REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS

INSTRUCTOR: DR MARYAM BASHIR DARMA

THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN

FEMALES AND MALES OF DOMESTIC SPECIES

INTRODUCTION

In order for a species to thrive, it must be able to reproduce itself. Producing offspring requires

the proper functioning of both the male and female reproductive systems, each of which consists

of several parts that have specific purposes in the reproductive system.

Reproductive functions of the male include the formation of sperm and deposition of sperm into

the female reproductive tract. This process is assisted by hormones and the autonomic nervous

system. It is continuous once puberty is established but rate of sperm formation can vary with

day length. Sexual behavior leading to deposition of sperm into the female is also affected by

day length in some species.

The purpose of the female reproductive system is to produce the eggs (ova) to be fertilized by

sperm. It also serves as a receptacle for the penis during copulation and houses and nourishes the

fetus until parturition.

Male Reproductive System Organization and Function.

The major function of the male reproductive system is the production, storage, and deposition of

sperm cells. It also functions by producing male sex hormones and serves as a passageway for

expelling Urine from the urinary bladder. The male reproductive tract is made up of several

organs, glands, and muscles, each having a specific function .

I t is generally divided into

1. Primary sex Organs (Testis & Scrotum)

 2. Secondary Sex Organs(efferent duct, epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, penis and

prepuce)

3. Accessory Sex Organs Seminal Vesicle, Prostrate, and Bulbo urethral Gland.

PRIMARY SEX ORGANS

Testes

The testes are paired, ovoid shaped organs which descend from the abdominal cavity during fetal

development to lie in the scrotum. Each testis is covered by two layers of fibrous membrane,

Tunica vaginalis and tunica albuginea. Each testis is suspended by spermatic cord which contains

the blood and usual supply to the testis.

They produce hormones associated with reproduction as well as the male gametes, or sex cells,

called sperm and the male sex hormone, testosterone. Testosterone causes the development of

secondary male characteristics and sex behavior (libido).

In all species, the tunica vaginalis covers the testis, it is a serous coat which is attached along the

line of the epididymis. The outer layer, the tunica albuginea is a thin white membrane of elastic

connective tissue. Numerous blood vessels are visible under the surface.

The parenchyma is beneath the tunica albuglnea and is the functional layer of the testes. The

parenchyma has a yellowish colour and is divided into segments by incomplete septa of

connective tissue.

Located within these segments of parenchyma tissue are the Seminiferous tubules.

Seminiferous tubules are formed from primary sex cords. They contain germ cells

(Spermatogonia) and nurse cells (Sertoli cells), Sertoli cells are larger and less numerous than

spermatogonia. With the stimulation by FSH, sertoli cells produce androgen binding protein and

inhibin.
Scrotum

The scrotum is a sac or pouch of skin that carries the testicles and regulates their temperature.

It supports the testes and plays a major role in temperature regulation. It maintains the

temperature 3 to 5oc below body temperature for optimal function.

The scrotum is a two lobed sac and it is located in the inguinal region between the rear legs of

most species. It originates from the labia minora in the female. There is an outer layer of thick

skin with numerous large sweat and sebaceous glands. This outer layer is lined with smooth

muscle fibers the tunica dartos which is interspersed with connective tissue.

The tunica dartos divides the scrotum into two pouches and is attached to the tunica vaginalis at

the bottom of each pouch.

Spermatic Cord

The testes are suspended from the body by the spermatic cord. The spermatic cord is a protective

fibrous sheath consisting of smooth muscles, blood vessels, and nerves. It extends through the

inguinal ring and attaches to the testes to suspend them within the scrotum. The primary muscle

supporting the testes and coursing the length of the spermatic cord is the cremaster muscle. The

spermatic cord and the scrotum contribute to the support of the testis; They have a joint function

in regulating the temperature of the testis by drawing the testes close to the body as the

temperature drops and farther away as the temperature rises.

SECONDARY SEX ORGANS

Epididymis

The epididymis is a coiled tube connected to each testis, leads from the testis, is fused

longitudinally to the surface of the testis and is encased in the tunica vaginalis with the testis.

The Caput(Head) of the epididymis is a flattened area at the apex of the testis,where 12 to 15

small ducts ,the vas efferentia, merge into a single duct. The Corpus (body) extending along the

longitudinal axis of the testis is a single duct which becomes continous with the Cauda(tail). The

total length of the convoluted duct is about 34 meters in the bull and longer in the ram, boar and

stallion. The lumen of the cauda is wider than the lumen of the corpus.

The structure of the epididymis and other external ducts (vas deferens and urethra is similar to

that of the tubular portion of the female tract.

The tunica serosa (outer layer) is followed by a smooth muscle layer (middle) and an epithelial

layer(innermost). The epithelium of the epididymis is composed of several cell types

including:Principal, Basal,apical, Halo, clear and narrow cells. which aid in the function of

maturation, concentration, transport and storage of the spermatozoa.

Vas deferens

The vas deferens are a pair of ducts with one leading from the distal end of the cauda of each

epididymis. Initially supported by folds of the peritoneum, it passes along the spermatic

cord ,through the inguinal canal to the pelvic region, where it merges with the urethra at the neck

of the bladder. Sperm are transported from the cauda epididymis to the urethra in the ductos

deferens (vas deferens) via muscle contractions that are strongest during precoital stimulation.

Ampulla
This is the enlarged end of the vas deferens near the urethra. The ampullae act as minor sperm

storage areas and they also secrete fructose and citric acid into the seminal plasma.

Urethra

The urethra is a single duct which extends from the junction of the ampulla to the penis. It serves

as an excretory duct for both urine and semen.

During ejaculation in the bull and ram, there is complete mixing of spermatozoa concentrate

from the vas deferens and epididymis with fluids from the accessory and boars, mixing is not

complte with ejaculate containg sperm-free and sperm rich segments.

Penis

The penis is an organ that deposits semen into the female reproductive tract. It also excretes

urine from the body.

It forms dorsally around the urethra, from the point where the urethra leaves the pelvis, with the

external urethral orifice at the free end of the penis.

The penis of the bull, ram, and boar are termed fibroelastic because they are primarily composed

of connective tissue and depend little upon blood for erections The penis of the stallion is termed

vascular.

The rear portion of the penis forms an S-shaped curve or sigmoid flexure in the Bulls, Boar and

rams. This curve allows for the retraction and protection of the front portion (glans) of the penis.

The stallion’s penis differs in that it is a vascular type of penis. The vascular type of penis has

less connective tissue and depends on the engorgement of blood within certain tissues for

erections to occur, and it forms no sigmoid flexure when relaxed. and extend .
The retractor muscle is present in the in the Bulls, Boars and rams, it is a pair of smooth muscles

which will relax to permit the extension of the penis and contract to draw the penis back into the

body. These retractor penis muscles arise from the vertebrae in the ooccygeal region and are

fused to the ventral penis just anterior to the sigmoid flexure.

The glans penis which is the free end of the penis is well supplied with sensory nerves and is

homologous to the clitoris in the females. In most species, the penis is fibroelastic containing

small amounts of erectile tissue. The penis of stallions contains more erectile tissue as found in

bulls ,boars ,bucks, rams.

Figure 3-7 Comparative diagram showing the shape of the glans penis of the bull, boar, ram. and

stallion. Note the twisted groove containing the external urethral orifice in the bull, the urethral

proxess (filiform appendage)extending beyond the glands penis ing the ram, the corkscrew spiral

in the boar, and the flattened glans penis in the stallion with the small urethral process extending

beyond.
Sheath (Prepuce)

It is an invagination of skin which completely encloses the free end of the penis. It has the same

origin as the labia minora in the female. It can be divided into a pre-penile portion which is the

outer fold and the penile portion, the inner fold.

The Orifice of the prepuce is surrounded by long and tough preputial hairs. The preputial sheath

protects the penis except during mating. A fan shaped protractor prepuce muscle raises and

lowers the distal portion of the prepuce and also controls the size of the preputial opening.

Retraction of the membrane lining the inner prepuce is under the control of the retractor prepuce

muscle.

The filiform appendage found in the ram is actually the opening of the urethra, which extends

beyond the head of the penis. It rotates and sprays semen during mating.

ACCESSORY SEX GLANDS

Accessory glands are responsible for the production of secretions that contribute to the liquid

non-cellular portion of semen known as the seminal plasma. Semen and ejaculate are terms given

to the sperm plus the added accessory fluids.

Seminal Vesicles

The vesicular glands (seminal vesicles) are a pair of lobular glands that are easily identified

because of their knobby appearance. They have the appearance of a ‘’cluster of grapes’’

They are similar length in the Bull., boar and stallion (35 to 15cm) but the width and thickness of

the vesicular glands of the bull is approximately half that of the boar and stallion.

The vesicular gland of ram and buck are much smaller being about 4cm in length.
They secrete seminal fluid that adds fructose and citric acid to nourish the sperm and functions as

a protection and transportation medium for sperm upon ejaculation.

Both phosphate and carbonate buffers are found in these secretions and are important as they

protect against shifts in the PH of semen. Such shifts in PH will be detrimental to Spermatozoa.

In bulls, they contribute well over half of the total fluid volume of semen and make a substantial

contribution in other species.

The Prostate Gland

This is a single gland located around and along the urethra just posterior to the excretory ducts of

the vesicular glands. A prostrate body is visible in excised tracts and can be palpated in bulls and

stallions.

In rams, all of the prostrate is embedded in urethra muscles as is part of this glandular tissue in

bulls and boars. It makes a small contribution to the fluid volume of semen in most species

studied.

The prostate gland secretes a thick, milky fluid that mixes with the seminal fluid and also

provides nutrition and substance to the ejaculate. The combination of the sperm with the fluids

from the seminal vesicles and prostate gland is referred to as semen.

Cowper’s (bulbourethral) gland

The bulbourethral glands are a pair of glands located along the urethra near the point where it

exits from the pelvis. They are about the size and shape of walnuts in bulls but are much larger in

boars. In bulls, they are embedded in the bulbospongiosum muscle. They contribute very little to

the fluid volume of semen. In bulls, their secretions flush urine residue from the urethra before
ejaculation. This gland releases a fluid into the urethra that cleanses and neutralizes it to allow

the sperm to survive the passage to the penis. The secretions pass through the urethra prior to the

semen. These secretions are seen as dribbling from the prepuce just before copulation.

Comparative Study

Bull

The description above for the male reproductive system is typically for the Bull.

Summarily,a bull has two testicles, which are located in the scrotum beneath the animal. An

epididymis is located in the scrotum next to each testicle. The epididymis is connected to the

urethra by the vas deferens. The seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and Cowper’s gland (also

called the bulbourethral gland) are located next to the bladder where the vas deferens meets the

urethra. The urethra extends from this point to the penis. The sigmoid flexure is located midway

along the urethra, which also has a retractor muscle attached to it. The sheath provides an

opening for the penis.

Figure 1.......Reproductive parts of a bull (Hafez, 1993)

Boar

One difference between the boar and the bull is the positioning of the testicles and scrotum,

which are located at the rear of the boar rather than at the bottom of the animal. The form of the

penis, which is shaped like a corkscrew, also differs from the bull’s.
Figure 2...Reproductive parts of a Boar(Blakely et al,1985).

Ram

The ram differs from the bull in that a filiform appendage extends from the head of the penis. In

the ram, the sheath is also referred to as a prepuce.

Stallion

In contrast to the bull, the stallion’s scrotum is located further toward the rear of the animal and

is less pendulous. The stallion also lacks a sigmoid flexure.The Stallion has a flattened glans

penis.

Dog

The Cowper’s gland and seminal vesicles are absent in the male dog. The dog also does not have

a sigmoid flexure. The sheath of the penis is referred to as a prepuce.

Buck

The scrotum is referred to as the inguinal pouch in rabbit bucks. In the buck, the prostate gland

is separated into three parts, and the Cowper’s gland is absent. The buck also does not have a

sigmoid flexure.

Poultry

This includes chicken, turkey, and other birds. Unlike other animal species, they are not

mammals. Thus, they have a very different reproductive system from the others.

The poultry male structure consists of two testes (each with an epididymis and vas deferens) that

lead to papillae and a rudimentary copulatory organ. They do not have a scrotum.

The testes are unique in that they are located along the backbone within the abdominal cavity.

Exactly how the testes produce viable sperm within such a warm body temperature is still not

completely understood. The epididymis is small in relation to the size of the testis but still

functions in sperm storage. Both vas deferenses extend from the epididymis to the cloaca and are

located on each side of the vertebral column.

They function in transportation of sperm and as sperm reservoirs. The cloaca is the portion of the

lower end of the avian digestive tract that provides a passageway for products of the urinary,

digestive, and reproductive tracts.

The copulatory anatomy consists of two papillae and the rudimentary copulatory organ.

The papillae are located at the end of the vas deferens and on the floor of the cloaca. They are the

organs that emit semen into the cloaca. It is only used for sex identification of young chicks, but

it is erectile in ducks and geese. During copulation, the sperm is passed from the papillae into the

oviduct opening or cloacal wall of the female. Androgen is the male sex hormone produced by

the testes. It not only directs sexual activity and the production of sperm, but it also controls
secondary sexual characteristics of the male. These characteristics include comb growth, crowing

or gobbling, and strutting. Social rank or “peck order” is also influenced by the rate of androgen

secretion.

Figure 3... Male Reproductive System Poultry(Animal Science Instructional Materials,2001) .

Thermoregulation of testis
For effective functioning, the mammalian testes must be maintained at a temperature lower than
that of the body. Anatomic features of testes and scotum permit the regulation of testicular
temperature. Temperature receptors in the scrotal skin can elicite responses that tend to lower
whole temperature and provoke panting and sweating. The scrotal skin is noticeably lacking in
subcutaneous fat. It is richly endowed with large adrenergic sweat glands and its muscular
component enables it to alter the thickness and surface area of the scrotum and vary the closeness
of the contact of the testes with the body wall. In the cold conditions, these smooth muscles
contract, elevating the testes and wrinkling and thickening of the scrotal wall. In the hot
conditions, the muscles relax, lowering the testes within the thin-walled pendulous scrotum. The
advantages offered by these mechanisms are enhanced by the special relationship of the veins
and arteries.

Pampiniform Plexus

The testicular artery is a convoluted structure in the form of a cone, the base of which rests on
the cranial or dorsal pole of the testis. These arterial coils are enmeshed by the so-called
pampiniform plexus of testicular veins. In this countercurrent mechanism, arterial blood entering
the testis is cooled by the venous blood leaving the testis.

Female Reproductive System Organization and Function.

The purpose of the female reproductive system is to produce the eggs (ova) to be fertilized by

sperm. It also serves as a receptacle for the penis during copulation and houses and nourishes the

fetus until parturition.

The female reproductive system consists of

 Ovaries

 Oviducts

 Uterus

 Cervix
  Vagina

 Vulva

The Ovaries, Oviduct, Uterus and Cervix are supported by the Broad ligament subdivided

into three portions viz:

Mesovarian which supports the ovary.

Mesosalphinx which supports the oviducts.

Mesometrium which supports the uterus.

The ovary, oviducts and uterus are supplied primarily only by autonomic nerves.

The pudic nerve supplies sensory fibers while parasympathetic fibers supply the vagina, vulva

and clitoris.

Prenatal Development.

The gonads are formed from a group of large granulated yolk sac cells, that invade the germinal

ridges.

Two invasions occur in the female and the male, the initial one is abortive while the second

results in the formation of sex cords called primordial germ cells (oogonia).

The sex cord of the female called medullary cords while the male are the seminiferous tubules.

Ovaries

The ovary remains in the abdominal cavity and performs both exocrine (egg release) and

endocrine functions (steroidogenesis).

The ovaries are almond shaped in most species, Bean shaped in the horse and Berry shaped in

the sow.

The ovary consists of

 Epithelium-surface Layer:

 Tunica albuginea which is connective tissue covering the entire ovary

 Cortex which is beneath the tunica albuginea and contains follicles in different stages of

development

 Medulla consisting of loose connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves.

The female ovaries produce ova in the process of oogenesis. The development of the ova

begins before the female is even born. Cells called oogonia develop in the ovaries of a

fetus. By the time of birth, these oogonia have matured into oocytes. There are thousands

of oocytes at the time of birth; however, only a small proportion of these develop into ova

or reach ovulation.

 Follicle

The process of oogenesis occurs within a follicle. within the containment of a follicle, an

oocyte will begin cellular divisions and other physical changes in response to the female

sex hormone, estrogen. The follicle appears as a clear blister on the surface of the ovary.

The function of the follicle is to hold the growing ovum and to produce and store the

hormone estrogen. Estrogen is secreted from the follicle as a signal to the remainder of

the reproductive anatomy to prepare for the ovulation of an ovum.

The follicle remains relatively hard throughout the development of the ovum, but it

becomes very soft, ruptures, and expels the ovum at the time of ovulation. The ovum

enters the infundibulum and then the oviduct to await fertilization.

 Corpus Luteum

After ovulation, the ruptured follicle collapses and a small hemorrhage occurs. This

blood-clotted area is called a corpus hemorrhagicum and only lasts two to three days.
 This area begins to be filled by a yellow mass of cells. This yellow body is called the

corpus luteum. Its cells have the primary purpose of producing the female sex hormone,

progesterone. Production of progesterone prepares the female reproductive anatomy for

pregnancy and lasts approximately twelve days unless the ovum is fertilized (in which

case the corpus luteum remains until parturition). A degenerating corpus luteum becomes

covered by connective tissue and is called a corpus albicans. The function of the corpus

albicans is to remove the yellow cells of the corpus luteum and return the ovary to its

normal shape and function.

A cow or mare normally produces one ovum per cycle. An ewe produces two ova, and a

sow produces eight to fifteen ova. The process of oogenesis is a part of the estrous cycle.

This cycle includes estrus, a period in which a female shows outward signs of receptivity

to breeding as a result of the hormones secreted; this period is also referred to as “heat.”

Oviducts

The oviducts (fallopian tubes) are the paired tubes that transport the eggs from the ovaries to the

uterus.The oviducts are suspended in the mesosalphinx, a peritoneal fold of broad ligament.

It has four functional segments:

I. Fimbrae like close to the ovary

II. Infundibulum-funnel shaped abdominal opening near the ovary

III. Ampulla-narrow tube about ½ of length of oviduct

IV. Isthmus, narrow proximal portion of oviduct connecting the oviduct and the uterine lumen.

The opening of the infundibulum is called Ostium abdominal, it consists of irregular processes

that form the extremity of the oviduct.

The Isthmus is connected directly to the uterine horn and enters the uterine horn at the uterotubal

junction.

 The Oviduct conveys eggs and spermatozoa in opposite direction.

 Finger like fimbrae transport ovulated eggs from the ovarian surface to the infundibulum.

 It Provides an optimal environment for the union of the gametes and for early embrayo

development.

 The oviductal fluid nourishes the freshly ovulated oocyte and allows sperm capacitation,

fertilization and early preimplantation development.(Neil,2006).

Uterus

It consists of

 Two uterine horns(Cornua)

 A body

 A cervix(neck)

Comparatively there are different types of uteri in animals.

1. Uteri Simplex in Man with a rounded body without Horns,

2. Bi cornuate Type(Uterus bicornis)...This exists in swine, dogs and cats. The horns are

folded or convoluted or maybe as long as 4 to 5 feet. The body of uterus is short.The

length is an anatomic adaptation for successful litter bearing.

3. Bipartite Type (Uterus Bipartitus) In cattle, Sheep and Horses, the animals have a septum

that seperates the two horns and a prominent uterine body.

The uterus consists of three tissue layers:

Endometrium..
  Highly glandular over entire lining except ruminants.

 Ruminants have mushroom like shaped projections called caruncles. This is

where fetal menmbranes attach. The fetal sides are called cotyledons

 Varies in thickness and vascularity under the influence of both hormonal changes

and pregnancy

 Glandular secretions provide nutrients to the embrayo before implantation and

development of placenta.

Myometrium

 This is the muscular portion of the uterus.

 Hypertrophy (increased cell size) and hyperplasia(increased cell number)

during pregnancy.

 Primary function is to aid the expulsion of the fetus.

Mesoderm

 This is the serous covering for support

 It provides suspensory support for the uterus.

 There are two broad ligaments from each side that support the uterus .

Functions

 Regulation of the function of the corpus luteum.

 Sperm transport

 Initiation of the implantation of pregnancy

 Parturition and involution

 Cervix

The cervix is a heavy, smooth muscle sphincter which is tightly closed except during estrus and

parturition. It is characterized by a thick wall and a constricted lumen.

The cervical canal has various prominences . In ruminants the prominences are in form of

transverse or spiral interlocking ridges known as annular rings.

The rings are prominent in cow usually four rings) In the ewe, they fit into each other to close the

cervix. In the sow, the rings are a corkscrew arrangement that is adapted to the spiral twisting of

the tip of the boar’s penis.

In the mare, the distinguishing features are, the conspicuous fold in the mucosa and the

projecting folds into the vagina .The cervix is tightly closed except during the estrus at which

time, it relaxes slightly permitting sperm to enter the uterus.

 The cervix serves as a passageway for the semen from the vagina to the uterus at

copulation. It also contains glands that secrete a waxy-like substance that seals off the

uterus during pregnancy and between heat periods to protect against infection, disease, or

entrance of foreign matter.

 It provides a biochemical environment sufficient for sperm storage, capacitation and

migration.

 The production of mucus is the most important function of the Cervix and the cervical

PH is alkaline with a peak PH during the preovulatory period. This environment is much

more hospitable to the spermatozoa than the acidic PH of the vagina.

Vagina

The vagina is within the pelvis between the uterus and vulva.
The vagina serves as the receptacle for the penis during copulation and as the birth canal at

parturition. The uterus is separated from the vagina by the cervix. It is the urethral opening for

discharge of urine.

It extends posteriorly from the cervix to the outside opening of the vulva and it is of variable

length depending on whether the animal is pregnant or not. It opens into the floor of the vagina

approx 10cm.Anterior to the vulva and just posterior to this is a blind pouch, the sub-urethral

diverticulum. The vaginal wall is tough and elastic and the lining of the epithelium changes with

the stage of the estrous cycle.

Vulva

This is the caudal portion of the female genitalia from the urethral opening to the exterior of the

genitalia. I t has thick wrinkled lips with short commissures. The ventral portion are pointed

with long numbers of long hairs.The external urethral orifice is about 10cm from the ventral

commisure.

 It serves as a passage for urine.

 It is an opening for mating.

 It serves as a birth canal.

The Labia is the external portion of the Vulva(Vulva Lips)....They are located at the

sides of the opening and appear dry and wrinkled when the animal is not in estrus. As the

animal approaches estrus, the vulva will begin to swell up and develop a red moist

appearance.

Blood Supply

1. Ovarian Artery which supplies the Ovaries and Oviducts

ii. It also supplies the cranial part of the uterus.

2. Uterine Artery which supplies the major part of the uterus.

3. Vaginal artery supplies the vagina

Comparative Study

Cow –

Fig
ure 5......Reproductive system of the Cow(.Baker et al,1996)

Sow – The sow’s reproductive system differs from the cow in that the uterine horns are more
prominent in the sow. Also, the cervix is not folded but has protruding areas instead.
Ewe – Its reproductive system is very much like the cows.

Mare – The mare has a smoother cervix, without folds like the cows.

Bitch – Here, the uterine horns are more prominent, like those of the sow.
Doe – The female rabbit, called a doe, has prominent uterine horns, like the sow and bitch. In the

doe, each uterine horn has a separate cervix connecting it to the vagina.

POULTRY

The female reproductive system in the poultry is quite different from that of the mammals. .Only

the left ovary and oviduct of the hen are functional, although the right is found in an

underdeveloped state. The oviduct has five parts—the infundibulum, magnum, isthmus, uterus,

and the vagina. A cloaca and vent are located at the end of the oviduct.

The female of most animal species have two functional ovaries, but mature female poultry have

only one functional ovary. Before the bird reaches sexual maturity, the right ovary and oviduct

degenerate and cease function. The functional parts consist of an ovary, an oviduct, and the

cloaca. The ovary appears as a cluster of tiny, gray balls that are oocytes. At maturity, the ovary

contains up to 4,000 tiny oocytes from which yolks or ova (ovum) may develop over time. Each

oocyte is enclosed in a thin sac called the follicle and is attached to the ovary by a vascular stalk.

The oocyte will mature in the follicle to become a yolk. When the yolk is mature, it is released

from the follicle and then engulfed by the funnel-like infundibulum. The yolk enters a coiled

oviduct that is about 25 inches long and consists of five clearly defined parts. The first part is the

infundibulum. The infundibulum functions in receiving the yolk and is the site of fertilization.

The second part is the magnum that secretes the thick white or albumen. Third, the isthmus adds

the two shell membranes. Then fourth, the uterus secretes the thin white, the shell, and the shell

pigment. Last is the vagina that holds the egg until it is laid. The egg passes from the oviduct to

the cloaca and then out of the body through the vent at the time of laying.

Estrogen is the female sex hormone produced by the ovary. Estrogen stimulates the growth of the

oviduct and causes the cloaca to increase in size during egg laying. It also modifies the feather
shape and pigmentation of the female. Estrogen increases the level of fat, phosphorus, and

calcium in the blood, as this is necessary in egg production. The ovary also secretes the hormone

androgen. This hormone stimulates comb growth and works with other hormones in egg

production.

Poultry–
Figure 7.... Female Reproductive system...Poultry(Ensminger,1980)