Sustainable food

system

A sustainable food system is a type of food system that provides healthy food to people and
creates sustainable environmental, economic, and social systems that surround food.
Sustainable food systems start with the development of sustainable agricultural practices,
development of more sustainable food distribution systems, creation of sustainable diets,
and reduction of food waste throughout the system. Sustainable food systems have been
argued to be central to many[1] or all[2] 17 Sustainable Development Goals.[3]

The large environmental impact of agriculture – such

as its greenhouse gas emissions, soil degradation,
deforestation and pollinator decline effects – make the
food system a critical set of processes that need to be
addressed for climate change mitigation and a stable
healthy environment.
Moving to sustainable food systems, including via shifting consumption to sustainable diets,
is an important component of addressing the causes of climate change and adapting to it. A
2020 review conducted for the European Union found that up to 37% of global greenhouse
gas emissions could be attributed to the food system, including crop and livestock
production, transportation, changing land use (including deforestation), and food loss and
waste.[4] Reduction of meat production, which accounts for ~60% of greenhouse gas
emissions and ~75% of agriculturally used land,[5][6][7] is one major component of this
change.[8]

The global food system is facing major interconnected challenges, including mitigating food
insecurity, effects from climate change, biodiversity loss, malnutrition, inequity, soil
degradation, pest outbreaks, water and energy scarcity, economic and political crises, natural
resource depletion, and preventable ill-health.[9][10][11][12][13]

The concept of sustainable food systems is frequently at the center of sustainability-focused

policy programs, such as proposed Green New Deal programs.

Definition
There are many different definitions of a sustainable food system.

From a global perspective, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
describes a sustainable food system as follows:[14]

Life-cycle assessment of GHG emissions for foods

 A sustainable food system (SFS) is a food system that delivers food security and
nutrition for all in such a way that the economic, social and environmental
bases to generate food security and nutrition for future generations are not
compromised. This means that:

It is profitable throughout
(economic sustainability);
It has broad-based benefits
for society (social
sustainability); and
It has a positive or neutral
impact on the natural
environment (environmental
sustainability)
The American Public Health Association (APHA) defines a sustainable food system as:[15]

one that provides healthy food to meet current food needs while maintaining
healthy ecosystems that can also provide food for generations to come with
minimal negative impact to the environment. A sustainable food system also
encourages local production and distribution infrastructures and makes
nutritious food available, accessible, and affordable to all. Further, it is humane
and just, protecting farmers and other workers, consumers, and communities
The European Union's Scientific Advice Mechanism defines a sustainable food system as a
system that:[16]

provides and promotes safe, nutritious and healthy food of low environmental
impact for all current and future EU citizens in a manner that itself also
protects and restores the natural environment and its ecosystem services, is
robust and resilient, economically dynamic, just and fair, and socially
acceptable and inclusive. It does so without compromising the availability of
nutritious and healthy food for people living outside the EU, nor impairing their
natural environment

Problems with conventional

food systems

Food-, land-, and climate change mitigation-gaps for 2050,[17] indicating current trajectories are not sustainable
longer-term (without collapse, pervasive conflict or similar problems)

Deforestation in Europe, 2018. Almost all of Europe's original

forests have been removed.
Industrial agriculture causes environmental impacts, as well as health problems associated
with both obesity and hunger.[18] This has generated a strong interest in healthy, sustainable
eating as a major component of the overall movement toward sustainability and climate
change mitigation.[19][20][21][22][23][24]

Conventional food systems are largely based on the availability of inexpensive fossil fuels,
which is necessary for mechanized agriculture, the manufacturing or collection of chemical
fertilizers, the processing of food products, and the packaging of foods. Food processing
began when the number of consumers started growing rapidly. The demand for cheap and
efficient calories climbed, which resulted in nutrition decline.[25] Industrialized agriculture, due
to its reliance on economies of scale to reduce production costs, often leads to the
compromising of local, regional, or even global ecosystems through fertilizer runoff, nonpoint
source pollution,[26] deforestation, suboptimal mechanisms affecting consumer product
choice, and greenhouse gas emissions.[27][28]

Food and power

In the contemporary world, transnational corporations execute high levels of control over the
food system. In this system, both farmers and consumers are disadvantaged and have little
control; power is concentrated in the center of the supply chain, where corporations control
how food moves from producers to consumers.[29]

Disempowerment of consumers
People living in different areas face substantial inequality in their access to healthy food.
Areas where affordable, healthy food, particularly fresh fruits and vegetables, is difficult to
access are sometimes called food deserts. This term has been particularly applied in the
USA.[30][31] In addition, conventional channels do not distribute food by emergency assistance
or charity. Urban residents receive more sustainable food production from healthier and safer
sources than low-income communities. Nonetheless, conventional channels are more
sustainable than charitable or welfare food resources. Even though the conventional food
system provides easier access and lower prices, their food may not be the best for the
environment nor consumer health.[32]
Both obesity and undernutrition are associated with poverty and marginalization. This has
been referred to as the "double burden of malnutrition."[33] In low-income areas, there may be
abundant access to fast-food or small convenience stores and "corner" stores, but no
supermarkets that sell a variety of healthy foods.[34]

Disempowerment of producers
Small farms tend to be more sustainable than large farming operations, because of
differences in their management and methods.[35] Industrial agriculture replaces human labor
using increased usage of fossil fuels, fertilizers, pesticides, and machinery and is heavily
reliant on monoculture.[36] However, if current trends continue, the number of operating farms
in existence is expected to halve by 2100, as smallholders' farms are consolidated into larger
operations.[37] The percentage of people who work as farmers worldwide dropped from 44%
to 26% between 1991 and 2020.[38]

Small farmers worldwide are often trapped in poverty and have little agency in the global food
system.[39][40] Smallholder farms produce a greater diversity of crops as well as harboring
more non-crop biodiversity,[41][42] but in wealthy, industrialized countries, small farms have
declined severely. For example, in the USA, 4% of the total number of farms operate 26% of all
agricultural land.[43]

Complications from globalization

The need to reduce production costs in an increasingly global market can cause production
of foods to be moved to areas where economic costs (labor, taxes, etc.) are lower or
environmental regulations are more lax, which are usually further from consumer markets.
For example, the majority of salmon sold in the United States is raised off the coast of Chile,
due in large part to less stringent Chilean standards regarding fish feed and regardless of the
fact that salmon are not indigenous in Chilean coastal waters.[44] The globalization of food
production can result in the loss of traditional food systems in less developed countries and
have negative impacts on the population health, ecosystems, and cultures in those
countries.[45]
Globalization of sustainable food systems has coincided the proliferation of private
standards in the agri-food sector where big food retailers have formed multi-stakeholder
initiatives (MSIs) with governance over standard setting organizations (SSOs) who maintain
the standards. One such MSI is the Consumer Goods Forum(CGF). With CGF members
openly using lobbying dollars[46] to influence trade agreements for food systems which leads
to creating barriers to competition.[47] Concerns around corporate governance within food
systems as a substitute for regulation were raised by the Institute for Multi-Stakeholder
Initiative Integrity.[48] The proliferation of private standards resulted in standard
harmonization from organizations that include the Global Food Safety Initiative and ISEAL
Alliance. The unintended consequence of standard harmonization was a perverse incentive
because companies owning private standards generate revenue from fees that other
companies have to pay to implement the standards. This has led to more and more private
standards entering the marketplace who are enticed to make money.

Systemic structures
Moreover, the existing conventional food system lacks the inherent framework necessary to
foster sustainable models of food production and consumption. Within the decision-making
processes associated with this system, the burden of responsibility primarily falls on
consumers and private enterprises. This expectation places the onus on individuals to
voluntarily and often without external incentives, expend effort to educate themselves about
sustainable behaviours and specific product choices. This educational endeavour is reliant
on the availability of public information. Subsequently, consumers are urged to alter their
decision-making patterns concerning production and consumption, driven by prioritised
ethical values and sometimes health benefits, even when significant drawbacks are
prevalent. These drawbacks faced by consumers include elevated costs of organic foods,
imbalanced monetary price differentials between animal-intensive diets and plant-based
alternatives, and an absence of comprehensive consumer guidance aligned with
contemporary valuations. In 2020, an analysis of external climate costs of foods indicated
that external greenhouse gas costs are typically highest for animal-based products –
conventional and organic to about the same extent within that ecosystem subdomain –
followed by conventional dairy products and lowest for organic plant-based foods. It finds
contemporary monetary evaluations to be "inadequate" and policy-making that lead to
reductions of these costs to be possible, appropriate and urgent.[49][50][51]
Agricultural pollution

Water pollution due to dairy farming

in the Wairarapa area of New Zealand
(photographed in 2003)

Agricultural pollution refers to biotic and abiotic byproducts of farming practices that result in
contamination or degradation of the environment and surrounding ecosystems, and/or cause
injury to humans and their economic interests. The pollution may come from a variety of
sources, ranging from point source water pollution (from a single discharge point) to more
diffuse, landscape-level causes, also known as non-point source pollution and air pollution.
Once in the environment these pollutants can have both direct effects in surrounding
ecosystems, i.e. killing local wildlife or contaminating drinking water, and downstream effects
such as dead zones caused by agricultural runoff is concentrated in large water bodies.

Management practices, or ignorance of them, play a crucial role in the amount and impact of
these pollutants. Management techniques range from animal management and housing to
the spread of pesticides and fertilizers in global agricultural practices, which can have major
environmental impacts. Bad management practices include poorly managed animal feeding
operations, overgrazing, plowing, fertilizer, and improper, excessive, or badly timed use of
pesticides.

Pollutants from agriculture greatly affect

water quality and can be found in lakes,
rivers, wetlands, estuaries, and
groundwater. Pollutants from farming
include sediments, nutrients, pathogens,
pesticides, metals, and salts.[52] Animal
agriculture has an outsized impact on
pollutants that enter the environment.
Bacteria and pathogens in manure can
make their way into streams and
groundwater if grazing, storing manure in
lagoons and applying manure to fields is
not properly managed.[53] Air pollution
caused by agriculture through land use
changes and animal agriculture practices
have an outsized impact on climate
change, and addressing these concerns
was a central part of the IPCC Special
Report on Climate Change and Land.[54]
Mitigation of agricultural pollution is a
key component in the development of a
sustainable food system.[55][56][57]

Sourcing sustainable food

A matrix of the progress in the

adoption of management practices
and approaches

A Microalgae cultivation facility[17]

 Comparison of footprints for protein
production[17]

A video explaining the development of

cultured meat and a "post-animal bio-
economy" driven by lab grown protein
(meat, eggs, milk)

Global average human diet and

protein composition and usage of
crop-based products[58]

At the global level the environmental impact of agribusiness is being addressed through
sustainable agriculture, cellular agriculture and organic farming.

Various alternatives to meat and novel classes of foods can substantially increase
sustainability. There are large potential benefits of marine algae-based aquaculture for the
development of a future healthy and sustainable food system.[17][59] Fungiculture, another
sector of a growing bioeconomy besides algaculture, may also become a larger component
of a sustainable food system.[60][61][62] Consumption shares of various other ingredients for
meat analogues such as protein from pulses may also rise substantially in a sustainable food
system.[63][64][65] The integration of single-cell protein, which can be produced from captured
CO2.[66] Optimized dietary scenarios would also see changes in various other types of foods
such as nuts, as well as pulses such as beans, which have favorable environmental and
health profiles.[67][68]

Complementary approaches under development include vertical farming of various types of

foods and various agricultural technologies, often using digital agriculture.

Sustainable seafood
Sustainable seafood is seafood from either fished or farmed sources that can maintain or
increase production in the future without jeopardizing the ecosystems from which it was
acquired. The sustainable seafood movement has gained momentum as more people
become aware about both overfishing and environmentally destructive fishing methods. The
goal of sustainable seafood practices is to ensure that fish populations are able to continue
to thrive, that marine habitats are protected, and that fishing and aquaculture practices do not
have negative impacts on local communities or economies.

There are several factors that go into determining whether a seafood product is sustainable
or not. These include the method of fishing or farming, the health of the fish population, the
impact on the surrounding environment, and the social and economic implications of the
seafood production. Some sustainable seafood practices include using methods that
minimize bycatch, implementing seasonal or area closures to allow fish populations to
recover, and using aquaculture methods that minimize the use of antibiotics or other
chemicals.[69] Organizations such as the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) and the
Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC) work to promote sustainable seafood practices and
provide certification for products that meet their sustainability standards.[70] In addition,
many retailers and restaurants are now offering sustainable seafood options to their
customers, often labeled with a sustainability certification logo to make it easier for
consumers to make informed choices. Consumers can also play a role in promoting
sustainable seafood by making conscious choices about the seafood they purchase and
consume. This can include choosing seafood that is labeled as sustainably harvested or
farmed, asking questions about the source and production methods of the seafood they
purchase, and supporting restaurants and retailers that prioritize sustainability in their
seafood offerings.[71] By working together to promote sustainable seafood practices, we can
help to ensure the health and sustainability of our oceans and the communities that depend
on them.
Sustainable animal feed
A study suggests there would be large environmental benefits of using insects for animal
feed.When substituting mixed grain, which is currently the main animal feed, insect feed
lowers water and land requirement and emits fewer greenhouse gas and ammonia. [72]

Sustainable pet food

Recent studies show that vegan diets, which are more sustainable, would not have negative
impact on the health of pet dogs and cats if implemented appropriately. [73] It aims to
minimize the ecological footprint of pet food production while still providing the necessary
nutrition for pets. Recent studies have explored the potential benefits of vegan diets for pets
in terms of sustainability.

One example is the growing body of research indicating that properly formulated and
balanced vegan diets can meet the nutritional needs of dogs and cats without compromising
their health.[74] These studies suggest that with appropriate planning and supplementation,
pets can thrive on plant-based diets. This is significant from a sustainability perspective as
traditional pet food production heavily relies on animal-based ingredients, which contribute to
deforestation, greenhouse gas emissions, and overfishing.

By opting for sustainable pet food options, such as plant-based or eco-friendly alternatives,
pet owners can reduce their pets' carbon footprint and support more ethical and sustainable
practices in the pet food industry. Additionally, sustainable pet food may also prioritize the
use of responsibly sourced ingredients, organic farming practices, and minimal packaging
waste. It is important to note that when considering a vegan or alternative diet for pets,
consultation with a veterinarian is crucial.[75] Each pet has unique nutritional requirements,
and a professional can help determine the most suitable diet plan to ensure all necessary
nutrients are provided.
Substitution of meat and sustainable
meat and dairy

A study shows that novel foods such as

cultured meat and dairy, algae, existing
microbial foods, and ground-up insects
are shown to have the potential to reduce
environmental impacts[76][77][78][79] – by
over 80%.[80][81] Various combinations
may further reduce the environmental
impacts of these alternatives – for
example, a study explored solar-energy-
driven production of microbial foods
from direct air capture.[82] Alternatives
are not only relevant for human
consumption but also for pet food and
other animal feed.
Meat reduction strategies
Strategies for implementing meat-reduction among populations include large-scale
education and awareness building to promote more sustainable consumption styles. Other
types of policy interventions could accelerate these shifts and might include "restrictions or
fiscal mechanisms such as [meat] taxes".[76] In the case of fiscal mechanisms, these could
be based on forms of scientific calculation of external costs (externalities currently not
reflected in any way in the monetary price)[83] to make the polluter pay, e.g. for the damage
done by excess nitrogen.[84] In the case of restrictions, this could be based on limited
domestic supply or Personal (Carbon) Allowances (certificates and credits which would
reward sustainable behavior).[85][86]

Relevant to such a strategy, estimating the environmental impacts of food products in a

standardized way – as has been done with a dataset of more than 57,000 food products in
supermarkets – could also be used to inform consumers or in policy, making consumers
more aware of the environmental impacts of animal-based products (or requiring them to
take such into consideration).[87][88]

Young adults that are faced with new

physical or social environments (for
example, moving away from home) are
also more likely to make dietary changes
and reduce their meat intake.[89] Another
strategy includes increasing the prices of
meat while also reducing the prices of
plant-based products, which could show
a significant impact on meat-
reduction.[90]

Meat reduction and increased plant-based preferences

seen based on social and other life changes.

A reduction in meat portion sizes could

potentially be more beneficial than
cutting out meat entirely from ones diet,
according to a 2022 study.[89] This study
revolved around young Dutch adults, and
showed that the adults were more
reluctant to cut out meat entirely to make
the change to plant-based diets due to
habitual behaviours. Increasing and
improving plant-based alternatives, as
well as the education about plant-based
alternatives, proved to be one of the most
effective ways to combat these
behaviours. The lack of education about
plant-based alternatives is a road-block
for most people - most adults do not
know how to properly cook plant-based
meals or know the health risks/benefits
associated with a vegetarian diet - which
is why education among adults is
important in meat-reduction
strategies.[89][90]
In the Netherlands, a meat tax of 15% to 30% could show a reduction of meat consumption
by 8% to 16%.[89] as well as reducing the amount of livestock by buying out farmers.[91] In
2022, the city of Haarlem, Netherlands announced that advertisements for factory-farmed
meat will be banned in public places, starting in 2024.[92]

A 2022 review concluded that "low and moderate meat consumption levels are compatible
with the climate targets and broader sustainable development, even for 10 billion people".[76]

In June 2023, the European Commission's Scientific Advice Mechanism published a review of
all available evidence and accompanying policy recommendations to promote sustainable
food consumption and reducing meat intake. They reported that the evidence supports policy
interventions on pricing (including "meat taxes, and pricing products according to their
environmental impacts, as well as lower taxes on healthy and sustainable alternatives"),
availability and visibility, food composition, labelling and the social environment.[93] They also
stated:

People choose food not just through rational reflection, but also
based on many other factors: food availability, habits and routines,
emotional and impulsive reactions, and their financial and social
situation. So we should consider ways to unburden the consumer
and make sustainable, healthy food an easy and affordable choice.

Effects and combination of measures

Per capita meat consumption and

GDP 1990–2017

Producers can reduce ruminant enteric fermentation using genetic selection,[94][95]

immunization, rumen defaunation, competition of methanogenic archaea with acetogens,[96]
introduction of methanotrophic bacteria into the rumen,[97][98] diet modification and grazing
management, among others.[99][100][101] The principal mitigation strategies identified for
reduction of agricultural nitrous oxide emissions are avoiding over-application of nitrogen
fertilizers and adopting suitable manure management practices.[102][103] Mitigation strategies
for reducing carbon dioxide emissions in the livestock sector include adopting more efficient
production practices to reduce agricultural pressure for deforestation (such as in Latin
America), reducing fossil fuel consumption, and increasing carbon sequestration in soils.[104]

Methane belching from cattle might be reduced by intensification of farming,[105] selective

breeding,[106] immunization against the many methanogens,[106] rumen defaunation (killing
the bacteria-killing protozoa),[107] diet modification (e.g. seaweed fortification),[108] decreased
antibiotic use,[109] and grazing management.[110]

Measures that increase state revenues from meat consumption/production could enable the
use of these funds for related research and development and "to cushion social hardships
among low-income consumers". Meat and livestock are important sectors of the
contemporary socioeconomic system, with livestock value chains employing an estimated
>1.3 billion people.[76]

Sequestering carbon into soil is currently not feasible to cancel out planet-warming
emissions caused by the livestock sector. The global livestock annually emits 135 billion
metric tons of carbon, way more than can be returned to the soil.[111] Despite of this the idea
of sequestering carbon to the soil is currently advocated by livestock industry as well as
grassroots groups.[112]

Agricultural subsidies for cattle and their

feedstock could be stopped.[113] A more
controversial suggestion, advocated by
George Monbiot in the documentary
"Apocalypse Cow", is to stop farming
cattle completely, however farmers often
have political power so might be able to
resist such a big change.[114]
"Policy sequencing" to gradually extend regulations once established to other forest risk
commodities (e.g. other than beef) and regions while coordinating with other importing
countries could prevent ineffectiveness.[115]

Meat and dairy

Despite meat from livestock such as beef and lamb being considered unsustainable, some
regenerative agriculture proponents suggest rearing livestock with a mixed farming system to
restore organic matter in grasslands.[116][117] Organizations such as the Canadian Roundtable
for Sustainable Beef (CRSB) are looking for solutions to reduce the impact of meat
production on the environment.[118] In October 2021, 17% of beef sold in Canada was certified
as sustainable beef by the CRSB.[119] However, sustainable meat has led to criticism, as
environmentalists point out that the meat industry excludes most of its emissions.[120][121]

Important mitigation options for reducing the greenhouse gas emissions from livestock
include genetic selection,[122][123] introduction of methanotrophic bacteria into the
rumen,[124][125] vaccines, feeds,[126] toilet-training,[127] diet modification and grazing
management.[128][129][130] Other options include shifting to ruminant-free alternatives, such as
milk substitutes and meat analogues or poultry, which generates far fewer emissions.[131]

Plant-based meat is proposed for sustainable alternatives to meat consumption. Plant-based

meat emits 30%–90% less greenhouse gas than conventional meat (kg-CO2-eq/kg-meat) [132]
and 72%–99% less water than conventional meat.[133] Public company Beyond Meat and
privately held company Impossible Foods are examples of plant-based food production.[134]
However, consulting firm Sustainalytics assured that these companies are not more
sustainable than meat-processors competitors such as food processor JBS, and they don't
disclose all the CO2 emissions of their supply chain.[135]

Beyond reducing negative impacts of meat production, facilitating shifts towards more
sustainable meat, and facilitating reduced meat consumption (including via plant-based meat
substitutes), cultured meat may offer a potentially sustainable way to produce real meat
without the associated negative environmental impacts.[136][137][138][139][140]
Phase-outs, co-optimization and
environmental standards

Five broad food policy categories[141]

In regards to deforestation, a study proposed kinds of "climate clubs" of "as many other
states as possible taking similar measures and establishing uniform environmental
standards". It suggested that "otherwise, global problems remain unsolvable, and shifting
effects will occur" and that "border adjustments [...] have to be introduced to target those
states that do not participate—again, to avoid shifting effects with ecologically and
economically detrimental consequences", with such "border adjustments or eco-tariffs"
incentivizing other countries to adjust their standards and domestic production to join the
climate club.[142] Identified potential barriers to sustainability initiatives may include
contemporary trade-policy goals and competition law.[141] Greenhouse gas emissions for
countries are often measured according to production, for imported goods that are produced
in other countries than where they are consumed "embedded emissions" refers to the
emissions of the product. In cases where such products are and remain imported, eco-tariffs
could over time adjust prices for specific categories of products – or for specific non-
collaborative polluting origin countries – such as deforestation-associated meat, foods with
intransparent supply-chain origin or foods with high embedded emissions.
Agricultural productivity and
environmental efficiency
Agricultural productivity (including e.g. reliability of yields) is an important component of food
security[143] and increasing it sustainably (e.g. with high efficiency in terms of environmental
impacts) could be a major way to decrease negative environmental impacts, such as by
decreasing the amount of land needed for farming or reducing environmental degradation
like deforestation.[144]

Genetically engineered crops

There is research and development to engineer genetically modified crops with increased
heat/drought/stress resistance, increased yields, lower water requirements, and overall lower
environmental impacts, among other things.[145][146]

Novel agricultural technologies

Vertical farms, automation, solar energy

production, novel alternatives to
pesticides, online food delivery ICTs, and
other technologies may allow for
localization or modified food production
alongside policies such as eco-tariffs,
targeted subsidies and meat taxes.
Organic food

Farming, especially non-organic

farming degrades soil often intended
to be used to provide food in the
future.

From an environmental perspective, fertilizing, overproduction and the use of pesticides in

conventional farming has caused, and is causing, enormous damage worldwide to local
ecosystems, soil health,[147][148][149] biodiversity, groundwater and drinking water supplies,
and sometimes farmers' health and fertility.[150][151][152][153][154]

Organic farming typically reduces some environmental impact relative to conventional

farming, but the scale of reduction can be difficult to quantify and varies depending on
farming methods. In some cases, reducing food waste and dietary changes might provide
greater benefits.[154] A 2020 study at the Technical University of Munich found that the
greenhouse gas emissions of organically farmed plant-based food were lower than
conventionally-farmed plant-based food. The greenhouse gas costs of organically produced
meat were approximately the same as non-organically produced meat.[155][156] However, the
same paper noted that a shift from conventional to organic practices would likely be
beneficial for long-term efficiency and ecosystem services, and probably improve soil over
time.[156]

A 2019 life-cycle assessment study

found that converting the total
agricultural sector (both crop and
livestock production) for England and
Wales to organic farming methods would
result in a net increase in greenhouse
gas emissions as increased overseas
land use for production and import of
crops would be needed to make up for
lower organic yields domestically.[157]

Local food systems

A map of wheat production (average percentage of land

used for its production times average yield in each grid cell)
across the world.

In local and regional food systems, food is produced, distributed, and consumed locally. This
type of system can be beneficial both to the consumer (by providing fresher and more
sustainably grown product) and to the farmer (by fetching higher prices and giving more
direct access to consumer feedback).[158] Local and regional food systems can face
challenges arising from inadequate institutions or programs, geographic limitations of
producing certain crops, and seasonal fluctuations which can affect product demand within
regions. In addition, direct marketing also faces challenges of accessibility, coordination, and
awareness.[158]

Farmers' markets, which have increased in number over the past two decades, are designed
for supporting local farmers in selling their fresh products to consumers who are willing to
buy. Food hubs are also similar locations where farmers deliver products and consumers
come to pick them up. Consumers who wish to have weekly produce delivered can buy
shares through a system called Community-Supported Agriculture (CSA).[158] However, these
farmers' markets also face challenges with marketing needs such as starting up,
advertisement, payments, processing, and regulations.[158]

There are various movements working towards local food production, more productive use of
urban wastelands and domestic gardens including permaculture, guerilla gardening, urban
horticulture, local food, slow food, sustainable gardening, and organic gardening.[159][160]

Debates over local food system efficiency and sustainability have risen as these systems
decrease transportation, which is a strategy for combating environmental footprints and
climate change. A popular argument is that the less impactful footprint of food products
from local markets on communities and environment.[161] Main factors behind climate
change include land use practices and greenhouse emissions, as global food systems
produce approximately 33% of theses emissions.[161] Compared to transportation in a local
food system, a conventional system takes more fuel for energy and emits more pollution,
such as carbon dioxide. This transportation also includes miles for agricultural products to
help with agriculture and depends on factors such as transportation sizes, modes, and fuel
types. Some airplane importations have shown to be more efficient than local food systems
in some cases.[161] Overall, local food systems can often support better environmental
practices.

Environmental impact of food miles

Studies found that food miles are a relatively minor factor of carbon emissions; albeit
increased food localization may also enable additional, more significant environmental
benefits such as recycling of energy, water, and nutrients.[162] For specific foods, regional
differences in harvest seasons may make it more environmentally friendly to import from
distant regions than more local production and storage or local production in
greenhouses.[163] This may vary depending on the environmental standards in the respective
country, the distance of the respective countries and on a case-by-case basis for different
foods.

However, a 2022 study suggests global food miles' CO2 emissions are 3.5–7.5 times higher
than previously estimated, with transport accounting for about 19% of total food-system
emissions,[164][165] though shifting towards plant-based diets remains substantially more
important.[166] The study concludes that "a shift towards plant-based foods must be coupled
with more locally produced items, mainly in affluent countries".[165]

Food distribution
In food distribution, increasing food supply is a production problem, as it takes time for
products to get marketed, and as they wait to get distributed the food goes to waste. Despite
the fact that throughout all food production an estimated 20-30% of food is wasted, there
have been efforts to combat this issue, such as campaigns conducted to promote limiting
food waste.[167] However, due to insufficient facilities and practices as well as huge amounts
of food going unmarketed or harvested due to prices or quality, food is wasted through each
phase of its distribution.[167] Another factor for lack of sustainability within food distribution
includes transportation in combination with inadequate methods for food handling
throughout the packing process. Additionally, poor or long conditions for food in storage and
consumer waste add to this list of factors for inefficiency found in food distribution.[167] In
2019, though global production of calories kept pace with population growth, there are still
more than 820 million people who have insufficient food and many more consume low-
quality diets leading to micronutrient deficiencies. [168]

Some modern tendencies in food distribution also create bounds in which problems are
created and solutions must be formed. One factor includes growth of large-scale producing
and selling units in bulk to chain stores which displays merchandising power from large scale
market organizations as well as their mergence with manufactures.[169] In response to
production, another factor includes large scale distribution and buying units among
manufacturers in development of food distribution, which also affects producers, distributors,
and consumers.[169] Another main factor involves protecting public interest, which means
better adaptation for product and service, resulting in rapid development of food
distribution.[169] A further factor revolves around price maintenance, which creates pressure
for lower prices, resulting in higher drive for lower cost throughout the whole food distribution
process.[169] An additional factor comprises new changes and forms of newly invented
technical processes such as developments of freezing food, discovered through experiments,
to help with distribution efficiency. Another factor is new technical developments in
distributing machinery to meet the influence of consumer demands and economic
factors.[169] Lastly, one more factor includes government relation to businesses and those
who petition against it in correlation with anti-trust laws due to large scale business
organizations and the fear of monopoly contributing to changing public attitude.[169]

Food security, nutrition and

diet

Cereal-use statistic showing an estimated large fraction

of crops used as fodder

The environmental effects of different dietary patterns depend on many factors, including the
proportion of animal and plant foods consumed and the method of food
production.[170][171][172][173][174] At the same time, current and future food systems need to be
provided with sufficient nutrition for not only the current population, but future population
growth in light of a world affected by changing climate in the face of global warming.[175]

Nearly one in four households in the United States have experienced food insecurity in 2020–
21. Even before the pandemic hit, some 13.7 million households, or 10.5% of all U.S.
households, experienced food insecurity at some point during 2019, according to data from
the U.S. Department of Agriculture. That works out to more than 35 million Americans who
were either unable to acquire enough food to meet their needs, or uncertain of where their
next meal might come from, last year.[176]
The "global land squeeze" for agricultural land[177] also has impacts on food security.[178]
Likewise, effects of climate change on agriculture can result in lower crop yields and
nutritional quality due to for example drought, heat waves and flooding as well as increases
in water scarcity,[179][180] pests and plant diseases. Soil conservation may be important for
food security as well. For sustainability and food security, the food system would need to
adapt to such current and future problems.

According to one estimate, "just four corporations control 90% of the global grain trade" and
researchers have argued that the food system is too fragile due to various issues, such as
"massive food producers" (i.e. market-mechanisms) having too much power and nations
"polarising into super-importers and super-exporters".[181] However the impact of market
power on the food system is contested with other claiming more complex context dependent
outcomes.[182]

Production decision-making
In the food industry, especially in agriculture, there has been a rise in problems toward the
production of some food products. For instance, growing vegetables and fruits has become
more expensive. It is difficult to grow some agricultural crops because some have a
preferable climate condition for developing. There has also been an incline on food shortages
as production has decreased.[183] Though the world still produces enough food for the
population, not everyone receives good quality food because it is not accessible to them,
since it depends on their location and/or income. In addition, the amount of overweight
people has increased, and there are about 2 billion people that are underfed worldwide. This
shows how the global food system lacks quantity and quality according to the food
consumption patterns.[184]

A study estimated that "relocating current croplands to [environmentally] optimal locations,

whilst allowing ecosystems in then-abandoned areas to regenerate, could simultaneously
decrease the current carbon, biodiversity, and irrigation water footprint of global crop
production by 71%, 87%, and 100%", with relocation only within national borders also having
substantial potential.[185][186]

Policies, including ones that affect consumption, may affect production-decisions such as
which foods are produced to various degrees and in various indirect and direct ways.
Individual studies have named several proposed options of such[187][188][141] and the
restricted website Project Drawdown has aggregated and preliminarily evaluated some of
these measures.[189]

Climate change adaptation

Water stress per country in 2019. Water stress is

the ratio of water use relative to water availability
("demand-driven scarcity").[190]

Cclimate change is altering global rainfall patterns. This affects agriculture.[191] Rainfed
agriculture accounts for 80% of global agriculture.[192] Many of the 852 million poor people in
the world live in parts of Asia and Africa that depend on rainfall to cultivate food crops.
Climate change will modify rainfall, evaporation, runoff, and soil moisture storage. Extended
drought can cause the failure of small and marginal farms. This results in increased
economic, political and social disruption.

Water availability strongly influences all kinds of agriculture. Changes in total seasonal
precipitation or its pattern of variability are both important. Moisture stress during flowering,
pollination, and grain-filling harms most crops. It is particularly harmful to corn, soybeans,
and wheat. Increased evaporation from the soil and accelerated transpiration in the plants
themselves will cause moisture stress.

There are many adaptation options. One is to develop crop varieties with greater drought
tolerance[193] and another is to build local rainwater storage. Using small planting basins to
harvest water in Zimbabwe has boosted maize yields. This happens whether rainfall is
abundant or scarce. And in Niger they have led to three or fourfold increases in millet
yields.[194]
Climate change can threaten food
security and water security. It is possible
to adapt food systems to improve food
security and prevent negative impacts
from climate change in the future.[195]

Food waste
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), food waste is responsible for 8
percent of global human-made greenhouse gas emissions.[196] The FAO concludes that
nearly 30 percent of all available agricultural land in the world – 1.4 billion hectares – is used
for produced but uneaten food. The global blue water footprint of food waste is 250 km3, the
amount of water that flows annually through the Volga or three times Lake Geneva.[197]

There are several factors that explain how food waste has increased globally in food
systems. The main factor is population, because as population increases more food is being
made, but most food produced goes to waste. Especially, during COVID-19, food waste grew
sharply due to the booming of food delivery services according to a 2022 study (https://www.
tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21681015.2021.1951858) . In addition, not all countries
have the same resources to provide the best quality of food. According to a study done in
2010, private households produce the largest amounts of food waste across the globe.[198]
Another major factor is overproduction; the rate of food production is significantly higher than
the rate of consumption, leading to a surplus of food waste.[199]

Throughout the world there are different ways that food is being processed. With different
priorities, different choices are being made to meet their most important needs. Money is
another big factor that determines how long the process will take and who is working, and it
is treated differently in low income countries' food systems.
However, high income countries food systems still may deal with other issues such as food
security. This demonstrates how all food systems have their weaknesses and strengths.
Climate change causes food waste to increase because the warm temperature causes crops
to dry faster and creates a higher risk for fires. Food waste can occur any time throughout
production.[200] According to the World Wildlife Organization,[201] since most food produced
goes to landfills, when it rots it causes methane to be produced. The disposal of food has a
big impact on our environment and health.[202][203]

Academic Opportunities
The study of sustainable food applies systems theory and methods of sustainable design
towards food systems. As an interdisciplinary field, the study of sustainable food systems
has been growing in the last several decades. University programs focused on sustainable
food systems include:

University of Colorado Boulder[204]

Harvard Extension[205]
University of Delaware[206]
Mesa Community College[207]
University of California, Davis
University of Vermont[208][209]
Sterling College (Vermont)[210]
University of Michigan[211]
 Portland State University[212][213]
University of Sheffield's Institute for
Sustainable Food[214]
University of Georgia's Sustainable
Food Systems Initiative[215]
The Culinary Institute of America's
Master's in Sustainable Food
Systems[216]
University of Edinburgh's Global
Academy of Agriculture and Food
Systems[217]
There is a debate about "establishing a body akin to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) for food systems" which "would respond to questions from policymakers and
produce advice based on a synthesis of the available evidence" while identifying "gaps in the
science that need addressing".[218]
Public policy

European Union
The European Union's Scientific Advice Mechanism has published a systematic review of all
European policies related to sustainable food systems, and their analyses in the academic
literature.[219]

In September 2019, the EU's Chief Scientific Advisors stated that adapting the European food
system for the future should be a high priority for the EU:[220]

Although availability of food is not perceived as an immediate, major concern in

Europe, the challenge to ensure a long-term, safe, nutritious and affordable
supply of food, from both land and the oceans, remains. A portfolio of
coordinated strategies is called for to address this challenge.

In January 2020, the EU put improvements to the food system at the core of the European
Green Deal. The European Commission's 'Farm to Fork strategy for a sustainable food
system' was published in May 2020, which laid out how European countries will reduce
greenhouse gas emissions, protect biodiversity, reduce food waste and chemical pesticide
use, and contribute to a circular economy.[221][222]

In April 2020, the EU's Scientific Advice Mechanism delivered to European Commissioners a
Scientific Opinion on how to transition to a sustainable food system, informed by an evidence
review report undertaken by European academies.[223]

In June 2023, the Scientific Advice Mechanism delivered a second piece of advice, this time
on the role of consumers in a sustainable food system, again based on an evidence review
report by SAPEA.[224] The main conclusion of this advice was:

Until now, the main policy focus in the EU has been on providing consumers
with more information. But this is not enough. People choose food not just
 through rational reflection, but also based on many other factors: food
availability, habits and routines, emotional and impulsive reactions, and their
financial and social situation. So we should consider ways to unburden the
consumer and make sustainable, healthy food an easy and affordable choice.
That will require a mix of incentives, information and binding policies
governing all aspects of food production and distribution.

Global

Delaware Valley University's "Roth

Center for Sustainable Agriculture",
located in Montgomery County,
Pennsylvania

Sustainable agriculture is a topic in

international policy concerning its
potential to reduce environmental risks.
In 2011, the Commission on Sustainable
Agriculture and Climate Change, as part
of its recommendations for policymakers
on achieving food security in the face of
climate change, urged that sustainable
agriculture must be integrated into
national and international policy.[225] The
Commission stressed that increasing
weather variability and climate shocks
will negatively affect agricultural yields,
necessitating early action to drive
change in agricultural production
systems towards increasing
resilience.[225] It also called for
dramatically increased investments in
sustainable agriculture in the next
decade, including in national research
and development budgets, land
rehabilitation, economic incentives, and
infrastructure improvement.[225]
During 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference, 45 countries pledged to give more
than 4 billion dollars for transition to sustainable agriculture. The organization "Slow Food"
expressed concern about the effectivity of the spendings, as they concentrate on
technological solutions and reforestation en place of "a holistic agroecology that transforms
food from a mass-produced commodity into part of a sustainable system that works within
natural boundaries."[226]

Additionally, the Summit consisted of negotiations that led to heavily reducing CO2
emissions, becoming carbon neutral, ending deforestation and reliance on coal, and limiting
methane emissions.[227][228]

In November, the Climate Action Tracker

reported that global efforts are on track
to for a 2.7 °C temperature increase with
current policies, finding that the current
targets will not meet global needs as
coal and natural gas consumption are
primarily responsible for the gap in
progress.[229][230] Since, like-minded
developing countries asked for an
addendum to the agreement that
removed the obligation for developing
countries to meet the same requirements
of wealthy nations.
Asia

China
In 2016, the Chinese government adopted a plan to reduce China's meat consumption by
50%, for achieving more sustainable and healthy food system.[231][232]

In 2019, the National Basic Research Program or Program 973 funded research into Science
and Technology Backyard (STB). STBs are hubs often created in rural areas with significant
rates of small-scale farming that combine knowledge of traditional practices with new
innovations and technology implementation. The purpose of this program was to invest in
sustainable farming throughout the country and increase food production while achieving
few negative environmental effects. The program was ultimately proven to be successful, and
the study found that the merging of traditional practices and appropriate technology was
instrumental in higher crop yields.[233]

India
In collaboration with the Food and Land Use Coalition (FOLU), CEEW (council for energy,
environment and water), has given an overview of the current state of sustainable agriculture
practices and systems (SAPSs) in India.[234] India is aiming to scale-up SAPs, through
policymakers, administrators, philanthropists, and other which represent a vital alternative to
conventional, input-intensive agriculture. In idea these efforts identify 16 SAPSs – including
agroforestry, crop rotation, rainwater harvesting, organic farming and natural farming – using
agroecology as an investigative lens. In a conclusive understanding it is realised that
sustainable agriculture is far from mainstream in India. Further proposals for several
measures for promoting SAPSs, including restructured government support and rigorous
evidence generation for benefits and implementation of sustainable farming are ongoing
progress in Indian Agriculture.

An example of initiatives in India towards

exploring the world of sustainable
farming has been set by the Sowgood
foundation which is a nonprofit founded
by educator Pragati Chaswal.[235] It
started by teaching primary school
children about sustainable farming by
helping them farm on small farm strips in
suburban farmhouses and gardens.
Today many government and private
schools in Delhi, India have adopted the
sowgood foundation curriculum for
sustainable farming for their students.

See also

Standardization#Environmental
protection