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Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain

National Forensic Sciences Univ.
New Jersey Inst. of Technology

Deepak Rawtani
Edited by
Gujarat
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India
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Names: Rawtani, Deepak, editor. | Hussain, Chaudhery Mustansar, editor.
Title: The environmental impact of COVID-19 / Deepak Rawtani, Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain.
Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2024. | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022055656 (print) | LCCN 2022055657 (ebook) | ISBN
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Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Pondicherry, India

v
Contents
Foreword xiii
1 COVID-19: A Pandemic - Introduction 1

Pratik Kulkarni, Tejas Barot, Piyush Rao, Aayush Dey, and Deepak Rawtani
1.1 Introduction: Sources and Chemical Activities of COVID-19 1
1.1.1 Sources and Transmission 2
1.1.2 Structure of SARS-CoV-2 3
1.1.3 Common Symptoms, Immune Reaction to the Virus,
and Mechanism of Entry 3
1.1.3.1 Immuno-evasion of Coronaviruses 4
1.1.3.2 World at Loss due to COVID-19 5
1.1.3.3 Incubation Period 6
1.1.3.4 SARS-CoV-2 and Basic Reproduction Number (R0) 6
1.1.3.5 Pathological Characteristics 6
1.1.3.6 Case Definitions 7
1.1.3.7 Prevention of Transmission 7
1.1.3.8 Quarantine 8
1.1.3.9 Global Response by WHO 9
1.1.4 Treatments 10
1.1.4.1 General Treatment Strategies for COVID-19 10
1.1.4.2 Antiviral Therapy 10
1.1.4.3 COVID-19 Convalescent Plasma for Prophylaxis 10
1.1.4.4 FDA-Approved Drug/Agents for Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) 11
1.1.4.5 Vaccines 11
1.1.5 Conclusion 12
References 12
2 Viability of COVID-19 in Different Environmental Surfaces 19

Saeida Saadat, Piyush K. Rao, Nitasha Khatri, and Deepak Rawtani
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Transmission of COVID-19 20
2.2.1 Influence of Environmental Factors on Transmission of COVID-19 21
2.3 Survival of COVID-19 on Different Environmental Surfaces 23
vi Contents
2.3.1 Survival of COVID-19 on Households and Hospitals Surfaces 24

2.3.2 Stability of COVID-19 in Liquid Media 25
2.4 Disinfection of the Surfaces as an Efficient Weapon Against Coronaviruses 26
2.5 Conclusion 27
References 28
3 Influence of Environmental Factors in Transmission of COVID-19 35

Aayush Dey, Piyush K. Rao, and Deepak Rawtani
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Temperature, Humidity, and Transmission of COVID-19 37
3.3 Precipitation and Its Effects on COVID-19 Transmission 37
3.4 Food Industry and COVID-19 Transmission 38
3.5 Water and Sewage as a Medium for COVID-19 Transmission 39
3.6 COVID-19 Transmission via Air 39
3.7 Transmission of COVID-19 Through Insects 40
3.8 Personal Hygiene Amidst COVID-19 Transmission 41
3.9 Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 42
3.10 Disinfection of Surfaces – SARS-CoV-2 46
3.10.1 Suspension Tests for Surface Disinfection 46
3.10.2 Carrier Tests for Surface Disinfection 47
3.10.3 Ultraviolet (UV-C) Radiation-Mediated Disinfection of SARS-CoV-2 47
3.11 Conclusion 50
References 51
4 Models and Strategies for Controlling the Transmission of COVID-19 59

Yigĭ tcan Sümbelli, Semra Köse, Rüstem Keçili, and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain
4.1 Introduction 59
4.2 Routes for the Transmission of COVID-19 60
4.3 Models for the Transmission of COVID-19 61
4.4 Strategies for the Transmission Control of COVID-19 62
4.5 Conclusions 64
References 64
5 Traditional Analytical Techniques and Sampling of COVID-19 67

Aayush Dey, Piyush K. Rao, Pratik Kulkarni, and Deepak Rawtani
5.1 Introduction 67
5.2 Sample Collection from Patients 68
5.2.1 Sample Acquisition from Nose 69
5.2.2 Sample Acquisition from Saliva 69
5.2.3 Stool Sample Acquisition 70
5.2.3.1 Sample Collection from Environmental Surfaces 70
5.2.3.2 Timing of the Environmental Sample Collection 71
5.2.3.3 Environmental Sampling Methods and Procedure 71
5.2.3.4 Transport and Storage of the Samples 71
5.2.3.5 Novel Sample Collection Technique 72
Contents vii
5.2.3.6 Current Diagnosis for COVID-19 72

5.2.4 Nucleic Acid Testing 73
5.2.4.1 Reverse Transcription-Based Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) 73
5.2.4.2 Real-Time RT-PCR (rRT-PCR) 73
5.2.5 Computed Tomography 74
5.3 Conclusion 75
References 75
6 Modern Sensor-Based Techniques for Identification of COVID-19 79

Pratik Kulkarni, Shyam Vasvani, Tejas D. Barot, Piyush K. Rao, and Aayush Dey
6.1 Introduction: Current Diagnosis for COVID-19 79
6.2 Newer and Emerging Technologies 79
6.2.1 Isothermal Amplification Assays 80
6.2.1.1 SHERLOCK Assay 80
6.2.1.2 RT-LAMP Assay 82
6.2.2 Protein-Based Tests 82
6.2.3 Point-of-Care (POC) Testing 83
6.2.4 Aptamer-Based Assay Techniques 84
6.2.4.1 Rapid Lateral Flow Platforms Based on Aptamer Technology 85
6.2.4.2 Aptamer-Based Diagnostics of COVID-19 in the Future 86
6.2.5 Other Novel Technologies Developed for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 88
6.2.5.1 Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR) Sensor 88
6.2.5.2 Field-Effect Transistor (FET) 88
6.2.5.3 Cell-Based Potentiometric Biosensor 89
6.3 Conclusion 90
References 90
7 Advanced Digital Tools for Tracing and Analysis of COVID-19 95

Archana Singh, Aayush Dey, and Deepak Rawtani
7.1 Introduction 95
7.2 Developments in Digital Strategies for COVID-19 96
7.2.1 Monitoring of COVID-19 Infection 96
7.2.2 Digital Techniques in Tracing and Analysis 97
7.2.2.1 Flow Modeling Tools 98
7.2.2.2 Quarantine Compliance Tools 98
7.2.2.3 COVID-19 Symptom Tracking Tools 99
7.2.2.4 Proximity Tracing Tools for COVID-19 99
7.2.2.5 Contact Tracing Tool 99
7.2.2.6 Quarantine and Self-Isolation 103
7.3 Artificial Intelligence in Curbing COVID-19 103
7.3.1 Predictive Models and Tracking of COVID-19 via AI 104
7.3.2 AI in the Screening of COVID-19 Cases 104
7.3.3 Pre-Diagnostics of COVID-19 and AI 105
7.3.4 AI in Protein Structure Mapping 105
7.3.5 AI and Development of Vaccines 105
viii Contents
7.3.6 AI in Genomics 105

7.4 Conclusion 105
References 106
8 Challenges and Preventive Interventions in COVID-19 Transmission through

Domestic Chemistry Hygiene: A Critical Assessment 111
Kanika Sharma, Payal Kesharwani, Ankit Jain, Nishi Mody, Gunjan Sharma,
Swapnil Sharma, and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain
8.1 Introduction 111
8.2 Bioaerosolization: Ground for Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 112
8.3 Fomites: Role in the Transmission of COVID-19 113
8.4 Vulnerable Places for COVID-19 114
8.5 Exposure to SARS-CoV-2 in Aerosolized Wastewater and Dynamic from the
Sanitary Plumbing System 116
8.5.1 Bioaerosol Generation by Toilet Flushing 116
8.5.2 Bioaerosol Produced During Wastewater Treatment 116
8.5.3 Bioaerosol Produced During Irrigation 116
8.6 Scientific and Technological Solution for the Hygiene of Toilet Area to Curb
COVID-19 and Other Infections 117
8.6.1 Maintaining Hygiene and Sanitation of Bathroom by Physical and Chemical
Disinfection 117
8.6.2 Antimicrobial Surface 118
8.6.3 Anti-adhesive Surface 119
8.6.4 No-Contact Use for the Operation of Sanitary Facility: Sensor Technology 120
8.6.5 Inexpensive Preventive Approaches Used at Home 120
8.6.6 Technology to Detect Virus 121
8.6.7 Steps for Wastewater Management 122
8.7 Conclusive Remarks and Prospects for Future Research 122
Acknowledgments 122
Conflict of Interest 122
References 123
9 Industries and COVID-19 127

Pratik Kulkarni, Shyam Vasvani, Tejas D. Barot, Aayush Dey, and Deepak Rawtani
9.2 Renewable and Green Energy Industries 129
9.3 Agriculture Industry 130
9.4 Petroleum and Oil Industry 130
9.5 Manufacturing Industry 131
9.6 Education 131
9.7 Health Care Industry 132
9.8 Pharmaceutical Industry 132
9.9 Hospitality 133
9.10 Tourism 133
Contents ix
9.11 Air Travel 134

9.12 Real Estate and Housing Industry 134
9.13 Sports Industry 135
9.14 Information Technology, Media, Research and Development 135
9.15 Food Sector 136
9.16 Conclusion 137
References 138
10 Ramifications of Coronavirus on the Environment 143

Elisa Kalugendo, Manka Marycleopha, Piyush K. Rao, and Dharmesh Silajiya
10.2 Footprints of Coronavirus Pandemic on the Surroundings (Mother Nature) 144
10.3 Increase in Hospital Wastes 145
10.4 COVID-19 Declined Global Warming 146
10.5 Poor Management of Waste 146
10.6 Reset of Nature 147
10.7 Soil Contamination 148
10.8 Destruction of Arable Land 149
10.9 Increased Poaching Activity 150
10.10 COVID-19 Resulted in the Loss of a Great Number of People 150
10.11 Negligence of Environmental Sanitation 151
10.12 Decrease of Municipal Wastewater Particles 152
10.13 Future Implications 153
References 154
11 Management of Risks Associated with COVID-19 159

Shrutika Singla, Shruthi Subhash, and Amarnath Mishra
11.2 Types 160
11.3 Origin 161
11.4 Structure 162
11.5 Risk Associated with COVID-19 163
11.5.1 Risk at Hospitals or Point-of-Care Centers 164
11.5.2 Risk at Airport and Other Transport Mediums 165
11.5.3 Environmental Risk Due to COVID-19 165
11.6 Risk Management and Mitigation 166
11.6.1 Gathering Information from Different Sources 166
11.6.2 Preventing National and International Traveling 166
11.6.3 Vaccination 167
11.6.4 Self-Isolation and Quarantine 167
11.6.5 Clinical Management 167
11.6.6 Masks and PPE Kits Use 167
11.7 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 168
References 168
x Contents
12 Case Studies: COVID-19 and the Environment 171

Aayush Dey, Pratik Kulkarni, Piyush K. Rao, Nitasha Khatri, and Deepak Rawtani
12.2 COVID-19 and Its Impact on the Environment – A Case Study of China 172
12.3 Environmental Impact of Particulate Matter in Italy Due to COVID-19 173
12.4 Impact Upon the Atmospheric Environment of the Southeast Asia Region 173
12.5 Impact of COVID-19 Lockdown on PM10, SO2, and NO2 Concentrations in
Salé City, Morocco 175
12.6 Correlation of Pandemic-Induced Lockdown and Stone Quarrying
and Crushing – An Indian Perspective 175
12.7 Temperature vs. COVID-19 Transmission – Brazil 176
12.8 Correlation of COVID-19 and Air Quality in Spain 177
12.8.1 Conclusive Statements 177
12.9 Weather Impacts COVID-19 Transmission – A Case Study of Turkey 178
12.10 COVID-19 vs. Ambient Temperature – A Perspective of Canada 178
12.11 Conclusion 180
References 180
13 Effect of Waste Generated Due to COVID-19 185

Saeida Saadat, Piyush K. Rao, Nitasha Khatri, and Deepak Rawtani
13.2 Impact of COVID-19 on Waste Production 186
13.3 Classification of Waste Generated Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic 187
13.3.1 Domestic Waste 187
13.3.2 Biomedical Waste 189
13.4 Reduction in Waste Recycling 190
13.5 Environmental Impacts of COVID-19 190
13.6 Management of the Generated Waste Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic 192
13.7 Technical Approaches to Waste Management for the
Post-COVID-19 World 193
13.8 Conclusion 195
References 196
14 Strategies for Effective Waste Management for COVID-19 203

Aayush Dey, Nitasha Khatri, Piyush K. Rao, and Deepak Rawtani
14.2 Composition of Wastes Corresponding to the COVID-19 Pandemic 204
14.3 Solid Waste 205
14.3.1 Food Wastes 205
14.3.1.1 Probable Management Strategies 206
14.3.2 Plastic Wastes 207
14.3.2.1 Plastic Waste Management Strategies 208
14.3.3 Municipal Solid Waste and Management Strategies 208
14.4 Biomedical Wastes 209
14.4.1 Hazardous Biomedical Wastes 209
Contents xi
14.4.1.1 Infectious Waste 209

14.4.1.2 Pathological Waste 209
14.4.1.3 Sharps Waste 211
14.4.1.4 Chemical Waste 211
14.4.1.5 Pharmaceutical Waste 211
14.4.1.6 Genotoxic Waste 211
14.4.2 Probable Mitigation Strategies for Hazardous Biomedical Wastes Generated
Due to COVID-19 211
14.4.2.1 Incineration 211
14.4.2.2 Thermal Strategies for Biomedical Waste Mitigation 212
14.4.2.3 Biomedical Waste Management-Based via Chemical Techniques 213
14.4.2.4 COVID-19 Biomedical Waste Management via Steam Sterilization
Technique 213
14.5 A Global Perspective Upon COVID-19 Waste Management 214
14.5.1 India’s Take on COVID-19 Waste Management 214
14.5.2 COVID-19 Waste Management in Spain 214
14.5.3 Practices for COVID-19 Waste Management by the United States 215
14.5.4 China’s COVID-19 Waste Management Strategy 215
14.6 Conclusion 215
References 216
15 Environmental Policies and Strategies for COVID-19 221

Vimbai Masiyambiri, Piyush K. Rao, Nitasha Khatri, and Deepak Rawtani
15.2 Linking Policy with the Environment 222
15.3 Challenges of Creating Environmental Policy for COVID-19 and Subsequent
Pandemics 226
15.3.1 Reactive Policies 226
15.3.2 Proactive Policy Formulation for COVID-19 227
15.3.3 Environmental Indifference, Role of Media and COVID-19 Environmental
Policy 227
15.4 Environmental Strategies for COVID-19 228
15.4.1 Risk Analyses and Assessment of COVID-19 229
15.4.2 Implementation of Early Warning Systems in the Environment 229
15.4.3 Post-COVID-19 Crisis Management of the Environment 230
15.4.4 Building Infrastructure for Separation of Waste 231
15.5 Conclusion 231
References 232
16 Environmental Implications of Pandemic on Climate 235

Sapna Jain, Bhawna Yadav Lamba, Madhuben Sharma, and Sanjeev Kumar
16.2 Cast Study 1: Megacities of India 236
16.2.1 Methodology 236
16.2.2 Size Description and Data Collection 236
xii Contents
16.3 Results and Analysis 237

16.3.1 Meteorology and Air Quality in Megacities 238
16.4 Cast Study 2: Selected Cities of Rajasthan, India 239
16.4.1 Methodology 239
16.4.2 Size Description and Data Collection 239
16.5 Result and Analysis 240
16.5.1 Meteorology and Air Quality: Case Study 2 241
16.6 Special Area of Study: Bhiwadi 241
16.7 Conclusion 242
References 243
17 COVID-19 Pandemic: A Blessing in Disguise 245

Pratik Kulkarni, Tejas D. Barot, Piyush K. Rao, and Deepak Rawtani
17.1 Introduction: A “Make or Break” Perspective 245
17.2 How Coronavirus Is Shaping Sustainable Development 246
17.2.1 Moving Toward a Sustainable Future 248
17.2.2 Building Back Better After COVID-19 249
17.2.3 Global Shift to Renewable Energy. Is COVID-19 Slowing It? 250
17.2.4 Clean Energy Momentum 250
17.3 Reverting to Dirty Fuels 250
17.3.1 Part Shortages 251
17.4 Consequences of the Pandemic on Fragile States 251
17.4.1 Food Systems and the Biodiversity Connection 251
17.4.2 Mining, Conflict, and Land Rights 252
17.4.3 Prevention of Pandemic and Its Cost Measures 252
17.4.4 Prevention of New Pandemics 253
17.4.5 Climate Change and Wildlife 254
17.4.6 Necessary Responses Needed 254
17.5 Energy Security 255
17.6 Conclusion 257
References 257
Index 261
xiii
Foreword
“All outstanding work, in art as well as in science, results from immense zeal applied to a
great idea” this quote by “Santiago Ramón y Cajal” aptly defines the cadence of the editors
with their artwork titled “The Environmental Impact of COVID-19”. This book is a
complete guide to the influence of the pandemic COVID-19 that changed the world and its
impact on the environment.
The book is smartly divided into 18 chapters ranging from topics like environmental
factors, Viability, and strategies for curbing COVID-19, to traditional, modern, and digital
techniques for analysis of COVID. Apart from the topics mentioned earlier, this book also
sheds light on case studies of COVID-19 and its impact on the environment, waste manage-
ment strategies and implications on pandemic on climate change.
The challenges in the environmental management of COVID are both problematic and
fascinating. People are working on them with enthusiasm, tenacity, and dedication to
develop new methods to manage and mitigate pandemic level threats and provide novel
solutions to keep up with dynamic threats. In this new age of interdependence and globali-
zation, it is necessary for practitioners, students and professionals to have state of the art
know how about factors influencing the environment concerning COVID-19.
This book provides very useful information and guidance in handling various
environment-related issues with regard to COVID-19.
Dr. J.M. Vyas

(Vice Chancellor)
National Forensic Sciences University
1
COVID-19: A Pandemic -Introduction

Pratik Kulkarni1, Tejas Barot 1, Piyush Rao 1, Aayush Dey 1,
and Deepak Rawtani 2
1
School of Doctoral Studies & Research (SDSR), National Forensic Sciences University (Ministry of Home affairs, GOI),
Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
2
School of Pharmacy, National Forensic Sciences University (Ministry of Home affairs, GOI), Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
1.1 Introduction: Sources and Chemical Activities of

COVID-19
Coronavirus or COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by a novel virus known as extreme

coronavirus-2 respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2). It began to spread as a disease from
Wuhan, the capital of the province of Hubei in China, in December 2019. It has since
spread worldwide, contributing to an ongoing pandemic, as announced by the WHO on
11 March 2020 (Hui et al. 2020; Hui and Zumla 2019; Tang et al. 2020b). With more than
9 months under the pandemic, more than 70 million people have been tested positive for
infection and more than a million deaths and counting worldwide. Its primary source was
identified in the respiratory tract of patients in Wuhan undergoing treatment for pneumonia,
which was then identified as the new SARS-CoV-2 virus.
The original source of the virus is still unknown, but the first cases were related to the
Huanan Seafood Market in Wuhan. There are also some wild animals known to be sold on
the market, including birds, marmots, bats, and snakes. It was shown that market samples
were positive for the novel virus, but the animal was not specified (Astuti 2020; Guo
et al. 2020; Tian et al. 2020). However, recent reports have suggested that bats could be the
potential host of the virus as they shared96 % homology of the entire genome-wide sequence
with the bat CoV. From the genetic analysis, a region of RNA-dependent RNA polymerase
(RdRP) gene in SARS-CoV-2 was confirmed to be similar to a region of RdRP found in bat
coronavirus RaTG13 with an astounding 96% homology of the genome sequence. Of more
than 100 strains sequenced till the end of March, a 99.9% sequence match was observed but
since then several changes in the genome have been discovered, which show a high prob-
ability of sequence diversity in the virus. Pangolin CoV genomes have also been found to
The Environmental Impact of COVID-19, First Edition. Edited by Deepak Rawtani

and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain.
© 2024 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2024 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
2 1 COVID-19: A Pandemic - Introduction
have an 85.5–92.4 % homology with SARS-CoV-2, indicating that SARS-CoV-2 could be a

potential intermediate host. How the virus transmits from either bats or pangolins needs to
be studied more for a better confirmation (Harapan et al. 2020; Shereen et al. 2020;
Udugama et al. 2020; ul Qamar et al. 2020).
1.1.1 Sources and Transmission

Currently, the source of transmission is known to be from human to human through res-
piratory droplets. Yet, not the only probable source of transmission is the respiratory tract.
As a source of transmission, close contact has also been confirmed (Figure 1.1). For example,
the virus can be transmitted by direct or indirect contact with the mucous membranes of
the eye, mouth, or nose (Hui and Zumla 2019; Hui et al. 2020; Tang et al. 2020b). In a closed
environment with relatively high aerosol concentrations, the possibility of aerosol trans-
mission also exists (Astuti 2020). Some gastrointestinal symptoms have also been reported
including diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. All populations are vulnerable to the virus.
Mostly elderlies and people with a weak immune function or underlying diseases are likely
to become severely affected by the virus. Additionally, pregnant women and new-born
babies infected with the virus can develop severe pneumonia. This group of patients should
therefore be considered to be of primary importance in preventing and managing SARS-
CoV-2 attacks (Astuti 2020; ul Qamar et al. 2020).
Airborne transmission through droplets
Close contact transmission
Close contact
within 6 feet
Touching contaminated objects

Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 virus
Figure 1.1 A schematic diagram showing SARS-CoV-2 transmission through different routes.
1.1.2 Structure of SARS-CoV-2

The virus is recognized as a non-segmented, enveloped, positive-sense RNA virus that is
part of the subfamily of sarbecovirus, orthocoronavirinae, widely distributed in humans
and other mammals. SARS-CoV-2 is about 60–140 nm in diameter and contains single-
stranded RNA with 30,000 nucleotides in length (Wu et al. 2020). It is characterized by a
distinct crown-like spikes on its outer surface, and its genome has 27 encoded proteins
which also includes RdRP and 4 structural proteins with different functions namely Spike
surface glycoprotein (S), which is involved in the coding for proteins that form receptor-
binding spikes that help the virus to infect cells by binding to the receptors via embrane
fusion (Sexton et al. 2016; Tang et al. 2020a; Wrapp et al. 2020). This binding also deter-
mines its host tropism and transmission capabilities. The other three proteins – Nucleocapsid
protein (N), Small envelope protein (E), and Matrix protein (M) – are more conserved than
the S protein and are essential for proper virus functioning. These proteins are involved in
the encapsulation of RNA and/or proteins into protein assemblies, envelope formation,
budding, and pathogenesis (Bauch and Orabyet al. 2013; Lim et al. 2016; Neuman
et al. 2011; Schoeman and Fielding 2019).
SARS-CoV-2 is considered to have a long transmission period as its mean incubation
time is estimated within three to seven days. It has also been reported that asymptomatic
patients of the virus could be effective carriers during their incubation period (Udugama
et al. 2020). This property is different from other SARS-CoV as most of those cases are
transmitted via agents known as “superspreaders” and those who cannot infect others dur-
ing their incubation period. These data thus support the current WHO guidelines of a
14-day quarantine period for active monitoring (Udugama et al. 2020; Yi et al. 2020).
1.1.3 Common Symptoms, Immune Reaction to the Virus,

and Mechanism of Entry
Fatigue, fever, dry cough, dyspnea, and myalgia are key manifestations of the disease. Nasal
congestion, sore throat, runny nose, headache, vomiting, and diarrhea are some less com-
mon symptoms (Figure 1.2). Patients termed under severe category often have dyspnea and/
or hypoxia after a week of onset which is followed by septic shock, acute respiratory dis-
tress syndrome (ARDS), metabolic acidosis which is difficult to correct, and coagulation
Fever
Runny nose
Dry cough
Pneumonia
Shortness of breath
Fatigue
Clinical implications of
SARS-CoV-2 infection Body ache
Figure 1.2 Clinical manifestations of infection with SARS-CoV-2 in humans.

dysfunction that develops rapidly. Patients with mild fatigue, low fever, and absence of
pneumonia can be considered asymptomatic but can still spread the virus between humans
(Udugama et al. 2020; Zhou et al. 2020).
Invasion of the virus into the host cell triggers an immune response which the innate
immune system encounters through antigen presenting cells (APC), e.g. macrophages, den-
dritic cells (Chen et al. 2020; Guo et al. 2020; Huang et al. 2020). This APCs have specific recep-
tors known as Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRR) located in several regions in the host cells
like plasma and endosomal membranes, lysosomes, cytosol, and endocytolysosomes. Now,
recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMP) comprising viral structural
components including nucleic acid, carbohydrate moieties, glycoproteins induces cascade
signaling to produce immune cell effectors which trigger a different biological response fol-
lowing protein activation. For instance, Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4) might induce the protein
spikes of CoV to produce proinflammatory cytokines like IFN-α, IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α,
TGFβ and chemokines like CCL2,3,5, CXCL8,9,10. Their excessive release from the cells of
the immune effector leads to hyperinflammation, resulting in ARDS eventually (Chen
et al. 2010, 2020; Cheung et al. 2005; Huang et al. 2020; Li et al. 2020a, 2020c; Rabi et al. 2020).
Various studies have shown that SARS-CoV-2 host cell entry is regulated by its interac-
tion with the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2) (Zhou et al. 2020). A critical find-
ing stated that in comparison to SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2 spikes bind to the ACE-2 enzyme
with 10–20 times higher affinity, thereby making it easier to spread among the humans.
Therefore, upon entry into the respiratory epithelial cells, the virus replicates quickly, along
with triggering a strong immune response characterized by cytokine storm syndromes
known as hypercytokinaemia. This group of disorders is characterized by an uncontrolla-
ble increase in cytokine production, which leads to ARDS and ultimately leading to multi-
ple organ failure. Studies have revealed that many patients succumbed to multiple organ
failure indicating a substantial decrease in T-cell population, whereas surviving T-cell pop-
ulation being functionally exhausted, indicated decreased immunity in the patients with
secondary infections, worsening the respiratory failure even further (Li et al. 2020b).
1.1.3.1 Immuno-evasion of Coronaviruses

Viruses including the novel SARS-CoV-2 have several ways to avoid the immune defense
mechanisms to survive and infect the host cells (Janeway et al. 2008; Li et al. 2020a). The
state of the cell before and after the entry of the virus is very crucial in determining the
immune evasion potential of the virus.
The virus can form double vesicles outside the cells to evade recognition processes which
acts as shields of cytosolic PRRs to dsRNA as intermediate products (Li et al. 2020).
Apart from double vesicle formation, blocking INF is also a part of virus immune evasion.
A non-structural protein group termed as nsp1 from SARS-CoV acts as INF-I suppressors
via inactivating host translational machinery, RNA and inhibiting STAT1 phosphorylation.
At an early stage, failure of INF-I leads to initiation of viral replication and subsequent dis-
semination, thus increasing the severity of disease (Prompetchara et al. 2020; Totura and
Baric 2012). SARS-CoV lack a 5’ cap in its structure making it easier for the immune system
to recognize it. However, SARS-CoV-2 has developed a host mimicking property by using
two nonstructural proteins, namely nsp 14, which is a protein-forming cap followed by a
nsp 16 modification. This mechanism makes viral RNA similar to host cell RNA and pre-
vents recognition of any PRR (Chen et al. 2009; Daffis et al. 2010; Totura and Baric 2012).
1.1.3.2 World at Loss due to COVID-19

COVID-19 has become a pandemic of a major scale which has impacted the lifestyle of all
the nations globally. The pandemic has contributed to significant socioeconomic instabil-
ity, resulting in the largest global recession in history. All social meeting events, including
sports, religious, political, and cultural meetings, have been postponed or cancelled with
one-third of the global population being under lockdown (Evans 2020; Nicas 2020; Nicola
et al. 2020). Also, schools, universities, and colleges have been closed until further notice in
more than 197 countries (Nicola et al. 2020). Moreover, misinformation related to the virus
and its spread has caused incidents of discrimination and xenophobia against Chinese peo-
ple. On the contrary, there has been a significant decrease in environmental pollution and
carbon emissions due to travel bans in most nations and the closure of heavy industries
(Brief 2020; Sui 2020; UNESCO 2020).
Impact on political systems has been prominent as it caused suspensions of legislative
meetings, rescheduling of elections due to fear of virus spread, and isolation or deaths of
multiple political leaders (Evans 2020). The pandemic has affected the educational systems
of all schools, colleges, and universities worldwide, leading to near closure. According to
UNESCO monitoring, more than 192 countries have implemented national closures. Some
countries have applied for local closures and collectively this has impacted more than 90%
of world’s student population (Chen et al. 2020). Apart from impacting students, teachers,
and their families, the pandemic has also caused far-reaching socioeconomic consequences.
The pandemic has shed light on various social and economic issues, including student
debt, food insecurity, disability and digital learning services, and access to housing and the
internet. This has affected the disadvantaged children and their families the most due to
problems like interrupted learning, childcare problems, nutritional problems, and eco-
nomic burden on the families of the children who cannot work. In response to curb this,
UNESCO has suggested distance learning program via open educational applications and
facilities to provide remote learning to the students (Boseley 2020; Chen et al. 2020;
Strumpf 2020).
Owing to the pandemic, worries have moved from supply-side manufacturing problems
to a downturn in enterprises in the services sector from a socioeconomic perspective.
Owing to panic purchasing and shortages of food and other supermarket products, supply
shortages have been affected a lot. Shortage of face masks and common drugs was also seen
due to panic buying and insufficient supply of the stocks (Bachman 2020; Strumpf 2020).
The technology industry has also warned about the delays in delivery of electronic goods.
Global stock markets saw the largest fall in the history since the 2008 financial crisis and
lead to crash of the stock markets. Global conferences and events across sports, fashion,
and technology industries have been postponed or cancelled due to the pandemic (Wilson
and Campus 2020). There is also an approximate monetary effect on the travel and trade
market, which is expected to be in the billions and is still growing. The International Labor
Organization reported an approximate loss of 30 million jobs, compared to 25 million dur-
ing the 2008 financial crisis. On 18 March, the WHO published a study on mental health
and psychosocial problems and discussed advice on various social considerations during
the outbreak.
The sectors of performing arts and cultural heritage have had a profound effect on their
organizational activities as well as on people who are working, autonomous, or both.
Organizations have continued to preserve their publicly supported missions in order to
provide communities with the requisite access to cultural heritage and to maintain public
safety and promote artists worldwide. There has been a striking impact on the environment
and the climate due to the pandemic as well. A significant drop in air pollution due to
imposing of travel ban has been observed globally. Approximately 25% reduction has been
witnessed in carbon emissions in China. However, this has also affected the environmental
diplomacy efforts worldwide, thereby postponing of the United Nations Climate Change
Conference. Its impact is also presumed to be seen in an economic fallout leading to a
lesser investment in green energy and renewable technologies (Jin et al. 2020; National
UNESCO 2020).
1.1.3.3 Incubation Period

The incubation period of the infection is 2–14 days, with an average incubation period of
3–7 days, indicating a long duration of transmission. The latency period of the virus is esti-
mated to be consistent with other known human viruses, for instance, non-SARS human
CoVs, SARS CoV, and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)-CoV, which has a range
of 2–5 transmission for non-human CoV and 2- to 14-day transmission rate for SARS and
MERS-CoV, along with a mean rate of 3, 5, and 5.7 days, respectively (Assiri et al. 2013;
Lessler et al. 2009). Asymptomatic patients with COVID-19 are reported to transmit the
virus at a similar effectiveness during their incubation period which increases its transmis-
sion at a much faster rate (Quilty et al. 2020; Rothe et al. 2020). This behavior of SARS-
CoV-2 is different from SARS-CoV, as the latter is caused mostly due to “superspreaders”
and they do not infect the susceptible persons during their incubation period (Lipsitch
et al. 2003). Therefore, with this data available, the current period as recommended by
WHO is of 14 days, for active monitoring of the patients (Udugama et al. 2020; Yi et al. 2020).
1.1.3.4 SARS-CoV-2 and Basic Reproduction Number (R0)

To evaluate the transmissibility of SARS-CoV-2, a basic reproduction number is available,
expressed as R nought (R0) and is defined as the average number of infections (secondary)
spread by an active SARS-CoV-2 patient. As per reports, an R0 value >1 indicates an expo-
nential spread of the virus and can cause an epidemic or pandemic. The R0 of this virus has
been reported to be in the range of 1.4–6.49 (mean: 3.28), which is significantly higher than
the SARS-CoV range of R0 2–5 (Liu et al. 2020).
1.1.3.5 Pathological Characteristics

Biopsy reports from the very first patient infected and died from the infection have revealed
pathological characteristics of the virus similar to ARDS. Pneumocyte desquamation and
hyaline membrane formation were evident from histological analysis of lung tissue, indi-
cating ARDS. Also, the lung tissues were found to be infiltrated by interstitial mononuclear
activity. Moreover, the intra-alveolar spaces were found to have giant multinucleated cells
with enlarged atypical pneumocytes having large nuclei and a prominent nucleolus with
amphophilic granular cytoplasm which suggested changes of viral cytopathic nature (Xu
et al. 2020). These pathological features are similar to that of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV
infected patients (Ding et al. 2003; Ng et al. 2014). Hence, understanding the pathology of
the virus and its comparison with its familial counterparts could help physicians develop a
timely strategy for their treatment and reduce their mortality rate.
1.1.3.6 Case Definitions

The case definitions are currently based on the provisional guidance documents provided
by the WHO (Chatterjee et al. 2020; WHO 2020a). An acute respiratory infection called
SARI is an example of a history of fever with a measured temperature of >38°C and cough,
an initiation of infection within a 10-day period, and hospitalization is required.
For SARS-CoV-2 infection, surveillance case descriptions include a person with SARI
and no other etiology with one of the following:
i) travel history in the last 14 days to Wuhan, Hubei Province, China; and
ii) a healthcare worker (HCW) looking after an SARI patient and patients of uncertain
etiology.
In addition, patients with acute respiratory disease and one of the following conditions:
i) direct contact with an infected individual or a possible case within 14 days of the onset
of SARS-CoV-2; and
ii) visited or operated within 14 days before the onset of symptoms in a healthcare facility
where positive cases of infection have been identified.
There remains the elusiveness of a delicate and precise concept of community-based over-
sight. The referral metrics and their impact-based results have yet to be determined. Concerns
regarding the current outbreak, such as the need to quarantine children, the minimum quar-
antine time, and its impact on mental and socioeconomic costs, also need to be addressed.
1.1.3.7 Prevention of Transmission

Respiratory droplets and physical contact are the chief sources of SARS-CoV-2 transmis-
sion. Hence, precautionary measures are of prime importance and standard methods
include hand hygiene, using personal protective equipment (PPE) kits, and respiratory eti-
quettes. Use of alcohol-based hand rubs, having 60–80% alcohol, is recommended cur-
rently as a part of hand hygiene. A proper hand wash with soap and water following the
correct steps have proved to suffice. For hand drying, the use of cloth towels must be
avoided and disposable tissue paper has been recommended. A PPE kit comprises medical
grade face masks or particulate respirators, face shields, goggles, gloves, gowns, and shoe
covers (Chang et al. 2020, Chatterjee et al. 2020). Face or procedure masks along with a
head strap should be sufficient for droplet and contact-based transmission. When entering
the patient’s room, utmost care must be taken and the kits must be worn before entering
and removed only after leaving it. For those in group settings and who are symptomatic, it
is mandatory. Due to an increased risk of exposure, it is mandatory for patients in home
care environments, suspected cases of moderate respiratory symptoms with COVID-19,
and even HCWs to always wear medical masks, along with observing hand hygiene and
proper disposal (Chang et al. 2020). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH)-certified N-95 masks and EU standard FFP2 or equivalent are examples of par-
ticulate respirators which must be compulsorily used by the HCWs in aerosol-generating
procedures (AGPs). In addition to wearing long-sleeved, waterproof, sterile gowns made of
non-absorbent materials, face shields or goggles must also be worn when performing AGPs.
Waterproof aprons, where gowns are not appropriate, should be sufficient. Latex, powder-
free gloves must be used when handling infectious materials from the patient. In order to
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almost said). “I have several engagements this week and I’m not
feeling well. But”—seeing his face change, and the thought of her
own state returning—“you might come out to the house some
evening instead, and then we can go some other time.”
His face brightened intensely. It was wonderful how he longed to
be with her, how the least favor from her comforted and lifted him up.
She could see also now, however, how little it meant to her, how little
it could ever mean, even if to him it was heaven. The old relationship
would have to be resumed in toto, once and for all, but did she want
it that way now that she was feeling so miserable about this other
affair? As she meditated, these various moods racing to and fro in
her mind, Barton seemed to notice, and now it occurred to him that
perhaps he had not pursued her enough—was too easily put off. She
probably did like him yet. This evening, her present visit, seemed to
prove it.
“Sure, sure!” he agreed. “I’d like that. I’ll come out Sunday, if you
say. We can go any time to the play. I’m sorry, Shirley, if you’re not
feeling well. I’ve thought of you a lot these days. I’ll come out
Wednesday, if you don’t mind.”
She smiled a wan smile. It was all so much easier than she had
expected—her triumph—and so ashenlike in consequence, a flavor
of dead-sea fruit and defeat about it all, that it was pathetic. How
could she, after Arthur? How could he, really?
“Make it Sunday,” she pleaded, naming the farthest day off, and
then hurried out.
Her faithful lover gazed after her, while she suffered an intense
nausea. To think—to think—it should all be coming to this! She had
not used her telegraph-blank, and now had forgotten all about it. It
was not the simple trickery that discouraged her, but her own future
which could find no better outlet than this, could not rise above it
apparently, or that she had no heart to make it rise above it. Why
couldn’t she interest herself in some one different to Barton? Why
did she have to return to him? Why not wait and meet some other—
ignore him as before? But no, no; nothing mattered now—no one—it
might as well be Barton really as any one, and she would at least
make him happy and at the same time solve her own problem. She
went out into the train-shed and climbed into her train. Slowly, after
the usual pushing and jostling of a crowd, it drew out toward Latonia,
that suburban region in which her home lay. As she rode, she
thought.
“What have I just done? What am I doing?” she kept asking herself
as the clacking wheels on the rails fell into a rhythmic dance and the
houses of the brown, dry, endless city fled past in a maze. “Severing
myself decisively from the past—the happy past—for supposing,
once I am married, Arthur should return and want me again—
suppose! Suppose!”
Below at one place, under a shed, were some market-gardeners
disposing of the last remnants of their day’s wares—a sickly, dull life,
she thought. Here was Rutgers Avenue, with its line of red street-
cars, many wagons and tracks and counter-streams of automobiles
—how often had she passed it morning and evening in a shuttle-like
way, and how often would, unless she got married! And here, now,
was the river flowing smoothly between its banks lined with coal-
pockets and wharves—away, away to the huge deep sea which she
and Arthur had enjoyed so much. Oh, to be in a small boat and drift
out, out into the endless, restless, pathless deep! Somehow the sight
of this water, to-night and every night, brought back those evenings
in the open with Arthur at Sparrows Point, the long line of dancers in
Eckert’s Pavilion, the woods at Atholby, the park, with the dancers in
the pavilion—she choked back a sob. Once Arthur had come this
way with her on just such an evening as this, pressing her hand and
saying how wonderful she was. Oh, Arthur! Arthur! And now Barton
was to take his old place again—forever, no doubt. She could not
trifle with her life longer in this foolish way, or his. What was the use?
But think of it!
Yes, it must be—forever now, she told herself. She must marry.
Time would be slipping by and she would become too old. It was her
only future—marriage. It was the only future she had ever
contemplated really, a home, children, the love of some man whom
she could love as she loved Arthur. Ah, what a happy home that
would have been for her! But now, now——
But there must be no turning back now, either. There was no other
way. If Arthur ever came back—but fear not, he wouldn’t! She had
risked so much and lost—lost him. Her little venture into true love
had been such a failure. Before Arthur had come all had been well
enough. Barton, stout and simple and frank and direct, had in some
way—how, she could scarcely realize now—offered sufficient of a
future. But now, now! He had enough money, she knew, to build a
cottage for the two of them. He had told her so. He would do his best
always to make her happy, she was sure of that. They could live in
about the state her parents were living in—or a little better, not much
—and would never want. No doubt there would be children, because
he craved them—several of them—and that would take up her time,
long years of it—the sad, gray years! But then Arthur, whose children
she would have thrilled to bear, would be no more, a mere memory
—think of that!—and Barton, the dull, the commonplace, would have
achieved his finest dream—and why?
Because love was a failure for her—that was why—and in her life
there could be no more true love. She would never love any one
again as she had Arthur. It could not be, she was sure of it. He was
too fascinating, too wonderful. Always, always, wherever she might
be, whoever she might marry, he would be coming back, intruding
between her and any possible love, receiving any possible kiss. It
would be Arthur she would be loving or kissing. She dabbed at her
eyes with a tiny handkerchief, turned her face close to the window
and stared out, and then as the environs of Latonia came into view,
wondered (so deep is romance): What if Arthur should come back at
some time—or now! Supposing he should be here at the station now,
accidentally or on purpose, to welcome her, to soothe her weary
heart. He had met her here before. How she would fly to him, lay her
head on his shoulder, forget forever that Barton ever was, that they
had ever separated for an hour. Oh, Arthur! Arthur!
But no, no; here was Latonia—here the viaduct over her train, the
long business street and the cars marked “Center” and “Langdon
Avenue” running back into the great city. A few blocks away in tree-
shaded Bethune Street, duller and plainer than ever, was her
parents’ cottage and the routine of that old life which was now, she
felt, more fully fastened upon her than ever before—the lawn-
mowers, the lawns, the front porches all alike. Now would come the
going to and fro of Barton to business as her father and she now
went to business, her keeping house, cooking, washing, ironing,
sewing for Barton as her mother now did these things for her father
and herself. And she would not be in love really, as she wanted to
be. Oh, dreadful! She could never escape it really, now that she
could endure it less, scarcely for another hour. And yet she must,
must, for the sake of—for the sake of—she closed her eyes and
dreamed.
She walked up the street under the trees, past the houses and
lawns all alike to her own, and found her father on their veranda
reading the evening paper. She sighed at the sight.
“Back, daughter?” he called pleasantly.
“Yes.”
“Your mother is wondering if you would like steak or liver for
dinner. Better tell her.”
“Oh, it doesn’t matter.”
She hurried into her bedroom, threw down her hat and gloves, and
herself on the bed to rest silently, and groaned in her soul. To think
that it had all come to this!—Never to see him any more!—To see
only Barton, and marry him and live in such a street, have four or five
children, forget all her youthful companionships—and all to save her
face before her parents, and her future. Why must it be? Should it
be, really? She choked and stifled. After a little time her mother,
hearing her come in, came to the door—thin, practical, affectionate,
conventional.
“What’s wrong, honey? Aren’t you feeling well to-night? Have you
a headache? Let me feel.”
Her thin cool fingers crept over her temples and hair. She
suggested something to eat or a headache powder right away.
“I’m all right, mother. I’m just not feeling well now. Don’t bother. I’ll
get up soon. Please don’t.”
“Would you rather have liver or steak to-night, dear?”
“Oh, anything—nothing—please don’t bother—steak will do—
anything”—if only she could get rid of her and be at rest!
Her mother looked at her and shook her head sympathetically,
then retreated quietly, saying no more. Lying so, she thought and
thought—grinding, destroying thoughts about the beauty of the past,
the darkness of the future—until able to endure them no longer she
got up and, looking distractedly out of the window into the yard and
the house next door, stared at her future fixedly. What should she
do? What should she really do? There was Mrs. Kessel in her
kitchen getting her dinner as usual, just as her own mother was now,
and Mr. Kessel out on the front porch in his shirt-sleeves reading the
evening paper. Beyond was Mr. Pollard in his yard, cutting the grass.
All along Bethune Street were such houses and such people—
simple, commonplace souls all—clerks, managers, fairly successful
craftsmen, like her father and Barton, excellent in their way but not
like Arthur the beloved, the lost—and here was she, perforce, or by
decision of necessity, soon to be one of them, in some such street as
this no doubt, forever and—. For the moment it choked and stifled
her.
She decided that she would not. No, no, no! There must be some
other way—many ways. She did not have to do this unless she really
wished to—would not—only—. Then going to the mirror she looked
at her face and smoothed her hair.
“But what’s the use?” she asked of herself wearily and resignedly
after a time. “Why should I cry? Why shouldn’t I marry Barton? I
don’t amount to anything, anyhow. Arthur wouldn’t have me. I
wanted him, and I am compelled to take some one else—or no one
—what difference does it really make who? My dreams are too high,
that’s all. I wanted Arthur, and he wouldn’t have me. I don’t want
Barton, and he crawls at my feet. I’m a failure, that’s what’s the
matter with me.”
And then, turning up her sleeves and removing a fichu which stood
out too prominently from her breast, she went into the kitchen and,
looking about for an apron, observed:
“Can’t I help? Where’s the tablecloth?” and finding it among
napkins and silverware in a drawer in the adjoining room, proceeded
to set the table.
A STORY OF STORIES
Take a smoky Western city. Call it Omaha or Kansas City or Denver,
only let the Mississippi flow past it. Put in it two rival morning papers
—two, and only two—the Star and the News, the staffs of which are
rather keen to outwit each other. On the staff of the News, slightly
the better of the two newspapers, put Mr. David Kolinsky, alias (yes,
alias) David, or “Red” Collins (a little shift of nomenclature due to the
facts that, first: he was a South Russian Jew who looked exactly like
a red-headed Irishman—that is a peculiarity of South Russian Jews,
I believe—and secondly: that it was more distingué, as it were, to be
Irish in Omaha or Denver or Kansas City than it was to be a South
Russian Jew). Give him a slithery, self-confident, race-track or tout
manner. Put on him “loud” or showy clothes, a diamond ring, a ruby
pin in his tie, a yellowish-green Fedora hat, yellow shoes, freckles, a
sneering contemptuous “tough” smile, and you have Mr. “Red”
Collins as Mr.——
But wait.
On the Star, slightly the lesser of these two great dailies that
matutinally thrashed the city to a foam of interest, place Mr. Augustus
Binns, no less, young (not over twenty-two), tall, college-y, rather
graceful as young college men go, literary of course, highly
ambitious, with gold eye-glasses, a wrist watch, a cane—in short,
one of those ambitious young gentlemen of this rather un-happy go
un-lucky scribbling world who has distinct ideals, to say nothing of
dreams, as to what the newspaper and literary professions combined
should bring him, and who, in addition, inherently despised all
creatures of the “Red” Collins, or race-track, gambler, amateur
detective, police and political, type. Well may you ask, what was Mr.
Collins, with his peculiar characteristics, doing on a paper of the
importance and distinction of the News. A long story, my dears.
Newspapers are peculiar institutions.
For this same paper not long since had harbored the truly elegant
presence of Mr. Binns himself, and so excellent a writer and news
gatherer was he that on more than one occasion he had been set to
revise or rewrite the tales which Mr. “Red” Collins, who was then but
tentatively connected with the paper as a “tipster,” brought in. This in
itself was a crime against art and literature, as Mr. Binns saw it, for,
when you come right down to it, and in the strict meaning of the
word, Mr. Collins was not a writer at all, could not write, in fact, could
only “bring in” his stories, and most interesting ones they were,
nearly all of them, whereas about the paper at all times were men
who could—Mr. Binns, for instance. It insulted if not outraged Mr.
Binns’s sense of the fitness of things, for the News to hire such a
person and let him flaunt the title of “reporter” or “representative,” for
he admired the News very much and was glad to be of it. But Collins!
“Red” Collins!
The latter was one of those “hard life,” but by no means hard luck,
Jews who by reason of indomitable ambition and will had raised
himself out of practically frightful conditions. He had never even seen
a bath-tub until he was fifteen or sixteen. By turns he had been a
bootblack, newsboy, race-track tout, stable boy, helper around a
saloon, and what not. Of late years, and now, because he was
reaching a true wisdom (he was between twenty-five and six), he
had developed a sort of taste for gambling as well as politics of a low
order, and was in addition a police hanger-on. He was really a sort of
pariah in his way, only the sporting and political editors found him
useful. They tolerated him, and paid him well for his tips because,
forsooth, his tips were always good.
Batsford, the capable city editor of the News, a round, forceful,
gross person who was more allied to Collins than to Binns in spirit,
although he was like neither, was Binns’s first superior in the
newspaper world. He did not like Binns because, for one thing, of his
wrist watch, secondly, his large gold glasses—much larger than they
need have been—and thirdly, because of his cane, which he carried
with considerable of an air. The truth is, Binns was Eastern and the
city editor was Western, and besides, Binns had been more or less
thrust upon him by his managing editor as a favor to some one else.
But Binns could write, never doubt it, and proved it. He was a
vigorous reporter with a fine feeling for words and, above all, a
power to visualize and emotionalize whatever he saw, a thing which
was of the utmost importance in this rather loose Western emotional
atmosphere. He could handle any story which came to him with ease
and distinction, and seemed usually to get all or nearly all the facts.
On the other hand, Collins, for all his garishness, and one might
almost say, brutality of spirit, was what Batsford would have called a
practical man. He knew life. He was by no means as artistic as
Binns, but still— Batsford liked to know what was going on politically
and criminally, and Collins could always tell him, whereas Binns
never could. Also, by making Binns rewrite Collins’s stories, he knew
he could offend him horribly. The two were like oil and water,
Mussulman and Christian.
When Batsford first told Collins to relate the facts of a certain tale
to Binns and let him work it out, the former strolled over to the
collegian, his lip curled up at one corner, his eye cynically fixed on
him, and said, “The Chief says to give youse this dope and let youse
work it out.”
Youse!
Oh, for a large, bright broad ax!
Binns, however, always your stickler for duty and order, bent on
him an equally cynical and yet enigmatic eye, hitched up his trousers
slightly, adjusted his wrist watch and glasses, and began to take
down the details of the story, worming them out of his rival with a
delicacy and savoir faire worthy of a better cause.
Not long after, however, it was brought to the horrified ears of Mr.
Binns that Mr. Collins had said he was a “stiff” and a “cheap ink-
slinger,” a la-de-da no less, that writers, one and all, college and
otherwise, didn’t count for much, anyhow, that they were all starving
to death, and that they “grew on trees”—a phrase which particularly
enraged Mr. Binns, for he interpreted it to mean that they were as
numerous as the sands of the sea, as plentiful as mud.
By Allah! That such dogs should be allowed to take the beards of
great writers into their hands thus!
Nevertheless and in spite of all this, the fortunes of Mr. Collins
went forward apace, and that chiefly, as Mr. Binns frequently
groaned, at his expense. Collins would come in, and after a long
series of “I sez to him-s” and “He sez to me-s,” which Mr. Binns (per
the orders of Mr. Batsford) translated into the King’s best Britannica,
he having in the meanwhile to neglect some excellent tale of his
own, would go forth again, free to point the next day to a column or
column-and-a-half or a half-column story, and declare proudly, “My
story.”
Think of it! That swine!
There is an end to all things, however, even life and crime. In due
time, as per a series of accidents and the groundless ill-will of Mr.
Batsford, Mr. Binns was perforce, in self-respect, compelled to
transfer his energies to the Star, a paper he had previously
contemned as being not so good, but where he was now made very
welcome because of his ability. Then, to his astonishment and
disgust, one day while covering a police station known as the South
Ninth, from which emanated many amazing police tales, whom
should he encounter but “Red” Collins, no less, now a full-fledged
reporter on the News, if you please, and “doing police.” He had a
grand and even contemptuous manner, barely deigning to notice
Binns. Binns raged.
But he noticed at once that Collins was far more en rapport with
the various sergeants and the captain, as well as all that was going
on in this station, than ever he had dreamed of being. It was “Hello,
Red,” here and “Hi, sport,” there, while Collins replied with various
“Caps” and “Charlies.” He gave himself all the airs of a newspaper
man proper, swaggering about and talking of this, that, and the other
story which he had written, some of them having been done by Binns
himself. And what was more, Collins was soon closeted intimately
with the captain in his room, strolling in and out of that sanctum as if
it were his private demesne, and somehow giving Binns the
impression of being in touch with realms and deeds of which he had
never heard, and never would. It made Binns doubly apprehensive
lest in these secret intimacies tales and mysteries should be
unfolded which should have their first light in the pages of the News,
and so leave him to be laughed at as one who could not get the
news. In consequence, he watched the News more closely than ever
for any evidence of such treachery on the part of the police, while at
the same time he redoubled his interest in any such items as came
to his attention. By reason of this, as well as by his greater skill in
writing and his undeniable imagination, on more than one occasion
he gave Mr. Collins a good drubbing, chancing to make good stories
out of things which Mr. Collins had evidently dismissed as worthless.
Au contraire, now and then a case appeared in the columns of the
News with details which he had not been able to obtain, and
concerning which the police had insisted that they knew nothing. It
was thus that Mr. Collins secured his revenge—and very good
revenge too, it was at times.
But Mr. Binns managed to hold his own, as, for instance, late one
August afternoon when a negro girl in one of those crowded alleys
which made up an interesting and even amazing portion of O——
was cut almost to shreds by an ex-lover who, following her from
river-city to river-city and town to town, had finally come up with her
here and had taken his revenge.
It was a glistering tale this. It appeared (but only after the greatest
industry on the part of Mr. Binns) that some seven or eight months
before [the O—— papers curiously were always interested in a tale
of this kind] this same girl and the negro who had cut her had been
living together as man and wife in Cairo, Illinois, and that later the
lover (a coal passer or stevedore, working now on one boat and now
on another plying the Mississippi between New Orleans and O——),
who was plainly wildly fond of her, became suspicious and finally
satisfying himself that his mistress, who was a real beauty after her
kind, was faithless to him, set a trap to catch her. Returning suddenly
one day when she imagined him to be away for a week or two of
labor, and bursting in upon her, he found her with another man.
Death would have been her portion as well as that of her lover had it
not been for the interference of friends, which had permitted the pair
to escape.
Lacerated by the double offenses of betrayal and desertion, he
now set out to follow her, as the cutting on this occasion proved.
Returning to his task as stevedore and working his way thus from
one river-city to another, he arrived by turns in Memphis, Vicksburg,
Natchez and New Orleans, in each case making it a point to disguise
himself as a peddler selling trinkets and charms, and in this capacity
walking the crowded negro sections of all these cities calling his
wares. Ambling up one of these stuffy, stifling alleys, finally, in O——
which bordered on this same police station and where so many
negroes lived, he encountered this late August afternoon his
quondam but now faithless love. In answer to his cry of “Rings! Pins!
Buckles! Trinkets!” his false love, apparently not recognizing his
voice, put her head out of a doorway. On the instant the damage was
done. Dropping his tray, he was upon her in a flash with his razor,
cris-crossing and slashing her until she was marred beyond
recognition. With fiendish cruelty he cut her cheeks, lips, arms, legs,
back, and sides, so much so that when Binns arrived at the City
Hospital where she had been taken, he found her unconscious and
her life despaired of. On the other hand, the lover had made good
his escape, as had her paramour.
Curiously, this story captured the fancy of Mr. Binns as it did that of
his city editor later, completely. It was such a thing as he could do,
and do well. With almost deft literary art he turned it into a rather
striking black tragedy. Into it, after convincing his rather fussy city
editor that it was worth the telling, he had crowded a bit of the flavor
of the hot waterfronts of Cairo, Memphis, Natchez, and New
Orleans, the sing-song sleepiness of the stevedores at their lazy
labors, the idle, dreamy character of the slow-moving boats, this
rickety alley, with its semi-barbaric curtain-hung shacks and its
swarming, idle, crooning, shuffling negro life. Even an old negro
refrain appropriate to a trinket peddler, and the low, bold negro life
two such truants might enjoy, were pictured. An old negro mammy
with a yellow-dotted kerchief over her head who kept talking of
“disha Gawge” and “disha Sam” and “disha Marquatta” (the girl), had
moved him to a poetic frenzy. Naturally it made a colorful tale, and
his city editor felt called upon to compliment him on it.
But in the News, owing possibly to Collins’s inability to grasp the
full significance, the romance, of such a story as this, it received but
a scant stick—a low dive cutting affray. His was not the type of mind
that could see the color here, but once seen he could realize wherein
he had been beaten, and it infuriated him.
“You think you’re a helluva feller, dontcha?” he snarled the next
day on sight, his lip a-curl with scorn and rage. “You think you’ve
pulled off sompin swell. Say, I’ve been up against you wordy boys
before, and I can work all around you. All you guys can do is get a
few facts and then pad ’em up. You never get the real stuff, never,”
and he even snapped his fingers under the nose of the surprised Mr.
Binns. “Wait’ll we get a real case some time, you and me, and then
I’ll show you sompin. Wait and see.”
“My good fellow,” Mr. Binns was about to begin, but the cold, hard,
revengeful glare in the eyes of Mr. Collins quite took his breath away.
Then and there Mr. Collins put a strange haunting fear of himself into
Mr. Binns’s mind. There was something so savage about him, so like
that of an angry hornet or snake that it left him all but speechless. “Is
that so?” he managed to say after a time. “You think you will, do
you? That’s easy enough to say, now that you’re beaten, but I guess
I’ll be right there when the time comes.”
“Aw, go to hell!” growled Collins savagely, and he walked off,
leaving Mr. Binns smiling pleasantly, albeit vacantly, and at the same
time wondering just what it was Mr. Collins was going to do to him,
and when.
The sequel to this was somewhat more interesting.
As Mr. Binns came in one morning fresh from his bath and
breakfast, his new city editor called him into his office. Mr. Waxby, in
contrast with Mr. Batsford, was a small, waspish, and yet affable and
capable man whom Binns could not say he admired as a man or a
gentleman, but who, he was sure, was a much better city editor than
Batsford, and who appreciated him, Binns, as Batsford never had,
i.e., at his true worth. Batsford had annoyed him with such a dog as
Collins, whereas Waxby had almost coddled him. And what a nose
for news!
Mr. Waxby eyed him rather solemnly and enigmatically on this
occasion, and then observed: “Do you remember, Binns, that big
M.P. train robbery that took place out here near Dolesville about six
months ago?”
“Yes, sir.”
“And do you remember that the Governor of this state and his
military staff, all in uniform, as well as a half dozen other big-wigs,
were on board, and that they all reported that there had been seven
lusty bandits, all heavily armed, some of whom went through the
train and robbed the passengers while others compelled the
engineer and fireman to get down, uncouple the engine, and then
blow open the express car door and safe for them and carry out the
money, about twenty or thirty thousand dollars all told?”
Binns remembered it well. He had been on the News at the time,
and the full-page spread had attracted his keenest attention. It was
illustrative, as he thought, of the character of this region—raw and
still daring. It smacked so much of the lawlessness of the forties,
when pack-train and stage-coach robberies were the rule and not the
exception. It had caused his hair to tingle at the roots at times so real
was it. Never had he been so close, as it were, to anything so
dramatic.
“Yes, sir, I remember it very well,” he replied.
“And do you remember how the newspapers laughed over the fact
that the Governor and his military staff had crawled into their berths
and didn’t come out again until the train had started?”
“Yes, sir.”
“Well now, Binns, just read this,” and here Mr. Waxby handed him
a telegram, the while his eyes gleamed with a keen humorous light,
and Mr. Binns read:
“Medicine Flats, M. K.
“Lem Rollins arrested here to-day confesses to single-
handed robbery of M. P. express west of Dolesville February
2d last. Money recovered. Rollins being brought to O—— via
C.T.&A. this p.m. Should arrive six-thirty.”
“Apparently,” cackled Mr. Waxby, “there was nothing to that seven-
bandit story at all, Binns. There weren’t any seven robbers, but just
one, and they’ve caught him, and he’s confessed,” and here he burst
into more laughter.
“No, Binns,” went on Waxby, “if this is really true, it is a wonderful
story. You don’t often find one man holding up a whole train
anywhere and getting away with twenty or thirty thousand dollars. It’s
amazing. I’ve decided that we won’t wait for him to arrive, but that
you’re to go out and meet him. According to this time-table you can
take a local that leaves here at two-fifteen and get to Pacific fifteen
minutes ahead of the express on which he is coming in, and you’ve
just about time to make it. That will give you all of an hour and a half
in which to interview him. It’s just possible that the News and the
other papers won’t get wind of this in time to send a man. Think of
the opportunity it gives you to study him! No seven robbers,
remember, but just one! And the Governor and his whole staff on
board! Make him tell what he thinks of the Governor and his staff.
Make him talk. Ha! ha! You’ll have him all to yourself. Think of that!
And they crawled into their berths! Ha! ha! Gee whiz, you’ve got the
chance of a lifetime!”
Mr. Binns stared at the telegram. He recalled the detailed
descriptions of the actions of the seven robbers, how some of them
had prowled up and down outside the train, while others went
through it rifling the passengers, and still others, forward, overawed
the engineer and fireman, broke open and robbed the express car
safe in the face of an armed messenger as well as mailman and
trainmen, and how they had then decamped into the dark. How could
one man have done it? It couldn’t be true!
Nevertheless he arose, duly impressed. It would be no easy task
to get just the right touch, but he felt that he might. If only the train
weren’t over-run with other reporters! He stuffed some notepaper
into his pocket and bustled down to the Union Station—if Mr. Binns
could be said to bustle. Here he encountered his first hitch.
On inquiring for a ticket to Pacific, the slightly disturbing response
of “Which road?” was made.
“Are there two?” asked Mr. Binns.
“Yes—M.P. and C.T.&A.”
“They both go to Pacific, do they?”
“Yes.”
“Which train leaves first?”
“C.T.&A. It’s waiting now.”
Mr. Binns hesitated, but there was no time to lose. It didn’t make
any difference, so long as he connected with the incoming express,
as the time-table showed that this did. He paid for his ticket and got
aboard, but now an irritating thought came to him. Supposing other
reporters from either the News or one of the three afternoon papers
were aboard, especially the News! If there were not he would have
this fine task all to himself, and what a beat! But if there were others?
He walked forward to the smoker, which was the next car in front,
and there, to his intense disgust and nervous dissatisfaction, he
spied, of all people, the one man he would least have expected to
find on an assignment of this kind, the one man he least wanted to
see—Mr. Collins, no less, red-headed, serene, determined, a cigar
between his teeth, crouched low in his seat smoking and reading a
paper as calmly as though he were not bent upon the most important
task of the year.
“Pshaw!” exclaimed Mr. Binns irritably and even bitterly.
He returned to his seat nervous and ill composed, all the more so
because he now recalled Collins’s venomous threat, “Wait’ll we get a
real case some time, you and me.” The low creature! Why, he
couldn’t even write a decent sentence. Why should he fear him so?
But just the same he did fear him—why, he could scarcely say.
Collins was so raw, savage, brutal, in his mood and plans.
But why, in heaven’s name, he now asked himself as he meditated
in his seat as to ways and means, should a man like Batsford send a
man like Collins, who couldn’t even write, to interpret a story and a
character of this kind? How could he hope to dig out the odd
psychology of this very queer case? Plainly he was too crude, too
unintellectual to get it straight. Nevertheless, here he was, and now,
plainly, he would have this awful creature to contend with. And
Collins was so bitter toward him. He would leave no trick unturned to
beat him! These country detectives and sheriff and railroad men,
whoever they were or wherever they came from, would be sure, on
the instant, to make friends with Collins, as they always did, and do
their best to serve him. They seemed to like that sort of man, worse
luck. They might even, at Collins’s instigation, refuse to let him
interview the bandit at all! If so, then what? But Collins would get
something somehow, you might be sure, secret details which they
might not relate to him. It made him nervous. Even if he got a chance
he would have to interview this wonderful bandit in front of this awful
creature, this one man whom he most despised, and who would
deprive him of most of the benefit of all his questions by writing as
though he had thought of and asked all of them himself. Think of it!
The dreary local sped on, and as it drew nearer and nearer to
Pacific, Binns became more and more nervous. For him the whole
charm of this beautiful September landscape through which he was
speeding now was all spoiled. When the train finally drew up at
Pacific he jumped down, all alive with the determination not to be
outdone in any way, and yet nervous and worried to a degree. Let
Collins do his worst, he thought. He would show him. Still—just then
he saw the latter jumping down. At the same time, Collins spied him,
and on the instant his face clouded over. He seemed fairly to bristle
with an angry animal rage, and he glared as though he would like to
kill Binns, at the same time looking around to see who else might get
off. “My enemy!” was written all over him. Seeing no one, he ran up
to the station-agent and apparently asked when the train from the
West was due. Binns decided at once not to trail, but instead sought
information from his own conductor, who assured him that the East-
bound express would probably be on time five minutes later, and
would certainly stop here.
“We take the siding here,” he said. “You’ll hear the whistle in a few
minutes.”
“It always stops here, does it?” asked Binns anxiously.
“Always.”
As they talked, Collins came back to the platform’s edge and stood
looking up the track. At the same time this train pulled out, and a few
minutes later the whistle of the express was heard. Now for a real
contest, thought Binns. Somewhere in one of those cars would be
this astounding bandit surrounded by detectives, and his duty, in
spite of the indignity of it, would be to clamber aboard and get there
first, explain who he was, ingratiate himself into the good graces of
the captors and the prisoner, and begin his questioning, vanquishing
Collins as best he might—perhaps by the ease with which he should
take charge. In a few moments the express was rolling into the
station, and then Binns saw his enemy leap aboard and, with that
iron effrontery and savageness which always irritated Binns so
much, race through the forward cars to find the prisoner. Binns was
about to essay the rear cars, but just then the conductor, a portly,
genial-looking soul, stepped down beside him.
“Is Lem Rollins, the train robber they are bringing in from Bald
Knob, on here?” he inquired. “I’m from the Star, and I’ve been sent
out to interview him.”
“You’re on the wrong road, brother,” smiled the conductor. “He’s
not on this train. Those detective fellows have fooled you newspaper
men, I’m afraid. They’re bringing him in over the M.P., as I
understand it. They took him across from Bald Knob to Wahaba and
caught the train there—but I’ll tell you,” and here he took out a large
open-face silver watch and consulted it, “you might be able to catch
him yet if you run for it. It’s only across the field there. You see that
little yellow station over there? Well, that’s the depot. It’s due now,
but sometimes it’s a little late. You’ll have to run for it, though. You
haven’t a minute to spare.”
Binns was all aquiver on the instant. Suppose, in spite of Collins’s
zeal and savagery, he should outwit him yet by catching this other
train while he was searching this one! All the gameness of his youth
and profession rose up in him. Without stopping to thank his
informer, he leaped like a hare along the little path which cut
diagonally across this lone field and which was evidently well worn
by human feet. As he ran he wondered whether the genial conductor
could possibly have lied to him to throw him off the track, and also if
his enemy, seeing him running, had discovered his error by now and
was following, granting that the conductor had told him the truth. He
looked back occasionally, taking off his coat and glasses as he ran,
and even throwing away his cane. Apparently Collins was still
searching the other train. And now Binns at the same time, looking
eagerly forward toward the other station, saw a semaphore arm
which stood at right angles to the station lower itself for a clear track
for some train. At the same time he also spied a mail-bag hanging
out on a take-post arm, indicating that whatever this train was and
whichever way it might be going, it was not going to stop here. He
turned, still uncertain as to whether he had made a mistake in not
searching the other train. Supposing the conductor had deliberately
fooled him! Suppose Collins had made some preliminary
arrangements of which he knew nothing? Suppose he had!
Supposing the burglar were really on there, and even now Collins
was busy with the opening questions of his interview, while he was
here, behind! Oh Lord, what a beat! And he would have no
reasonable explanation to offer except that he had been outwitted.
What would happen to him? He slowed up in his running, chill beads
of sweat bursting out on his face as he did so, but then, looking
backward, he saw the train begin to move and from it, as if shot out
of a gun, the significant form of Collins leap down and begin to run
along this same path. Then, by George, the robber was not on it,
after all! The conductor had told him the truth! Ha! Collins would now
attempt to make this other train. He had been told that the bandit
was coming in on this. Binns could see him speeding along the path
at top speed, his hat off, his hands waving nervously about. But by
now Binns had reached the station a good three minutes ahead of
his rival.
Desperately he ran into it, a tiny thing, sticking his eager perspiring
face in at the open office window, and calling to the stout, truculent
little occupant of it:
“When is the East-bound M.P. express due here?”
“Now,” replied the agent surlily.
“Does it stop?”
“No, it don’t stop.”
“Can it be stopped?”
“No, it cannot!”
“You mean to say you have no right to stop it?”
“I mean I won’t stop it.”
As they spoke there came the ominous shriek of the express’s
whistle tearing on toward them. For the moment he was almost
willing that Collins should join him if only he could make the train and
gain this interview. He must have it. Waxby expected him to get it.
Think of what a beat he would have if he won—what Waxby would
think if he failed!
“Would five dollars stop it?” he asked desperately, diving into his
pocket.
“No.”
“Will ten?”
“It might,” the agent replied crustily, and rose to his feet.
“Stop it,” urged Binns feverishly, handing over the bill.
The agent took it, and grabbing a tablet of yellow order blanks
which lay before him, scribbled something on the face of one and ran
outside, holding it up at arm’s length as he did so. At the same time
he called to Binns:
“Run on down the track! Run after it. She won’t stop here—she
can’t. She’ll go a thousand feet before she can slow up. Get on down
there, and after you’re on I’ll let ’er go.”
He waved the yellow paper desperately, while Binns, all tense with
excitement and desire, began running as fast as he could in the

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The Environmental Impact of COVID-19

COVID-19 pandemic impact on children and adolescents'

Environmental Resilience and Transformation in Times of

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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-­in-­Publication Data

Cover image: © Andrii Vodolazhskyi/Shutterstock

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Pondicherry, India

1 COVID-­19: A Pandemic -­ Introduction 1

2 Viability of COVID-­19 in Different Environmental Surfaces 19

2.3.1 Survival of COVID-­19 on Households and Hospitals Surfaces 24

3 Influence of Environmental Factors in Transmission of COVID-­19 35

4 Models and Strategies for Controlling the Transmission of COVID-­19 59

5 Traditional Analytical Techniques and Sampling of COVID-­19 67

5.2.3.6 Current Diagnosis for COVID-­19 72

6 Modern Sensor-­Based Techniques for Identification of COVID-­19 79

7 Advanced Digital Tools for Tracing and Analysis of COVID-­19 95

7.3.6 AI in Genomics 105

8 Challenges and Preventive Interventions in COVID-­19 Transmission through

9 Industries and COVID-­19 127

9.11 Air Travel 134

10 Ramifications of Coronavirus on the Environment 143

11 Management of Risks Associated with COVID-­19 159

12 Case Studies: COVID-­19 and the Environment 171

13 Effect of Waste Generated Due to COVID-­19 185

14 Strategies for Effective Waste Management for COVID-­19 203

14.4.1.1 Infectious Waste 209

15 Environmental Policies and Strategies for COVID-­19 221

16 Environmental Implications of Pandemic on Climate 235

16.3 Results and Analysis 237

17 COVID-­19 Pandemic: A Blessing in Disguise 245

Dr. J.M. Vyas

COVID-­19: A Pandemic -­Introduction

1.1 ­Introduction: Sources and Chemical Activities of

Coronavirus or COVID-­19 is an infectious disease caused by a novel virus known as extreme

The Environmental Impact of COVID-19, First Edition. Edited by Deepak Rawtani

have an 85.5–92.4 % homology with SARS-­CoV-­2, indicating that SARS-­CoV-­2 could be a

1.1.1 Sources and Transmission

Airborne transmission through droplets

Close contact transmission

Touching contaminated objects

1.1.2 Structure of SARS-­CoV-­2

1.1.3 Common Symptoms, Immune Reaction to the Virus,

Figure 1.2 Clinical manifestations of infection with SARS-­CoV-­2 in humans.

1.1.3.1 Immuno-­evasion of Coronaviruses

1.1.3.2 World at Loss due to COVID-­19

1.1.3.3 Incubation Period

1.1.3.4 SARS-­CoV-­2 and Basic Reproduction Number (R0)

1.1.3.5 Pathological Characteristics

1.1.3.6 Case Definitions

1.1.3.7 Prevention of Transmission

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

1 COVID-19: A Pandemic - Introduction 1

2 Viability of COVID-19 in Different Environmental Surfaces 19

2.3.1 Survival of COVID-19 on Households and Hospitals Surfaces 24

3 Influence of Environmental Factors in Transmission of COVID-19 35

4 Models and Strategies for Controlling the Transmission of COVID-19 59

5 Traditional Analytical Techniques and Sampling of COVID-19 67

5.2.3.6 Current Diagnosis for COVID-19 72

6 Modern Sensor-Based Techniques for Identification of COVID-19 79

7 Advanced Digital Tools for Tracing and Analysis of COVID-19 95

8 Challenges and Preventive Interventions in COVID-19 Transmission through

9 Industries and COVID-19 127

11 Management of Risks Associated with COVID-19 159

12 Case Studies: COVID-19 and the Environment 171

13 Effect of Waste Generated Due to COVID-19 185

14 Strategies for Effective Waste Management for COVID-19 203

15 Environmental Policies and Strategies for COVID-19 221

17 COVID-19 Pandemic: A Blessing in Disguise 245

COVID-19: A Pandemic -Introduction

1.1 Introduction: Sources and Chemical Activities of

Coronavirus or COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by a novel virus known as extreme

have an 85.5–92.4 % homology with SARS-CoV-2, indicating that SARS-CoV-2 could be a

1.1.2 Structure of SARS-CoV-2

Figure 1.2 Clinical manifestations of infection with SARS-CoV-2 in humans.

1.1.3.1 Immuno-evasion of Coronaviruses

1.1.3.2 World at Loss due to COVID-19

1.1.3.4 SARS-CoV-2 and Basic Reproduction Number (R0)