapters contributed from leading experts in related methods. This makes this
book the most complete account of enrichment methods, both in finite elements and boundary element methods.
We also discuss the critically important topic of error estimation and adaptivity as well as practical applications.
This book has a long and complex history, typical of academic research. The idea for the book was born around
2007, when Alexander Menk, then funded by Bosch GmbH, was a PhD student with Stéphane Bordas in Glasgow.
The original idea was to focus on the extended finite element method, but became a lot more ambitious as the
authors investigated other discretization methods, industrialized their work, and collaborated with other research
groups.
We start by an introduction on the origin of enriched methods, starting with global enrichment of finite element
methods or specialized enrichments (e.g. for fracture mechanics), introduced in the 1970s. We explain how local
enrichment methods took precedence, with the introduction of partition of unity methods in the 1990s. We give
details on a priori error estimates (Cea’s lemma), to explain how enrichment palliates limitations of polynomial
approximations of non-smooth solutions.
By starting with the notion of partition of unity, we motivate how arbitrary functions can be exactly reproduced
by the approximation space by multiplying this function with a partition of unity. We compare this approach to
other methods, put forward within the context of meshfree methods, such as intrinsic enrichment of moving least
squares.
Enrichment techniques require special treatments to support the generality of the enrichment functions used,
which are not necessarily continuous, nor even polynomial. We therefore discuss and compare different options
for numerical integration, in detail. The locality of enrichment implies the existence of interfaces between enriched
and non-enriched regions, within the domain which can lead to decreased optimality in convergence rates, inac-
curacies, and spurious oscillations in the solution close to the interface. We describe possibilities to overcome these
difficulties.
After tackling these advanced topics, we discuss a wide variety of applications of enrichment schemes, including
fracture mechanics, treatment of heterogeneities, and boundary layers.
In order to tackle special topics, we asked experts in free boundary problems, a posteriori error estimation,
nonlinear material modeling, fracture simulations, and multiscale methods to provide the reader with up-to-date
information on such important areas related to partition of unity enrichment. The book has a chapter on an excit-
ing topic related to the enriched boundary element method for fracture and wave propagation. The book ends with
a chapter on an exciting topic related to multiscale modeling of fracture.
xiv Preface

This book is dedicated to our teachers and Professors. Stéphane Bordas thinks in particular about Monsieur
Martin (math teacher at age 10 and 11), Madame Januel (math teacher at age 16), and Madame Goubet (math
teacher in preparatory classes), as well as Monsieur Carsique (math teacher in preparatory classes). But, as when
one teaches, two learn, this book is also dedicated to our students, in particular our PhD students, and to our team at
large, who all contributed strongly to our education through their own work, research, questionings, philosophical
or otherwise. We also thank our mentors Professor Ted Belytschko, Nenad Bićanić, Bhushan Karihaloo, Brian
Moran, and Chris Pearce.
 xv

Acknowledgments

Writing this book on the partition of unity methods has been an ultra marathon, and as a long-distance runner,
I realize the power of taking small steps. I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to the individuals and
organizations who have supported me throughout this 15-year journey.
First and foremost, I extend my appreciation to my mentors and educators who ignited my passion for excellence
and instilled in me the importance of understanding the intricate details of any field. I am grateful to Monsieur
Martin, Madame Januel, and Madame Goubet for their guidance during my formative years at Lycée Saint Louis
in Paris. They showed me the beauty that lies in mastery and the endless quest for knowledge. Brian Moran, my
PhD advisor, played a pivotal role by believing in me and introducing me to the field of computational mechanics,
particularly solid mechanics. His unwavering support and guidance shaped my career.
The late Ted Belytschko remains a cherished role model whose leadership and influence continue to inspire me. I
fondly remember the Friday group meetings at Northwestern University. Bhushan Karihaloo’s trust in my abilities
and his decision to entrust me with the leadership of the Institute of Mechanics and Advanced Materials in Cardiff
were instrumental in my professional growth. Without his support, our achievements would have been delayed
significantly. Thank you for helping me discover my inner potential. I extend my gratitude to the hundreds of co-
authors on our research papers who have enriched my understanding of diverse research areas. Special thanks go
to my PhD students who placed their trust in me and my research group. They showed me that “when one teaches,
two learn.” In particular, I thank Nguyen Vinh Phu, my first Master’s Student, with whom I just co-signed a book
on the material point method.
I thank Sundararajan Natarajan who has consistently showed me alternate ways into life and with whom I had
long walks, bus rides, and discussions in Glasgow, Cardiff, and Chennai. I also thank Alex Menk, with whom
Sundararajan and I co-sign this book. Alex was always an example of pragmatism mixed with mathematical rigor.
My heartfelt thanks go to the funding organizations, including the EU, EPSRC, and FNR (Luxembourg), for
providing over €25 million in funding for our research. I am grateful to the universities that trusted me, including
the University of Glasgow, EPFL, Cardiff University, and especially the University of Luxembourg, which allowed
me to flourish at the heart of Europe.
I would like to express my deep appreciation to my children, Iphigénie, Augustin, Anatole, and Oscar Bordas,
who have been constant sources of inspiration. Each of you has a unique quality that reminds me of the beauty
and elegance in mathematics, science, and knowledge. Iphigénie, your growth mindset, your grit, competitiveness,
and humility in the face of complexity inspire me daily. Augustin, your camaraderie, simplicity, and commitment
to authenticity and beauty remind me of what truly matters. Anatole, your good humor, linguistic prowess, your
drive to thrive, and your unwavering positive support have been my pillars. Oscar, your perpetual optimism, love
for mathematics, chess, and logic along with your infectious positivity brighten every instant of my day. I am also
grateful to their mother, Laurelle Demaurex, for her support during the early years of my research group and to
xvi Acknowledgments

help me bring out the best of myself by challenging me in ways I did not anticipate I would be challenged. I also
thank her father, Marc-Olivier Demaurex, for showing me the importance of reading between the lines. I also
thank Beverly Johnston for daily reminders of the power of logic and sound reasoning over sophism.
Finally, I thank my parents (Pierre Bordas and Christiane Renault) and grandparents (Raymond Renault, Lucette
Dusservaix, Suzanne Lebobe, and André Bordas) for their unwavering support and for introducing me to the world
of hard work, mathematics, and science. They were the best pacers I could have hoped for in the race of life. I will
never forget the advice given by my grandfather Raymond, his generosity, harmony, strength, and positivity which
continue to live within us and within my son Oscar, who bears his name. As a conclusion, I leave you with a
profound Sufi story that has resonated with me throughout my journey: “You see in people what you yourself are.
People are the same everywhere. The real problem is about you. Remember this.”
In our pursuit of knowledge and excellence, we often look outward for answers and inspiration. However, this
story reminds us that true understanding begins within ourselves. It is our own perspective, attitudes, and actions
that shape our perception of the world and the people in it.
As we reflect on the acknowledgments and the journey chronicled in this book, may we remember that our
interactions with others, our mentors, students, colleagues, and loved ones, are a reflection of our own inner
world. By continually striving to improve ourselves and fostering a sense of humility, empathy, and gratitude, we
can better navigate the complexities of life and contribute to the betterment of the world around us.
Thank you to everyone who has been a part of this remarkable journey. Your support, trust, and shared experi-
ences have enriched my life and this book in immeasurable ways. With heartfelt gratitude and a commitment to
ongoing growth, we would like to honor Ivo Babuška, who pioneered the partition of unity methods. His clarity
and sagacity have deeply inspired me and motivated me to complete this work.

Stéphane P.A. Bordas

I would like to thank my wife Kathrin Lydia Menk and my children Julius and Magdalena for continuously
supporting me with my work and for all the good times we had so far. I also would like to thank my parents and
my brother for helping me become the person I am today. Last but not least I would like to thank Stéphane P. A.
Bordas for giving me the opportunity to become active in academic research and Sundararajan Natarajan for all
the fruitful discussions we had during our time in Glasgow.

Alexander Menk

I would like to thank my parents Geetha Natarajan and Natarajan, my wife Ramya Chandrasekaran, and son
Vaibhav for continuously supporting me with my work and standing by me on numerous occasions. I admire
Vaibhav’s abundant source of energy, constant thirst to learn and do new things, and especially the attitude
of carrying out tasks without the fear of failure and pursuing them until success is attained. I am thankful for
my sister Parvathi’s abundant love and affection. My thanks extend to Bhagirath, Nirmal, Mahalakshmi, and
Chandrasekaran and Shantha Chandrasekaran for their support, trust, and encouragement. Special thanks to
Young philosophers, Pranav, Ayush and Shubha. I would like to thank Stéphane P.A. Bordas for supporting me
through different phases as a student, post-doctoral researcher and now as an academic researcher and Alexander
Menk for all the good times we had during our time in Glasgow. Finally, I would like to thank the omnipresent
for giving me the strength to swim through different hurdles.

Sundararajan Natarajan
 Acknowledgments xvii

We would like to thank our friends Professors Stéphane Cotin, Ravindra Duddu, Michel Duprez, Octavio Andrés
González-Estrada, Juan José Ródenas García, Robert Gracie, Vanessa Lleras, Alexei Lozinski, Emilio Martinez-
Pañeda, Indra Vir Singh, Jon Trevelyan, and Killian Vuillemot for sharing their expertise by contributing
specialized topics on the partition of unity methods. We would like to thank our friends/students Chintan Jansari,
Abir Elbeji, Dulce Canha, Saurabh Deshpande, Qiaoling Min, Aravind Kadhambariyil, Zhaoxiang Shen, Meryem
Abbad Andaloussi, Geremy Loachamín Suntaxi, Vincent de Wit, Paris Papavasileiou, Sofia Farina, and Ehsan
Mikaeili for extensive proofreading and for the numerous suggestions and corrections.
 1

Introduction
Stéphane P. A. Bordas1 , Alexander Menk2 , and Sundararajan Natarajan3
1
University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg, UK
2
Robert Bosch GmbH, Germany
3
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India

Physical systems are often modeled using partial differential equations (PDEs). The exact solution or closed form or
analytical solutions to these PDEs is only available in special cases for specific geometries. Numerical methods can
be used to approximate the exact solution in more general settings. The result of a numerical simulation is rarely
exact. Nonetheless, computer-based numerical simulation has revolutionalized industrial product development
throughout engineering disciplines. When comparing experiments and simulation with the aim of improving a
simulation procedure to give more accurate results, it is necessary to understand the different sources of error.
Figure 1.1 shows an overview of errors that occur at different stages of modeling and numerical simulation for a
given numerical method.
One of these numerical methods is called the “finite element method” (FEM). It is most commonly used in
structural mechanics, although the field of application is much broader. The historic origins of the FEM cannot be
uniquely determined. Mathematicians and engineers seemed to develop similar methods simultaneously which
laid the foundations for what is now popularly known as the FEM. In the mathematical community, the develop-
ments can be summarized as follows. In 1851, Schellbach obtained an approximate solution to Plateaus problem
by using piecewise linear functions on a surface. Variational principles to solve partial differential equations were
used by Ritz in 1909. Based on the Ritz method, Courant proposed a triangulation of a two-dimensional (2D)

Figure 1.1 Sources of error in simulation. U Physical object/process

⇓
ε1 −→ Modeling error
⇓
u Mathematical model Au = f
⇓
ε2 −→ Discretization error
⇓
uh Discrete model A h u h = fh
⇓
ε3 −→ Numerical error
⇓
u εh Numerical solution A h u εh = fh + ε.

Partition of Unity Methods, First Edition. Stéphane P. A. Bordas, Alexander Menk, and Sundararajan Natarajan.
© 2024 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2024 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of The alligator and
its allies
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
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Title: The alligator and its allies

Author: A. M. Reese

Release date: December 30, 2023 [eBook #72548]

Language: English

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Copyright, 1907, by Doubleday, Page & Company

Alligator Mississippiensis. (After Ditmars.)
(Reproduced by Permission of Doubleday, Page & Company.)
 The
Alligator and Its Allies

By

Albert M. Reese, Ph.D.

Professor of Zoölogy in West Virginia University
Author of “An Introduction to Vertebrate Embryology”

With 62 Figures and 28 Plates

G. P. Putnam’s Sons
New York and London
The Knickerbocker Press
1915
 Copyright, 1915
BY

ALBERT M. REESE
The Knickerbocker Press, New York
 PREFACE
he purpose of this volume is to bring together, in convenient
T form for the use of students of zoölogy, some of the more
important details of the biology, anatomy, and development of
the Crocodilia. For obvious reasons the American Alligator is the
species chiefly used.
In the first chapter the discussion of the alligator is largely the
result of the personal observations of the author; the facts in regard
to the less familiar forms are taken from Ditmars and others. The
description of the skeleton, with the exception of short quotations
from Reynolds, is the author’s.
The chapter on the muscular system is a translation from Bronn’s
Thierreich, and the author has not verified the descriptions of that
writer.
The description of the nervous system is partly the author’s and
partly taken from Bronn and others.
The chapters on the digestive, urogenital, respiratory, and vascular
systems are practically all from descriptions by the author.
The chapter on “The Development of the Alligator” is a reprint, with
slight alterations, of the paper of that title published for the author by
the Smithsonian Institution.
The bibliography, while not complete, will be found to contain most
of the important works dealing with this group of reptiles.
The author is grateful to Mr. Raymond L. Ditmars and to his
publishers, Messrs. Doubleday, Page & Co., and Messrs. Sturgis &
Walton, for the use of a number of plates; to the Macmillan Company
and to the United States Bureau of Fish and Fisheries for the same
privilege; to the National Museum for photographs of the skull of the
gavial; and to the Smithsonian Institution for the use of the plates
from researches published by them and included herein.
Proper acknowledgment is made, under each borrowed figure, to
the author from whom it is taken.
Morgantown, W. Va.
May 1, 1915.
 CONTENTS

PAGE

CHAPTER I
The Biology of the Crocodilia 1
CHAPTER II
The Skeleton 46
CHAPTER III
The Muscles 90
CHAPTER IV
The Nervous System 131
CHAPTER V
The Digestive System 150
CHAPTER VI
The Urogenital System 192
CHAPTER VII
The Respiratory System 197
CHAPTER VIII
The Vascular System 201
CHAPTER IX
The Development of the Alligator 226
Bibliography 343
Index 349
 ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE
Alligator Mississippiensis. (In color.) Frontispiece
FIGURE
A. Skull of Belodon 5
1. Map Showing the Present
Distribution of Crocodilia 6
2. Heads of American Alligator and
Crocodile Facing 7
3. Alligator Joe in the Everglades Facing 10
4. Alligator Hunter in the
Okefinokee Facing 10
5. Nest of C. Porosus Facing 21
6. Jackson Slough Facing 21
7. A Typical Alligator Hole Facing 23
8. Alligator Nest, Made Chiefly of
Grass Facing 25
9. Alligator Nest, Made Chiefly of
Flags Facing 27
10. Two Species of Caiman: Broad-
Nosed Caiman, Spectacled
Caiman Facing 35
11. Two African Crocodiles: Nile
Crocodile, West African
Crocodile Facing 39
12. Salt Water Crocodile Facing 41
13. Skull of Gavial, Ventral View Facing 43
14. Skull of Gavial, Lateral View Facing 43
15. Alligator Skins Facing 46
16. Entire Skeleton of Crocodile 50
 17. First Four Cervical Vertebræ of 52
Crocodile
18. Thoracic and Sacral Vertebræ of
Crocodile 55
19. Dorsal View of Skull of
Alligator Facing 60
20. Ventral View of Skull of
Alligator Facing 63
20A. Longitudinal Section of Tooth of
Crocodile Facing 66
21. Lateral View of Skull of
Alligator 69
22. Posterior View of Skull of
Alligator Facing 70
23. Sagittal Section of the Skull of
Alligator 71
24. Dorsal View of Lower Jaw of
Alligator Facing 74
25. The Hyoid Apparatus 77
26. The Sternum and the Associated
Membrane Bones 79
27. The Pectoral Girdle and
Anterior Limb 82
28. The Pelvis and Sacrum 85
29. The Posterior Limb 87
I. Plate I. The Shoulder Muscles Following 130
II. Plate II. The Muscles of the
Anterior Region Following 130
III. Plate III. The Muscles of the
Posterior Region Following 130
IV. Plate IV. The Muscles of the
Posterior Region Following 130
V. Plate V. The Muscles of the
Posterior Region Following 130
30. The Brain of the Alligator Facing 132
31. The Brachial Plexus of C. Acutus 140
32. The Crural Plexus of A.
Mississippiensis 142
33. Interior of the Mouth of the
Alligator Facing 151
34. The Digestive System of the
Alligator 152
35. Outline of the Digestive Tract of
the Alligator 158
36. Covering of the Anterior Region
of the Tongue 160
37. Covering of the Posterior
Region of the Tongue 161
38. Gland from the Posterior Region
of the Tongue 162
39. Gland from the Posterior Region
of the Tongue 164
40. Covering of the Roof of the
Mouth 166
41. Transsection of the Anterior
Region of the Œsophagus 169
42. Transsection of the Posterior
Region of the Œsophagus 170
43. Epithelium of Anterior Region of
Œsophagus 172
44. Epithelium of Anterior Region of
Œsophagus 173
45. Transsection of Wall of Pyloric
Stomach 176
46. Glands of Fundus of Stomach 177
47. Transsection of Wall of Anterior
Region of Small Intestine 181
48. Transsection of Wall of Middle
Region of Small Intestine 182
49. Transsection of Wall of 183
 Posterior Region of Small
Intestine
50. Mucosa of the Anterior Region
of Small Intestine 184
51. Transsection of the Wall of the
Middle Region of the Small
Intestine 185
52. Transsection of the Wall of the
Anterior Region of the Rectum 186
53. Epithelium of the Anterior
Region of the Rectum 187
54. Female Urogenital System of
Alligator 193
55. Male Urogenital System of
Alligator Facing 195
56. Male Organ of Alligator Facing 195
57. Respiratory Organs of Alligator 198
58. Heart of Alligator Facing 202
59. Veins of the Posterior Region of
Alligator 204
60. Veins of the Anterior Region of
the Alligator 209
61. Arteries of the Posterior Region
of the Alligator 213
62. Arteries of the Anterior Region
of the Alligator 215
VI.-XXVIII. Plates VI to XXVIII. A Series of
Figures to Illustrate the
Development of the American
Alligator Following 342
THE ALLIGATOR AND
ITS ALLIES
 CHAPTER I
THE BIOLOGY OF THE CROCODILIA

Classification
s in most groups of animals, there is considerable difference of
A opinion as to the proper classification of the Crocodilia.
One of the older textbooks (Claus and Sedgwick) divides
the order Crocodilia into three sub-orders: the Teleosauria,
Steneosauria, and Procœlia, the last only being represented by living
forms. The Procœlia or Crocodilia proper are divided into three
families,—the Crocodilidæ, the Alligatoridæ (including the caiman as
well as the alligator), and the Gavialidæ.
This division into families seems to be based mainly on the shape
of the head, or, at any rate, it throws those forms together that have
heads of the same outline.
It is this outline of the head that Ditmars (Reptiles of the World)
uses in classifying the Crocodilia, which, he says, are all included in
the single family—Crocodilidæ. The following list, taken from his
Reptiles of the World (pp. 68-69), will give a clear idea of the
number, distribution, and maximum size of the members of the order
Crocodilia. More will be said of some of the members of this list later.

Max.
Habitat Size
A. Snout extremely long and slender, extending from
the head like the handle of a frying pan
Gavialis gangeticus, Indian Gavial Northern India 30 ft.
Tomistoma schlegeli, Malayan Gavial Borneo and Sumatra 15 ft.
B. Snout very sharp and slender; of triangular outline
Crocodilus cataphractus, Sharp-nosed W. Africa 12 ft.
Crocodile
 Crocodilus johnstoni, Australian Crocodile Australia 6-8 ft.
Crocodilus intermedius, Orinoco Crocodile Venezuela 12 ft.
C. Snout moderately sharp; outline distinctly
triangular
Crocodilus americanus, American Crocodile Fla.; Mexico; Central 14 ft.
and S. America
Crocodilus siamensis, Siamese Crocodile Siam; Java 7 ft.
Crocodilus niloticus, Nile Crocodile Africa generally 16 ft.
Crocodilus porosus, Salt-water Crocodile India and Malasia 20 ft.
D. Snout more oval; bluntly triangular
Crocodilus robustus, Madagascar Crocodile Madagascar 30 ft.
Crocodilus rhombiferus, Cuban Crocodile Cuba only 7 ft.
Crocodilus moreletti, Guatemala Crocodile Guatemala; 7 ft.
Honduras
E. Snout short and broad; conformation barely
suggesting a triangular outline
Crocodilus palustris, Swamp Crocodile India and Malasia 12 ft.
Osteolæmus tetrapis, Broad-nosed Crocodile W. Africa 6 ft.
D′. Outline of head similar to that of Section D
Caiman trigonotus, Rough-backed Caiman Upper Amazon 6 ft.
Caiman sclerops, Spectacled Caiman Central and S. 7-8 ft.
America
Caiman palpebrosus, Banded Caiman Tropical South 7-8 ft.
America
F. Snout very broad; bluntly rounded at tip
Caiman latirostris,[1] Round-nosed Caiman Tropical South 7-8 ft.
America
Caiman niger,[2] Black Caiman Tropical South 20 ft.
America
Alligator mississippiensis, American Alligator Southeastern United 16 ft.
States
Alligator sinensis, Chinese Alligator China 6 ft.

[1] These species are exceptions in their genus. The snout is blunt like that
of the genus Alligator.
[2] Alleged to grow to this size by competent observers.
 Gadow in the Cambridge Natural History (p. 450) agrees with
Boulanger in believing that the recent Crocodilia cannot be
separated into different families, yet he describes seven families of
Crocodilia, two of which, the Gavialidæ and Crocodilidæ, include the
living members of the order; the former includes the gavials, of
course, and the latter the crocodiles, alligators, and caimans.
Though “doctors disagree” thus in regard to the scientific
classification of this small group of animals, this fact does not in the
least diminish the intense interest in the individual members of the
order.

Ancestry
Although the huge dragon-like dinosaurs or “terrible reptiles,”
some of which were probably more than one hundred feet long,
became extinct during the Mesozoic epoch, perhaps millions of
years before man made his appearance upon earth, we have one
group of reptiles still living in certain parts of the earth of which the
Mesozoic lords of creation need not feel ashamed. While most of the
living Crocodilia are mere pigmies in size, compared to the
Atlantosaurus, there are a few representatives of the living group, to
be discussed later, that are said to reach a length of thirty feet, which
length makes pigmies, in turn, of most of the other living reptiles.
Considering the extinct as well as the living Crocodilia, Gadow
says it is very difficult to separate them from the Dinosauria. In the
Mesozoic Crocodilia the fore limbs were much shorter and weaker
than the hind limbs, as was often the case with the dinosaurs; they
were almost entirely marine, but gave indications of descent from
terrestrial forms.
Various facts point, thinks Gadow, “to some Theropodous
Dinosaurian stock of which the Crocodilia may well form an aquatic,
further developed branch” (Cambridge Natural History, p. 432).
 Skull of Belodon. A, from above; B, from below. A, orbit; Bo, basi-occipital; Ch,
internal nares; D, pre-orbital fossa; Exo. exoccipital; Fr. frontal; Ju. jugal; La.
lacrymal; Mx. maxilla; Na. nasal; Pa. parietal; Pl. palatine; Pmx. pre-maxilla; Por.
post-orbital; Prf. pre-frontal; Pt. pterygoid; Qu. quadrate; S, lateral temporal
fossa; S′, superior temporal fossa; Sq. squamosal; Vo. vomer. (From Zittel.)