The Male Reproductive System

1. The primary sex organs of the male reproductive system are the testes or male gonads, which
produce sperm and the male sex hormones.
2. Accessory glands produce secretions that make up the semen.
3. Accessory organs, like the scrotum, support the testes and ducts transport the sperm.
4. The penis is a transporting and supporting structure.

The Scrotum
1. The scrotum is an outpouching of the abdominal wall that supports the testes.
2. Internally, it is divided by a septum into two lateral pouches, each containing a single testis
3. The testes produce both sperm as exocrine glands
and the male sex hormones as endocrine glands.
4. The scrotal sac will elevate or descend on exposure
to changes in temperature to ensure sperm survival.

The Testes
1. Each testis is covered by a capsule of connective tissue called the tunica albuginea, which
extends inward to form a series of compartments called lobules.
2. Each lobule contains one to three convoluted seminiferous tubules in which spermatogenesis
occurs.
3. Spermatogenesis begins as immature sperm cells, called spermatogonia, which divide by
mitosis to form primary spermatocytes.
4. Primary spermatocytes divide by meiosis to form secondary spermatocytes that develop into
spermatids.
5. Spermatids develop into mature sperm cells or spermatozoa.
6. Sertoli cells supply nutrients to the developing sperm cells.
7. In the lobules, interstitial cells of Leydig produce the male sex hormone testosterone.

The Anatomy of the Spermatoza

1. Three hundred million spermatozoa are produced daily and can live up to 48 hours in the
female reproductive tract.
2. Each spermatozoa consists of a head, which contains the nuclear genetic material and an
acrosome containing enzymes, a middle piece or collar containing mitochondria, and a tail that is
a flagellum to propel the sperm cell.

The Functions of Testosterone

1. It controls the development, growth, and maintenance of the male sex organs.
2. It stimulates muscle buildup and bone development.
3. It causes sperm maturation.
4. It causes enlargement of the thyroid cartilage, or Adam’s apple, and thickening of the vocal
cords, resulting in a deep voice.
5. It produces body hair patterns, like facial and chest hair, and a receding hairline.
6. It stimulates aggressive behavior

The Ducts of the System

1. The formed sperm cells move from the convoluted seminiferous tubules of the testis to the
straight tubules at the top of the lobule.
2. They then move to a network of ducts in the testis called the rete testis.
3. They move out of the testis through coiled efferent ducts that connect to a single tube called
the ductus epididymis.
4. The tightly coiled epididymis is located on the posterior border of a testis.
5. As the epididymis straightens, it is called the ductus
deferens or vas deferens. It is 18 inches long.
6. The vas deferens is enclosed in a sheath called the spermatic cord. It empties into its
ejaculatory duct.
7. Each ejaculatory duct ejects the spermatozoa into the single urethra.
8. The urethra is the terminal duct of the system. It is about 8 inches long and is a common
passageway for sperm and urine.
9. The urethra passes through the prostate gland, the urogenital diaphragm, and the penis. It is
divided into three parts.
10. The prostatic urethra is surrounded by the prostate and is about 1 inch long; the
membranous urethra is about 1/2 inch long and connects to the penis; the spongy or cavernous
urethra is within the penis and ends at the male urethral orifice at the head of the penis. Its size
varies according to the size of the penis but is about 6 inches long.

The Accessory Glands

1. The paired seminal vesicles produce an alkaline viscous part of semen rich in fructose and
nutrients and pass it into each ejaculatory duct.
2. The single prostate gland produces an alkaline fluid of semen that activates the sperm cells to
swim.
3. The small paired bulbourethral glands or Cowper’s glands secrete a thick, viscous mucus that
enters the spongy urethra and is a lubricant for sexual intercourse.

Semen
1. Semen or seminal fluid is a mixture of sperm cells and the secretions of the accessory glands.
2. It is milky in color and rich in the sugar fructose, which provides energy for the beating
flagellum of each sperm.
3. Its alkaline pH neutralizes the acidity of the male urethra and female vagina.
4. It provides a transport medium for the swimming sperm.
5. Semen contains enzymes that activate sperm after ejaculation and an antibiotic called seminal
plasmin to control bacterial growth in the male and female reproductive tract.

The Penis
1. The penis delivers spermatozoa to the female reproductive tract.
2. It consists of a shaft whose end is called the glans penis or head covered with loose skin called
the prepuce or foreskin.
3. Internally, it is composed of three cylindrical masses of spongy tissue containing blood
sinuses.
4. Swelling of the blood sinuses during sexual stimulation results in an erection.
The Female Reproductive System
1. The primary sex organs of the female reproductive system are the ovaries, or female gonads.
They produce eggs and the female sex hormones.
2. Accessory organs of the system are the uterine or fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, and the
external genitalia.
3. Accessory glands produce mucus for lubrication during sexual intercourse.

The Ovaries
1. The ovaries are paired glands located in the upper pelvic cavity on each side of the uterus.
They are held in position by a series of suspensory ligaments.
2. The surface of an ovary is covered with germinal epithelium.
3. The capsule of an ovary consists of connective tissue called the tunica albuginea, whose outer
area is called the cortex and contains ovarian follicles.
4. Ovarian follicles are eggs in various stages of development.
5. Each follicle contains an immature egg or oocyte and is called a primary follicle.
6. As the egg matures through meiosis, the follicle develops a fluid-filled central area called the
antrum and is now called a secondary follicle.
7. A mature follicle with a mature egg is called a graafian follicle, ready for ovulation.
8. When the egg ruptures from the graafian follicle in ovulation, the follicle changes into the
corpus luteum or yellow body, which secretes estrogen and progesterone.
9. The corpus luteum eventually degenerates, if fertilization does not occur, into the corpus
albicans, or white body.
10. The ovaries produce and discharge eggs in ovulation. They also secrete the female sex
hormones estrogen and progesterone.
11. Oogenesis, or formation of the female sex cells, begins in the developing female fetus where
female stem cells called oogonia divide by mitosis to produce primary oocytes.
12. About 700,000 primary oocytes are produced at this
time and represent the total number of eggs a female will produce. They lie dormant until
puberty.
13. At puberty, the ovarian cycle begins and approximately 450 of the 700,000 primary oocytes
will develop into eggs by meiosis during the female’s reproductive years.
14. After the first meiotic division, a primary oocyte will develop into two cells: the secondary
oocyte is the larger of the two with a smaller polar body cell.
15. After the second meiotic division, which occurs only after fertilization, the secondary oocyte
becomes an ootid or mature egg with another nonfunctional polar body. The polar body from the
first meiotic division divides into two nonfunctional polar bodies. Thus,one mature egg and three
polar bodies are produced.
16. The one mature egg cell has a large supply of stored food to supply the developing embryo, if
fertilization occurs.

The Uterine or Fallopian Tubes

1. The two uterine or fallopian tubes transport the ova from the ovaries to the uterus.
2. The funnel-shaped open end is called the infundibulum and is surrounded by a fringe of
finger-likeprojections called the fimbriae.
3. Cilia on the epithelium of the infundibulum and the waving fimbriae sweep an ovum into the
uterine tube after ovulation.
4. The egg is moved by peristalsis and the action of cilia toward the uterus. Fertilization usually
occurs in the upper one-third of the tube within 24 hours after ovulation.

The Uterus
1. The uterus is the site of menstruation, it is where the fertilized egg is implanted and where the
fetus develops, and it is where labor begins during delivery.
2. It is shaped like an inverted pear: the dome-shaped portion above the uterine tubes is the
fundus, the major tapering portion the body, and the narrow inferior portion the cervix. Between
the body and the cervix is a narrow region called the isthmus.
3. The interior of the body is the uterine cavity; the interior of the cervix is the cervical canal.
4. The opening between the uterine cavity and the cervical canal is called the internal os, and the
opening between the cervical canal and the vagina is the external os.
5. The wall of the uterus is composed of three layers: the innermost is the endometrium where
the fertilized egg implants, the second is the myometrium of smooth muscle, and the outermost is
the perimetrium or visceral peritoneum.

The Functions of Estrogen

1. The ovaries become active during puberty producing ova and estrogen.
2. Estrogen causes the development of the female secondary sex characteristics: the development
of breasts; the appearance of pubic and axillary hair; fat deposits on the hips, breasts, and under
the skin; and widening of the pelvic bone producing a broad hip.
3. Estrogen causes enlargement of the uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, and the external genitalia.

The Vagina
1. The vagina is a passageway for the menstrual flow, is a receptacle for the penis during sexual
intercourse, and is the lower portion of the birth canal.
2. A recess called the fornix surrounds the vaginal attachment to the cervix.

The External Genitalia of the Female

1. The vulva or pudendum is the collective term for the external genitalia of the female.
2. The mons pubis or veneris is a mound of adipose tissue covered with pubic hair at puberty.
3. Two longitudinal folds of hair-covered skin extend posteriorly and inferiorly from the mons
pubis called the labia majora. They contain adipose tissue and sweat glands.
4. Medial to the labia majora are two other delicatefolds of skin called the labia minora. They do
not have hair but have numerous sebaceous glands.
5. The clitoris is a small mass of erectile tissue located at the anterior junction of the labia minora
covered with a layer of skin called the prepuce. The exposed portion of the clitoris is called the
glans.
6. The opening between the two labia minora is called the vestibule containing a thin fold of
tissue called the hymen, which is ruptured during the first sexual intercourse.
7. Also in the vestibule are two openings, the vaginal orifice and the urethral orifice.
8. On each side of the urethral orifice are the two openings of the ducts of the lesser vestibular or
Skene’s glands, which secrete mucus.
9. On each side of the vaginal orifice are the two openings of the greater vestibular or Bartholin’s
glands that also secrete mucus for lubrication during sexual intercourse.

The Perineum
1. The perineum is a diamond-shaped area between the buttocks and thighs of males and
females.
2. It is divided into an anterior urogenital triangle that contains the external genitalia and a
posterior anal triangle that contains the anus.

The Anatomy and Function of the Mammary Glands

1. Mammary glands, found in both males and females, are functional to produce milk only in the
female. They increase in size during puberty due to estrogen.
2. Each gland consists of 15 to 20 lobes separated by adipose tissue.
3. Each lobe contains smaller compartments called lobules, which contain the milk-secreting
cells or alveoli arranged like a cluster of grapes.
4. The alveoli convey the milk into secondary tubules, which join into mammary ducts.
5. As the ducts approach the nipple, they expand into milk storage sinuses called ampullae.
6. Ampullae continue as lactiferous ducts that terminate in the nipple.
7. The circular pigmented area around each nipple iscalled the areola and contains modified
sebaceous glands.
8. The function of the mammary glands is to produce milk and to eject it out the nipple, a process
called lactation

B. Hormones of the Reproductive System

 B. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): This hormone is produced by the pituitary

gland in both males and females. In females, FSH stimulates the growth of
follicles in the ovaries and the production of estrogen. In males, FSH stimulates
the production of sperm.
 Luteinizing hormone (LH): This hormone is also produced by the pituitary gland
in both males and females. In females, LH triggers ovulation and the production
of progesterone. In males, LH stimulates the production of testosterone.
 Estrogen: This hormone is produced by the ovaries in females and in small
amounts by the testes in males. Estrogen is responsible for the development of
secondary sex characteristics in females, such as breasts and wider hips. It also
plays a role in the menstrual cycle and in pregnancy.
 Progesterone: This hormone is produced by the ovaries in females and by the
corpus luteum after ovulation. Progesterone helps to prepare the uterus for
pregnancy and maintains the pregnancy if the egg is fertilized.
 Testosterone: This hormone is produced by the testes in males and in small
amounts by the ovaries in females. Testosterone is responsible for the
development of secondary sex characteristics in males, such as a deep voice
and facial hair. It also plays a role in sex drive and sperm production.
C. The ovarian cycle is the process by which an egg matures and is released from the
ovary. It is divided into three phases:
 The follicular phase: This phase begins with the menstrual period and ends with
ovulation. During this phase, a group of follicles in the ovary start to grow. One
follicle will eventually become dominant and release an egg.
 Ovulation: This is the phase when the egg is released from the ovary. It usually
occurs around day 14 of the cycle.
 The luteal phase: This phase begins after ovulation and ends with the start of the
next menstrual period. During this phase, the empty follicle becomes a corpus
luteum, which produces the hormones progesterone and estrogen. These
hormones help to prepare the uterus for pregnancy.
The endometrial cycle is the process by which the lining of the uterus thickens and then
is shed. It is divided into two phases:
 The proliferative phase: This phase begins after menstruation and ends with
ovulation. During this phase, the lining of the uterus thickens under the influence
of estrogen.
 The secretory phase: This phase begins after ovulation and ends with
menstruation. During this phase, the lining of the uterus becomes more vascular
and glandular under the influence of progesterone. If the egg is not fertilized, the
lining of the uterus will break down and be shed during menstruation.
The ovarian and endometrial cycles are closely linked. The hormones produced by the
ovaries, especially estrogen and progesterone, control the growth and development of
the lining of the uterus. If the egg is fertilized, the hormones produced by the corpus
luteum will help to maintain the pregnancy.
The ovarian and endometrial cycles are essential for reproduction. They ensure that the
egg is released at the right time and that the uterus is prepared to receive the fertilized
egg.
Here are some additional details about the ovarian and endometrial cycles:
 The ovarian cycle typically lasts 28 days, but it can vary from woman to woman.
 The endometrial cycle is slightly shorter than the ovarian cycle, typically lasting
21-24 days.
 The menstrual period usually lasts 3-7 days.
 The ovarian and endometrial cycles are controlled by a complex interplay of
hormones, including follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone
(LH), estrogen, and progesterone.
 The ovarian and endometrial cycles are essential for reproduction. They ensure
that the egg is released at the right time and that the uterus is prepared to
receive the fertilized egg.
D. Sexual differentiation is the process by which a person's biological sex is determined.
This process begins at conception and is influenced by a variety of factors, including
genes, hormones, and the environment.
Gender identity is a person's internal sense of being male, female, or something else. It
is not always the same as a person's biological sex. For example, a person who was
assigned male at birth may identify as female.
The biological factors that influence sexual differentiation include:
  Chromosomes: A person's chromosomes determine their sex chromosomes. The
most common sex chromosomes are X and Y. People with two X chromosomes
are typically female, while people with one X and one Y chromosome are
typically male. However, there are other combinations of sex chromosomes, such
as XXY and XYY.
 Hormones: Hormones play a role in the development of the genitals and
secondary sex characteristics. The most important hormones for sexual
differentiation are testosterone and estrogen. Testosterone is responsible for the
development of male characteristics, such as a deep voice and facial hair.
Estrogen is responsible for the development of female characteristics, such as
breasts and wider hips.
 Environment: The environment can also play a role in sexual differentiation. For
example, exposure to certain chemicals or pollutants during pregnancy can affect
the development of the genitals.
The social factors that influence gender identity include:
 Culture: The culture in which a person grows up can influence their gender
identity. For example, some cultures have more rigid gender roles than others.
 Family: A person's family can also influence their gender identity. For example, if
a child is raised by a single mother, they may be more likely to identify as female.
 Peers: A person's peers can also influence their gender identity. For example, if a
child is bullied for not conforming to traditional gender roles, they may be more
likely to question their gender identity.
It is important to note that sexual differentiation and gender identity are not always the
same. There are many people who do not identify with the sex they were assigned at
birth. These people are often referred to as transgender. Transgender people may
choose to transition to the gender they identify with, which may involve changing their
name, pronouns, and/or physical appearance.
It is also important to note that sexual differentiation and gender identity are not binary.
There are many people who do not identify as strictly male or female. These people
may identify as non-binary, genderqueer, or genderfluid.
Gender identity is a complex issue that is still being researched. There is no one right
way to be transgender or non-binary. Everyone's experience is different. It is important
to be respectful of people's gender identities and to use the pronouns they prefer.

Pregnancy and Embryonic Development

1. An egg cell must be fertilized within 12 to 24 hours after ovulation; sperm remains viable for 12
to 48 hours in the female reproductive tract.
2. It takes the egg 24 hours to move down one-third of the uterine tube. Fertilization will occur in
the upper two-thirds of the tube.
3. A fertilized egg is called a zygote. As it moves down the uterine tube, it divides by mitosis to
form a hollow sphere of cells called the blastocyst or blastula. By the time it reaches the uterine
cavity, it is called a chorionic vesicle.
4. It secretes chorionic gonadotropin, which stimulates the corpus luteum to maintain the uterine
lining via its hormones. It embeds in the endometrial lining by the 7th day.
5. The three primary germ layers are now being developed. The ectoderm will develop into skin
and the nervous system; the endoderm will form the linings of internal organs; and the
 mesoderm will form muscles, bones, and other tissues. These tissues come from the blastocyst’s
inner cell mass.
6. The blastocyst’s fluid-filled sphere, the trophoblast, forms projections called chorionic villi,
which will interact with uterine tissue to form the placenta.
7. Once the placenta is formed, the three-layered embryo becomes surrounded by a fluid-filled sac
called the amnion.
8. The embryo becomes attached by a connecting stalk called the umbilical cord.
9. The placenta exchanges nutrients, oxygen, and wastes between the embryo and the mother. By
the 9th week of development, the embryo is called a fetus. Later in development, the umbilical
cord will become the major exchange structure between fetus and mother.
10. As pregnancy continues, the uterus expands into the abdominal cavity to accommodate the
growing fetus.
11. Childbirth is called parturition and begins with contractions of the smooth muscles of the uterus,
called labor.
12. Labor is divided into three stages: the dilation stage, the expulsion stage, and the placental
stage.
13. During the dilation stage, the cervix is fully dilated by the head of the fetus and the amnion
ruptures releasing amniotic fluid.
14. During the expulsion stage, the child moves through the cervix and vagina, usually head first into
the outside world.
15. During the placental stage, the placenta detaches from the uterus within 15 minutes following
birth, called the afterbirth