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NONLINEAR OCEAN DYNAMICS
NONLINEAR OCEAN
DYNAMICS
Synthetic Aperture Radar
MAGED MARGHANY
Department of Informatics,
Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences,
Universitas Syiah Kuala,
Darussalam, Banda
Aceh, Indonesia
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
© 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
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Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our
understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using
any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods
they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a
professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability
for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or
from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Dedicated to
my mother Faridah
and
COVID-19 Victims
and
Richard Feynman and Michio Kaku who taught me that a poor society is not one
which does not have enough wealth, but one which does not respect science
and scientists at its academic institutions and organizations.
Preface
This book was completed when I ranked and wave-current interaction, from the vari-
among the top two per cent of scientists in eties of SAR measurements.
a global list compiled by the prestigious In spite of the extensive development of
Stanford University. To date, various ocean- microwave radar sensors, most institutions
ography organizations and institutions have still focus on using conventional image
been unable to bridge the gap between processing algorithms or classic edge detec-
modern physics, and physical and dynamic tion tools, and have isolated or ignored the
oceanography. Conventional physical ocean- modern physics behind the measurements.
ography data collections, even ocean dy- The understanding of nonlinearity in
namic model developments, cannot be ocean motion is introduced and overviewed
made to comprehend countless dynamical in Chapter 1. It is fundamental to compre-
ocean features, for instance, turbulent flow hension of the mechanism of synthetic aper-
owing to wave-current interaction or front ture radar (SAR) for imaging ocean
zone occurrence in coastal waters. There dynamics. Conversely, most efforts carried
are many ambiguities in ocean dynamic fea- out using SAR imaging of the ocean are ded-
ture studies such as ocean current boundary, icated to ocean wave spectra, ship detection,
internal waves, vorticity, and Rossby waves. internal wave, and ocean current, without
Modern physics, as grounded in quantum recognizing the physical and dynamic
mechanics and relativity theories, is needed nonlinearity of these phenomena.
in ocean dynamic studies to comprehend en- It is impossible to avoid quantum me-
tirely the nonlinearity of ocean dynamic chanics when it comes to ocean dynamics.
flows. In this view, the synthetic aperture radar The science of ocean dynamics is predomi-
(SAR) imaging mechanism for nonlinear ocean nantly proven based on quantum mechanics.
dynamics describes the analytical tool re- In this regard, Chapter 2 demonstrates the
quired to grasp the modern technology in ra- quantization of ocean dynamics, and
dar imaging of sea surface, particularly Chapter 3 introduces specific quantization
microwave radar, as a foremost technology of the synthetic aperture radar theories.
to understand analysis and applications in Chapter 4 then implements the quantum
the field of ocean dynamics. Filling the gap mechanical theories to investigate the
between modern physics, quantum specula- nonlinearity of sea surface backscatters.
tion, and depletions of radar imaging of sea Consequently, radar signal and ocean sur-
surface dynamic features, this book includes face dynamics cannot be tackled separately
technical details allied with the potentiality from quantum mechanics and relativity.
of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and the Chapter 5 provides a comprehensive plat-
key techniques exploited to extract the form to understand the relativistic quantum
value-added information necessary, includ- mechanics for the nonlinearity of ocean dy-
ing ocean wave spectra, ocean surface flow, namic features in radar images. This chapter
xi
xii Preface
1
Nonlinear ocean motion equations:
Introduction and overview
1.1 Introduction
We have barely begun to fully comprehend the nonlinear ocean dynamic systems. In de-
veloping countries, the concept of nonlinear ocean dynamic systems is totally absent. It is re-
stricted to the partial description of physical ocean parameters such as temperature, salinity,
and currents, which are collected by conventional equipment such as current meters and CTD
(conductivity, temperature, depth) instruments or “sondes.” In spite of using sophisticated
advanced devices of oceanography, the complex system of ocean dynamics is still not under-
stood. In developing countries, marine biology, chemistry, or civil engineering graduates can
be physical oceanography scientists. This state of affairs delivers such impoverished knowl-
edge in understanding the ocean dynamics that there is no one, for instance, who can tell how
the dynamic system of the Indian Ocean affect the trajectory movement of MH370 debris. It
might be that a full understanding of dynamic ocean systems can solve the mystery of the
“vanishing” of Flight MH370.
This chapter is devoted to a comprehensive introduction of the nonlinear dynamic ocean.
In fact, it is key to understanding the mechanism of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) for imag-
ing ocean dynamics. However, the majority of work carried out using SAR imaging of the
ocean focuses on ocean wave spectra, ship detection, internal wave, and ocean current, with-
out understanding the physical and dynamic nonlinearity of these phenomena.
Ocean dynamics delineate and describe the mobile flow of water within the oceans. In this
regard, the wave-current interaction is the keystone of ocean dynamic features [1]. In fact,
ocean dynamics describes and models the interaction between surface gravity waves and
mean flow. Consequently, the surface gravity waves are the cornerstone to the synthetic ap-
erture radar (SAR) ocean surface imaging mechanism, as will be discussed in this book. In
fact, wave-current interaction implies an exchange of energy, so after the start of the interac-
tion, both the waves and the mean flow are affected, which also impacts the mechanism of
SAR imaging of the ocean surface.
Moreover, wave-current interaction is a vital mechanism for the occurrence of rogue
waves, as proved by the Agulhas Current. Briefly, when a wave group runs into an opposing
current, the waves in the group may heap up on top of each other, which promulgates into a
rogue wave [2, 3].
This scenario is just a tiny part of the complicated ocean dynamic system. Through the wa-
ter column, reaching from the surface to the ocean floor, there are fluctuation changes due to
the variations of ocean temperature and motion fields. This dynamic fluctuation can be sep-
arated into three distinct layers: mixed (surface) layer, upper ocean (above the thermocline),
and deep ocean. The mixed layer borders the surface and can fluctuate in thickness from 10 to
500 m. The temperature, salinity, density, and dissolved oxygen are the main physical prop-
erties of the mixed layer. In fact, temperature and salinity are the memory of the ocean in
which reflecting a history of dynamic turbulence. Indeed, turbulence is extremely high in
the mixed layer [4]. On the other hand, it turns out to be zero at the base of the mixed layer.
Turbulence grows once more below the base of the mixed layer owing to shear instabilities.
For instance, at extratropical latitudes, the mixed layer is deepest in late winter on account of
surface cooling and winter storms, whereas it becomes extremely shallow in summer. Con-
sequently, mixed layer fluctuations are governed by turbulent mixing along with Ekman
pumping, trades with the superimposing atmosphere, and horizontal advection [3–5].
Generally, the mixed layer dynamic forces are extremely complex; nevertheless, in partic-
ular, zones more or less of its indications are possible. The wind is the main force, which can
derive horizontal transport in the mixed layer; which is mainly pronounced by Ekman Layer.
In this regard, vertical diffusion of momentum balances the Coriolis effect and wind stress [5].
In fact, the Ekman transport is expanded on geostrophic flow that is mixed with horizontal
gradients of density [1, 4]. Therefore, horizontal convergences and divergences within the
mixed layer owing, for instance, to Ekman transport convergence enforce a constraint that
the ocean beneath the mixed layer must transfer fluid particles vertically. Nevertheless,
one of the requirements of the geostrophic association is that the amount of horizontal motion
must greatly surpass the magnitude of vertical motion. As a result, the weak vertical velocities
amalgamated with Ekman transport convergence (measured in meters per day) create the
horizontal motion with speeds of 10 cm s1 or more. The mathematical relationship between
the vertical and horizontal velocities can be derived by articulating the notion of conservation
of angular momentum for fluid on a rotating sphere, as will be discussed in the following
sections [1, 4, 5].
Although some regions of the deep ocean are known to have significant recirculations, the
deep ocean is both cold and dark with commonly little motion. The deep ocean is supplied
with water from the upper ocean in certain small geographical zones, for instance, the sub-
polar North Atlantic Ocean and numerous sinking zones close to the Antarctic. Due to the
weak flow of water to the deep ocean, the regular residence time of water in the deep ocean
is measured in hundreds of years. In general, this layer is dominated by a quite weak mixing
due to the fixed correlation between hydrostatic and geostrophic motions.
1.4 Classification of ocean dynamic flows 3
In general terms, “nonlinear” denotes a state that has inconsistent cause and effects. The
cause represents the force that induces the dynamic motions, i.e., drifts. For instance, the wind
is the cause of both wave propagation and current movements. In this sense, complicated
nonlinear phenomena, for instance, can result owing to ocean wave-current interactions.
Consequently there are many nonlinear effects required to understand this complicated
nonlinear ocean dynamic system. In this regard, the nonlinear ocean system differs from
nonlinear ocean dynamics [4]. The nonlinear ocean system represents the ocean system in
which the output is not proportional to changes in the input. Wave-current interactions, for
instance, are not proportional to the input wind stress. Indeed, subsequent to, the beginning
of the interaction, both the waves and the mean flow are affected due to the interaction, imply-
ing an exchange of energy. The changing of the ocean parameters and variables over time is
known as an ocean dynamic system, in which they may appear chaotic, unpredictable,
counterintuitive, or contrasting, for instance, with much simpler linear wave propagation
descriptions [5].
As a rule, the behavior of a nonlinear ocean dynamic is described in mathematics by a
nonlinear system of equations, which is a set of synchronized computations in which the un-
knowns (or the unknown functions in the case of differential ocean dynamic equations) ap-
pear as variables of a polynomial of degree higher than one or in the contention of a function,
which is not a polynomial of degree one. In other words, in a nonlinear ocean dynamic of
equations, the equation(s) to be solved cannot be written as a linear combination of the un-
known ocean parameters or functions that appear in them. Ocean dynamics can be defined as
nonlinear, regardless of whether known linear functions appear in the motion equations. In
particular, a differential motion equation is linear, if it is linear in terms of the unknown func-
tion and its derivatives, even if it is nonlinear in terms of the other variables appearing in it.
Conversely, nonlinear ocean dynamical equations are difficult to solve. Therefore, nonlinear
ocean dynamics are commonly approximated by linear equations. These nonlinear works em-
anate to approximate truth and roughly span for the input parameters, but some interesting
phenomena such as solitons, chaos, and singularities are hidden by linearization [4, 5].
It follows that specific phases of the dynamic behavior of a nonlinear ocean can appear to
be counterintuitive, unpredictable, or even chaotic. However, although such chaotic ocean
behavior may be seen as a random behavior, it is in fact not random. For instance, particular
features of the wave-current interactions appear to be chaotic, where nominal changes in one
part of the wave-current interaction produce complex effects throughout. This nonlinearity is
one of the reasons why accurate long-term wave pattern forecasts are impossible even with
advanced technology and computer models.
Let us assume that the flow velocity u is a vector field, which is expressed as [6]:
u ¼ uðx, tÞ (1.1)
4 1. Nonlinear ocean motion equations: Introduction and overview
Eq. (1.1) demonstrates the velocity of the fluid parcel at position x and time. Therefore, the
length of the flow velocity vector q can be given by:
q ¼ kuk (1.2)
Conversely, Eq. (1.2) shows a scalar field. In this view, the flow velocity of a fluid efficiently
describes everything about the motion of the fluid. Various physical properties of a fluid,
therefore, can be articulated mathematically in terms of the flow velocity. The fluid dynamic
motions can be categorized into steady flow, incompressible flow, irrotational flow, and vor-
ticity [7–9].
FIG. 1.1 Three fluid states of steady flow, quasisteady flow, and unsteady flow.
1.4 Classification of ocean dynamic flows 5
In fact, the steady flow is shown during time t1, the quasisteady flow occurs during time t2,
while unsteady flow develops during time t3.
During the quasisteady flow, there is a fluctuating, turbulent component superimposed on
a mean value equal to that of the steady flow phase. In other words, the mean value is un-
changing even though there are fluctuations. Let us assume that u0 is turbulent fluctuation
velocity, which is generated during quasisteady flow u and mathematically is expressed
by [6, 13–19]:
u0 ¼ u u (1.5)
In Eq. (1.5), the turbulent fluctuation is the difference between the mean flow u and
quasisteady flow. The mean flow u is a function of the averaging time τ (Fig. 1.2) and is es-
timated as:
t +ð0:5τ
1
u¼τ udt (1.6)
t0:5τ
For oceanic flow the interval time t 0.5τ to t + 0.5τ could be of the order of hours or perhaps
days. However, the time period when experimenting on the consequence of fluid flow on a
parcel in a wind tunnel or water basin may be of the order of seconds or even tenths of a
second, Unsteady flow is dominated by a tendency for even the mean velocity to change,
du
i.e., 6¼ 0. In this context, this mechanism leads to turbulent flow, which is unsteady by
dt
definition [20]. This turbulent flow has a great effect on radar signal, as will be discussed
in the coming chapters.
FIG. 1.2 Fluctuating mean speed flow vs time for quasistatic flow.
6 1. Nonlinear ocean motion equations: Introduction and overview
minor component volume, dV, which moves at the current velocity u. Mathematically, this
restraint implies that the physical derivative of the density must vanish to confirm incom-
pressible flow [5, 6, 10, 21]. To implement this constraint, let us assume that u is the mass,
which can be computed by a volume integral as follows:
ððð
m¼ ρdV: (1.7)
V
In ocean dynamics, the continuity equation states that the rate at which mass enters a sys-
tem is equal to the rate at which mass leaves the system plus the accumulation of mass within
the system [4, 10, 14, 22]. Substantially, this declaration necessitates that mass is neither
formed nor reduced in the constraint volume, and can be decoded into the integral form
of the continuity equation:
ððð ðð
∂ !
ρdV ¼ ρ u dS (1.8)
∂t V S
The left-hand side of Eq. (1.8) represents the rate of growth of mass within the volume and
encompasses a triple integral over the constraint volume. On the contrary, the right-hand side
of Eq. (1.8) encompasses the integration of the surface of the constraint volume of mass
convected into the system. Therefore, the volume mass moves into the system, which is
accounted as positive, and since the normal flow vector to the surface, as opposed to the sense
of movement into the system the term is invalid.
ððð ððð
∂ρ !
dV ¼ r J dV, (1.9)
∂t
V V
! !
where J is the mass flux, which represents ρ u .
The differential form of the continuity equation can be expressed by the divergence
theorem as:
∂ρ
!
+r ρ u ¼0 (1.10)
∂t
Eq. (1.10) can be written as:
∂ρ !
!
¼ r ρ u ¼ r J (1.11)
∂t
The partial derivative equation of the density ρ as a function of time requisite, which is not
neglect to declare incompressible flow. In other words, the partial derivative of the density
with respect to time refers to the rate of change within a constrained volume of fixed posi-
tions. By permitting the partial time derivative of the density to be nonzero, the flow is
not restricted to incompressible fluids. In fact, the density can change as observed from a fixed
position as fluid flows through the control volume. This approach maintains generality; and
not requiring that the partial time derivative of the density vanish illustrates that compress-
ible fluids can still undergo incompressible flow. What interests us is the
!
change in density of
!
a control volume that moves along with the flow velocity, u . The flux J is related to the flow
velocity through the following function:
! !
J ¼ρu (1.12)
1.4 Classification of ocean dynamic flows 7
In this regard, the conservation of mass implies that:
∂ρ ∂ρ
! ! !
+ r ρ u ¼ + rρ u + ρ r u ¼ 0: (1.13)
∂t ∂t
Using the chain rule, the total derivative of density is given by:
dρ ∂ρ ∂ρ dx ∂ρ dy ∂ρ dz
¼ + + + : (1.14)
∂t ∂t ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
dx dy dz !
The control volume in Eq. (1.14) is moving at the same rate of , , and ¼u . On this
dt dt dt
understanding, the material derivative can be used to simplify this expression as:
Dρ dρ !
¼ + rρ u : (1.15)
Dt ∂t
Eq. (1.15) demonstrates that mass flux changes with time as it flows along its trajectory. The
dρ
term describes how the density of the material element changes with time, which is also
∂t
known as the unsteady term. Therefore, from the continuity equation, it follows that:
Dρ
!
¼ ρ r u : (1.16)
Dt
!
Eq. (1.16) reveals that the term rρ u describes the changes in the density as the material
element moves from one point to another. This is the advection term (convection term for sca-
lar field). For flow to be incompressible, the sum of these terms should be zero. A change in
the density over time would imply that the fluid had either compressed or expanded or that
the mass contained in a constant volume, dV, had changed, neither of which are possible.
Consequently, the material derivative of the density must have vanished, and equivalently
(for nonzero density), so must the divergence of the flow velocity:
!
r u ¼ 0: (1.17)
Eq. (1.17) reveals the conservation of mass and the constraint that the density within a mov-
ing volume of fluid remainders continuous. It has been shown that an equivalent circumstance
prerequisite for incompressible flow is that the divergence of the flow velocity vanishes.
In general, the concept of incompressibility is allied with pressure and specifies that
changes in pressure accompanied by the motion of the fluid produce no changes in density.
Note that a vertically stratified fluid may be consistent with the condition of incompressibility
provided the fluid density changes whenever a parcel moves up or down. In this sense, sea-
water is not exactly incompressible, but this assumption is a good approximation for many
applications because the volume changes are small. For instance, a change of pressure
corresponding to a change of depth of 1000 m would change the volume of a sample of av-
erage seawater by less than 0.5%; and there are few states in ocean currents where depth (and
therefore pressure) changes as large as this occur along the flow path [4].
8 1. Nonlinear ocean motion equations: Introduction and overview
1.4.4 Vorticity
The simple definition of what triggers vorticity is a pseudovector field that describes the
local spinning motion of an entity near a particular point. In other words, it represents the
tendency of a particle to rotate [4, 5, 24], as would be seen by an observer positioned at that
point and moving along with the flow. In this!regard, one can express the rate of translation
vector mathematically by the velocity vector U as:
! ! ! !
U ¼ui + vj + wk (1.30)
When it comes to articulate the rate of rotation of a fluid parcel, it becomes a challenging
task. In fact, a fluid parcel converts and distorts as it rotates. Let us assume an initially rect-
angular fluid parcel that commences to rotate [7, 16, 19, 25], while each line of the rectangular
has a different angular velocity than the others (Fig. 1.5). In this view, the vorticity vector
!
would be twice the mean angular velocity vector ω of those parcels, which are relative to their
center of mass and oriented according to the right-hand rule. In this regard, the vorticity is a
! !
pseudovector field ω defined as the curl of the flow velocity u , which is expressed mathemat-
ically as:
! !
ω ≡r u , (1.31)
In rectangular Cartesian coordinates, the vorticity flow is calculated as:
! ! ∂ ∂ ∂
ω ≡r u ¼ ux uy uz
∂x ∂y ∂z (1.32)
∂uz ∂uy ∂ux ∂uz ∂uy ∂ux
¼
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
Eq. (1.32) indicates how the velocity vector changes when one moves by a tiny distance in a
direction perpendicular to vorticity. On the contrary, the vorticity vector must be parallel to
the z-axis as long as there is no z component [1, 4, 6, 10, 26]. In this circumstance, the 2-D flow
is no longer a function of the z, and therefore can be expressed as a scalar field multiplied by a
!
constant unit vector z :
! ! ∂uy ∂ux !
ω ¼ r u ¼ z: (1.33)
∂x ∂y
!
The rotation vector ω can be mathematically expressed as:
! 1 ∂w ∂v ! ∂u ∂w ! ∂v ∂u !
ω¼ i + j + k (1.34)
2 ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
12 1. Nonlinear ocean motion equations: Introduction and overview
Eq. (1.34) reveals that the vorticity vector is twice the angular velocity. Let us get rid of 12 by
replacing with ς, then the simplification of Eq. (1.34) is given by:
! ! !
ς ¼r U (1.35)
To this end, Eq. (1.35) demonstrates that any fluid parcel in that rotation has nonzero vor-
ticity (Fig. 1.6). In addition, any fluid parcel that subjugates the irrotational has zero vorticity,
which means the fluid parcel is not rotating (Fig. 1.7).
Needless to say, circulation and vorticity are the dual major quantities of rotation in a fluid.
Consequently, circulation, which is a scalar integral quantity, is a macroscopic measure of
rotation for a finite area of the fluid. Vorticity, conversely, is a vector field that provides a mi-
croscopic quantity of the rotation at any point in the fluid.
The circulation around a parcel of fluid ξ bounded by a closed curve may be defined as the
line integral of the fluid velocity over the closed curve [5, 6, 26]. Circulation, on the other hand,
is a scalar quantity defined
!
as the line integral of the velocity field along a closed
!
contour (Fig.
1.8). Let us assume that V is the velocity along a peripheral line segment d l (Fig. 1.8) and the
circulation ℂ can be estimated by taking the integral over the closed curve, which is formu-
lated as:
ð ð
! !
ℂ ¼ V d l ¼ V cos θdl (1.36)