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Navigation
Introduction
This chapter introduces the topic of navigation in the advanced
cockpit. You will learn about flight management systems
(FMS) and area navigation (RNAV) systems, an increasingly
popular method of navigating that allows pilots to make more
efficient use of the national airspace system. The increasing
number of users is attributable to more economical and
accurate satellite signal receivers and computer chips. RNAV
systems may use VHF omnidirectional range (VOR); distance
measuring equipment (DME) (VOR/DME, DME/DME)
signals; inertial navigation systems (INS); Doppler radar;
the current version of LOng RAnge Navigation (LORAN),
LORAN-C (and eLORAN, as it becomes operational);
and the global positioning system (GPS), to name a few.
Ground-based LORAN-C is a reliable complement to space-
based GPS systems (United States Department of Defense
(DOD) GPS, Russian Global Navigation Satellite System
(GLONASS), and European Galileo in the future).
3-1
Wide area augmentation system (WAAS) of the standard GPS the present position of the aircraft. Using this positional
furnishes additional error correction information, allowing information, the equipment can calculate the bearing and
Category I precision approaches (similar to basic instrument distance to or from any waypoint and permit navigation
landing system (ILS) minimums) to units equipped to receive directly between any two waypoints. In this way, RNAV
and integrate the data. Most general aviation pilots learn overcomes a fundamental limitation of conventional
to work with an FMS unit primarily using GPS signals, navaid point-to-point navigation techniques, which require
possibly with WAAS and LORAN-C options. Older RNAV navigating between electronic navigation transmitters on the
units made use of VOR and DME information to compute ground. The following examples illustrate this limitation.
positions within range of the navaids. Newer units contain
databases that allow route programming with automatic An aircraft equipped with conventional VOR receivers is
sequencing through the selected navigation points. Therefore, positioned at Point A as shown in the diagram at the top
flight management system (FMS) is the best descriptor of the of Figure 3-1, and the pilot wishes to navigate directly to
current GPS units integrating VOR (and DME, optionally) Point B. Although there appear to be a few VOR stations in
to allow point-to-point navigation outside established flight the vicinity of the aircraft, it is not clear whether reception
routes. You will learn to use the FMS data entry controls to is possible from the aircraft’s present position. If the VOR
program a flight route, review the planned route, track and stations are within reception range, the pilot has two choices:
make modifications to the planned route while en route, plan (1) fly to intercept the closest airway, then track it to the
and execute a descent, and fly an approach procedure that is intersection; or (2) fly to intercept an extension of the radial
based solely on RNAV signals. You should remember that that defines Point B (assuming reception is possible). Neither
FMS/RNAV units requiring external signals for navigation alternative provides the pilot with a means of flying directly
are usually restricted to line-of-sight reception (LORAN-C to the intersection.
being somewhat of an exception). Therefore, navigation
information in valleys and canyons that could block satellite Suppose the same aircraft is positioned at Point A as shown
signals may be severely restricted. Users in those areas at the bottom of Figure 3-1 and the pilot wishes to navigate
should pay particular attention to the altitude or elevations directly to Point C, which is neither a VOR station nor airway
of the satellites when depending on space-based signals and intersection. This pilot has an even more difficult situation.
plan flight altitudes to ensure line-of-sight signal reception. Assuming the VOR stations are within reception range, the
Review the GPS unit’s documentation sufficiently to pilot needs to create two makeshift airways using a navigation
determine if WAAS is installed and how WAAS corrections plotter and chart, fly to intercept one of them, then track
are indicated. to Point C (which the pilot has defined as the intersection
between the two courses). Flying a direct course to Point C
You will learn how the FMS can automatically perform many with any degree of accuracy is not possible. Since RNAV
of the flight planning calculations that were traditionally systems are not bound by these limitations, the entire airspace
performed by hand, and the importance of keeping flight is available for navigational use. The national airspace system
planning skills fresh. You will also discover how the FMS can can thus accommodate more aircraft. However, when the
help you detect and correct errors made in the flight planning pilot leaves the established airways, he or she also leaves the
process, how the complexities of the FMS make some new guaranteed obstruction clearances designed into the airway
kinds of errors possible, and techniques to help avoid them. system. Always plan flights above the maximum elevation
figure (MEF) displayed on sectional charts when flying
Last, you will see how advanced cockpit systems can be used off airways, and be aware that manmade obstructions such
to navigate using ground-based navigation facilities such as as towers may not be added to charts for some time after
VOR and DME. Maintaining pilot skills using ground-based construction. If flying a new routing, allow for construction,
navigation facilities is a simple matter of occasionally using which may not be published yet.
them as the primary means of navigation, and as a backup to
verify position and progress when RNAV is used. FMS/RNAV Computer
RNAV is possible through use of a variety of navigation
Area Navigation (RNAV) Basics facilities and installed aircraft equipment operated in the
RNAV Concept U.S. National Airspace System. This handbook focuses
Area Navigation (RNAV) is a navigation technique that on the more common GPS RNAV, a satellite-based radio
allows pilots to navigate directly between any two points navigation system available to aircraft equipped with a GPS
on the globe. Using RNAV, any location on the map can be receiver. In addition to its ability to receive signals from
defined in terms of latitude and longitude and characterized GPS satellites, a GPS receiver also contains a computer
as a waypoint. Onboard RNAV equipment can determine processor and a navigation database that includes much of the
3-2
2. The aircraft can intercept
the closest airway and
track it to Point B...
A
3. ...or attempt to intercept
1. The aircraft positioned at an extension of the
Point A wishes to navigate radial that defines
directly to Point B. Point B.
A
C
1. The aircraft positioned at
Point A wishes to navigate The pilot must define Point C as the intersection
directly to Point C. between two radials, fly to intercept one of them,
then track the radial to Point C.
information found on en route and terminal procedure charts. allow the pilot to enter information and program the avionics
The newer, more capable units provide map displays, traffic to accomplish the desired operations or tasks. The display and
and weather overlays of data, contain VOR/DME/localizer/ controls for a typical FMS are shown in Figure 3-2.
glideslope receivers, and can compute fuel usage in addition
to the navigation route information. For this reason, the more The display allows you to view information stored in the FMS.
descriptive term “FMS” is used in this handbook to refer to
these GPS receivers. . nm
RNG
PROC CRSR
DTK
An FMS allows you to enter a series of waypoints and TK MENU
PUSH ON
instrument procedures that define a flight route. If these BRT LEG
APT 1 VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV FPL SET AUX
waypoints and procedures are included in the navigation MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
3-3
Pages appear on the display and organize
information by topic. Some topics span
several pagers to form chapters.
. nm
RNG
PROC CRSR
DTK
PUSH ON TK MENU
BRT LEG
APT 1 VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV FPL SET AUX Individual pages are accessed
by rotating the inner knob.
MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
page presents information about a particular topic, and bears FMS/ RANGE
a page title reflecting its content. For example, the airport NAV-COM
PFD MENU
chapter may be divided into several airport pages, each page − +
displaying different information about that airport. One page FPL PROC
might be navaids. Another page might be the airport taxiway PUSH CRSR/PUSH 1-2 PUSH PAN
information and levels of data are available and require NAV COM I J K L
updates. Usually, only one page can be displayed at a time.
The airport page is displayed on the FMS in Figure 3-3. 1 2 3
M N O P
Q R S T
4 5 6
Figure 3-3 shows how to access pages and chapters on one
manufacturer’s FMS. Different FMS units have different 7 8 9
U V W X
ways of allowing the pilot to switch between chapters and Y Z SPC BKSP
− 0 +
pages, and different ways of informing the pilot which chapter DFLT MAP
3-4
pushing and knob-twisting procedures needed to access and
2 Use the inner knob to dial letters and numbers.
enter data. One very important function that every pilot of
Flashing cursor programmable avionics should learn and remember is how
to cancel entries and functions. Turbulent flight conditions
C 119.000
APT 5 RING
R ING
make data entry errors very easy to make. Every pilot should
C
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
121.600 know how to revert quickly to the basic aircraft controls and
V 114.10 functions to effect recovery in times of extreme stress. These
VOL/ PUSH
ID
COM GPS
programs are extremely useful not only for initial learning,
WPT
but also for maintaining proficiency. For more sophisticated
training, many manufacturers of flight simulators and flight
NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
training devices are now developing devices with advanced
cockpit systems. These training platforms allow the pilot to
Press the inner knob to engage cursor mode.
A flashing cursor then appears over one of the work through realistic flying scenarios that teach not only
1 items on the page, indicating that it is ready
the operating procedures required for each system, but also
for editing.
how to use the systems most effectively.
Use the outer knob to move the flashing
3 cursor between items on the page. Flight Planning
Preflight Preparation
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91,
Figure 3-5. Making entries using cursor mode. section 91.103 requires you to become familiar with all
Learning: Simulators for Learning and Practice available information before beginning a flight. In addition
Avionics simulators can assist the pilot in developing to the required checks of weather, fuel, alternate airports,
proficiency in the advanced cockpit. Some manufacturers runway lengths, and aircraft performance, there are a number
offer computer-based simulators that run on a personal of requirements unique to the use of avionics equipment.
computer and let the pilot learn how the unit organizes Many of these considerations apply specifically to the use of
and presents information, as well as practice the button- FMS/RNAV under instrument flight rules (IFR). However,
NAV1 113.90 115.60 GAG WPT KBFK DIS 23.5NM DTK 274° TRK 274° 122.900 122.800 COM1
NAV2 112.90 112.30 118.425 121.600 COM2
TRAFFIC 4000
130 4300
2
120 4200
1
110 4100
1 60
100 44000
000
9 20
90 3900
1
80 3800
274° 2
TAS
70
100KT
4300
PFD pages appear here.
FLIGHT PLAN
GPS ENR KAVK / KBFK
DTK DIS
KAVK
KBFK 274 23.9NM
ALERTS
PFD controls
3-5
a check of these same requirements before operating under
visual flight rules (VFR) enhances safety and enforces good AMERICAS AERO Database
PROC Expires 15 FEB 2006 RNG
CRSR
habit patterns, which have been proven to greatly enhance AMERICAS LAND Database
aviation safety. PUSH ON Created 06 OCT 2004 MENU
BRT
Acknowledge?
FMS/RNAV Approval for IFR Operations MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
3-6
frequency (1575.42 MHz). The user GPS receiver uses the time spent focused inside the cockpit on advanced avionics
downlink WAAS data to correct received navigation data. versus staying synchronized with the flight events, possibly
The goal of WAAS is to obtain at least a 7-meter horizontal creating a life-threatening total flight situation.
and vertical accuracy.
Programming the Flight Route
Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS), when it becomes The procedures used to program an FMS with your intended
available, is another DGPS mode which is designed to route of flight are fundamentally the same in all types of
provide 1-meter accuracy for precision approaches. It uses systems, yet many differences are evident. The primary
a local error VHF transmitter near the runway providing a difference between systems lies mainly in the “knob or
direct link from the sensor to the aircraft GPS receiver. switchology”—the specific design features, operational
requirements, and layout of the controls and displays used
Alternate Airports to operate the avionics. Be thoroughly familiar with the
It is very important to know what equipment is installed procedures required for each FMS or RNAV unit to be used.
in the aircraft. GPS-based FMS/RNAV units certified to
TSO-C145A or TSO-146A may be used when an alternate Suppose you have planned a flight from San Carlos Airport
airport is required in the flight plan for the approaches at the (KSQL) to Oakdale Airport (O27), as shown in the flight
destination and alternate airport if the WAAS is operational. plan appearing in Figure 3-8. The planned route proceeds
No other navigation avionics would be required. Units directly to SUNOL intersection, then follows V195 until
certified under TSO-C129 are not authorized for alternate reaching ECA, the initial approach fix for the GPS Runway
approach requirements. The aircraft must have stand-alone 10 approach into Oakdale. The distances, bearings, estimated
navigation equipment, such as VOR, and there must be an times en route, and fuel requirements for the flight have
approved instrument approach at the alternate airport based all been calculated. The next step is to enter some of these
on that equipment. (However, once diverted to the alternate details into the FMS.
airport, the pilot could fly a GPS-based approach there, as
long as there is an operational, ground-based navaid and NAVIGATION LOG
airborne receiver in the aircraft for use as a backup.) Aircraft Number: Dep: Dest: Dest:
N1361M KSQL 027 11/06/06
Aircraft Equipment Suffixes Clearance: C – 027
Since air traffic control (ATC) issues clearances based
R – Direct SUNOL, V195 ECA, Direct 027
on aircraft equipment suffixes, consult the Aeronautical
A – CLB 5000
Information Manual (AIM) Table 5-1-2, Aircraft Suffixes,
F – 12L3
to ensure that the flight plan includes the correct equipment
suffix for a particular aircraft. Use the suffix that corresponds T – 0356
Estimated Time En Route = 0.49
to the services and/or routing that is needed. For example, if
Check Points Ident. Fuel Dist. GS Time Off
the desired route or procedure requires GPS, file the suffix as (Fixes) Leg Leg
Freq. Est.
“/G” or “/L,” as appropriate to that aircraft, and operational Course Attitude Mag Rem. Rem. ETE ETA
KSQL DEP Route Crs.
equipment installed. (Remember that minimum equipment list TWR 119.0 12L3 48 78.6. Act. ATE ATA
(MEL) deferred items can change the status of the aircraft.) SJC 21 21.5 81 016
SUNCL 060 5000
1141 45.9 57.1
Suitability of an RNAV Unit for VFR Flight ECA 1.2 18 120 0.09
Even when an RNAV receiver is to be used only for TRACY 049 5000
116.0 44.7 39.1
supplemental (“supplemental” meaning a situation enhancing ECA 1.1 15 120 0.08
ECA (IAF) 049 3000
source of navigation information, but not the primary or sole 116.0 43.6 24.1
source of navigation information) navigation information ECA 0.7 8 1000 0.05
MOTER 084 2000
during VFR flight, you should consider these suitability 116.0 42.9 16.1
factors in the interest of safety. The use of an expired ECA 0.6 55 90 0.04
ZOSON (FAF) 084 2000
navigation database might cause you to stray into airspace 116.0 42.3 10.6
that was not yet designated at the time the expired navigation ECA MDA 0.4 4.5 90 0.03
RW 10 (MAP) 096
database was published. Some VFR-only GPS units do not 116.0 720 41.9 61
alert you when signal reception has faded, which could LIN 0.6 61 90 0.04
WRAPS (HOLD) 352 3000
lead to reliance on erroneous position information. Lack of 114.8 41.3 0
attention to the “see and avoid” basic principle of every visual
meteorological conditions (VMC) flight means too much Figure 3-8. A conventional flight plan.
3-7
The Flight Planning Page Engage cursor mode when the flight plan page is selected.
Every FMS unit includes a page dedicated to entering a flight
plan. Typically, entering a flight plan is a simple matter of COM ACTIVE FLIGHT
ACTIVE FLIGHT PLAN
PLAN RING
FPL
Entering a flight route into the FMS unit requires you to
enter the waypoints that define your route. FMS distinguish NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
have disastrous consequences. Any changes to the selected NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
REANS
073° YUCCA 254°
RAVON CAJON TWENTYNINE
POMONA
PALMS
NOT FOR USE IN NAVIGATION
3-8
endpoint for that airway are selected, all waypoints that Reviewing the Flight Route
occur along the airway are automatically inserted into the Once a route has been entered into the FMS, the next step
flight plan. Figure 3-11 shows a navigation unit that allows is to review the route to ensure it is the desired route. It is
airways to be selected. particularly important to ensure that the programmed route
agrees with the pilot’s clearance, the en route and terminal
Entering Procedures area charts, and any bearing, distance, time, and fuel
Every IFR-capable FMS offers a menu of published calculations that have been performed on paper.
instrument procedures, such as departures, arrivals, and
approaches. When you choose one of these procedures, the Catching Errors: Using the FMS Flight Planning
FMS automatically inserts all waypoints included in that Function To Cross-Check Calculations
procedure into the flight plan. Figure 3-12 illustrates how you Using the FMS’s flight planning function to check your
might choose an approach procedure using one popular FMS. own flight planning calculations is one example of how
advanced cockpit systems can decrease the likelihood
Risk: Taking Off Without Entering a Flight Plan of an error. Alternatively, cross-check the computer’s
The convenience of the FMS, especially the “direct to” calculations against your own. (Remember the old computer
feature common to all units, creates the temptation to program programmer’s adage, “Garbage in, garbage out (GIGO).”)
only the first en route waypoint prior to takeoff and then enter
additional waypoints once airborne. Keep in mind, however, The flight planning page can also be used to review the route
that no matter how skilled you become with the avionics, that you entered into the FMS, as illustrated in Figure 3-13.
programming requires “heads down” time, which reduces Be sure to check at least four things when reviewing your
your ability to scan for traffic, monitor engine instruments, route.
etc. A better strategy is to enter all of the flight data before
you take off.
119.000 Modified
A
DIST
C
T Modify
121.600 KSQL 027
S
B
Y
A
C
T
114.10 KSQL
BRG 060° 21.7 This FMS allows you to insert
--.- vor
SUNOL 21.7 mn Wpt an entire airway into your route.
discontinuity
116.00
S
B
Y BRG --- ---
Arwy
1200 027 21.7 mn
S
B
Y
FLAGGED
GPS ENR No Active Leg FPL
BACK EXEC XPND
A
119.000 SUNOL The navigation database looks up
C
T V195 all of the airways that connect to
S
121.600 V195 ECA
B
Y the previous waypoint in the route.
50nm V301
A
C
T
114.10
--.- vor N V334 11
119.000
19.00
000 Modified
0 Mo
Moddifi
dif
di fied
d
A
ECA C DIST
Modify
S
116.00
T
KSQL
121.600 BRG 060°
B S
Y SUNOL B 21.7
Y
1200 114.10 SUNOL 21.7
S n
B A m
The software performs a
Y C
FLAGGED
T
--.- vor
V195 ECA:
BRG 060° 18.3 database search for all of the
GPS ENR FPL
116.00 TRACY 40.0 mn airways, causing all waypoints
S
B
BACK Y BRG 060°
SHARR
9.6
49.6 mn along the airway to be inserted
1200
S
B
BRG 049° 5.4
Y
into the route.
FLAGGED ECA 55.0mn
GPS ENR No Active Leg FPL
BACK EXEC XPND
Figure 3-11. Inserting an airway into a flight route.
3-9
COM PROCEDURES RING
C
C 123.850 Activate Vector-To-Final?
125.100
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
VLOC
Activate Approach?
V 116.00 Select Approach?
VOL/ PUSH 114.10 Select Arrival? Press the PROC button and choose the type of procedure you wish to add.
ID
COM GPS
GPS
Select Departure?
PROC
COM 7
APT O27 Public RING
C
C 123.850 APR
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
125.100 RNAV
G
Dial your destination airport and press .
VLOC 10 PS
V 116.00 TRANS
VOL/ PUSH
ID
114.10 VECTORS
VLOC ECA IA 10 PS
V 116.00 MOTER IA TRANS
VOL/ PUSH
ID
114.10 VECTORS Choose your transition from the transition menu.
COM Load? GPS
35nm Activate?
WPT
VLOC
ECA 10 PS
V 116.00 ZOSON TRANS
114.10
RW10
ECA IA
VOL/ PUSH
ID
WPT
Press to load the approach into your flight plan.
3-10
route that connects two points, imagine a geometric plane
Check the sequence of waypoints. cutting through the earth that passes through the two points
and the center of the earth.
FLIGHT
FLI GHT PL
PLAN
AN
KSQL / O27
DTK DIS
On the great circle route from SFO to LGA in
KSQL Figure 3-14, departing SFO, the desired track is a little less
SUNOL 060° 1.8 NM than 90 degrees. Upon arrival at LGA, it appears to be greater
TRACY 051° 18.0 NM than 90 degrees. The desired track heading is constantly
Approach - RNAV 10 changing since it is a circle, not a line. If, however, the
difference exceeds several degrees, you need to investigate
further to determine the cause.
ALERTS
3-11
119.000 Library
A
DIST
C
T Modify
121.600 KSQL
S
B
Y BRG 060° 21.7
A
C
T
114.10 SUNOL
V195
21.7 mn
33.3
--.- vor ECA 55.0 mn Wpt
discontinuity
116.00 Arwy
S
B BRG --- ---
027 21.7 mn
Y
1200
S
B
Y
FLAGGED
GPS ENR FPL
BACK EXEC XPND A route discontinuity appears when the
FMS cannot proceed from one waypoint
to the next. A route discontinuity can
simply be deleted.
119.000 Active
A
C DIST ETE
T
KSQL 027
121.600 KSQL
S
B
Y
A
C
T
114.10 BRG 060° 21.7
--.- vor SUNOL 21.7 mn
V195 33.3
116.00 ECA 55.0mn
S
B
When a route discontinuity is deleted, Y
BRG 049° 18.3
the FMS proceeds directly to the next 1200
S
was selected in the FMS. Every advanced cockpit offers can be significant: you may think you are steering along one
buttons or switches that allow you to choose which navigation course when in fact you are steering along a different one.
indications will be shown on which display or instrument. Be sure to verify these settings prior to departure, and again
each time you make changes to any navigation instrument.
This situation becomes complicated in aircraft that contain Some installations compound this potential with automatic
dual FMS/RNAV installations and redundant selectable source switching. The most common switching mode is a
displays or instruments. The pilot must learn how to configure GPS source to be automatically deselected when the VOR
each navigation instrument to show indications from each is set to an ILS localizer frequency and a signal is present.
possible navigation source. Typically, that is not a problem since the pilot intends to
switch to the ILS anyway. However, the error arises upon
Figure 3-16 shows an example of a primary flight display missed approach, when the pilot selects another frequency
(PFD) navigation indicator that combines a course deviation to follow a VOR missed approach routing. At that point,
indicator (CDI) and a radio magnetic indicator (RMI), and some units revert back to the previous GPS or other RNAV
allows the pilot to display indications from one of two FMS routing selected instead of the VOR frequency that the
on either indicator. pilot just picked. This can result in gross navigation errors
and loss of obstruction clearances. In some units, this is a
Common Error: Displaying the Wrong Navigation shop programmable or jumper selected option. Check your
Source unit’s features. Always check for correct navigation source
The annunciations showing which navigation sources are selection and cross-check against the published procedure.
displayed on which navigation instruments are often small, so Be ready and able to fly and navigate manually.
there is significant potential for displaying a navigation source
other than the one you intended to select. The consequences
of losing track of which navigation signals you are following
3-12
COM RING
C
C 122.700 1.0 1.0
133.000
PWR
COVAR FOGON FA
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
V 117.30
VOL/ PUSH 113.90 2.8nm m m
160
ID
00:26:18 C
C 122.700 1.0 1.0
GPS2
BRG 051° VLOC
2.2 NM DIS DTK BRG
0:01:06 V 117.30
113.90 2.2nm m m
Aux VOL/ PUSH
ID
Awareness: Mode Awareness 5. Determine which navigation sources are installed and
Mode awareness refers to the pilot’s ability to keep track of functional.
how an advanced avionics cockpit system is configured. As 6. Determine the status of the databases.
shown in Figure 3-16, every advanced avionics system offers
7. Program the FMS/RNAV with a flight plan, including
an annunciation of which mode is currently set—somewhere
en route waypoints, user waypoints, and published
in the cockpit! There is no guarantee that you will notice these
instrument procedures.
annunciations in a timely manner. The configuration of these
systems must remain part of your mode situational awareness 8. Review the programmed flight route to ensure it is
at all times. One strategy is to include “mode checks” as part free from error.
of your checklist or callout procedures. For example, after 9. Find the necessary pages for flight information in the
programming a route into the FMS, verify that the navigation databases.
indicator shows course guidance from the desired source, and
10. Determine which sources drive which displays or
that the indication agrees with your estimate of the correct
instruments, and where the selection controls are
direction and distance of flight.
located.
Essential Skills 11. Determine and understand how to use and program
optional functions and equipment installed with FMS/
1. Determine whether the FMS is approved for the
RNAV basic unit.
planned flight operation.
2. Determine if your FMS can be used as a primary En Route Navigation
navigation system for alternate requirements.
The FMS provides guidance toward each waypoint in the
3. Understand how entries are made and how the entries programmed flight route, and provides information to help
can be canceled. you track your progress.
4. Understand how that unit(s) is installed, and how it is
programmed or jumpered for optional functions.
3-13
The Active Waypoint If the aircraft is flying a heading of 090 degrees and the track
In normal navigation, at any given time, the aircraft is is 080 degrees, the winds are coming from the south. Notice
progressing to the next waypoint in the programmed flight that having a track indication makes it easy to maintain the
route. This next waypoint is called the active waypoint. FMSs desired track. To follow the 049-degree desired track to
typically display the active waypoint on a page dedicated TRACY upon leaving SUNOL, simply fly the heading that
to showing flight progress. While “going to” is the normal results in a track of 049 degrees. The track display eliminates
function for navigation, nearly all FMSs have the provision the traditional method of “bracketing” to find a heading that
to select a point, waypoint, or navaid to navigate “from” that lets you fly the desired track.
point or position. This can be useful for holding, tracking
NDB bearing, grids, etc., and allows the tracking of a bearing Groundspeed and ETA
with the autopilot engaged and coupled to a navigation The display in Figure 3-17 also shows groundspeed. Again,
source. However, if you are doing an ADF approach, the the navigation display eliminates the need to calculate
primary navigation source must be available to support that groundspeed using distance and time. Based on groundspeed
approach. The page shown in Figure 3-17 indicates that and distance from the active waypoint, the navigation page
TRACY is the active waypoint. The primary flight display also provides an estimated time of arrival at the active
in Figure 2-5 shows the active waypoint (ECA) at the top waypoint.
of the display.
Fuel Used and Time Remaining
Active waypoint Many advanced avionics navigation units offer fuel
calculations and fuel state monitoring. Some units
Distance to the active waypoint Estimated time of
arrival at the active automatically load the initial fuel load, while many require the
Groundspeed waypoint pilot to correctly enter the amount of fuel into the unit as the
beginning fuel on board. Some can have installed transducers
1.8nm (sensors) to measure the fuel used, and display fuel used
RNG
PROC CRSR
108 kt
and time remaining at the current consumption rate. Some
DTK049
PUSH ON TK 049 LEG
MENU
lower cost units indicate computed fuel consumption values
BRT
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX based on fuel burn rates entered by the pilot. This produces
MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN an estimate of fuel used and fuel remaining. This estimate
is only as accurate as the values entered by the pilot for fuel
Track of the aircraft over the ground on board and the consumption rate. Since the pilot is often
using the AFM chart data, there is potential for interpretation
Desired
ed track to the active waypoint
error. Then, there is the variation error from the factory charts
to the specific aircraft being flown. These factors all tend to
Figure 3-17. Active waypoint, desired track, track, and ETA at
degrade the accuracy of the fuel calculation based solely on
active waypoint.
pilot entered data. Other factors such as a fuel burn that is
higher than normal, leaks, or other problems are not displayed
unless the system actually registers and senses fuel tank real-
Desired Track time status. These errors can affect both types of systems. The
The FMS/PFD/MFD navigation display also shows the pilot must determine what equipment is installed.
desired track to the active waypoint. The desired track is
the intended course for the active leg in the programmed Arriving at the Active Waypoint
flight plan. It is the track that connects the waypoint the As the aircraft reaches the active waypoint, there are four new
aircraft just passed to the active waypoint. On the display tasks for the pilot: (1) recognizing imminent arrival at the
in Figure 3-17, the current desired track is the 049-degree active waypoint; (2) leading the turn to avoid overshooting
course between the SUNOL and TRACY waypoints. the course to the next waypoint; (3) making the next waypoint
the new active waypoint; and (4) selecting the desired course
Track to the new active waypoint.
The navigation display shows the aircraft’s track over the
ground. The track, which is the result of aircraft heading All FMS/RNAV computers offer a sequencing mode that
and winds, tells you which direction the aircraft is actually greatly simplifies the performance of the first three of these
flying. Winds make it likely that the track and heading will tasks. Sequencing mode provides three services: waypoint
be different. You can get a very good sense of what the winds alerting, turn anticipation, and waypoint sequencing.
are doing by comparing the track and heading of the aircraft.
3-14
Waypoint Alerting
The first service performed by the sequencing mode
is waypoint alerting. Just prior to reaching each active
waypoint, waypoint alerting advises the pilot of imminent
arrival at the active waypoint. Waypoint alerting is illustrated
in Figure 3-18.
WPT
0.3
0 3nm RNG
PROC CRSR
108 kt
0.01nm :5.0nm
DTK060
MENU
PUSH ON TK 060 00:10 LEG
BRT
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX Fly-over
MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
Turn Anticipation
The second service performed by the sequencing mode is Figure 3-19. Fly-by and fly-over waypoints.
turn anticipation. During waypoint alerting and prior to Waypoint Sequencing
reaching the active waypoint, the FMS indicates that it is
The third service performed by sequencing mode is waypoint
time to begin the turn to fly the desired track to the new
sequencing. Once the aircraft reaches the active waypoint,
active waypoint. The timing of turn anticipation is based on
the FMS automatically makes the next waypoint in the flight
the aircraft’s observed groundspeed and the angle of the turn
plan sequence the new active waypoint. Waypoint sequencing
required to track to the next waypoint. If a standard rate turn
is illustrated in Figure 3-20.
is begun when the waypoint alerting indication is presented,
the pilot should roll out on course when the aircraft reaches The waypoint sequencing function makes the next
the center of the desired track to the new active waypoint. waypoint in the flight plan sequence the new active
waypoint.
Turn anticipation is also illustrated in Figure 3-18.
DTK051
commands a turn that “rounds the corner” to some degree, PUSH ON TK 049
MENU
BRT LEG
giving priority to having the aircraft roll out on the new APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX
desired track to the new active waypoint. This function is MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
Turn anticipation occurs only when the active waypoint is Figure 3-20. Waypoint sequencing.
designated as a fly-by waypoint. A fly-by waypoint is one
for which the computer uses a less stringent standard for Awareness: Making Waypoint Callouts
determining when the aircraft has reached it. By contrast, To help you stay in touch with the progress of the flight while
some waypoints are designated as flyover waypoints. The the FMS automatically performs the navigation task, it is
FMS will not use turn anticipation for a fly-over waypoint; a good practice to announce your arrival (mentally, single
instead, the navigation will lead the aircraft directly over the pilot; or orally, to the flight crew) at each waypoint in the
waypoint (hence the name). A missed approach waypoint is a programmed route. For example, when arriving at SUNOL
typical example of a fly-over waypoint. A fly-over waypoint intersection, you might announce, “Arriving at SUNOL.
is illustrated in Figure 3-19.
3-15
TRACY is next. The course is 051 degrees, and the ETE is FMS to deliver unequalled reliability in navigation. Many
10 minutes.” more complex FMS units also search or scan for distance
measuring equipment (DME) signals and VOR signals as
Setting the Course to New Active Waypoint additional navigational sources to compute a “blended”
The last step required when arriving at the active waypoint is position, which is the best calculation from all of the sources
to set the course to the next waypoint in the planned route. A and how the FMS is programmed to “consider” the signals
PFD such as the one shown in Figure 3-16 automatically sets for accuracy. GPS RNAV units usually use only GPS signal
the new course on the navigation indicator when the RNAV sources, but may be able to receive VOR and DME signals
computer is engaged in sequencing mode. When an FMS is as well. In the future, many GPS units will probably receive
combined with a traditional course deviation indicator, the eLORAN as well, since it is a long range navigation system
pilot must manually set the new course using the OBS knob, with greatly improved accuracy as compared to the older
unless it is an EHSI, or is slaved. “Slaved” means that there LORAN-C. One advantage of the LORAN (“e” or “C”)
is a servo mechanism in the instrument that will respond to system is that it is ground based and can be easily maintained,
the navigation unit. as compared to space-based navigation sources.
3-16
Adding a Waypoint
Use cursor mode to select the waypoint you
15.8nm want to insert the new waypoint before.
RNG
PROC TRACY CRSR
TRACY
DTK051
MENU
PUSH ON TK
BRT LEG
*CRSR* FPL 0 *CRSR*
D l ti a W
Deleting Waypoint
i t
Use cursor mode to highlight the
5.2nm RNG
waypoint you want to delete.
PROC REIGA CRSR
REIGA
Then press CLR .
DTK050
MENU
PUSH ON TK
BRT LEG
*CRSR* FPL 0 *CRSR*
Adding and Deleting Waypoints From the The direct-to waypoint now becomes the active waypoint.
Programmed Route After reaching this waypoint, the system proceeds to the next
All FMS/RNAV units allow en route (not published waypoint in the programmed route.
departure, arrival or approach) waypoints to be added and
deleted to the programmed route. These techniques are In other cases, you may be asked to fly directly to a waypoint
illustrated in Figure 3-22. that does not already appear in the programmed flight
route. In this case, one strategy is to add the waypoint to
ATC may issue instructions to a point defined by a VOR the programmed route using the technique illustrated in
radial and DME value. The pilot must know how to enter Figure 3-22, and then proceed directly to the waypoint using
such a waypoint as a user waypoint, name it, and recall it. If the technique illustrated in Figure 3-23. Another option is
the unit’s memory is very limited, the pilot should also be to use the direct-to function to get the flight started toward
adept at removing the waypoint. the assigned waypoint, and then add the new waypoint to the
appropriate place in the programmed flight plan.
3-17
Press the direct-to button ( ).
COM ACTIVE FLIGHT PLAN RING
C
C 125.400 00 KSJC / O27
123.850 WAYPOINT DTK DIS
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
116.00
MOTER 8.0 mn
VOL/ PUSH
ID
M
COM GPS
ZOSONFA M 5.6 mn
FPL
Risk: What Lies Ahead on a Direct-To Route? Press , then to access the cancel
direct-to feature.
The direct-to function offers a convenient way to shorten your
time and distance en route if ATC authorizes that track. When
COM SELECT D WAYPOINT RING
you perform a direct-to operation, though, remember that the C
C 125.400 ECA SW USA
123.850 MANTECA
PWR
VLOC STOCKTONPAGE
USA
MENU
new waypoint. This track does not necessarily correspond V 114.10 Cancel Direct-To NAV?
FPL ECA IA NRST KLVK
116.00
to any previously planned airway or route, so it is critical to
VOL/ PUSH
ID
COM
CRS 053 m GPS
W121 Activate?
ensure that your new direct route is clear of all significant DRCT
obstructions, terrain, weather, and airspace. NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
Cancel Direct To
ATC may sometimes cancel a previously issued direct-to Figure 3-24. Canceling a direct-to operation.
clearance and ask you to resume the previously cleared
Proceeding Directly to the Nearest Airport
route. Most FMSs offer a simple way of canceling a direct-to
One of the most useful features of an FMS is its ability to
operation. Figure 3-24 illustrates the procedure for one FMS.
provide you with immediate access to a large navigation
database. This feature is particularly useful when a suitable
Selecting a Different Instrument Procedure or
Transition nearby airport or navigation facility must be located quickly.
Figure 3-26 shows how to locate and proceed directly to the
ATC will sometimes issue an instrument procedure or
nearest suitable airport using one manufacturer’s system.
transition that is different from what you would expect.
Entering a new procedure or transition is usually a simple
Essential Skills
matter of making new menu choices, as illustrated in
Figure 3-25. In most units, if you are training or wish to fly 1. Proceed directly to a waypoint in the programmed
the approach again, you must learn how to set the selector or route.
cursor back to the initial fix, which will restart the approach
sequence.
3-18
9.8 nm Press PROC and choose Select Approach.
ENT RNG
PROC ECAi CRSR
Select Approach?
DTK050
TK 050
MENU
PUSH ON
BRT LEG
*CRSR* PROC 2 *CRSR*
DTK050
TK 050
MENU
PUSH ON
BRT LEG
*CRSR* APT 8 *CRSR*
9.3nm
PROC ECAi
ENT RNG
CRSR Finally, a list of transitions appears for the selected
approach. Choose one and press ENT .
DTK050 MOTER
TK 050
MENU
PUSH ON
BRT LEG
*CRSR* APT 8 *CRSR*
9.1nm ENT
PROC ECAi
RNG
CRSR Press ENT to add your
approach to the flight plan.
DTK050
TK 050
MENU
PUSH ON
BRT ADD TO FPL 0? LEG
*CRSR* APT 8 *CRSR*
2. Cancel a programmed or selected waypoint or fix. Highlight any airport in cursor mode and press to
receive guidance directly to that airport.
3. Select a different instrument procedure or transition.
4. Restart an approach sequence. COM APT
NEAREST AIRPORT
BRG DIS APR
RING
C
C 123.850 KTCY 5.7nm GPS
5. Immediately find the nearest airport or facility. PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
125.100 uni 122.800 rwy 4000ft
VLOC
1Q4 6.7nm VFR
116.00
6. Edit a flight plan. V
VOL/ PUSH 114.10
mul 122.900 rwy 4000ft
C83 12.1nm GPS
ID
COM GPS
7. Enter a user waypoint. uni 123.050 rwy 4500ft
NRST
Descent
NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
Making the transition from cruise flight to the beginning Use the outer knob to select the nearest page
The first subpage shows the nearest airports.
of an instrument approach procedure sometimes requires
arriving at a given waypoint at an assigned altitude. When this
requirement is prescribed by a published arrival procedure or
Figure 3-26. Proceeding directly to the nearest airport.
issued by ATC, it is called a crossing restriction. Even when
ATC allows a descent at the pilot’s discretion, you need to
choose a waypoint and altitude for positioning convenient
3-19
Cruising speed 2 7 0 knots Top-of-descent point
To
Wind
Cruising altitude 1 1 0 0 0 ft
Descent speed
eed and rate
Bottom-of-descent point
ECA VOR
to start the approach. In either case, descending from a and a descent rate of 1,000 feet per minute (fpm). Assuming a
cruising altitude to a given waypoint and altitude requires 10-knot headwind component, groundspeed in the descent is
both planning and precise flying. 180 knots. Referring to the table in Figure 3-28, the planned
descent speed and rate indicate a ratio of 3.0. This means that
Elements of Descent Planning Calculations you will need 3 NM for every 1,000 feet of descent. You
Figure 3-27 illustrates the basic descent planning task. The must descend a total of 8,000 feet (11,000 feet – 3,000 feet).
task begins with an aircraft flying at an assigned cruising A total of 24 NM is needed to descend 8,000 feet (3 NM ×
altitude. The aircraft must descend to an assigned altitude 8 = 24 NM), and must, therefore, begin the descent 24 NM
and reach that assigned altitude at a designated bottom-of- away from the end-of-descent point.
descent point. The next step is to choose a descent rate and
a descent speed. The ultimate goal is to calculate a top-of- Another technique for calculating descents is to use the
descent point, which is the point at which, if you begin the formula shown in Figure 3-29. A descent table can be found
descent and maintain the planned descent rate and airspeed, in the front of each set of U.S. Terminal Procedures on
you will reach the assigned altitude at the designated bottom- page D-1. Working through the formula for the ECA VOR
of-descent point. crossing restriction example, 8 minutes is needed to descend
8,000 feet at the planned descent rate of 1,000 fpm. At your
In a basic aircraft, you must rely on manual calculations to planned descent speed of 180 knots, you will cover 3 NM
perform the descent planning task. In an advanced avionics per minute. Thus, in 8 minutes, you will cover 24 NM. Once
aircraft, there are two descent planning methods available: again, you must start the descent 24 NM prior to ECA to meet
(1) manual calculations, and (2) the vertical navigation the crossing restriction.
features of the FMS unit. Skillful pilots use both methods
and cross-check them against one another in order to reduce Coordinating Calculations with Aeronautical
the possibility of error and help keep the pilot “in the loop.” Charts
Regardless of which method is used, it is always a good idea
Manual Descent Calculations to locate the top-of-descent point chosen on the aeronautical
The simplest technique for calculating the distance required chart. Figure 3-30 shows a chart that covers the area
to descend uses a descent ratio. The table in Figure 3-28 lists surrounding the ECA VOR. A top-of-descent point 24 NM
a descent ratio for many combinations of planned descent prior to ECA is located 3 NM before PATYY intersection.
speeds and descent rates. Calculating a descent is a simple
matter of looking up the descent ratio for your target descent Alternate Navigation Planning
rate and groundspeed, and multiplying the descent ratio by Using the aeronautical chart to locate the top-of-descent point
the number of thousands of feet in altitude that you must has a second advantage. Since regulations require you to have
descend. For example, suppose you are asked to descend from an alternate means of navigation onboard if the computer
11,000 feet to meet a crossing restriction at 3,000 feet. Since does not comply with TSO 146B, the aeronautical chart
there is a 200-knot speed restriction while approaching the allows you to check minimum altitudes for VOR reception
destination airport, you choose a descent speed of 190 knots
3-20
DESCENT RATIO TABLE
A descent ratio table is provided for use in planning and executing descent procedures under known or approximate ground speed
conditions and rates of descent. The ratio expresses the number of nautical miles needed to descend 1,000 ft.
DESCENT
GRADIENT GROUND SPEED (knots)
RATE
(ft./min) 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
500 3.0 3.3 3.7 4.6 5.3 6.0 6.7 7.3 8.0 8.7 9.3 10.0
600 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.9 4.4 5.0 5.6 6.1 6.7 7.2 7.8 8.3
700 2.1 2.4 2.6 3.3 3.8 4.3 4.8 5.3 5.7 6.2 6.7 7.1
800 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.9 3.3 3.8 4.2 4.6 5.0 5.4 5.8 6.3
900 1.7 1.9 2.0 2.6 3.0 3.3 3.7 4.1 4.4 4.8 5.2 5.6
1000 1.5 1.7 1.8 2.3 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.7 4.0 4.3 4.7 5.0
1100 1.4 1.5 1.7 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5
1200 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2
1300 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.8 2.1 2.3 2.6 2.8 3.1 3.3 3.6 3.8
1400 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.4 2.6 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.6
1500 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.3
1600 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1
1700 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.5 2.7 2.9
1800 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8
1900 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.6
2000 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.5
3-21
The VNAV function then calculates a top-of-descent
requires much forethought. Slowing from a cruising speed
2 point and displays the time remaining to reach it. of 120 knots to an approach speed of 100 knots requires little
planning and can be accomplished quickly at almost any
point during a descent. Flying higher performance aircraft
12 5 nm V n v i n 2 : 1 5
12.5
PROC
ECAi 11000 to : 3000 RNG
CRSR
requires a closer look at concepts of excess altitude and
DTK050 ECA : -00 nm
excess speed. Higher performance piston engines usually
TK 050 GS : 180 -1000fpm MENU
PUSH ON
LEG
BRT
*CRSR* ALT 2 *CRSR* require descent scheduling to prevent engine shock cooling.
MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
Either the engines must be cooled gradually before descent,
or power must be constant and considerable in the descent to
VNAV allows you to enter a descent waypoint and
1 altitude, descent speed, and descent rate. prevent excessive cooling. In such instances, a much longer
deceleration and gradual engine cooling must be planned to
prevent powerplant damage. Additionally, the turbulence
penetration or VA speeds should be considered with respect
Figure 3-31. Planning a descent with an advanced avionics unit. to weather conditions to avoid high speeds in turbulent
It is a good idea to cross-check the results of your manual conditions, which could result in overstressing the airframe.
descent calculations with the results produced by the Drag devices such as spoilers can be of great advantage for
computer. Many RNAV units do not display a waypoint for such maneuvers. In the scenario in Figure 3-27, a cruising
the planned top-of-descent point. However, there may be an speed of 270 knots is inappropriate as the aircraft descends
“approaching VNAV profile” message that anticipates the below 10,000 feet, and even more so as it enters Class C
descent point and cues the pilot to begin descending. Caution airspace. Therefore, descent planning must include provisions
is advised that some systems calculate the vertical flight for losing excess airspeed to meet these speed restrictions.
path dependent on the current airspeed/groundspeed values.
Lowering the nose and gaining airspeed in the descent may Some sophisticated FMSs are able to build in a deceleration
confuse you into perceiving a false vertical goal or vertical segment that can allow the aircraft to slow from the cruise
rate, resulting in failure to meet the crossing restriction speed to the desired end-of-descent speed during the descent.
with some systems. Determine if the system recomputes This type of navigation system allows you to maintain the
the airspeed/groundspeed, or if you must enter the descent cruise speed up until the top-of-descent point and calculates
airspeed during the VNAV programming. the deceleration simultaneously with the descent. A
deceleration segment is illustrated in Figure 3-32.
Managing Speed
Up to this point the focus has been on the task of losing Simple FMS units such as GPS RNAV receivers assume
excess altitude. For example, in the situation shown in that you will slow the aircraft to the planned descent speed
Figure 3-27, you are faced with the requirement to reduce before reaching the top-of-descent point. ATC timing may
altitude from 11,000 feet to 3,000 feet. Most descent scenarios preclude this plan.
also present the challenge of losing excess speed. In piston
aircraft of modest performance, losing excess speed seldom
1 1 0 0 0 ft
2 7 0 knots
1 0 0 0 0 ft
Deceleration segment
ECA
3-22
Top-of-descent point
1 1 0 0 0 ft
9 0 0 0 ft
7 0 0 0 ft
5 0 0 0 ft
3 0 0 0 ft
2 4 NM 1 8 NM 1 2 NM 6 NM
ECA
Descent Flying Concepts and speed as closely as possible and be mindful of altitude
Probably the most important descent flying concept to and position while approaching the crossing restriction fix.
understand is that a planned descent is basically a “pathway
in the sky,” similar to the glideslope associated with an ILS Determining Arrival at the Top-of-Descent Point
procedure. If you start down at the planned top-of-descent All navigation systems provide some type of alert informing
point, fly a groundspeed of 180 knots, and descend at 1,000 the pilot of arrival at the planned top of descent point, and that
feet per minute (fpm), you will be flying on a fixed path it is time to begin the descent at the speed and rate entered
between the top-of-descent point and the bottom-of-descent into the FMS.
point. If you maintain the 180-knot and 1,000-foot-per-
minute descent, you will cross a point 18 NM from ECA at If air traffic control is able to accommodate your request,
exactly 9,000 feet, a point 12 NM from ECA at 7,000 feet, the ideal point to begin the descent is at the planned top-of-
and a point 6 NM from ECA at exactly 5,000 feet, as shown descent point. If air traffic control is unable to accommodate
in Figure 3-33. such a request, one of two scenarios will ensue: an early
descent or a late descent.
If you are at a different altitude at any of these points, you
will not cross ECA at the required 3,000 feet unless corrective Early Descents
action is taken. Four things can cause you to drift from a Beginning descent before reaching the planned top-of-
planned descent path: descent point means you must set aside descent planning and
1. Not following the planned descent rate proceed without the benefit of vertical guidance offered by
the navigation system. If, during the descent, the navigation
2. Not following the planned descent speed
computer does not display position with respect to the
3. Unexpected winds planned descent path, you must simply do the best possible
4. Navigation system not recalculating for airspeed to arrive at the crossing restriction at the assigned altitude.
change of descent If the navigation system does display position with respect
to the planned descent path, you can usually recapture
Figure 3-34 shows the effect of each situation on the position the planned descent path and resume flying with vertical
of the aircraft with respect to the planned descent path. guidance from the computer. The basic technique is to
initiate descent at a reasonable descent rate that is less than
Flying the Descent the planned descent rate. If you follow this initial descent
rate, you will eventually intercept the planned descent path,
The key to flying a descent is to know your position relative
as shown in Figure 3-35.
to the pathway-in-the-sky at all times. If you drift off the
path, you need to modify the descent speed and/or descent
rate in order to rejoin the descent path. Many FMSs do not
give a direct indication of progress during a descent. You
must be very familiar with the indirect indications of the
VNAV descent. In this case, follow the planned descent rate
3-23
Flying a greater than planned descent rate
causes you to descend too quickly and Flying a greater than planned descent rate
end up below the planned descent path.
ath. causes you to descend too quickly and
end up below the planned descent path.
ath.
1 1 0 0 0 ft
1 1 0 0 0 ft
3 0 0 0 ft
3 0 0 0 ft
180 knots @ 1 5 0 0 fpm
180 knots @ 1 5 0 0 fpm
ECA
ECA
3 0 0 0 ft
3 0 0 0 ft
1 1 0 0 0 ft
20-knot headwind
3 0 0 0 ft
20-knot
20-k
knot tailwind
1 6 0 knots @ 1,000 fpm
ECA
3 0 0 0 ft An unanticipated headwind
causes you to slow down
and cover less ground
1 8 0 knots @ 1,000 fpm during the descent and end
ECA up below the descent path.
Figure 3-34. Drifting off the planned descent path. Figure 3-35. Early descent scenario.
Late Descents Since flying beyond the planned top-of-descent point leaves
Beginning the descent beyond the planned top-of-descent less time to lose excess altitude, your goal is to minimize the
point means that you will have the same amount of excess “overrun” distance by slowing the aircraft as soon as a late
altitude, but a shorter distance and time to lose it, as shown descent scenario is suspected. A lower speed means you will
in Figure 3-36.
3-24
Actual descent point Planned top-of-descent point
1 1 0 0 0 ft
ECA VOR
3-25
9 12 C
COM
121.300
RING
6 C 5.0 5.0
N VLOC
15
TO DIS DTK BRG
A
114.10
3
V V
VOL/ PUSH 116.00 6.9nm m m
ID
18
0
GS TRK ETE
NAV
21
Once in the non-
33
NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
sequencing mode, 24
use the OBS knob OBS
OB 30 27
to dial the inbound To switch to the nonsequencing mode, press OBS .
course of 009°. OBS displays above the button to indicate that the
nonsequencing mode is in use.
2. Nonsequencing mode stops the waypoint sequencing the course has been intercepted. The result is that the FMS
feature of the FMS/RNAV unit. If engaged in will not sequence to the next waypoint in the flight route
nonsequencing mode, the FMS/RNAV program does upon reaching the active waypoint. The best indicator of this
not automatically sequence to the next waypoint in event is the “To/From” navigation display showing “From.”
the flight plan when the aircraft arrives at the active Normally all FMS fly “To” the waypoint, unless that unit
waypoint. does holding patterns. Flying “From” a waypoint can only
be done in the “OBS”/“Hold”/“Suspend” mode.
Every FMS/RNAV offers a way to switch to the nonsequencing
mode. There is typically a button marked OBS (or Hold), and Awareness: Remembering To Make Needed Mode
an OBS or course selection knob to select an inbound course Changes
to the active waypoint. Figure 3-38 illustrates the procedure The use of the sequencing and nonsequencing modes
for one particular FMS. illustrates another aspect of maintaining good mode
awareness—remembering to make required mode changes
Once you switch to nonsequencing mode and select the at future times during the flight. Remembering to do tasks
inbound course of 009°, the navigation indicator reflects planned for the future is a particularly error-prone process
aircraft position with respect to the 009° course. The for human beings. Aviation’s first line of defense against
navigation indicator in Figure 3-38 shows that you are such errors is the checklist. Creating your own checklist or
west of course. The assigned heading of 080° provides an callout procedures for maneuvers such as course intercepts
acceptable intercept angle. As you fly the 080° heading, the is a good way to minimize this error. For example, a simple
needle centers as you reach the 009° course. Once the 009° callout procedure for the course intercept maneuver might
course is reached and the needle has centered, you can turn commence when the aircraft nears the point of interception.
to track the 009° course inbound to SUNOL. “Course is alive. Course is captured. Changing back to
sequencing mode.”
It is important to remember that the nonsequencing
mode suspends the FMS/RNAV’s waypoint sequencing Intercepting and Tracking a Course to a Different
function. If you reach SUNOL and the unit is still set in the Waypoint
nonsequencing mode, it will not sequence on to the next Figure 3-39 illustrates a slightly more complicated request
waypoint. Generally, once established on a direct course to often made by air traffic control. While en route to SUNOL,
waypoint or navaid, switching back to sequencing (releasing ATC instructs you to fly a heading of 060° to intercept and
the Hold or Suspend function) mode allows the FMS/RNAV track the 049 course to TRACY. This situation requires two
to continue to the programmed point and thence onward separate tasks: changing not only the inbound course, but
according to the programmed routing. Setting the computer also the active waypoint.
back to the sequencing mode is usually accomplished by
pressing the OBS (Hold or Suspend) button again. The first step is to change the active waypoint using the
direct-to function, as illustrated in Figure 3-40. Remember,
Common Error: Forgetting To Re-Engage though, that if you use the direct-to function to make TRACY
Sequencing Mode After Course Intercept the active waypoint, the FMS calculates a desired track that
By far the most common error made with the nonsequencing takes you from the present position to TRACY intersection.
mode is forgetting to re-engage the sequencing mode once
3-26
SUNOL is the currently the active waypoint,
1 which must be changed.
055°
COM RING
R
C
C 119.000
119 1.
1 .0
0
TRACY 121.600 KSQL SUNOL
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
116.00
SUNOL V
114.10 8.05 nm 060 m 060 m
VOL/ PUSH
ID
now continue on the assigned heading until the needle centers, 121.600
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ WAYPOINT DTK DIS
VLOC KSQL ___ M ___ n
m
then set the FMS back to the sequencing mode, and continue V 116.00 SUNOL M 7.6 nm
114.10
inbound on the assigned course to TRACY intersection. TRACY 18.3 nm
VOL/ PUSH
ID
M
COM GPS
ECA M 15.0 nm
FPL
Common Error: Setting the Wrong Inbound Course NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
125.100
PWR
D TRACY
VOL/ PUSH
VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
116.00
assigned to fly to intercept the course instead of the inbound V
VOL/ PUSH 114.10 18.2 nm 070 m 070 m
ID
course. The outcome of this error is illustrated in Figure 3-41. COM 121 kt 060 m 09:06 GPS
GS TRK ETE
NAV
6
9 12
Common Error: Setting the Wrong Active Waypoint NRST OBS MSG F
FPL PROC
N
TO
15
During a Course Intercept
A
3
V
18
Another common error is failing to realize that ATC has
21
33
instructed you to intercept a course to a different waypoint. 30 27
24
OBS
Figure 3-42 shows the outcome when the pilot neglects to Switch the FMS to the
4 nonsequencing mode.
set TRACY as the active waypoint in the previous example. 5 Dial the inbound course.
The FMS offers guidance along the correct course, but to
COM RING
the wrong waypoint. C
C 125.100 66.00 1.0
1.0
0
122.800 CRS049
PWR
TRACY
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
V 116.00
Catching Errors: A Helpful Callout Procedure for VOL/ PUSH
ID
114.10 21.5 nm 049 m 051 m
120 kt 055 m 10:45
Course Intercepts COM
GS TRK ETE
GPS
NAV
The following is a useful technique for avoiding two errors
commonly made during course intercept maneuvers. Ask NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
3-27
3. Reactivate the sequencing function for route
COM RING
navigation.
C
C 121.300 5.0 5.0
Holding
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
V 114.10
116.00 6.9 nm 080 028 m
VOL/ PUSH
ID
m
The FMS/GPS unit’s nonsequencing mode provides an easy
COM 85 kt 040 m 04:52 GPS
GS TRK ETE way to accomplish holding procedures. When instructed to
NAV
hold at a waypoint that appears in the route programmed in
the FMS/GPS unit, simply engage the nonsequencing mode
NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
V 114.10
VOL/ PUSH
ID
116.00 6.9 nm 080 m 028 m Some FMS/GPS units insert preprogrammed holding patterns
COM 85 kt 040 m 04:52 GPS
into published instrument procedures. The purpose of a
GS TRK ETE
NAV
preprogrammed holding pattern is to relieve you of many of
NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC the tasks described above for flying a holding pattern.
The course to be intercepted is entered correctly, Figure 3-44 illustrates a preprogrammed holding pattern that
but the waypoint is not.
appears at the end of a missed approach procedure.
The FMS provides guidance along the wrong course.
As the FMS/GPS unit shown in Figure 3-44 sequences to
049° a preprogrammed holding pattern, the navigation displays a
message indicating the type of holding entry required based
TRACY on the aircraft’s current track. The system then automatically
switches to a special nonsequencing mode that not only stops
SUNOL
waypoint sequencing, but also sets the inbound course to
DO NOT USE FOR
the holding waypoint. This special nonsequencing mode
NAVIGATION
is different from the nonsequencing mode you engage
manually. In Figure 3-44, this system uses the term suspend
Figure 3-42. Setting the wrong active waypoint. mode (SUSP) to signify the nonsequencing mode that is
Essential Skills automatically engaged during a preprogrammed holding
procedure. Depending on the type of holding procedure,
1. Program and select a different course to the active the unit may or may not automatically switch back to the
waypoint. sequencing mode after the aircraft crosses the holding fix.
2. Select the nonsequencing waypoint function (OBS, As always, you must be careful to maintain constant mode
Hold, or Suspend) to select a specified navigation awareness.
point.
3-28
115 SANTY
122 V2
9 15 5 COM RING
N
C
C 133.000 5. .0
6
A TO
127.150 CRS115° SNS
PWR
18
SNS VOR
V VOL/ PUSH
SQ
VLOC
3 DIS DTK BRG
117.30
21
V
114.30 4.79 nm 115 m 115 m
0
VOL/ PUSH
ID
24
COM m GPS
33 27
OBS 30 GS TRK ETE
NAV
115 SANTY
V2
122 5
9 15 COM RING
N
C
C 133.000 5.0 5.0
6
A TO
SNS VOR 127.150 CRS115° SNS
PWR
18
V VOL/ PUSH
SQ
VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
3
117.30
21
V
114.30 2.49 nm 115 m 071 m
0
VOL/ PUSH
ID
COM m GPS
33 27
OBS 30 GS TRK ETE
NAV
115 SANTY
122 V2
9 15 5 RING
COM
N
C
C 133.000 5.0 5.0
6
TO
127.150
A
CRS115° SNS
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
18
V SQ
VLOC
SNS VOR DIS DTK BRG
3
117.30
21
V
114.30 2.05 nm 115 m 115 m
0
VOL/ PUSH
ID
COM m GPS
33 27
OBS 30 GS TRK ETE
NAV
SANTY
126 V2 COM RING
1122 15 5 C
C 133.000 5.0 5.0
9 127.150 SNS PRB
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
N
18
A TO VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
117.30
V
6
SNS VOR V
74.5 nm 126 126 m
114.30
21
m
VOL/ PUSH
3
ID
GS TRK ETE
0
27 NAV
OBS
S 33 30
NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
3-29
on its length, an arc requires you to follow a gradually
ACTIVE FLIGHT PLAN
C
C
COM
125.400 00 KSJC / O27
RING
changing heading toward the active waypoint. The example
123.850 WAYPOINT DTK DIS
in Figure 3-45 illustrates how an FMS is used to fly a DME
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
VLOC ZOSONFA _ _ _M _ _ _m
n
V 114.10 RW10 MA _ _ _M _ _ _m
n
arc procedure.
116.00
WRAPSMH _ _ _M _ _ _m
VOL/ PUSH
n
ID
COM GPS
hold _ _:_ _
M
HOLD PARALLER
Essential Skills
NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC 1. Select an approach procedure with an arc.
A preprogrammed hold is indicated 2. Select the course, or determine that automatic course
by a special waypoint in the flight plan. CDI setting will occur.
The FMS displays the appropriate type of hold entry.
GPS and RNAV (GPS) Approaches
The FMS automatically starts a timer for the outbound leg. An IFR-capable GPS RNAV/FMS with qualified GPS
receiver(s) can be used as the sole means of navigation
C
COM
125 100
125. 1.
1
RING
for several kinds of instrument approach procedures, but
C .0
0
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
123.850 00:05 WRAPS you need to know which approaches can be used with your
VLOC
V 116.00
DIS DTK BRG
particular GPS RNAV unit. The following paragraphs review
114.10 0.6 nm 124 m 130 m
VOL/ PUSH
ID
3-30
DYNER
KENIW
1.0 nm RNG
PROC CRSR
150 kt 0.01nm :1.0nm
DTK 040° APR
TK 040° 048° To 00:24 ARM MENU
PUSH ON
BRT LEG 048
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX 3 6
0
9
MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN N
A
V
TO
12
33
15
30
1.3 nm
27
18
RNG
PROC CRSR
150 kt 0.01nm :1.0nm
OBS 24 21
duties to miss a waypoint change and be of the mindset that Since the FMS/GPS automatically switches to the approach
you have one more waypoint to go before descent, or even sensitivity, you must not attempt to use the “approach”
worse, before a missed approach. Two main values always mode of the autopilot at that time, unless the autopilot
to include in the cross-check are: documentation specifically directs the use of that mode
1. Verification of the waypoint flying “to.” at that time. Using that mode would make the autopilot
hypersensitive and too responsive to navigation signals.
2. Verification that the distance to the waypoint is
decreasing. Upon reaching the missed approach point GPS stand-alone approaches are nonprecision approaches
(MAP), the system will automatically go to “Suspend,” based solely on the use of the GPS and an IFR-capable FMS
“Hold,” or “OBS” at the MAP, and the distance to go with GPS navigation receiver or GPS RNAV. A GPS stand-
will begin counting up or increasing as the distance alone approach is shown in Figure 3-47.
from the MAP behind increases. Acknowledge the
MAP and the beginning of the MAP segment by an RNAV (GPS) approaches are designed to accommodate
action (button, knob, etc.) to allow sequencing to the aircraft equipped with a wide variety of GPS receivers. An
holding point or procedure. RNAV (GPS) approach procedure is shown in Figure 3-48.
A GPS approach typically offers different approach
Not all units delay commanding a turn prior to reaching minimums (and sometimes different missed approach
the specified turn altitude. You must know the required points) depending on the type of GPS receiver, aircraft, and
navigation courses and altitudes. The FMS/GPS unit may not installation being used to complete the approach.
be 100 percent correct, especially if an ADC is not installed.
3-31
Figure 3-46. A GPS overlay approach.
3-32
Figure 3-47. GPS stand-alone approach.
3-33
Figure 3-48. RNAV (GPS) approach.
3-34
LNAV LPV
LNAV (lateral navigation), like a conventional localizer, LPV can be thought of as “localizer performance with
provides lateral approach course guidance. LNAV minimums vertical guidance.” Procedures with LPV minimums use GPS
permit descent to a prescribed minimum descent altitude information to generate lateral guidance, and IFR-approved
(MDA). The LNAV procedure shown on the chart in GPS/WAAS receivers to generate vertical guidance similar
Figure 3-48 offers an MDA of 1,620 feet. to an ILS glideslope. Several manufacturers now offer FMS/
GPS RNAV units capable of flying approaches to LPV
LNAV/VNAV minimums.
LNAV/VNAV (lateral navigation/vertical navigation)
equipment is similar to ILS in that it provides both lateral GPS or RNAV (GPS) Approach Waypoints
and vertical approach course guidance. Since precise vertical Figure 3-50 shows a GPS approach loaded into an FMS/GPS
position information is beyond the current capabilities of RNAV. As previously noted, approaches must be selected
the global positioning system, approaches with LNAV/ from a specific approach menu in the FMS. The software
VNAV minimums make use of certified barometric VNAV then loads all of the waypoints associated with that procedure
(baro-VNAV) systems for vertical guidance and/or the from the database into the flight route. It is not possible for
wide area augmentation system (WAAS) to improve GPS you to enter or delete, separately or individually, waypoints
accuracy for this purpose. (Note: WAAS makes use of a associated with the approach procedure.
collection of ground stations that are used to detect and
correct inaccuracies in the position information derived from Initial approach waypoint Final approach waypoint
the global positioning system. Using WAAS, the accuracy
of vertical position information is increased to within 3 0.1nm RNG
meters.) To make use of WAAS, however, the aircraft must PROC
QUADSi CRSR
OBS285
be equipped with an IFR approved GPS receiver with WAAS PUSH ON TK 285
MENU
LEG
signal reception that integrates WAAS error correction
BRT
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX
signals into its position determining processing. The WAAS MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
346°
C
T
--.- vor
waypoint; (2) final approach waypoint; (3) missed approach
116.00
S
B
1200 GS ETE
S
B
FLAGGED
GPS ENR C345 SUNOL RW34Lm
MSG PROC FPL NAV
Flying a GPS or RNAV (GPS) Approach
Most FMS require the pilot to choose whether to simply
load, or load and activate, instrument approach procedures.
When ATC tells you to expect a certain approach, select
that approach from the menu and load it into the flight plan.
Figure 3-49. WAAS data provides lateral and vertical guidance.
Loading an approach adds its component waypoints to the
end of the flight plan, but does not make them active. Once
It is very important to know what kind of equipment is ATC clears you for the approach (or, alternatively, begins
installed in an aircraft, and what it is approved to do. It is providing radar vectors to intercept the final approach
also important to understand that the VNAV function of course), you must remember to activate the approach to
non-WAAS-capable or non-WAAS-equipped IFR approved receive course guidance and auto-sequencing. You must be
GPS receivers does not make the aircraft capable of flying careful not to activate the approach until cleared to fly it,
approaches to LNAV/VNAV minimums. however, since activating the approach will cause the FMS
to immediately give course guidance to the initial approach
3-35
fix or closest fix outside the final fix, depending on the unit’s RNAV unit automatically switches to approach sensitivity.
programming. In the case of a vectors-to-final approach, At this stage, the FMS/GPS RNAV further increases RAIM
activating the vector-to-final causes the FMS to draw a course requirements, and increases the CDI sensitivity from 1 NM
line along the final approach course. to 0.3 NM (i.e., a full-scale CDI deflection occurs if you are
0.3 NM or more from the desired course).
Once you have loaded and activated the GPS or RNAV
(GPS) approach procedure, flying it is similar to flying As long as the annunciation for approach mode is displayed,
between any other waypoints in a programmed flight route. you may continue the approach. If, however, the computer
However, you must be prepared for two important changes fails to switch to approach mode, or the approach mode
during the approach. annunciation disappears, you must fly the published missed
approach procedure. You are not authorized to descend
Terminal Mode further or to the MDA. Making changes to the FMS/
The first important change occurs when the aircraft reaches GPS RNAV after reaching the 2 NM point could result in
a point within 30 NM of the destination airport. At this automatic cancellation of the approach mode.
point, regulations require that every GPS-based FMS/
RNAV unit increase its sensitivity and integrity monitoring Approach Not Active
(receiver autonomous integrity monitoring, or RAIM, which If you arrive at the final approach waypoint and the approach
continuously checks GPS signal reliability and alerts you if mode is not active, you must fly the missed approach
RAIM requirements are not met). If the system determines procedure. There should be no attempt to activate or
that RAIM requirements are met, the FMS/GPS RNAV unit reactivate the approach after reaching the final approach fix
automatically switches from en route sensitivity to terminal using any means—simply fly the missed approach procedure.
sensitivity within 30 NM of the destination airport. Terminal
mode increases the sensitivity of the course deviation Vectored Approaches
indicator (CDI) from 5 NM to 1 NM. The FMS/GPS RNAV As in conventional approaches, it is common for air traffic
displays an annunciation to let you know that it has switched control to issue vectors to a GPS or RNAV (GPS) final
from en route sensitivity to terminal mode. approach course. Flying a vectored GPS or RNAV (GPS)
approach is a simple matter of using the course intercept
Approach Mode technique described in the previous section. The technique
The second important change occurs 2 NM prior to reaching is illustrated again in Figure 3-51.
the final approach waypoint. At this point, the FMS/GPS
089° Course
08 RW 10 150 10
4
060° Heading 14 3
1402
10
ATC gives you a vector tto the final approach course.
130 20
1 Set the final approach fix as the active waypoint. Nav ELTRO
DTK 089°
GPS1 22.1 NM
00:13:18
Bearing
COM RING
OFF
C
C 125 100
125. 6.0
6 0 1.0
10
3-36
Many FMS/GPS RNAV units offer an automated solution to A Altitudes for transition, initial, final, and missed
the problem of flying an approach in which the pilot receives approach segments
vectors to the final approach course. Once ATC begins T Timing/Distance(s)
providing vectors to intercept the final approach course, you
should activate the computer’s “vectors-to-final” feature, M Missed approach procedure
which draws a course line along the final approach course.
This feature helps you maintain situational awareness while Another briefing technique uses the mnemonic FARS:
being vectored because the assigned heading is clearly seen F Frequencies set and identified
in relation to the final approach course. As already noted,
A Altitudes for transition, initial, final, and missed
you should monitor carefully to ensure that the FMS/GPS
approach segments
RNAV unit switches to approach mode within 2 NM of the
final approach fix (FAF). R Radial (inbound course) noted and set
S Special notes (including missed approach procedure)
Figure 3-51 shows the vectors-to-final feature. The procedure
required to use the vectors-to-final feature is illustrated in Common Error: Forgetting To Verify the Approach
Figure 3-52. Mode
The most common error made during a GPS/RNAV approach
Press PROC and choose this option. is to forget to ensure that the approach mode has indeed
engaged prior to beginning a descent to minimums. Routinely
9.2nm ENT RNG
checking for the approach indication 2 NM before the final
PROC CRSR
ECAi
approach waypoint not only prevents this type of error, but
DTK 049 Ac t i v t e V e c t o r s ?
PUSH ON
BRT
TK 060 ELTROf DTK 089 ?
LEG
MENU
also gives you a minute or so to remedy some situations in
*CRSR* PROC 1 *CRSR* which the approach mode has not engaged.
MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
3-37
Essential Skills The FMS/GPS unit in Figure 3-55 includes a preprogrammed
course reversal. This unit automatically sets the outbound
1. Load and activate a vectored GPS or RNAV (GPS)
course for the outbound portion of the course reversal. Once
approach.
the turn inbound has been made, the unit automatically sets
2. Select a vectored initial approach segment. the inbound course back to the final approach waypoint.
3. Determine the correct approach minimums and
identify all pertinent mode transitions. This FMS/GPS unit does not switch between sequencing
and nonsequencing modes for a 45-degree course reversal
4. Determine the published missed approach point
(although it does for a holding-type course reversal). Whether
(MAP), courses, altitudes, and waypoints to fly.
it is done manually, automatically, or not at all, you must be
5. Determine how missed approach guidance is selected. sure that the system is engaged in sequencing mode before
reaching the final approach waypoint after the course reversal
Course Reversals is completed. The FMS/GPS will switch to the approach
Figure 3-53 shows three common course reversals: mode only if the system is engaged in the sequencing mode.
(1) 45-degree procedure turn, (2) holding pattern, and
(3) teardrop procedure. Common Error: Mismanaging the Sequencing/
Nonsequencing Modes During a Course Reversal
Course reversals are handled in the same way as holding Neglecting to switch the FMS/GPS from the nonsequencing
procedures, by using the FMS/GPS’s nonsequencing mode. mode prior to reaching the initial approach waypoint and
As you arrive at the initial approach waypoint, the unit’s neglecting to switch the system back to the sequencing mode
nonsequencing mode should be engaged to prevent it from prior to passing the final approach waypoint are common
immediately sequencing to the next waypoint in the approach. errors made during course reversals.
After completing the course reversal, be sure to re-engage
the system’s sequencing mode to continue the approach. Essential Skills
1. Select a type of course reversal procedure.
The navigation unit in Figure 3-54 requires that you manually
switch between the sequencing and nonsequencing modes. 2. Determine the correct sequence of mode control
actions to be accomplished by the pilot.
Preprogrammed Course Reversals
Some FMS/GPS units insert preprogrammed course reversals
into published instrument approach procedures. The purpose
of a preprogrammed course reversal is to relieve you from
the mode switching and course selection tasks associated
with course reversals.
1 236
° 2 3
LODI (1O3)
056°
RW26 285° 131°
191° QUADS
285°
CCR
105°
292
°
171°
3-38
* RUXKO
318°
333°
…switch to the nonsequencing mode prior to reaching the initial
approach fix, twist the inbound course, then fly the procedure 153°
turn. The IAF remains the active waypoint.
* RUXKO
318°
3.8nm WOHLIf
WOHLI
RNG
PROC CRSR
108 kt
0.01nm :1.0nm
DTK 333
VNV Off
DO NOT USE FOR
MENU
PUSH ON TK 153 333° To 01:44 LEG
BRT
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX NAVIGATION
MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
GIRUC
When you turn inbound, switch back to sequencing mode.
When you cross the IAF, the system sequences to the final 333°
approach waypoint. 153°
3-39
ACTIVE FLIGHT PLAN °
236
COM RING
C
C 119.900 00 KSJC / KCCR
119.700 WAYPOINT DTK DIS
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
COM GPS
CC FA 191°m 8.0 nm
FPL 191°
NRST OBS MSG FPL PROC
119.700
PWR
CC IA
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
VLOC
DIS DTK BRG
V 117.00
VOL/ PUSH 114.80 0.49 nm 011 m 181 m
00:29
ID
119.900 CCf
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ
VLOC
117.00
DIS DTK BRG CC
V
114.80 2.05 nm 191 m 191 m DO NOT USE FOR
NAVIGATION
VOL/ PUSH
01:01
ID
The unit automatically sets the inbound course after the turn is made.
DO NOT USE FOR To address this issue, all FMS/GPS RNAV units automatically
NAVIGATION suspend waypoint sequencing when you reach the missed
approach point. The unit waits until you acknowledge the
Figure 3-56. A missed approach procedure.
passing of the MAP before it continues the sequencing. When
the aircraft has gained the published altitudes and complied
3-40
with the initial MAP procedures, you can safely proceed
The aircraft is 1.4 NM short of the missed approach point.
to the missed approach holding waypoint, being mindful
of any altitude requirements. A waypoint for the missed
1.4nm QUADSf
QUADSff MAPYN
MAP
MAPYNm
YNm
approach holding point is included as part of the missed PROC
90 kt
RNG
CRSR
0.01nm :0.3nm
approach procedure. In the example above, you can make DTK 285
VNV Off
APR
MENU
ARM
TK 285
the missed approach holding waypoint the active waypoint, PUSH ON
BRT 285° To 00:42
OBS
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX
and re-engage the sequencing mode upon reaching 6,000
MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
feet. You now have sequencing mode guidance to the missed
approach holding waypoint. The procedure for one FMS/GPS Arrow pointing TO
is illustrated in Figure 3-57.
The aircraft is 0.9 NM past the missed approach point.
0.01nm :0.3nm
technique used to perform a holding pattern. Some FMS/GPS DTK 285
VNV Off
APR
ARM MENU
TK 285
units will automatically switch to the nonsequencing mode
PUSH ON
BRT 285° To 00:27
OBS
APT VOR NDB INT USR ACT NAV 1 FPL SET AUX
when you reach the hold fix. Other units may advise you to MSG OBS ALT NRST D CLR ENT PULL SCAN
switch manually to the nonsequencing mode.
Arrow pointing FROM
VLOC
RANIE FA _ _ _ m _ _._ mn
V 110.70 CORYNMA 264°m _ _._ mn
117.30 the pilot flies, the distance may never reach 0.0 NM. Rather,
SNS MH
VOL/ PUSH
ID
COM APR
hold 084°m 01:00
GPS
it may simply begin to increase once you have passed abeam
FPL
the missed approach point. It is, thus, important to check not
CDI OBS MSG FPL PROC only the distance from the missed approach point, but also the
TO/FROM flag or arrow. In the rush of a missed approach,
After executing the climbs and turns, you must switch
back to the sequencing mode to proceed to the missed this small clue (arrow direction change) can be difficult to
approach hold waypoint. read and very easy to misinterpret.
VLOC
110.70
RANIE FA _ _ _ m _ _._ mn ATC sometimes issues missed approach instructions that
V
CORYNMA _ _ _ m _ _._ mn
VOL/ PUSH
ID
117.30
SNS MH _ _ _ m _ _._ mn
are different from those published on the approach chart. In
COM TERM GPS
hold 084°m 01:00 this case, use the techniques described earlier to insert new
FPL
waypoints into the route, and/or to intercept and track courses
CDI OBS MSG FPL PROC
to those waypoints.
When you reach the missed approach hold waypoint,
the system will switch back to the nonsequencing mode Setting Up Next Procedure in Hold
and allow you to fly the hold.
Once in the missed approach holding pattern, the next task is
deciding where to go next and programming the new flight
Figure 3-57. Flying a missed approach procedure. plan into the FMS/GPS unit. In this high workload situation,
3-41
it is especially important to be very proficient with the menus, Displaying Radio Navigation Signals on the
functions, and “switchology” of a particular unit. If the Navigation Indicator
aircraft is equipped with an autopilot, it is also essential to The second fundamental skill is displaying indications from
have a thorough understanding of how the autopilot interacts a ground-based radio navigation facility on the navigation
and interfaces with the FMS/GPS navigation equipment. display indicator in the aircraft. In addition to setting the
navigation indicator to display indications from different
Common Error: Noncompliance With Initial navigation sources, you must also know where to look
Missed Approach Instructions to double-check which indications are currently being
The immense capability of the FMS/GPS may tempt you displayed. It is crucial to remain constantly aware of the
to follow its directions rather than fly a missed approach navigation source for each indicator. Many systems use color
procedure exactly as published on the instrument approach coding to make a visual distinction between different RNAV
procedure chart. Always fly procedures as published, navigation sources (GPS, INS, etc.) and ground-based radio
especially with respect to the initial climb and turn navigation sources.
instructions. GPS as a line-of-sight navigation aid can display
courses and distances to a ground-based navaid even though Awareness: Using All Available Navigation
the navaid is on the other side of a mountain range and itself Resources
cannot be received, because GPS signals are spaced based. Looking at the two systems shown in Figure 3-59, you can
see that two VOR frequencies appear in the active windows
Essential Skills at all times, regardless of whether VOR or GPS is being used
as the primary navigation source. To maximize situational
1. Acknowledge a missed approach procedure.
awareness and make best use of this resource, it is a good
2. Set the FMS/GPS for a return to the same approach practice to keep them tuned to VOR stations along your route
to fly it again. of flight. If you have two navigation indicators, you can have
3. Select a different approach while holding at a missed one indicator set to show GPS course indications, with the
approach holding waypoint. other to show VOR indications. Used in this way, VOR and
GPS can serve as backups for each another.
4. Program an ATC specified hold (user waypoint) point
for selection after the published MAP/hold procedure. Flying a Precision Approach Using Ground-based
Navigation Facilities
Ground-Based Radio Navigation Flying a precision approach requires tuning the required
Configuring FMS To Receive Ground-Based frequencies, configuring the navigation indicator to display
Radio Navigation Signals localizer course indications, and flying the approach. For
Most advanced avionics systems include receivers for aircraft equipped with multiple navigation radios, the
conventional radio navigation signals from VOR, localizer, localizer frequency can go into one receiver, while a second
and glideslope transmitters. To display these signals on the navigational facility used as a cross-radial can be set in the
navigation display indicator(s), you need two fundamental other receiver. As you come within range of the localizer and
skills. glideslope, the course deviation and glideslope indicators will
show position with respect to the localizer and glideslope.
Tuning and Identifying Radio Navigation Facilities
The first fundamental skill in ground-based radio navigation Flying a Nonprecision Approach Using Ground-
is tuning and identifying a ground-based radio navigation Based Navigation Facilities
facility. Figure 3-59 illustrates how a VOR station can be Nonprecision approaches such as VOR, localizer, and LDA
tuned using two different systems. approaches are flown using the same procedures used to
fly a precision approach. If the aircraft is equipped with an
Some systems automatically attempt to identify ground-based autopilot, be sure to develop a thorough understanding of
radio navigation facilities that are selected by the pilot. Note how the autopilot works with the FMS. While these systems
the identifier that appears beside the selected frequency in the automate some tasks, others (e.g., flying the procedure turn
upper left corner of the PFD in Figure 3-59 (116.00 = ECA). course reversal) maybe left to the pilot.
3-42
1 Dial the VOR frequency using the knobs to the left.
COM RING 30 33
C
C 125.100 1.0 1.0 27
0
123.850
N
TRACY
TO
ECA
PWR
VOL/ PUSH
SQ A
V
24
VLOC
3
DIS DTK BRG
2 Identify the VOR. V 116.00
114.10 12.0 nm 049 m 049 m
21
6
05:48
VOL/
VOL/ PUSH
ID
C
COM 124 kt 350 m GPS
18
9
GS TRK ETE
NAV OBS 15 12
5000
130 4200
2
120 4100
1
110 4000
1 60
100 33900
900
9 20
90 3800 1
80 3700
HDG 080°
350° CRS 316°
2
TAS
70
100KT
3600
VOR 1
3-43
Chapter Summary You now have access to a tremendous amount of data. The
methods of data selection and display must be learned and
Navigation has been freed from the constraints of channeling
then decisions made about which display formats to use at
all flight traffic along one path. The area navigation
which times. VOR/DMEs are simple receivers to tune and
capabilities found in advanced avionics receiving signals
use. To use current flight management systems and area
from other than conventional line-of-sight ground-based
navigation units, you may need to study books that are
aviation navaids and the compact size and reliability of
larger than the actual units themselves. You must know the
microchips now allow efficient, accurate air travel. Integrated
quality of maintenance for advanced avionics units and the
databases facilitated by large reliable memory modules
qualifications of the systems to determine appropriate uses
help you to select routes, approaches, and avoid special use
of the equipment.
airspace.
Since advanced avionics have different displays, navigation
With this freedom of movement, you must expend more
sources, functions, and features, the pilot must always be
time learning the system and how to do the preflight entries
aware of the mode selected, the data source(s), and the
or programming. In addition to current charts, you must now
function selected. Pilot lack of attention to navigation can
verify the currency of the advanced avionics databases. The
have dire consequences, including notification of the next
aircraft owner must also allocate the funding to maintain the
of kin.
currency of the databases.
3-44